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Introduction to Subcellular Structure

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP  

 

 

The following chapter of the metabolism/transcriptomics/proteomics/metabolomics series deals with the subcellular structure of the cell.  This would have to include the cytoskeleton, which has a key role in substrate and ion efflux and influx, and in cell movement mediated by tubulins.  It has been extensively covered already.  Much of the contributions here are concerned with the mitochondrion, which is also covered in metabolic pathways.  The ribosome is the organelle that we have discussed with respect to the transcription and translation of the genetic code through mRNA and tRNA, and the therapeutic implications of SiRNA as well as the chromatin regulation of lncRNA.

We have also encountered the mitochondrion and the lysosome in the discussion of apoptosis and autophagy, maintaining the balance between cell regeneration and cell death.

I here list the organelles:

  1. Nucleus
  2. Centrosome
  3. Nuclear Membrane
  4. Ribososome
  5. Endoplasmic Reticulum
  6. Mitochondria
  7. Lysosome
  8. Cytoskeleton
  9. Golgi apparatus
  10. Cytoplasm
cell_organelle_quiz

cell_organelle_quiz

http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=JufLDxmCwB0

http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=FFrKN7hJm64

Golgi Apparatus

Found within the cytoplasm of both plant and animal cells, the Golgi is composed of stacks of membrane-bound structures known as cisternae (singular: cisterna). An individual stack is sometimes called a dictyosome (from Greek dictyon: net + soma: body), especially in plant cells. A mammalian cell typically contains 40 to 100 stacks. Between four and eight cisternae are usually present in a stack; however, in some protists as many as sixty have been observed. Each cisterna comprises a flat, membrane-enclosed disc that includes special Golgi enzymes which modify or help to modify cargo proteins that travel through it.

The cisternae stack has four functional regions: the cis-Golgi network, medial-Golgi, endo-Golgi, and trans-Golgi network. Vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum (via the vesicular-tubular clusters) fuse with the network and subsequently progress through the stack to the trans-Golgi network, where they are packaged and sent to their destination.

The Golgi apparatus is integral in modifying, sorting, and packaging these macromolecules for cell secretion (exocytosis) or use within the cell. It primarily modifies proteins delivered from the rough endoplasmic reticulum, but is also involved in the transport of lipids around the cell, and the creation of lysosomes.  Enzymes within the cisternae are able to modify the proteins by addition of carbohydrates (glycosylation) and phosphates (phosphorylation). In order to do so, the Golgi imports substances such as nucleotide sugars from the cytosol. These modifications may also form a signal sequence which determines the final destination of the protein. For example, the Golgi apparatus adds a mannose-6-phosphate label to proteins destined for lysosomes.

The Golgi plays an important role in the synthesis of proteoglycans, which are molecules present in the extracellular matrix of animals. It is also a major site of carbohydrate synthesis. This includes the production of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), long unbranched polysaccharides which the Golgi then attaches to a protein synthesised in the endoplasmic reticulum to form proteoglycans. Enzymes in the Golgi polymerize several of these GAGs via a xylose link onto the core protein. Another task of the Golgi involves the sulfation of certain molecules passing through its lumen via sulfotranferases that gain their sulfur molecule from a donor called PAPS. This process occurs on the GAGs of proteoglycans as well as on the core protein. Sulfation is generally performed in the trans-Golgi network. The level of sulfation is very important to the proteoglycans’ signalling abilities, as well as giving the proteoglycan its overall negative charge.

The phosphorylation of molecules requires that ATP is imported into the lumen of the Golgi and utilised by resident kinases such as casein kinase 1 and casein kinase 2. One molecule that is phosphorylated in the Golgi is apolipoprotein, which forms a molecule known as VLDL that is found in plasma. It is thought that the phosphorylation of these molecules labels them for secretion into the blood.

The Golgi has a putative role in apoptosis, with several Bcl-2 family members localised there, as well as to the mitochondria. A newly characterized protein, GAAP (Golgi anti-apoptotic protein), almost exclusively resides in the Golgi and protects cells from apoptosis by an as-yet undefined mechanism.

The vesicles that leave the rough endoplasmic reticulum are transported to the cis face of the Golgi apparatus, where they fuse with the Golgi membrane and empty their contents into the lumen. Once inside the lumen, the molecules are modified, then sorted for transport to their next destinations. The Golgi apparatus tends to be larger and more numerous in cells that synthesize and secrete large amounts of substances; for example, the plasma B cells and the antibody-secreting cells of the immune system have prominent Golgi complexes.

Those proteins destined for areas of the cell other than either the endoplasmic reticulum or Golgi apparatus are moved towards the trans face, to a complex network of membranes and associated vesicles known as the trans-Golgi network (TGN). This area of the Golgi is the point at which proteins are sorted and shipped to their intended destinations by their placement into one of at least three different types of vesicles, depending upon the molecular marker they carry.

Nucleus_ER_golgi

Nucleus_ER_golgi

Diagram of secretory process from endoplasmic reticulum (orange) to Golgi apparatus (pink). 1. Nuclear membrane; 2. Nuclear pore; 3. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER); 4. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER); 5. Ribosome attached to RER; 6. Macromolecules; 7. Transport vesicles; 8. Golgi apparatus; 9. Cis face of Golgi apparatus; 10. Trans face of Golgi apparatus; 11. Cisternae of the Golgi Apparatus

Exocytotic vesicles

After packaging, the vesicles bud off and immediately move towards the plasma membrane, where they fuse and release the contents into the extracellular space in a process known as constitutive secretion. (Antibody release by activated plasma B cells)

Secretory vesicles

After packaging, the vesicles bud off and are stored in the cell until a signal is given for their release. When the appropriate signal is received they move towards the membrane and fuse to release their contents. This process is known as regulated secretion. (Neurotransmitter release from neurons)

Lysosomal vesicles

Vesicle contains proteins and ribosomes destined for the lysosome, an organelle of degradation containing many acid hydrolases, or to lysosome-like storage organelles. These proteins include both digestive enzymes and membrane proteins. The vesicle first fuses with the late endosome, and the contents are then transferred to the lysosome via unknown mechanisms.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golgi_apparatus

Lysosome (derived from the Greek words lysis, meaning “to loosen”, and soma, “body”) is a membrane-bound cell organelle found in animal cells (they are absent in red blood cells). They are structurally and chemically spherical vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes, which are capable of breaking down virtually all kinds of biomolecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids, and cellular debris.  Lysosomes are responsible for cellular homeostasis for their involvements in secretion, plasma membrane repair, cell signalling and energy metabolism, which are related to health and diseases. Depending on their functional activity their sizes can be very different, as the biggest ones can be more than 10 times bigger than the smallest ones. They were discovered and named by Belgian biologist Christian de Duve, who eventually received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1974.

Enzymes of the lysosomes are synthesised in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The enzymes are released from Golgi apparatus in small vesicles which ultimately fuse with acidic vesicles called endosomes, thus becoming full lysosomes. In the process the enzymes are specifically tagged with mannose 6-phosphate to differentiate them from other enzymes. Lysosomes are interlinked with three intracellular processes namely phagocytosis, endocytosis and autophagy. Extracellular materials such as microorganisms taken up by phagocytosis, macromolecules by endocytosis, and unwanted cell organelles are fused with lysosomes in which they are broken down to their basic molecules. Thus lysosomes are the recycling units of a cell.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysosome

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a type of organelle in the cells of eukaryotic organisms that forms an interconnected network of flattened, membrane-enclosed sacs or tubes known as cisternae. The membranes of the ER are continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope. Endoplasmic reticulum occurs in most types of eukaryotic cells, including the most primitive Giardia, but is absent from red blood cells and spermatozoa. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum, rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). The outer (cytosolic) face of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is studded with ribosomes that are the sites of protein synthesis. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is especially prominent in cells such as hepatocytes where active smooth endoplasmic reticulum lacks ribosomes and functions in lipid metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, and detoxification and is especially abundant in mammalian liver and gonad cells. The lacey membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum were first seen in 1945 by Keith R. Porter, Albert Claude, Brody Meskers and Ernest F. Fullam, using electron microscopy.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum

endoplasmic_reticulum

endoplasmic_reticulum

https://2cslacardano.wikispaces.com/file/view/Cell7.png/338811858/408×313/Cell7.png

Cytoskeleton

The Effects of Actomyosin Tension on Nuclear Pore Transport
Rachel Sammons
Undergraduate Honors Thesis
Spring 2011

The cytoskeleton maintains cellular structure and tension through a force balance with the nucleus, where actomyosin is anchored to the nuclear envelope by nesprin integral proteins. It is hypothesized that the presence or absence of this tension alters the transport of molecules through the nuclear pore complex. We tested the effects of cytoskeletal tension on nuclear transport in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) by performing fluorescence recovery after photo-bleaching (FRAP) experiments on the nuclei to monitor the passive transport of the molecules through nuclear pores.

Using myosin inhibitors, as well as siRNA transfections to reduce the expression of nesprin-1, we altered the nucleo-cytoskeletal force balance and monitored the effect of each on the nuclear pore. FRAP data was fit to a diffusion model by assuming pseudo-steady state inside the nuclear pore, perfect mixing within both the cytoplasm and the nucleus, and no intracellular binding of the fluorescent probes. From these results and a model from the current literature relating diffusion rate constants to nuclear pore radii, we were able to determine that changing cytoskeletal tension alters nuclear pore size and passive transport.

nuclear pores in nuclear envelope

nuclear pores in nuclear envelope

image of nuclear pores on the external surface of the nuclear envelope

nuclear envelope and FG filaments

nuclear envelope and FG filaments

nuclear envelope and FG filaments

Figure 1: The structure and location of the nuclear pore, shown by (a) AFM image of nuclear pores on the external surface of the nuclear envelope[5] and (b) computer model cross-section. The nuclear envelope is shown in cyan, and FG filaments in blue can be seen throughout the channel. The nuclear basket extends into the nucleoplasm.

Fusion-pore expansion during syncytium formation is restricted by an actin network

A Chen, E Leikina, K Melikov, B Podbilewicz, MM. Kozlov and LV. Chernomordik,*
J Cell Sci 1 Nov 2008;121: 3619-3628. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1242/​jcs.032169

Effects of actin-modifying agents indicate that the actin cortex slows down pore expansion. We propose that the growth of the strongly bent fusion-pore rim is restricted by a dynamic resistance of the actin network and driven by membrane-bending proteins that are involved in the generation of highly curved intracellular membrane compartments.

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Introduction to Metabolomics

Introduction to Metabolomics

Author: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

 

This is the first volume of the Series D: e-Books on BioMedicine – Metabolomics, Immunology, Infectious Diseases.  It is written for comprehension at the third year medical student level, or as a reference for licensing board exams, but it is also written for the education of a first time bachalaureate degree reader in the biological sciences.  Hopefully, it can be read with great interest by the undergraduate student who is undecided in the choice of a career.

In the Preface, I failed to disclose that the term Metabolomics applies to plants, animals, bacteria, and both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.  The metabolome for each organism is unique, but from an evolutionary perspective has metabolic pathways in common, and expressed in concert with the environment that these living creatures exist. The metabolome of each has adaptive accommodation with suppression and activation of pathways that are functional and necessary in balance, for its existence.  Was it William Faulkner who said in his Nobel Prize acceptance that mankind shall not merely exist, but survive? That seems to be the overlying theme for all of life. If life cannot persist, a surviving “remnant” might continue. The history of life may well be etched into the genetic code, some of which is not expressed.

This work is apportioned into chapters in a sequence that is first directed at the major sources for the energy and the structure of life, in the carbohydrates, lipids, and fats, which are sourced from both plants and animals, and depending on their balance, results in an equilibrium, and a disequilibrium we refer to as disease.  There is also a need to consider the nonorganic essentials which are derived from the soil, from water, and from the energy of the sun and the air we breathe, or in the case of water-bound metabolomes, dissolved gases.

In addition to the basic essential nutrients and their metabolic utilization, they are under cellular metabolic regulation that is tied to signaling pathways.  In addition, the genetic expression of the organism is under regulatory control by the interaction of RNAs that interact with the chromatin genetic framework, with exosomes, and with protein modulators.This is referred to as epigenetics, but there are also drivers of metabolism that are shaped by the interactions between enzymes and substartes, and are related to the tertiary structure of a protein.  The framework for diseases in a separate chapter.  Pharmaceutical interventions that are designed to modulate specific metabolic targets are addressed as the pathways are unfolded. Neutraceuticals and plant based nutrition are covered in Chapter 8.

Chapter 1: Metabolic Pathways

Chapter 2. Lipid Metabolism

Chapter 3. Cell Signaling

Chapter 4. Protein Synthesis and Degradation

Chapter 5: Sub-cellular Structure

Chapter 6: Proteomics

Chapter 7: Metabolomics

Chapter 8. Impairments in Pathological States: Endocrine Disorders; Stress Hypermetabolism and Cancer

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Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator

Chief, Scientific Communication

Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence

with contributions from JEDS Rosalis, Brazil
and Radislov Rosov, Univ of Virginia, VA, USA

A Brief Curation of Proteomics, Metabolomics, and Metabolism

This article is a continuation of a series of elaborations of the recent and
accelerated scientific discoveries that are enlarging the scope of and
integration of biological and medical knowledge leading to new drug
discoveries.  The work that has led us to this point actually has roots
that go back 150 years.  The roots go back to studies in the mid-nineteenth century, with the emergence of microbiology, physiology,
pathology, botany, chemistry and physics, and the laying down of a
mechanistic approach divergent from descriptive observation in the
twentieth century. Medicine took on the obligation to renew the method
of training physicians after the Flexner Report (The Flexner Report of
1910 transformed the nature and process of medical education in America
with a resulting elimination of proprietary schools), funded by the Carnegie
Foundation.  Johns Hopkins University Medical School became the first to
adopt the model, as did Harvard, Yale, University of Chicago, and others.

The advances in biochemistry, genetics and genomics, were large, as was
structural organic chemistry in the remainder of the centrury.  The advances
in applied mathematics and in instrumental analysis opened a new gateway
into the 21st century with the Human Genome Project, the Proteome Library,
Signaling Pathways, and the Metabolomes – human, microbial, and plants.

shall elaborate on how the key processes of life are being elucidated as
these interrelated disciplines converge.  I shall not be covering in great
detail the contribution of the genetic code and transcripton because they
have been covered at great length in this series.

Part I.  The foundation for the emergence of a revitalized molecular
biology 
and biochemistry.

In a series of discussions with Jose des Salles Roselino (Brazil) over a
period of months we have come to an important line of reasoning. DNA
to protein link goes from triplet sequence to amino acid sequence. The
realm of genetics. Further, protein conformation, activity and function
requires that environmental and microenvironmental factors should be
considered (Biochemistry).  This has been opened in several articles
preceding this.

In the cAMP coupled hormonal response the transfer of conformation
from protein to protein is paramount. For instance, if your scheme goes
beyond cAMP, it will show an effect over a self-assembly (inhibitor
protein and protein kinase). Therefore, sequence alone does not
explain conformation, activity and function of regulatory proteins.
Recall that sequence is primar structure, determined by the translation
of the code, but secondary structure is determined by disulfide bonds.
There is another level of structure, tertiary structure, that is molded by
steric influences of near neighbors and by noncovalent attractions
and repulsions.

A few comments ( contributed by Assoc. Prof. JEDS Roselino) are in
order to stress the importance of self-assembly (Prigogine, R. A
Marcus, conformation energy) in a subject that is the best for this
connection. We have to stress again that in the cAMP
coupled hormonal response the transfer of conformation from
protein to protein is paramount. For instance, in case the
reaction sequence follows beyond the production of the
second messenger, as in the case of cAMP, this second
messenger will remove a self-assembly of inhibitor protein
with the enzyme protein kinase. Therefore, sequence alone
does not explain conformation, activity and function of
regulatory proteins. In this case, if this important mechanism
was not ignored, the work of Stanley Prusiner would most
certainly have been recognized earlier, and “rogue” proteins
would not have been seen as so rogue as some assumed.
For the general idea of importance of self-assembly versus
change in covalent modification of proteins (see R. A Kahn
and A. G Gilman (1984) J. Biol. Chem.  259(10), pp 6235-
6240. In this case, trimeric or dimeric G does not matter.
“Signaling transduction tutorial”.
G proteins in the G protein coupled-receptor proteins are
presented following a unidirectional series of arrows.
This is adequate to convey the idea of information being
transferred from outside the cell towards cell´s interior
(therefore, against the dogma that says all information
moves from DNA to RNA to protein.  It is important to
consider the following: The entire process is driven by
a very delicate equilibrium between possible conform-
ational states of the proteins. Empty receptors have very
low affinity for G proteins. On the other hand, hormone
bound receptors have a change in conformation that
allows increasing the affinity for the G-trimer. When
hormone receptors bind to G-trimers two things happen:

  1. Receptors transfer conformation information to
    the G-triplex and
  2. the G-triplex transfers information back to the
    complex hormone-receptor.

In the first case , the dissociated G protein exchanges
GDP for GTP and has its affinity for the cyclase increased,
while by the same interaction receptor releases the
hormone which then places the first required step for the
signal. After this first interaction step, on the second and
final transduction system step is represented by an
opposite arrow. When, the G-protein + GTP complex
interacts with the cyclase two things happen:

  1. It changes the cyclase to an active conformation
    starting the production of cAMP as the single
    arrow of the scheme. However, the interaction
    also causes a backward effect.
  2. It activates the GTPase activity of this subunit
    and the breakdown of GTP to GDP moves this 
    subunit back to the initial trimeric inactive
    state
     of G complex.

This was very well studied when the actions of cholera toxin
required better understanding. Cholera toxin changes the
GTPase subunit by ADP-ribosilation (a covalent and far more
stable change in proteins) producing a permanent conformation
of GTP bound G subunit. This keeps the cyclase in permanent
active conformation because ADP-ribosilation inhibits GTPase
activity required to put an end in the hormonal signal.

The study made while G-proteins were considered a dimer still
holds despite its limited vision of the real complexity of the
transduction system. It was also possible to get this very same
“freezing” in the active state using GTP stable analogues. This
transduction system is one of the best examples of the delicate
mechanisms of conformational interaction of proteins. Further-
more, this system also shows on the opposite side of our
reasoning scheme, how covalent changes are adequate for
more stable changes than those mediated by Van der Wall’s
forces between proteins. Yet, these delicate forces are the
same involved when Sc-Prion transfers its rogue
conformation to c-Prion proteins and other similar events.
The Jacob-Monod Model

A combination of genetic and biochemical experiments in
bacteria led to the initial recognition of

  1. protein-binding regulatory sequences associated with genes and
  2. proteins whose binding to a gene’s regulatory sequences
    either activate or repress its transcription.

These key components underlie the ability of both prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells to turn genes on and off. The  experimental findings lead to a general model of bacterial transcription control.

Gene control serves to allow a single cell to adjust to changes in its
nutritional environment so that its growth and division can be optimized.
Thus, the prime focus of research has been on genes that encode
inducible proteins whose production varies depending on the nutritional
status of the cells. Its most characteristic and biologically far-reaching
purpose in eukaryotes, distinctive from single cell organisms is the
regulation of a genetic program that underlies embryological
development and tissue differentiation.

The principles of transcription have already been described in this
series under the translation of the genetic code into amino acids
that are the building blocks for proteins.

E.coli can use either glucose or other sugars such as the
disaccharide lactose as the sole source of carbon and energy.
When E. coli cells are grown in a glucose-containing medium,
the activity of the enzymes needed to metabolize lactose is
very low. When these cells are switched to a medium
containing lactose but no glucose, the activities of the lactose-metabolizing enzymes increase. Early studies showed that the
increase in the activity of these enzymes resulted from the
synthesis of new enzyme molecules, a phenomenon termed
induction. The enzymes induced in the presence of lactose
are encoded by the lac operon, which includes two genes, Z
and Y, that are required for metabolism of lactose and a third
gene. The lac Y gene encodes lactose permease, which spans the E. coli cell membrane and uses the energy available from
the electrochemical gradient across the membrane to pump
lactose into the cell. The lac Z gene encodes β-galactosidase,
which splits the disaccharide lactose into the monosaccharides
glucose and galactose, which are further metabolized through
the action of enzymes encoded in other operons. The third
gene encodes thiogalactoside transacetylase.

Synthesis of all three enzymes encoded in the lac operon is rapidly
induced when E. coli cells are placed in a medium containing lactose
as the only carbon source and repressed when the cells are switched
to a medium without lactose. Thus all three genes of the lac operon
are coordinately regulated. The lac operon in E. coli provides one
of the earliest and still best-understood examples of gene control.
Much of the pioneering research on the lac operon was conducted by
Francois Jacob, Jacques Monod, and their colleagues in the 1960s.

Some molecules similar in structure to lactose can induce expression
of the lacoperon genes even though they cannot be hydrolyzed by β-galactosidase. Such small molecules (i.e., smaller than proteins) are
called inducers. One of these, isopropyl-β-D-thiogalactoside,
abbreviated IPTG,is particularly useful in genetic studies of the lac
operon, because it can diffuse into cells and, it is not metabolized.
Insight into the mechanisms controlling synthesis of β-galactosidase
and lactose permease came from the study of mutants in which control
of β-galactosidase expression was abnormal and used a colorimetric
assay for β-galactosidase.

When the cells are exposed to chemical mutagens before plating on
X-gal/glucose plates, rare blue colonies appear, but when cells
from these blue colonies are recovered and grown in media containing
glucose, they overexpress all the genes of the lac operon. These cells
are called constitutive mutants because they fail to repress the lac
operon in media lacking lactose and instead continuously express the
enzymes, and the genes were mapped to a region on the E. coli
chromosome. This led to the conclusion that these cells had a defect
in a protein that normally repressed expression of the lac operon in
the absence of lactose, and that it blocks transcription by binding to
a site on the E. coli genome where transcription of the lac operon is
initiated. In addition, it binds to the lac repressor in the lactose
medium and decreases its affinity for the repressor-binding site
on the DNA causing the repressor to unbind the DNA. Thereby,
transcription of the lac operon is initiated, leading to synthesis of
β-galactosidase, lactose permease, and thiogalactoside
transacetylase.

 regulation of the lac operon by lac repressor

Jacob and Monod model of transcriptional regulation of the lac operon

Next, Jacob and Monod isolated mutants that expressed the lac operon
constitutively even when two copies of the wild-type lacI gene
encoding the lac repressor were present in the same cell, and the
constitutive mutations mapped to one end of the lac operon, as the
model predicted.  Further, there are rare cells that carry a mutation
located at the region, promoter, that block initiation of transcription by
RNA polymerase.

lac I+ gene is trans-acting, & encodes a protein, which binds to a lac operator

 lac I+ gene is trans-acting, & encodes a protein, which
binds to a lac operator

They further demonstrated that the two types of mutations lac I and
lac I+, were cis- and trans-acting, the latter encoding a protein that
binds to the lac operator. The cis-acting Oc mutations prevent
binding of the lac repressor to the operator, and  mutations in the
lac promoter are cis-acting, since they alter the binding site for RNA
polymerase. In general, trans-acting genes that regulate expression
of genes on other DNA molecules encode diffusible products. In
most cases these are proteins, but in some cases RNA molecules
can act in trans to regulate gene expression.

According to the Jacob and Monod model of transcriptional control,
transcription of the lac operon, which encodes three inducible
proteins, is repressed by binding of lac repressor protein to the
operator sequence.

 (Section 10.1Bacterial Gene Control: The Jacob-Monod Model.)
This book is accessible by the search feature.

Comment: This seminal work was done a half century ago. It was a
decade after the Watson-Crick model for DNA. The model is
elaborated for the Eukaryote in the examples that follow.

(The next two articles were called to my attention by R. Bosov at
University of Virginia).

An acetate switch regulates stress erythropoiesis

M Xu,  JS Nagati, Ji Xie, J Li, H Walters, Young-Ah Moon, et al.
Nature Medicine 10 Aug 2014(20): 1018–1026.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nm.3587

message: 1- ( -CH3 ) = Ln ( (1/sqrt(1-Acetate^2) –
sqrt oxalate))/ Ln(oxygen) – K(o)
rsb5n@virginia.edu

The hormone erythropoietin (EPO), synthesized in the kidney or liver
of adult mammals, controls erythrocyte production and is regulated by
the stress-responsive transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor-2
(HIF-2).
 HIFα acetylation and efficient HIF-2–dependent EPO
induction during hypoxia requires  the lysine acetyltransferase CREB-binding protein (CBP) . These processes require acetate-dependent
acetyl CoA synthetase 2 (ACSS2) as follows.Acetate levels rise and
ACSS2 is required for HIF-2α acetylation, CBP–HIF-2α complex
formation, CBP–HIF-2α recruitment to the EPO enhancer and induction
of EPO gene expression
 in human Hep3B hepatoma cells and in EPO-generating organs of hypoxic or acutely anemic mice. In acutely anemic
mice, acetate supplementation augments stress erythropoiesis in an
ACSS2-dependent manner. Moreover, in acquired and inherited
chronic anemia mouse models, acetate supplementation increases
EPO expression
 and the resting hematocrit. Thus, a mammalian
stress-responsive acetate switch controls HIF-2 signaling and EPO
induction during pathophysiological states marked by tissue hypoxia.

Figure 1: Acss2 controls HIF-2 signaling in hypoxic cells.
Time course of endogenous HIF-2α acetylation during hypoxia following
immunoprecipitation (IP) of HIF-2α from whole-cell extracts and detection
of acetylated lysines by immunoblotting (IB).
http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v20/n9/carousel/nm.3587-F1.jpg

Figure 2: Acss2 regulates hypoxia-induced renal Epo expression in mice.
http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v20/n9/carousel/nm.3587-F2.jpg

Figure 3: Acute anemia induces Acss2-dependent HIF-2 signaling in mice.
http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v20/n9/carousel/nm.3587-F3.jpg

Figure 4: An acetate switch regulates Cbp–HIF-2 interactions in cells.
(a) HIF-2α acetylation following immunoprecipitation of endogenous
HIF-2α and detection by immunoblotting with antibodies to acetylated
lysine or HIF-2α.
http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v20/n9/carousel/nm.3587-F4.jpg

Figure 5: Acss2 signaling in cells requires intact HIF-2 acetylation.
http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v20/n9/carousel/nm.3587-F5.jpg

Figure 6: Acetate facilitates recovery from anemia.

Acetate facilitates recovery from anemia

Acetate facilitates recovery from anemia

(a) Serial hematocrits of CD1 wild-type female mice after PHZ treatment, followed
by once daily per os (p.o.) supplementation with water vehicle (Veh; n = 7 mice),
GTA (n = 6 mice), GTB (n = 8 mice) or GTP (n = 7 mice) (single measurem…

http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v20/n9/carousel/nm.3587-F6.jpg

see also-.
1. Bunn, H.F. & Poyton, R.O. Oxygen sensing and molecular adaptation to
hypoxia. Physiol. Rev. 76, 839–885 (1996).

  1. .Richalet, J.P. Oxygen sensors in the organism: examples of regulation
    under altitude hypoxia in mammals. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A Physiol.
    118, 9–14 (1997).
  2. .Koury, M.J. Erythropoietin: the story of hypoxia and a finely regulated
    hematopoietic hormone. Exp. Hematol. 33, 1263–1270 (2005).
  3. Wang, G.L., Jiang, B.H., Rue, E.A. & Semenza, G.L. Hypoxia-inducible
    factor 1 is a basic-helix-loop-helix-PAS heterodimer regulated
    by cellular O2 tension. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA92, 5510–5514 (1995).
  4. Chen, R. et al. The acetylase/deacetylase couple CREB-binding
    protein/sirtuin 1 controls hypoxia-inducible factor 2 signaling. J. Biol.
    Chem. 287, 30800–30811 (2012).
  5. .Papandreou, I., Cairns, R.A., Fontana, L., Lim, A.L. & Denko, N.C.
    HIF-1 mediates adaptation to hypoxia by actively down-regulating
    mitochondrial oxygen consumption. Cell Metab. 3,187–197 (2006).

14. Kim, J.W., Tchernyshyov, I., Semenza, G.L. & Dang, C.V. HIF-1-
mediated expression of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase: a metabolic
switch required for cellular adaptation to hypoxia. Cell Metab. 3,
177–185 (2006).

16. Fujino, T., Kondo, J., Ishikawa, M., Morikawa, K. & Yamamoto, T.T.
Acetyl-CoA synthetase 2, a mitochondrial matrix enzyme involved in the
oxidation of acetate. J. Biol. Chem. 276,11420–11426 (2001).

17..Luong, A., Hannah, V.C., Brown, M.S. & Goldstein, J.L. Molecular
characterization of human acetyl-CoA synthetase, an enzyme regulated
by sterol regulatory element-binding proteins. J. Biol. Chem. 275,
26458–26466 (2000).

20 .Wellen, K.E. et al. ATP-citrate lyase links cellular metabolism to
histone acetylation. Science324, 1076–1080 (2009).

24. McBrian, M.A. et al. Histone acetylation regulates intracellular pH.
Mol. Cell 49, 310–321(2013).

Asymmetric mRNA localization contributes to fidelity and sensitivity
of spatially localized systems

Robert J Weatheritt, Toby J Gibson & M Madan Babu
Nature Structural & Molecular Biology 21, 833–839 (2014)
http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v21/n9/abs/nsmb.2876.html 

Although many proteins are localized after translation, asymmetric
protein distribution is also achieved by translation after mRNA localization.
Why are certain mRNA transported to a distal location and translated
on-site? Here we undertake a systematic, genome-scale study of
asymmetrically distributed protein and mRNA in mammalian cells.
Our findings suggest that asymmetric protein distribution by mRNA
localization enhances interaction fidelity and signaling sensitivity
.
Proteins synthesized at distal locations frequently contain intrinsically
disordered segments. These regions are generally rich in assembly-
promoting modules and are often regulated by post-translational
modifications. Such proteins are tightly regulated but display distinct
temporal dynamics upon stimulation with growth factors. Thus, proteins
synthesized on-site may rapidly alter proteome composition and
act as dynamically regulated scaffolds to promote the formation
of reversible cellular assemblies. 
Our observations are consistent
across multiple mammalian species, cell types and developmental stages,
suggesting that localized translation is a recurring feature of cell
signaling and regulation.

Figure 1: Classification and characterization of TAS and DSS proteins.

The two major mechanisms for localizing proteins to distal sites in the cell

The two major mechanisms for localizing proteins to distal sites in the cell

(a)The two major mechanisms for localizing proteins to distal sites in the cell.
(b) Data sets used to identify groups of DSS and TAS transcripts, as well as
DSS and TAS proteins in mouse neuroblastoma cells

http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v21/n9/carousel/nsmb.2876-F1.jpg

Figure 2: Structural analysis of DSS proteins reveals an enrichment
in disordered regions.

Distributions of the various structural properties of the DSS and TAS proteins of the mouse neuroblastoma data sets

Distributions of the various structural properties of the DSS and TAS proteins of the mouse neuroblastoma data sets

(a,b) Distributions of the various structural properties of the DSS and TAS
proteins of the mouse neuroblastoma data sets (a), the mouse pseudopodia,
the rat embryonic sensory neuron data set and the adult sensory neuron data set (b).…

http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v21/n9/carousel/nsmb.2876-F2.jpg

Figure 3: Analysis of DSS proteins reveals an enrichment for linear motifs, phase-
transition (i.e., higher-order assembly) promoting segments and PTM sites that act
as molecular switches.

(a,b) Distributions of the various regulatory and structural properties of the DSS
and TAS proteins of the mouse neuroblastoma data sets
http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v21/n9/carousel/nsmb.2876-F3.jpg

Figure 4: Dynamic regulation of DSS transcripts and proteins.

Dynamic regulation of DSS transcripts and proteins

Dynamic regulation of DSS transcripts and proteins

Genome-wide quantitative measurements of gene expression of DSS (n = 289)
and TAS (n = 1,292) proteins in mouse fibroblast cells. DSS transcripts and
proteins have a lower abundance and shorter half-lives

http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v21/n9/carousel/nsmb.2876-F4.jpg

Figure 5: An overview of the potential advantages conferred by distal-site protein
synthesis, inferred from our analysis.

An overview of the potential advantages conferred by distal-site protein synthesis, inferred from our analysis

An overview of the potential advantages conferred by distal-site protein synthesis, inferred from our analysis

Turquoise and red filled circle represents off-target and correct interaction partners,
respectively. Wavy lines – a disordered region within a distal site synthesis protein.

http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v21/n9/carousel/nsmb.2876-F5.jpg

The identification of asymmetrically localized proteins and transcripts.

The identification of asymmetrically localized proteins and transcripts

The identification of asymmetrically localized proteins and transcripts

An illustrative explanation of the resolution of the study and the concept of asymmetric
localization of proteins and mRNA. In this example, on the left a neuron is divided into
its cell body and axon terminal, and transcriptome/proteo…

http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v21/n9/carousel/nsmb.2876-SF1.jpg

Graphs and boxplots of functional and structural properties for distal site synthesis
(DSS) proteins (red) and transport after synthesis (TAS) proteins (gray).
See Online Methods for details and legend of Figure 2 for a description of boxplots
and statistical tests.
http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v21/n9/carousel/nsmb.2876-SF2.jpg

See also –
1. Martin, K.C. & Ephrussi, A. mRNA localization: gene expression in the spatial
dimension. Cell136, 719–730 (2009).

  1. Scott, J.D. & Pawson, T. Cell signaling in space and time: where proteins come
    together and when they’re apart. Science 326, 1220–1224 (2009).

4..Holt, C.E. & Bullock, S.L. Subcellular mRNA localization in animal cells
and why it matters.Science 326, 1212–1216 (2009).

  1. Jung, H., Gkogkas, C.G., Sonenberg, N. & Holt, C.E. Remote control of
    gene function by local translation. Cell 157, 26–40 (2014). 

Regulation of metabolism by hypoxia-inducible factor 1.   
Semenza GL.    Author information
Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol. 2011;76:347-53.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1101/sqb.2011.76.010678.

The maintenance of oxygen homeostasis is critical for survival, and the
master regulator of this process in metazoan species is hypoxia-inducible
factor 1 (HIF-1), which

  • controls both O(2) delivery and utilization.

Under conditions of reduced O(2) availability,

  • HIF-1 activates the transcription of genes, whose protein products
  • mediate a switch from oxidative to glycolytic metabolism.

HIF-1 is activated in cancer cells as a result of intratumoral hypoxia
and/or genetic alterations.

In cancer cells, metabolism is reprogrammed to

  • favor glycolysis even under aerobic conditions.

Pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) has been implicated in cancer growth and
metabolism, although the mechanism by which it exerts these effects is
unclear. Recent studies indicate that

PKM2 interacts with HIF-1α physically and functionally to

  1. stimulate the binding of HIF-1 at target genes,
  2. the recruitment of coactivators,
  3. histone acetylation, and
  4. gene transcription.

Interaction with HIF-1α is facilitated by

  • hydroxylation of PKM2 at proline-403 and -408 by PHD3.

Knockdown of PHD3

  • decreases glucose transporter 1, lactate dehydrogenase A, and
    pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 expression;
  • decreases glucose uptake and lactate production; and
  • increases O(2) consumption.

The effect of PKM2/PHD3 is not limited to genes encoding metabolic
enzymes because VEGF is similarly regulated.

These results provide a mechanism by which PKM2

  • promotes metabolic reprogramming and

suggest that it plays a broader role in cancer progression than has
previously been appreciated.   PMID: 21785006   

Cadherins

Cadherins are thought to be the primary mediators of adhesion
between the cells
 of vertebrate animals, and also function in cell
adhesion in many invertebrates. The expression of numerous cadherins
during development is highly regulated, and the precise pattern of
cadherin expression plays a pivotal role in the morphogenesis of tissues
and organs. The cadherins are also important in the continued maintenance
of tissue structure and integrity. The loss of cadherin expression appears
to be highly correlated with the invasiveness of some types of tumors. Cadherin adhesion is also dependent on the presence of calcium ions
in the extracellular milieu.

The cadherin protein superfamily, defined as proteins containing a
cadherin-like domain, can be divided into several sub-groups. These include

  • the classical (type I) cadherins, which mediate adhesion at adherens junctions;
  • the highly-related type II cadherins;
  • the desmosomal cadherins found in desmosome junctions;
  • protocadherins, expressed only in the nervous system; and
  • atypical cadherin-like domain containing proteins.

Members of all but the atypical group have been shown to play a role
in intercellular adhesion.

Part II.  PKM2 and regulation of glycolysis

PKM2 regulates the Warburg effect and promotes ​HMGB1
release in sepsis

L Yang, M Xie, M Yang, Y Yu, S Zhu, W Hou, R Kang, …, & D Tang
Nature Communic 14 July 2014; 5(4436)
http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1038/ncomms5436

Increasing evidence suggests the important role of metabolic reprogramming

  • in the regulation of the innate inflammatory response,

We provide evidence to support a novel role for the

  • ​pyruvate kinase M2 (​PKM2)-mediated Warburg effect,

namely aerobic glycolysis,

  • in the regulation of ​high-mobility group box 1 (​HMGB1) release. ​
  1. PKM2 interacts with ​hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (​HIF1α) and
  2. activates the ​HIF-1α-dependent transcription of enzymes necessary
    for aerobic glycolysis in macrophages.

Knockdown of ​PKM2, ​HIF1α and glycolysis-related genes

  • uniformly decreases ​lactate production and ​HMGB1 release.

Similarly, a potential ​PKM2 inhibitor, ​shikonin,

  1. reduces serum ​lactate and ​HMGB1 levels, and
  2. protects mice from lethal endotoxemia and sepsis.

Collectively, these findings shed light on a novel mechanism for

  • metabolic control of inflammation by
  • regulating ​HMGB1 release and

highlight the importance of targeting aerobic glycolysis in the treatment
of sepsis and other inflammatory diseases.

  1. Glycolytic inhibitor ​2-D G attenuates ​HMGB1 release by activated macrophages.
    http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2014/140714/ncomms5436/carousel/ncomms5436-f1.jpg
  2. Figure 2: Upregulated ​PKM2 promotes aerobic glycolysis and ​HMGB1
    release in activated macrophages.
    http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2014/140714/ncomms5436/carousel/ncomms5436-f2.jpg
  3. Figure 3: ​PKM2-mediated ​HIF1α activation is required for ​HMGB1
    release in activated macrophages.
    http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2014/140714/ncomms5436/carousel/ncomms5436-f3.jpg

 

ERK1/2-dependent phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of
PKM2 promotes the Warburg effect  

W Yang, Y Zheng, Y Xia, Ha Ji, X Chen, F Guo, CA Lyssiotis, & Zhimin Lu
Nature Cell Biology  2012 (27 June 2014); 14: 1295–1304
Corrigendum (January, 2013)  http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/ncb2629

Pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) is upregulated in multiple cancer types and
contributes to the Warburg. We demonstrate that

  • EGFR-activated ERK2 binds directly to PKM2 Ile 429/Leu 431
  • through the ERK2 docking groove
  • and phosphorylates PKM2 at Ser 37, but
  • does not phosphorylate PKM1.

Phosphorylated PKM2 Ser 37

  1. recruits PIN1 for cis–trans isomerization of PKM2, which
  2. promotes PKM2 binding to importin α5
  3. and PKM2 translocates to the nucleus.

Nuclear PKM2 acts as

  • a coactivator of β-catenin to
  • induce c-Myc expression,

This is followed by

  1. the upregulation of GLUT1, LDHA and,
  2. in a positive feedback loop,
  • PTB-dependent PKM2 expression.

Replacement of wild-type PKM2 with

  • a nuclear translocation-deficient mutant (S37A)
  • blocks the EGFR-promoted Warburg effect
    and brain tumour development in mice.

In addition, levels of PKM2 Ser 37 phosphorylation

  • correlate with EGFR and ERK1/2 activity
    in human glioblastoma specimens.

Our findings highlight the importance of

  • nuclear functions of PKM2 in the Warburg effect
    and tumorigenesis.
  1. ERK is required for PKM2 nucleus translocation.
    http://www.nature.com/ncb/journal/v14/n12/carousel/ncb2629-f1.jpg
  2. ERK2 phosphorylates PKM2 Ser 37.
    http://www.nature.com/ncb/journal/v14/n12/carousel/ncb2629-f2.jpg
  3. Figure 3: PKM2 Ser 37 phosphorylation recruits PIN1.
    http://www.nature.com/ncb/journal/v14/n12/carousel/ncb2629-f3.jpg

 Pyruvate kinase M2 activators promote tetramer formation
and suppress tumorigenesis

D Anastasiou, Y Yu, WJ Israelsen, Jian-Kang Jiang, MB Boxer, B Hong, et al.
Nature Chemical Biology  11 Oct 2012; 8: 839–847

Cancer cells engage in a metabolic program to

  • enhance biosynthesis and support cell proliferation.

The regulatory properties of pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2)

  • influence altered glucose metabolism in cancer.

The interaction of PKM2 with phosphotyrosine-containing proteins

  • inhibits PTM2 enzyme activity and
  • increases the availability of glycolytic metabolites
  • supporting cell proliferation.

This suggests that high pyruvate kinase activity may suppress
tumor growth
.

  1. expression of PKM1,  the pyruvate kinase isoform with high
    constitutive activity, or
  2. exposure to published small-molecule PKM2 activators
  • inhibits the growth of xenograft tumors.

Structural studies reveal that

  • small-molecule activators bind PKM2
  • at the subunit interaction interface,
  • a site that is distinct from that of the
    • endogenous activator fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP).

However, unlike FBP,

  • binding of activators to PKM2 promotes
  • a constitutively active enzyme state that is resistant to inhibition
  • by tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins.

These data support the notion that small-molecule activation of PKM2
can interfere with anabolic metabolism

  1. PKM1 expression in cancer cells impairs xenograft tumor growth.
    http://www.nature.com/nchembio/journal/v8/n10/carousel/nchembio.1060-F1.jpg
  2. TEPP-46 and DASA-58 isoform specificity in vitro and in cells.
    TEPP-46 and DASA-58 isoform specificity in vitro and in cells.

    TEPP-46 and DASA-58 isoform specificity in vitro and in cells.

    (a) Structures of the PKM2 activators TEPP-46 and DASA-58. (b) Pyruvate kinase (PK) activity in purified recombinant human
    PKM1 or PKM2 expressed in bacteria in the presence of increasing
    concentrations of TEPP-46 or DASA-58. M1, PKM1;…
    http://www.nature.com/nchembio/journal/v8/n10/carousel/nchembio.1060-F2.jpg

  3. Activators promote PKM2 tetramer formation and prevent
    inhibition by phosphotyrosine signaling.
Activators promote PKM2 tetramer formation and prevent inhibition by phosphotyrosine signaling.

Activators promote PKM2 tetramer formation and prevent inhibition by phosphotyrosine signaling.

Sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation profiles of purified recombinant
PKM2 (rPKM2) and the effects of FBP and TEPP-46 on PKM2 subunit stoichiometry.
http://www.nature.com/nchembio/journal/v8/n10/carousel/nchembio.1060-F3.jpg

Figure 5: Metabolic effects of cell treatment with PKM2 activators.
(a) Effects of TEPP-46, DASA-58 (both used at 30 μM) or PKM1
expression on the doubling time of H1299 cells under normoxia
(21% O2) or hypoxia (1% O2). (b) Effects of DASA-58 on lactate
production from glucose. The P value shown was ca…
http://www.nature.com/nchembio/journal/v8/n10/carousel/nchembio.1060-F5.jpg

EGFR has a tumour-promoting role in liver macrophages during
hepatocellular carcinoma formation

H Lanaya, A Natarajan, K Komposch, L Li, N Amberg, …, & Maria Sibilia
Nature Cell Biology 31 Aug 2014   http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/ncb3031

Tumorigenesis has been linked with macrophage-mediated chronic
inflammation and diverse signaling pathways, including the ​epidermal
growth factor receptor (​EGFR) pathway. ​EGFR is expressed in liver
macrophages in both human HCC and in a mouse HCC model. Mice
lacking ​EGFR in macrophages show impaired hepatocarcinogenesis,
Mice lacking ​EGFR in hepatocytes develop HCC owing to increased
hepatocyte damage and compensatory proliferation. EGFR is required
in liver macrophages to transcriptionally induce ​interleukin-6 following
interleukin-1 stimulation, which triggers hepatocyte proliferation and HCC.
Importantly, the presence of ​EGFR-positive liver macrophages in HCC
patients is associated with poor survival. This study demonstrates a

  • tumour-promoting mechanism for ​EGFR in non-tumour cells,
  • which could lead to more effective precision medicine strategies.
  1. HCC formation in mice lacking ​EGFRin hepatocytes or all liver cells.
    http://www.nature.com/ncb/journal/vaop/ncurrent/carousel/ncb3031-f1.jpg

2. EGFR expression in Kupffer cells/liver macrophages promotes HCC development.

EGFR c2a expression in Kupffer cells.liver macrophages promotes HCC development.

EGFR c2a expression in Kupffer cells.liver macrophages promotes HCC development.

http://www.nature.com/ncb/journal/vaop/ncurrent/carousel/ncb3031-f2.jpg

Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 activation by aerobic glycolysis implicates
the Warburg effect in carcinogenesis
.

Lu H1, Forbes RA, Verma A.
J Biol Chem. 2002 Jun 28;277(26):23111-5. Epub 2002 Apr 9

Cancer cells display high rates of aerobic glycolysis, a phenomenon
known historically as the Warburg effect. Lactate and pyruvate, the end
products of glycolysis, are highly produced by cancer cells even in the
presence of oxygen
.

Hypoxia-induced gene expression in cancer cells

  • has been linked to malignant transformation.

Here we provide evidence that lactate and pyruvate

  • regulate hypoxia-inducible gene expression
  • independently of hypoxia
  • by stimulating the accumulation of hypoxia-inducible Factor 1alpha
    (HIF-1alpha).

In human gliomas and other cancer cell lines,

  • the accumulation of HIF-1alpha protein under aerobic conditions
  • requires the metabolism of glucose to pyruvate that
  1. prevents the aerobic degradation of HIF-1alpha protein,
  2. activates HIF-1 DNA binding activity, and
  3. enhances the expression of several HIF-1-activated genes
  4. erythropoietin,
  5. vascular endothelial growth factor,
  6. glucose transporter 3, and
  7. aldolase A.

Our findings support a novel role for pyruvate in metabolic signaling
and suggest a mechanism by which

  • high rates of aerobic glycolysis
  • can promote the malignant transformation and
  • survival of cancer cells.PMID: 11943784

Part IV. Transcription control and innate immunity

 c-Myc-induced transcription factor AP4 is required for
host protection mediated by CD8+ T cells

C Chou, AK Pinto, JD Curtis, SP Persaud, M Cella, Chih-Chung Lin, … & T Egawa Nature Immunology 17 Jun 2014;   http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/ni.2943

The transcription factor c-Myc is essential for

  • the establishment of a metabolically active and proliferative state
  • in T cells after priming,

We identified AP4 as the transcription factor

  • that was induced by c-Myc and
  • sustained activation of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells.

Despite normal priming,

  • AP4-deficient CD8+ T cells
  • failed to continue transcription of a broad range of
    c-Myc-dependent targets.

Mice lacking AP4 specifically in CD8+ T cells showed

  • enhanced susceptibility to infection with West Nile virus.

Genome-wide analysis suggested that

  • many activation-induced genes encoding molecules
  • involved in metabolism were shared targets of
  • c-Myc and AP4.

Thus, AP4 maintains c-Myc-initiated cellular activation programs

  • in CD8+ T cells to control microbial infection.
  1. AP4 is regulated post-transcriptionally in CD8+ T cells.

Microarray analysis of transcription factor–encoding genes with a difference
in expression of >1.8-fold in activated CD8+ T cells treated for 12 h with
IL-2 (100 U/ml; + IL-2) relative to their expression in activated CD8+ T cells…
http://www.nature.com/ni/journal/vaop/ncurrent/carousel/ni.2943-F1.jpg

2. AP4 is required for the population expansion of antigen specific
CD8+ T cells following infection with LCMV-Arm.

Expression of CD4, CD8α and KLRG1 (a) and binding of an
H-2Db–gp(33–41) tetramer and expression of CD8α, KLRG1 and
CD62L (b) in splenocytes from wild-type (WT) and Tfap4−/− mice,
assessed by flow cytometry 8 d after infection
http://www.nature.com/ni/journal/vaop/ncurrent/carousel/ni.2943-F2.jpg

3. AP4 is required for the sustained clonal expansion of CD8+ T cells
but  not for their initial proliferation.
http://www.nature.com/ni/journal/vaop/ncurrent/carousel/ni.2943-F3.jpg

  1. AP4 is essential for host protection against infection with WNV, in
    a CD8+ T cell–intrinsic manner.
AP4 is essential for host protection against infection with WNV, in a CD8+ T cell–intrinsic manner.

AP4 is essential for host protection against infection with WNV, in a CD8+ T cell–intrinsic manner.

  •  Survival of Tfap4F/FCre− control mice (Cre−; n = 16) and
  • Tfap4F/FCD8-Cre+ mice (CD8-Cre+; n = 22) following infection with WNV.
    (b,c) Viral titers in the brain (b) and spleen (c) of Tfap4F/F Cre− and Tfap4F/F
    CD8-Cre+ mice  on day 9…
    http://www.nature.com/ni/journal/vaop/ncurrent/carousel/ni.2943-F4.jpg

AP4 is essential for the sustained expression of genes that are targets of c-Myc.

Normalized signal intensity (NSI) of endogenous transcripts in
Tfap4+/+ and Tfap4−/− OT-I donor T cells adoptively transferred into
host mice and assessed on day 4 after infection of the host with LM-OVA
(top), and that of ERCC controls
http://www.nature.com/ni/journal/vaop/ncurrent/carousel/ni.2943-F6.jpg

Sustained c-Myc expression ‘rescues’ defects of Tfap4−/− CD8+ T cells.
http://www.nature.com/ni/journal/vaop/ncurrent/carousel/ni.2943-F7.jpg

AP4 and c-Myc have distinct biological functions.
http://www.nature.com/ni/journal/vaop/ncurrent/carousel/ni.2943-SF7.jpg

Mucosal memory CD8+ T cells are selected in the periphery
by an MHC class I molecule

Y Huang, Y Park, Y Wang-Zhu, …A Larange, R Arens, & H Cheroutre

Nature Immunology 2 Oct 2011; 12: 1086–1095
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/ni.2106

The presence of immune memory at pathogen-entry sites is a prerequisite
for protection. We show that the non-classical major histocompatibility
complex (MHC) class I molecule

  • thymus leukemia antigen (TL),
  • induced on dendritic cells interacting with CD8αα on activated CD8αβ+ T cells,
  • mediated affinity-based selection of memory precursor cells.

Furthermore, constitutive expression of TL on epithelial cells

  • led to continued selection of mature CD8αβ+ memory T cells.

The memory process driven by TL and CD8αα

  • was essential for the generation of CD8αβ+ memory T cells in the intestine and
  • the accumulation of highly antigen-sensitive CD8αβ+ memory T cells
  • that form the first line of defense at the largest entry port for pathogens.

The metabolic checkpoint kinase mTOR is essential for IL-15 signaling during the development and activation of NK cells.

Marçais A, Cherfils-Vicini J, Viant C, Degouve S, Viel S, Fenis A, Rabilloud J,
Mayol K, Tavares A, Bienvenu J, Gangloff YG, Gilson E, Vivier E,Walzer T.
Nat Immunol. 2014 Aug; 15(8):749-757. Epub 2014 Jun 29
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/ni.2936  .    PMID: 24973821

Interleukin 15 (IL-15) controls

  • both the homeostasis and the peripheral activation of natural killer (NK) cells.

We found that the metabolic checkpoint kinase

  • mTOR was activated and boosted bioenergetic metabolism
  • after exposure of NK cells to high concentrations of IL-15,

whereas low doses of IL-15 triggered

  • only phosphorylation of the transcription factor STAT5.

mTOR

  • stimulated the growth and nutrient uptake of NK cells and
  • positively fed back on the receptor for IL-15.

This process was essential for

  • sustaining NK cell proliferation during development and
  • the acquisition of cytolytic potential during inflammation
    or viral infection.

The mTORC1 inhibitor rapamycin 

  • inhibited NK cell cytotoxicity both in mice and humans;
    • this probably contributes to the immunosuppressive
      activity of this drug in different clinical settings.

The Critical Role of IL-15-PI3K-mTOR Pathway in Natural Killer Cell
Effector Functions.
Nandagopal NAli AKKomal AKLee SH.   Author information
Front Immunol. 2014 Apr 23; 5:187. eCollection 2014.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.3389/fimmu.2014.00187

Natural killer (NK) cells were so named for their uniqueness in killing
certain tumor and virus-infected cells without prior sensitization.
Their functions are modulated in vivo by several soluble immune mediators;

  • interleukin-15 (IL-15) being the most potent among them in
    enabling NK cell homeostasis, maturation, and activation.

During microbial infections,

  • NK cells stimulated with IL-15 display enhanced cytokine responses.

This priming effect has previously been shown with respect to increased
IFN-γ production in NK cells

  • upon IL-12 and IL-15/IL-2 co-stimulation.
  • we explored if this effect of IL-15 priming 
  • can be extended to various other cytokines and
  • observed enhanced NK cell responses to stimulation
    • with IL-4, IL-21, IFN-α, and IL-2 in addition to IL-12.
  • we also observed elevated IFN-γ production in primed NK cells

Currently, the fundamental processes required for priming and

  • whether these signaling pathways work collaboratively or
    independently 

    • for NK cell functions are poorly understood.

We examined IL-15 effects on NK cells in which

  • the pathways emanating from IL-15 receptor activation
    • were blocked with specific inhibitors
    • To identify the key signaling events for NK cell priming,

Our results demonstrate that

the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway is critical for cytokine responses
in IL-15 primed NK cells. 

This pathway is also implicated in a broad range of

  • IL-15-induced NK cell effector functions such as
    • proliferation and cytotoxicity.

Likewise, NK cells from mice

  • treated with rapamycin to block the mTOR pathway
  • displayed defects in proliferation, and IFN-γ and granzyme B productions
  • resulting in elevated viral burdens upon murine cytomegalovirus infection.

Taken together, our data demonstrate

  • the requirement of PI3K-mTOR pathway
    • for enhanced NK cell functions by IL-15, thereby
  • coupling the metabolic sensor mTOR to NK cell anti-viral responses.

KEYWORDS: IL-15; JAK–STAT pathway; mTOR pathway; natural killer cells; signal transduction

Part V. Predicting Therapeutic Targets 

New discovery approach accelerates identification of potential cancer treatments
 Laura Williams, Univ. of Michigan   09/30/2014
http://www.rdmag.com/news/2014/09/new-discovery-approach-accelerates-identification-potential-cancer-treatments

Researchers at the Univ. of Michigan have described a new approach to
discovering potential cancer treatments that

  • requires a fraction of the time needed for more traditional methods.

They used the platform to identify

  • a novel antibody that is undergoing further investigation as a potential
    treatment for breast, ovarian and other cancers.

In research published online in the Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences
, researchers in the laboratory of Stephen Weiss at the U-M Life
Sciences Institute detail an approach

  • that replicates the native environment of cancer cells and
  • increases the likelihood that drugs effective against the growth of
    tumor cells in test tube models
  • will also stop cancer from growing in humans.

The researchers have used their method

  • to identify an antibody that stops breast cancer tumor growth in animal models, and
  • they are investigating the antibody as a potential treatment in humans.

“Discovering new targets for cancer therapeutics is a long and tedious undertaking, and

  • identifying and developing a potential drug to specifically hit that
    target without harming healthy cells is a daunting task,” Weiss said.
  • “Our approach allows us to identify potential therapeutics
    • in a fraction of the time that traditional methods require.”

The researchers began by

  • creating a 3-D “matrix” of collagen, a connective tissue molecule very similar to that found
    • surrounding breast cancer cells in human patients.
  • They then embedded breast cancer cells into the collagen matrix,
    • where the cells grew as they would in human tissue.

The investigators then injected the cancer-collagen tissue composites into mice that then

  • recognize the human cancer cells as foreign tissue.
    • Much in the way that our immune system generates antibodies
      to fight infection,
  • the mice began to generate thousands of antibodies directed against
    the human cancer cells.
  • These antibodies were then tested for the ability to stop the growth
    of the human tumor cells.

“We create an environment in which cells cultured in the laboratory ‘think’
they are growing in the body and then

  • rapidly screen large numbers of antibodies to see if any exert
    anti-cancer effects,” Weiss said.
  • “This allows us to select promising antibodies very quickly and then

They discovered a particular antibody, 4C3, which was able to

  • almost completely stop the proliferation of the breast cancer cells.

They then identified the molecule on the cancer cells that the antibody targets.

The antibody can be further engineered to generate

  • humanized monoclonal antibodies for use in patients

“We still need to do a lot more work to determine how effective 4C3 might be as a
treatment for breast and other cancers, on its own or in conjunction with other
therapies,” Weiss said. “But we have enough data to warrant further pursuit,
and are expanding our efforts to use this discovery platform to find similarly promising antibodies.”

Source: Univ. of Michigan

  1. Jose Eduardo de Salles Roselino

    Larry,
    I think you have made a great effort in order to connect basic ideas of metabolic regulation with those of gene expression control “modern” mechanisms.
    Yet, I do not think that at this stage it will be clear for all readers. At least, for the great majority of the readers. The most important factor I my opinion, is derived from the fact that modern readers considers that metabolic regulation deals with so called “housekeeping activities” of the cell. Something that is of secondary, tertiary or even less level of relevance.
    My idea, that you have mentioned in the text when you write at the beginning, the word biochemistry, in order to resume it, derives from the reading of What is life together with Prof. Leloir . For me and also, for him, biochemistry comprises a set of techniques and also a framework of reasoning about scientific results. As a set of techniques, Schrodinger has considered that it will lead to better understanding of genetics and of physiology as a two legs structure supporting the future progress related to his time (mid-forties). For Leloir, the key was the understanding of chemical reactivity and I agree with him. However, as I was able to talk and discuss it with him in detail, we should also take into account levels of stabilities of macromolecules and above all, regulation of activities and function (this is where) Pasteur effect that I was studying in Leloir´s lab at that time, 1970-72, gets into the general picture.
    Regulation for complex living beings , that also have cancer cell as a great topic of research problem can be understood through the understanding of two quite different results when opposition with lack of regulation is taken into account or experimentally elicited. The most clearly line of experiments can follow the Pasteur Effect as the intracellular result best seen when aerobiosis is compared with anaerobiosis as conditions in which maintenance of ATP levels and required metabolic regulation (Energy charge D.E, Atkinson etc) is studied. Another line of experiments is one that takes into account the extracellular result or for instance the homeostatic regulation of blood glucose levels. The blood glucose level is the most conspicuous and related to Pasteur Effect regulatory event that can be studied in the liver taking into account both final results tested or compared regarding its regulation, ATP levels maintenance (intracellular) and blood glucose maintenance (extracellular).
    My key idea is to consider that the same factors that elicits fast regulatory responses also elicits the slow energetic expensive regulatory responses. The biologic logic behind this common root is the ATP economy. In case, the regulatory stimulus fades out quickly the fast regulatory responses are good enough to maintain life and the time requiring, energetic costly responses will soon be stopped cutting short the ATP expenditure. In case, the stimulus last for long periods of time the fast responses are replaced by adaptive responses that in general will follow the line of cell differentiation mechanisms with changes in gene expression etc.
    The change from fast response mechanisms to long lasting developmentally linked ones is not sharp. Therefore, somehow, cancer cells becomes trapped into a metastable regulatory mechanism that prevents cell differentiation and reinforces those mechanisms linked to its internal regulatory goals. This metastable mechanism takes advantage from the fact that other cells, tissues and organs will take good care of homeostatic mechanisms that provide for their nutritional needs. In the case of my Hepatology work you will see a Piruvate kinase that does not responds to homeostatic signals .

Read Full Post »

Imaging-guided cancer treatment

Imaging-guided cancer treatment

Writer & reporter: Dror Nir, PhD

It is estimated that the medical imaging market will exceed $30 billion in 2014 (FierceMedicalImaging). To put this amount in perspective; the global pharmaceutical market size for the same year is expected to be ~$1 trillion (IMS) while the global health care spending as a percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) will average 10.5% globally in 2014 (Deloitte); it will reach ~$3 trillion in the USA.

Recent technology-advances, mainly miniaturization and improvement in electronic-processing components is driving increased introduction of innovative medical-imaging devices into critical nodes of major-diseases’ management pathways. Consequently, in contrast to it’s very small contribution to global health costs, medical imaging bears outstanding potential to reduce the future growth in spending on major segments in this market mainly: Drugs development and regulation (e.g. companion diagnostics and imaging surrogate markers); Disease management (e.g. non-invasive diagnosis, guided treatment and non-invasive follow-ups); and Monitoring aging-population (e.g. Imaging-based domestic sensors).

In; The Role of Medical Imaging in Personalized Medicine I discussed in length the role medical imaging assumes in drugs development.  Integrating imaging into drug development processes, specifically at the early stages of drug discovery, as well as for monitoring drug delivery and the response of targeted processes to the therapy is a growing trend. A nice (and short) review highlighting the processes, opportunities, and challenges of medical imaging in new drug development is: Medical imaging in new drug clinical development.

The following is dedicated to the role of imaging in guiding treatment.

Precise treatment is a major pillar of modern medicine. An important aspect to enable accurate administration of treatment is complementing the accurate identification of the organ location that needs to be treated with a system and methods that ensure application of treatment only, or mainly to, that location. Imaging is off-course, a major component in such composite systems. Amongst the available solution, functional-imaging modalities are gaining traction. Specifically, molecular imaging (e.g. PET, MRS) allows the visual representation, characterization, and quantification of biological processes at the cellular and subcellular levels within intact living organisms. In oncology, it can be used to depict the abnormal molecules as well as the aberrant interactions of altered molecules on which cancers depend. Being able to detect such fundamental finger-prints of cancer is key to improved matching between drugs-based treatment and disease. Moreover, imaging-based quantified monitoring of changes in tumor metabolism and its microenvironment could provide real-time non-invasive tool to predict the evolution and progression of primary tumors, as well as the development of tumor metastases.

A recent review-paper: Image-guided interventional therapy for cancer with radiotherapeutic nanoparticles nicely illustrates the role of imaging in treatment guidance through a comprehensive discussion of; Image-guided radiotherapeutic using intravenous nanoparticles for the delivery of localized radiation to solid cancer tumors.

 Graphical abstract

 Abstract

One of the major limitations of current cancer therapy is the inability to deliver tumoricidal agents throughout the entire tumor mass using traditional intravenous administration. Nanoparticles carrying beta-emitting therapeutic radionuclides [DN: radioactive isotops that emits electrons as part of the decay process a list of β-emitting radionuclides used in radiotherapeutic nanoparticle preparation is given in table1 of this paper.) that are delivered using advanced image-guidance have significant potential to improve solid tumor therapy. The use of image-guidance in combination with nanoparticle carriers can improve the delivery of localized radiation to tumors. Nanoparticles labeled with certain beta-emitting radionuclides are intrinsically theranostic agents that can provide information regarding distribution and regional dosimetry within the tumor and the body. Image-guided thermal therapy results in increased uptake of intravenous nanoparticles within tumors, improving therapy. In addition, nanoparticles are ideal carriers for direct intratumoral infusion of beta-emitting radionuclides by convection enhanced delivery, permitting the delivery of localized therapeutic radiation without the requirement of the radionuclide exiting from the nanoparticle. With this approach, very high doses of radiation can be delivered to solid tumors while sparing normal organs. Recent technological developments in image-guidance, convection enhanced delivery and newly developed nanoparticles carrying beta-emitting radionuclides will be reviewed. Examples will be shown describing how this new approach has promise for the treatment of brain, head and neck, and other types of solid tumors.

The challenges this review discusses

  • intravenously administered drugs are inhibited in their intratumoral penetration by high interstitial pressures which prevent diffusion of drugs from the blood circulation into the tumor tissue [1–5].
  • relatively rapid clearance of intravenously administered drugs from the blood circulation by kidneys and liver.
  • drugs that do reach the solid tumor by diffusion are inhomogeneously distributed at the micro-scale – This cannot be overcome by simply administering larger systemic doses as toxicity to normal organs is generally the dose limiting factor.
  • even nanoparticulate drugs have poor penetration from the vascular compartment into the tumor and the nanoparticles that do penetrate are most often heterogeneously distributed

How imaging could mitigate the above mentioned challenges

  • The inclusion of an imaging probe during drug development can aid in determining the clearance kinetics and tissue distribution of the drug non-invasively. Such probe can also be used to determine the likelihood of the drug reaching the tumor and to what extent.

Note: Drugs that have increased accumulation within the targeted site are likely to be more effective as compared with others. In that respect, Nanoparticle-based drugs have an additional advantage over free drugs with their potential to be multifunctional carriers capable of carrying both therapeutic and diagnostic imaging probes (theranostic) in the same nanocarrier. These multifunctional nanoparticles can serve as theranostic agents and facilitate personalized treatment planning.

  • Imaging can also be used for localization of the tumor to improve the placement of a catheter or external device within tumors to cause cell death through thermal ablation or oxidative stress secondary to reactive oxygen species.

See the example of Vintfolide in The Role of Medical Imaging in Personalized Medicine

vinta

Note: Image guided thermal ablation methods include radiofrequency (RF) ablation, microwave ablation or high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU). Photodynamic therapy methods using external light devices to activate photosensitizing agents can also be used to treat superficial tumors or deeper tumors when used with endoscopic catheters.

  • Quality control during and post treatment

For example: The use of high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) combined with nanoparticle therapeutics: HIFU is applied to improve drug delivery and to trigger drug release from nanoparticles. Gas-bubbles are playing the role of the drug’s nano-carrier. These are used both to increase the drug transport into the cell and as ultrasound-imaging contrast material. The ultrasound is also used for processes of drug-release and ablation.

 HIFU

Additional example; Multifunctional nanoparticles for tracking CED (convection enhanced delivery)  distribution within tumors: Nanoparticle that could serve as a carrier not only for the therapeutic radionuclides but simultaneously also for a therapeutic drug and 4 different types of imaging contrast agents including an MRI contrast agent, PET and SPECT nuclear diagnostic imaging agents and optical contrast agents as shown below. The ability to perform multiple types of imaging on the same nanoparticles will allow studies investigating the distribution and retention of nanoparticles initially in vivo using non-invasive imaging and later at the histological level using optical imaging.

 multi

Conclusions

Image-guided radiotherapeutic nanoparticles have significant potential for solid tumor cancer therapy. The current success of this therapy in animals is most likely due to the improved accumulation, retention and dispersion of nanoparticles within solid tumor following image-guided therapies as well as the micro-field of the β-particle which reduces the requirement of perfectly homogeneous tumor coverage. It is also possible that the intratumoral distribution of nanoparticles may benefit from their uptake by intratumoral macrophages although more research is required to determine the importance of this aspect of intratumoral radionuclide nanoparticle therapy. This new approach to cancer therapy is a fertile ground for many new technological developments as well as for new understandings in the basic biology of cancer therapy. The clinical success of this approach will depend on progress in many areas of interdisciplinary research including imaging technology, nanoparticle technology, computer and robot assisted image-guided application of therapies, radiation physics and oncology. Close collaboration of a wide variety of scientists and physicians including chemists, nanotechnologists, drug delivery experts, radiation physicists, robotics and software experts, toxicologists, surgeons, imaging physicians, and oncologists will best facilitate the implementation of this novel approach to the treatment of cancer in the clinical environment. Image-guided nanoparticle therapies including those with β-emission radionuclide nanoparticles have excellent promise to significantly impact clinical cancer therapy and advance the field of drug delivery.

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Proteomics, Metabolomics, Signaling Pathways, and Cell Regulation: a Compilation of Articles in the Journal http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com

Compilation of References by Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence in the Journal http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com about
Proteomics, Metabolomics, Signaling Pathways, and Cell Regulation

Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Proteomics

  1. The Human Proteome Map Completed

Reporter and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/28/the-human-proteome-map-completed/

  1. Proteomics – The Pathway to Understanding and Decision-making in Medicine

Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/24/proteomics-the-pathway-to-
understanding-and-decision-making-in-medicine/

3. Advances in Separations Technology for the “OMICs” and Clarification of Therapeutic Targets

Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/22/advances-in-separations-technology-for-the-omics-and-clarification-         of-therapeutic-targets/

  1. Expanding the Genetic Alphabet and Linking the Genome to the Metabolome

Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/24/expanding-the-genetic-alphabet-and-linking-the-genome-to-the-                metabolome/

5. Genomics, Proteomics and standards

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/06/genomics-proteomics-and-standards/

6. Proteins and cellular adaptation to stress

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/08/proteins-and-cellular-adaptation-to-stress/

 

Metabolomics

  1. Extracellular evaluation of intracellular flux in yeast cells

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/25/extracellular-evaluation-of-intracellular-flux-in-yeast-cells/

  1. Metabolomic analysis of two leukemia cell lines. I.

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/23/metabolomic-analysis-of-two-leukemia-cell-lines-_i/

  1. Metabolomic analysis of two leukemia cell lines. II.

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/24/metabolomic-analysis-of-two-leukemia-cell-lines-ii/

  1. Metabolomics, Metabonomics and Functional Nutrition: the next step in nutritional metabolism and biotherapeutics

Reviewer and Curator, Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/22/metabolomics-metabonomics-and-functional-nutrition-the-next-step-          in-nutritional-metabolism-and-biotherapeutics/

  1. Buffering of genetic modules involved in tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolism provides homeomeostatic regulation

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/27/buffering-of-genetic-modules-involved-in-tricarboxylic-acid-cycle-              metabolism-provides-homeomeostatic-regulation/

Metabolic Pathways

  1. Pentose Shunt, Electron Transfer, Galactose, more Lipids in brief

Reviewer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/21/pentose-shunt-electron-transfer-galactose-more-lipids-in-brief/

  1. Mitochondria: More than just the “powerhouse of the cell”

Ritu Saxena, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/07/09/mitochondria-more-than-just-the-powerhouse-of-the-cell/

  1. Mitochondrial fission and fusion: potential therapeutic targets?

Ritu saxena

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/31/mitochondrial-fission-and-fusion-potential-therapeutic-target/

4.  Mitochondrial mutation analysis might be “1-step” away

Ritu Saxena

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/14/mitochondrial-mutation-analysis-might-be-1-step-away/

  1. Selected References to Signaling and Metabolic Pathways in PharmaceuticalIntelligence.com

Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/14/selected-references-to-signaling-and-metabolic-pathways-in-                     leaders-in-pharmaceutical-intelligence/

  1. Metabolic drivers in aggressive brain tumors

Prabodh Kandal, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/11/metabolic-drivers-in-aggressive-brain-tumors/

  1. Metabolite Identification Combining Genetic and Metabolic Information: Genetic association links unknown metabolites to functionally related genes

Writer and Curator, Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/22/metabolite-identification-combining-genetic-and-metabolic-                        information-genetic-association-links-unknown-metabolites-to-functionally-related-genes/

  1. Mitochondria: Origin from oxygen free environment, role in aerobic glycolysis, metabolic adaptation

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, author and curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/26/mitochondria-origin-from-oxygen-free-environment-role-in-aerobic-            glycolysis-metabolic-adaptation/

  1. Therapeutic Targets for Diabetes and Related Metabolic Disorders

Reporter, Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/20/therapeutic-targets-for-diabetes-and-related-metabolic-disorders/

10.  Buffering of genetic modules involved in tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolism provides homeomeostatic regulation

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/27/buffering-of-genetic-modules-involved-in-tricarboxylic-acid-cycle-              metabolism-provides-homeomeostatic-regulation/

11. The multi-step transfer of phosphate bond and hydrogen exchange energy

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator:

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/19/the-multi-step-transfer-of-phosphate-bond-and-hydrogen-                          exchange-energy/

12. Studies of Respiration Lead to Acetyl CoA

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/18/studies-of-respiration-lead-to-acetyl-coa/

13. Lipid Metabolism

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/15/lipid-metabolism/

14. Carbohydrate Metabolism

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/13/carbohydrate-metabolism/

15. Update on mitochondrial function, respiration, and associated disorders

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/08/update-on-mitochondrial-function-respiration-and-associated-                   disorders/

16. Prologue to Cancer – e-book Volume One – Where are we in this journey?

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/04/13/prologue-to-cancer-ebook-4-where-are-we-in-this-journey/

17. Introduction – The Evolution of Cancer Therapy and Cancer Research: How We Got Here?

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/04/04/introduction-the-evolution-of-cancer-therapy-and-cancer-research-          how-we-got-here/

18. Inhibition of the Cardiomyocyte-Specific Kinase TNNI3K

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/01/inhibition-of-the-cardiomyocyte-specific-kinase-tnni3k/

19. The Binding of Oligonucleotides in DNA and 3-D Lattice Structures

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/15/the-binding-of-oligonucleotides-in-dna-and-3-d-lattice-structures/

20. Mitochondrial Metabolism and Cardiac Function

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/14/mitochondrial-metabolism-and-cardiac-function/

21. How Methionine Imbalance with Sulfur-Insufficiency Leads to Hyperhomocysteinemia

Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/04/sulfur-deficiency-leads_to_hyperhomocysteinemia/

22. AMPK Is a Negative Regulator of the Warburg Effect and Suppresses Tumor Growth In Vivo

Author and Curator: Stephen J. Williams, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/12/ampk-is-a-negative-regulator-of-the-warburg-effect-and-suppresses-         tumor-growth-in-vivo/

23. A Second Look at the Transthyretin Nutrition Inflammatory Conundrum

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/03/a-second-look-at-the-transthyretin-nutrition-inflammatory-                         conundrum/

24. Mitochondrial Damage and Repair under Oxidative Stress

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/mitochondrial-damage-and-repair-under-oxidative-stress/

25. Nitric Oxide and Immune Responses: Part 2

Author and Curator: Aviral Vatsa, PhD, MBBS

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/nitric-oxide-and-immune-responses-part-2/

26. Overview of Posttranslational Modification (PTM)

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/29/overview-of-posttranslational-modification-ptm/

27. Malnutrition in India, high newborn death rate and stunting of children age under five years

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/15/malnutrition-in-india-high-newborn-death-rate-and-stunting-of-                   children-age-under-five-years/

28. Update on mitochondrial function, respiration, and associated disorders

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/08/update-on-mitochondrial-function-respiration-and-associated-                  disorders/

29. Omega-3 fatty acids, depleting the source, and protein insufficiency in renal disease

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/06/omega-3-fatty-acids-depleting-the-source-and-protein-insufficiency-         in-renal-disease/

30. Introduction to e-Series A: Cardiovascular Diseases, Volume Four Part 2: Regenerative Medicine

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, writer, and Aviva Lev- Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/04/27/larryhbernintroduction_to_cardiovascular_diseases-                                  translational_medicine-part_2/

31. Epilogue: Envisioning New Insights in Cancer Translational Biology
Series C: e-Books on Cancer & Oncology

Author & Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Series C Content Consultant

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/03/29/epilogue-envisioning-new-insights/

32. Ca2+-Stimulated Exocytosis:  The Role of Calmodulin and Protein Kinase C in Ca2+ Regulation of Hormone                         and Neurotransmitter

Writer and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and
Curator and Content Editor: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/23/calmodulin-and-protein-kinase-c-drive-the-ca2-regulation-of-                    hormone-and-neurotransmitter-release-that-triggers-ca2-stimulated-exocy

33. Cardiac Contractility & Myocardial Performance: Therapeutic Implications of Ryanopathy (Calcium Release-                           related Contractile Dysfunction) and Catecholamine Responses

Author, and Content Consultant to e-SERIES A: Cardiovascular Diseases: Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC
Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
and Article Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/28/cardiac-contractility-myocardium-performance-ventricular-arrhythmias-      and-non-ischemic-heart-failure-therapeutic-implications-for-cardiomyocyte-ryanopathy-calcium-release-related-                    contractile/

34. Role of Calcium, the Actin Skeleton, and Lipid Structures in Signaling and Cell Motility

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP Author: Stephen Williams, PhD, and Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/26/role-of-calcium-the-actin-skeleton-and-lipid-structures-in-signaling-and-cell-motility/

35. Identification of Biomarkers that are Related to the Actin Cytoskeleton

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/10/identification-of-biomarkers-that-are-related-to-the-actin-                           cytoskeleton/

36. Advanced Topics in Sepsis and the Cardiovascular System at its End Stage

Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/18/advanced-topics-in-Sepsis-and-the-Cardiovascular-System-at-its-              End-Stage/

37. The Delicate Connection: IDO (Indolamine 2, 3 dehydrogenase) and Cancer Immunology

Demet Sag, PhD, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/04/the-delicate-connection-ido-indolamine-2-3-dehydrogenase-and-               immunology/

38. IDO for Commitment of a Life Time: The Origins and Mechanisms of IDO, indolamine 2, 3-dioxygenase

Demet Sag, PhD, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/04/ido-for-commitment-of-a-life-time-the-origins-and-mechanisms-of-             ido-indolamine-2-3-dioxygenase/

39. Confined Indolamine 2, 3 dioxygenase (IDO) Controls the Homeostasis of Immune Responses for Good and Bad

Curator: Demet Sag, PhD, CRA, GCP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/31/confined-indolamine-2-3-dehydrogenase-controls-the-hemostasis-           of-immune-responses-for-good-and-bad/

40. Signaling Pathway that Makes Young Neurons Connect was discovered @ Scripps Research Institute

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/06/26/signaling-pathway-that-makes-young-neurons-connect-was-                     discovered-scripps-research-institute/

41. Naked Mole Rats Cancer-Free

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/06/20/naked-mole-rats-cancer-free/

42. Late Onset of Alzheimer’s Disease and One-carbon Metabolism

Reporter and Curator: Dr. Sudipta Saha, Ph.D.

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/06/alzheimers-disease-and-one-carbon-metabolism/

43. Problems of vegetarianism

Reporter and Curator: Dr. Sudipta Saha, Ph.D.

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/22/problems-of-vegetarianism/

44.  Amyloidosis with Cardiomyopathy

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/31/amyloidosis-with-cardiomyopathy/

45. Liver endoplasmic reticulum stress and hepatosteatosis

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/10/liver-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-hepatosteatosis/

46. The Molecular Biology of Renal Disorders: Nitric Oxide – Part III

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/the-molecular-biology-of-renal-disorders/

47. Nitric Oxide Function in Coagulation – Part II

Curator and Author: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/nitric-oxide-function-in-coagulation/

48. Nitric Oxide, Platelets, Endothelium and Hemostasis

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/08/nitric-oxide-platelets-endothelium-and-hemostasis/

49. Interaction of Nitric Oxide and Prostacyclin in Vascular Endothelium

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/14/interaction-of-nitric-oxide-and-prostacyclin-in-vascular-endothelium/

50. Nitric Oxide and Immune Responses: Part 1

Curator and Author:  Aviral Vatsa PhD, MBBS

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/18/nitric-oxide-and-immune-responses-part-1/

51. Nitric Oxide and Immune Responses: Part 2

Curator and Author:  Aviral Vatsa PhD, MBBS

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/nitric-oxide-and-immune-responses-part-2/

52. Mitochondrial Damage and Repair under Oxidative Stress

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/mitochondrial-damage-and-repair-under-oxidative-stress/

53. Is the Warburg Effect the cause or the effect of cancer: A 21st Century View?

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/17/is-the-warburg-effect-the-cause-or-the-effect-of-cancer-a-21st-                 century-view/

54. Ubiquinin-Proteosome pathway, autophagy, the mitochondrion, proteolysis and cell apoptosis

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/30/ubiquinin-proteosome-pathway-autophagy-the-mitochondrion-                  proteolysis-and-cell-apoptosis/

55. Ubiquitin-Proteosome pathway, Autophagy, the Mitochondrion, Proteolysis and Cell Apoptosis: Part III

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/02/14/ubiquinin-proteosome-pathway-autophagy-the-mitochondrion-                   proteolysis-and-cell-apoptosis-reconsidered/

56. Nitric Oxide and iNOS have Key Roles in Kidney Diseases – Part II

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/nitric-oxide-and-inos-have-key-roles-in-kidney-diseases/

57. New Insights on Nitric Oxide donors – Part IV

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/new-insights-on-no-donors/

58. Crucial role of Nitric Oxide in Cancer

Curator and Author: Ritu Saxena, Ph.D.

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/16/crucial-role-of-nitric-oxide-in-cancer/

59. Nitric Oxide has a ubiquitous role in the regulation of glycolysis -with a concomitant influence on mitochondrial function

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/16/nitric-oxide-has-a-ubiquitous-role-in-the-regulation-of-glycolysis-with-         a-concomitant-influence-on-mitochondrial-function/

60. Targeting Mitochondrial-bound Hexokinase for Cancer Therapy

Curator and Author: Ziv Raviv, PhD, RN 04/06/2013

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/06/targeting-mitochondrial-bound-hexokinase-for-cancer-therapy/

61. Biochemistry of the Coagulation Cascade and Platelet Aggregation – Part I

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/biochemistry-of-the-coagulation-cascade-and-platelet-aggregation/

Genomics, Transcriptomics, and Epigenetics

  1. What is the meaning of so many RNAs?

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/06/what-is-the-meaning-of-so-many-rnas/

  1. RNA and the transcription the genetic code

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Writer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/02/rna-and-the-transcription-of-the-genetic-code/

  1. A Primer on DNA and DNA Replication

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/29/a_primer_on_dna_and_dna_replication/

4. Synthesizing Synthetic Biology: PLOS Collections

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/17/synthesizing-synthetic-biology-plos-collections/

5. Pathology Emergence in the 21st Century

Author and Curator: Larry Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/03/pathology-emergence-in-the-21st-century/

6. RNA and the transcription the genetic code

Writer and Curator, Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/02/rna-and-the-transcription-of-the-genetic-code/

7. A Great University engaged in Drug Discovery: University of Pittsburgh

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/15/a-great-university-engaged-in-drug-discovery/

8. microRNA called miRNA-142 involved in the process by which the immature cells in the bone  marrow give                              rise to all the types of blood cells, including immune cells and the oxygen-bearing red blood cells

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/24/microrna-called-mir-142-involved-in-the-process-by-which-the-                   immature-cells-in-the-bone-marrow-give-rise-to-all-the-types-of-blood-cells-including-immune-cells-and-the-oxygen-             bearing-red-blood-cells/

9. Genes, proteomes, and their interaction

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Writer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/28/genes-proteomes-and-their-interaction/

10. Regulation of somatic stem cell Function

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Writer and Curator    Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/29/regulation-of-somatic-stem-cell-function/

11. Scientists discover that pluripotency factor NANOG is also active in adult organisms

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/10/scientists-discover-that-pluripotency-factor-nanog-is-also-active-in-           adult-organisms/

12. Bzzz! Are fruitflies like us?

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/07/bzzz-are-fruitflies-like-us/

13. Long Non-coding RNAs Can Encode Proteins After All

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/29/long-non-coding-rnas-can-encode-proteins-after-all/

14. Michael Snyder @Stanford University sequenced the lymphoblastoid transcriptomes and developed an
allele-specific full-length transcriptome

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/014/06/23/michael-snyder-stanford-university-sequenced-the-lymphoblastoid-            transcriptomes-and-developed-an-allele-specific-full-length-transcriptome/

15. Commentary on Biomarkers for Genetics and Genomics of Cardiovascular Disease: Views by Larry H                                     Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/16/commentary-on-biomarkers-for-genetics-and-genomics-of-                        cardiovascular-disease-views-by-larry-h-bernstein-md-fcap/

16. Observations on Finding the Genetic Links in Common Disease: Whole Genomic Sequencing Studies

Author an curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/18/observations-on-finding-the-genetic-links/

17. Silencing Cancers with Synthetic siRNAs

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/09/silencing-cancers-with-synthetic-sirnas/

18. Cardiometabolic Syndrome and the Genetics of Hypertension: The Neuroendocrine Transcriptome Control Points

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/12/cardiometabolic-syndrome-and-the-genetics-of-hypertension-the-neuroendocrine-transcriptome-control-points/

19. Developments in the Genomics and Proteomics of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Treatment Targets

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/08/developments-in-the-genomics-and-proteomics-of-type-2-diabetes-           mellitus-and-treatment-targets/

20. Loss of normal growth regulation

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/06/loss-of-normal-growth-regulation/

21. CT Angiography & TrueVision™ Metabolomics (Genomic Phenotyping) for new Therapeutic Targets to Atherosclerosis

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/15/ct-angiography-truevision-metabolomics-genomic-phenotyping-for-           new-therapeutic-targets-to-atherosclerosis/

22.  CRACKING THE CODE OF HUMAN LIFE: The Birth of BioInformatics & Computational Genomics

Genomics Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/30/cracking-the-code-of-human-life-the-birth-of-bioinformatics-                      computational-genomics/

23. Big Data in Genomic Medicine

Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/17/big-data-in-genomic-medicine/

24. From Genomics of Microorganisms to Translational Medicine

Author and Curator: Demet Sag, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/03/20/without-the-past-no-future-but-learn-and-move-genomics-of-                      microorganisms-to-translational-medicine/

25. Summary of Genomics and Medicine: Role in Cardiovascular Diseases

Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/01/06/summary-of-genomics-and-medicine-role-in-cardiovascular-diseases/

 26. Genomic Promise for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Dementias, Autism Spectrum, Schizophrenia, and Serious                      Depression

Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/02/19/genomic-promise-for-neurodegenerative-diseases-dementias-autism-        spectrum-schizophrenia-and-serious-depression/

 27.  BRCA1 a tumour suppressor in breast and ovarian cancer – functions in transcription, ubiquitination and DNA repair

Sudipta Saha, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/04/brca1-a-tumour-suppressor-in-breast-and-ovarian-cancer-functions-         in-transcription-ubiquitination-and-dna-repair/

28. Personalized medicine gearing up to tackle cancer

Ritu Saxena, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/07/personalized-medicine-gearing-up-to-tackle-cancer/

29. Differentiation Therapy – Epigenetics Tackles Solid Tumors

Stephen J Williams, PhD

      http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/03/differentiation-therapy-epigenetics-tackles-solid-tumors/

30. Mechanism involved in Breast Cancer Cell Growth: Function in Early Detection & Treatment

     Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/17/mechanism-involved-in-breast-cancer-cell-growth-function-in-early-          detection-treatment/

31. The Molecular pathology of Breast Cancer Progression

Tilde Barliya, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/10/the-molecular-pathology-of-breast-cancer-progression

32. Gastric Cancer: Whole-genome reconstruction and mutational signatures

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/24/gastric-cancer-whole-genome-reconstruction-and-mutational-                   signatures-2/

33. Paradigm Shift in Human Genomics – Predictive Biomarkers and Personalized Medicine –                                                       Part 1 (pharmaceuticalintelligence.com)

Aviva  Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalntelligence.com/2013/01/13/paradigm-shift-in-human-genomics-predictive-biomarkers-and-personalized-medicine-part-1/

34. LEADERS in Genome Sequencing of Genetic Mutations for Therapeutic Drug Selection in Cancer                                         Personalized Treatment: Part 2

A Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/13/leaders-in-genome-sequencing-of-genetic-mutations-for-therapeutic-       drug-selection-in-cancer-personalized-treatment-part-2/

35. Personalized Medicine: An Institute Profile – Coriell Institute for Medical Research: Part 3

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/13/personalized-medicine-an-institute-profile-coriell-institute-for-medical-        research-part-3/

36. Harnessing Personalized Medicine for Cancer Management, Prospects of Prevention and Cure: Opinions of                           Cancer Scientific Leaders @http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/13/7000/Harnessing_Personalized_Medicine_for_ Cancer_Management-      Prospects_of_Prevention_and_Cure/

37.  GSK for Personalized Medicine using Cancer Drugs needs Alacris systems biology model to determine the in silico
effect of the inhibitor in its “virtual clinical trial”

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/14/gsk-for-personalized-medicine-using-cancer-drugs-needs-alacris-             systems-biology-model-to-determine-the-in-silico-effect-of-the-inhibitor-in-its-virtual-clinical-trial/

38. Personalized medicine-based cure for cancer might not be far away

Ritu Saxena, PhD

  http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/20/personalized-medicine-based-cure-for-cancer-might-not-be-far-away/

39. Human Variome Project: encyclopedic catalog of sequence variants indexed to the human genome sequence

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/24/human-variome-project-encyclopedic-catalog-of-sequence-variants-         indexed-to-the-human-genome-sequence/

40. Inspiration From Dr. Maureen Cronin’s Achievements in Applying Genomic Sequencing to Cancer Diagnostics

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/10/inspiration-from-dr-maureen-cronins-achievements-in-applying-                genomic-sequencing-to-cancer-diagnostics/

41. The “Cancer establishments” examined by James Watson, co-discoverer of DNA w/Crick, 4/1953

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/09/the-cancer-establishments-examined-by-james-watson-co-discover-         of-dna-wcrick-41953/

42. What can we expect of tumor therapeutic response?

Author and curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/05/what-can-we-expect-of-tumor-therapeutic-response/

43. Directions for genomics in personalized medicine

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/27/directions-for-genomics-in-personalized-medicine/

44. How mobile elements in “Junk” DNA promote cancer. Part 1: Transposon-mediated tumorigenesis.

Stephen J Williams, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/31/how-mobile-elements-in-junk-dna-prote-cancer-part1-transposon-            mediated-tumorigenesis/

45. mRNA interference with cancer expression

Author and Curator, Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

 http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/26/mrna-interference-with-cancer-expression/

46. Expanding the Genetic Alphabet and linking the genome to the metabolome

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/24/expanding-the-genetic-alphabet-and-linking-the-genome-to-the-               metabolome/

47. Breast Cancer, drug resistance, and biopharmaceutical targets

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/18/breast-cancer-drug-resistance-and-biopharmaceutical-targets/

48.  Breast Cancer: Genomic profiling to predict Survival: Combination of Histopathology and Gene Expression                            Analysis

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/24/breast-cancer-genomic-profiling-to-predict-survival-combination-of-           histopathology-and-gene-expression-analysis

49. Gastric Cancer: Whole-genome reconstruction and mutational signatures

Aviva  Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/24/gastric-cancer-whole-genome-reconstruction-and-mutational-                   signatures-2/

50. Genomic Analysis: FLUIDIGM Technology in the Life Science and Agricultural Biotechnology

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/22/genomic-analysis-fluidigm-technology-in-the-life-science-and-                   agricultural-biotechnology/

51. 2013 Genomics: The Era Beyond the Sequencing Human Genome: Francis Collins, Craig Venter, Eric Lander, et al.

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013_Genomics

52. Paradigm Shift in Human Genomics – Predictive Biomarkers and Personalized Medicine – Part 1

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/Paradigm Shift in Human Genomics_/

Signaling Pathways

  1. Proteins and cellular adaptation to stress

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/08/proteins-and-cellular-adaptation-to-stress/

  1. A Synthesis of the Beauty and Complexity of How We View Cancer:
    Cancer Volume One – Summary

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/03/26/a-synthesis-of-the-beauty-and-complexity-of-how-we-view-cancer/

  1. Recurrent somatic mutations in chromatin-remodeling and ubiquitin ligase complex genes in
    serous endometrial tumors

Sudipta Saha, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/19/recurrent-somatic-mutations-in-chromatin-remodeling-ad-ubiquitin-           ligase-complex-genes-in-serous-endometrial-tumors/

4.  Prostate Cancer Cells: Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors Induce Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition

Stephen J Williams, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/30/histone-deacetylase-inhibitors-induce-epithelial-to-mesenchymal-              transition-in-prostate-cancer-cells/

5. Ubiquinin-Proteosome pathway, autophagy, the mitochondrion, proteolysis and cell apoptosis

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/30/ubiquinin-proteosome-pathway-autophagy-the-mitochondrion-                   proteolysis-and-cell-apoptosis/

6. Signaling and Signaling Pathways

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/12/signaling-and-signaling-pathways/

7.  Leptin signaling in mediating the cardiac hypertrophy associated with obesity

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/03/leptin-signaling-in-mediating-the-cardiac-hypertrophy-associated-            with-obesity/

  1. Sensors and Signaling in Oxidative Stress

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/01/sensors-and-signaling-in-oxidative-stress/

  1. The Final Considerations of the Role of Platelets and Platelet Endothelial Reactions in Atherosclerosis and Novel
    Treatments

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/10/15/the-final-considerations-of-the-role-of-platelets-and-platelet-                      endothelial-reactions-in-atherosclerosis-and-novel-treatments

10.   Platelets in Translational Research – Part 1

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/10/07/platelets-in-translational-research-1/

11.  Disruption of Calcium Homeostasis: Cardiomyocytes and Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells: The Cardiac and
Cardiovascular Calcium Signaling Mechanism

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author, and Content Consultant to e-SERIES A:
Cardiovascular Diseases: Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC and Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/09/12/disruption-of-calcium-homeostasis-cardiomyocytes-and-vascular-             smooth-muscle-cells-the-cardiac-and-cardiovascular-calcium-signaling-mechanism/

12. The Centrality of Ca(2+) Signaling and Cytoskeleton Involving Calmodulin Kinases and
Ryanodine Receptors in Cardiac Failure, Arterial Smooth Muscle, Post-ischemic Arrhythmia,
Similarities and Differences, and Pharmaceutical Targets

     Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author, and Content Consultant to
e-SERIES A: Cardiovascular Diseases: Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC and
Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/09/08/the-centrality-of-ca2-signaling-and-cytoskeleton-involving-calmodulin-       kinases-and-ryanodine-receptors-in-cardiac-failure-arterial-smooth-muscle-post-ischemic-arrhythmia-similarities-and-           differen/

13.  Nitric Oxide Signalling Pathways

Aviral Vatsa, PhD, MBBS

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/22/nitric-oxide-signalling-pathways/

14. Immune activation, immunity, antibacterial activity

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/06/immune-activation-immunity-antibacterial-activity/

15.  Regulation of somatic stem cell Function

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Writer and Curator    Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/29/regulation-of-somatic-stem-cell-function/

16. Scientists discover that pluripotency factor NANOG is also active in adult organisms

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/10/scientists-discover-that-pluripotency-factor-nanog-is-also-active-in-adult-organisms/

Read Full Post »

Compilation of References in Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence about proteomics, metabolomics, signaling pathways, and cell regulation

Compilation of References in Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence about
proteomics, metabolomics, signaling pathways, and cell regulation

Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

 

Proteomics

  1. The Human Proteome Map Completed
    Reporter and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/28/the-human-proteome-map-completed/
  1. Proteomics – The Pathway to Understanding and Decision-making in Medicine
    Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/24/proteomics-the-pathway-to-understanding-and-decision-making-in-medicine/
  1. Advances in Separations Technology for the “OMICs” and Clarification of Therapeutic Targets
    Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/22/advances-in-separations-technology-for-the-omics-and-clarification-of-therapeutic-targets/
  1. Expanding the Genetic Alphabet and Linking the Genome to the Metabolome
    Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/24/expanding-the-genetic-alphabet-and-linking-the-genome-to-the-metabolome/
  1. Synthesizing Synthetic Biology: PLOS Collections
    Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/17/synthesizing-synthetic-biology-plos-collections/

 

Metabolomics

  1. Extracellular evaluation of intracellular flux in yeast cells
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/25/extracellular-evaluation-of-intracellular-flux-in-yeast-cells/ 
  2. Metabolomic analysis of two leukemia cell lines. I.
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/23/metabolomic-analysis-of-two-leukemia-cell-lines-_i/ 
  3. Metabolomic analysis of two leukemia cell lines. II.
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/24/metabolomic-analysis-of-two-leukemia-cell-lines-ii/ 
  4. Metabolomics, Metabonomics and Functional Nutrition: the next step in nutritional metabolism and biotherapeutics
    Reviewer and Curator, Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/22/metabolomics-metabonomics-and-functional-nutrition-the-next-step-in-nutritional-metabolism-and-biotherapeutics/ 
  5. Buffering of genetic modules involved in tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolism provides homeomeostatic regulation
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/27/buffering-of-genetic-modules-involved-in-tricarboxylic-acid-cycle-metabolism-provides-homeomeostatic-regulation/

 

Metabolic Pathways

  1. Pentose Shunt, Electron Transfer, Galactose, more Lipids in brief
    Reviewer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/21/pentose-shunt-electron-transfer-galactose-more-lipids-in-brief/
  2. Mitochondria: More than just the “powerhouse of the cell”
    Reviewer and Curator: Ritu Saxena
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/07/09/mitochondria-more-than-just-the-powerhouse-of-the-cell/
  3. Mitochondrial fission and fusion: potential therapeutic targets?
    Reviewer and Curator: Ritu saxena
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/31/mitochondrial-fission-and-fusion-potential-therapeutic-target/ 
  4. Mitochondrial mutation analysis might be “1-step” away
    Reviewer and Curator: Ritu Saxena
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/14/mitochondrial-mutation-analysis-might-be-1-step-away/
  5. Selected References to Signaling and Metabolic Pathways in PharmaceuticalIntelligence.com
    Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/14/selected-references-to-signaling-and-metabolic-pathways-in-leaders-in-pharmaceutical-intelligence/
  6. Metabolic drivers in aggressive brain tumors
    Prabodh Kandal, PhD
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/11/metabolic-drivers-in-aggressive-brain-tumors/ 
  7. Metabolite Identification Combining Genetic and Metabolic Information: Genetic association links unknown metabolites to functionally related genes
    Author and Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/22/metabolite-identification-combining-genetic-and-metabolic-information-genetic-association-links-unknown-metabolites-to-functionally-related-genes/
  8. Mitochondria: Origin from oxygen free environment, role in aerobic glycolysis, metabolic adaptation
    Author and curator:Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/26/mitochondria-origin-from-oxygen-free-environment-role-in-aerobic-glycolysis-metabolic-adaptation/
  9. Therapeutic Targets for Diabetes and Related Metabolic Disorders
    Reporter, Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/20/therapeutic-targets-for-diabetes-and-related-metabolic-disorders/
  10. Buffering of genetic modules involved in tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolism provides homeomeostatic regulation
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/27/buffering-of-genetic-modules-involved-in-tricarboxylic-acid-cycle-metabolism-provides-homeomeostatic-regulation/
  11. The multi-step transfer of phosphate bond and hydrogen exchange energy
    Curator:Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP,
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/19/the-multi-step-transfer-of-phosphate-bond-and-hydrogen-exchange-energy/
  12. Studies of Respiration Lead to Acetyl CoA
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/18/studies-of-respiration-lead-to-acetyl-coa/
  13. Lipid Metabolism
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/15/lipid-metabolism/
  14. Carbohydrate Metabolism
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/13/carbohydrate-metabolism/
  15. Prologue to Cancer – e-book Volume One – Where are we in this journey?
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/04/13/prologue-to-cancer-ebook-4-where-are-we-in-this-journey/
  16. Introduction – The Evolution of Cancer Therapy and Cancer Research: How We Got Here?
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/04/04/introduction-the-evolution-of-cancer-therapy-and-cancer-research-how-we-got-here/
  17. Inhibition of the Cardiomyocyte-Specific Kinase TNNI3K
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/01/inhibition-of-the-cardiomyocyte-specific-kinase-tnni3k/
  18. The Binding of Oligonucleotides in DNA and 3-D Lattice Structures
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/15/the-binding-of-oligonucleotides-in-dna-and-3-d-lattice-structures/
  19. Mitochondrial Metabolism and Cardiac Function
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/14/mitochondrial-metabolism-and-cardiac-function/
  20. How Methionine Imbalance with Sulfur-Insufficiency Leads to Hyperhomocysteinemia
    Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/04/sulfur-deficiency-leads_to_hyperhomocysteinemia/
  21. AMPK Is a Negative Regulator of the Warburg Effect and Suppresses Tumor Growth In Vivo
    Author and Curator: SJ. Williams
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/12/ampk-is-a-negative-regulator-of-the-warburg-effect-and-suppresses-tumor-growth-in-vivo/
  22. A Second Look at the Transthyretin Nutrition Inflammatory Conundrum
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/03/a-second-look-at-the-transthyretin-nutrition-inflammatory-conundrum/
  23. Overview of Posttranslational Modification (PTM)
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/29/overview-of-posttranslational-modification-ptm/
  24. Malnutrition in India, high newborn death rate and stunting of children age under five years
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/15/malnutrition-in-india-high-newborn-death-rate-and-stunting-of-children-age-under-five-years/
  25. Update on mitochondrial function, respiration, and associated disorders
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/08/update-on-mitochondrial-function-respiration-and-associated-disorders/
  26. Omega-3 fatty acids, depleting the source, and protein insufficiency in renal disease
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/06/omega-3-fatty-acids-depleting-the-source-and-protein-insufficiency-in-renal-disease/ 
  27. Late Onset of Alzheimer’s Disease and One-carbon Metabolism
    Reporter and Curator: Dr. Sudipta Saha, Ph.D.
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/06/alzheimers-disease-and-one-carbon-metabolism/
  28. Problems of vegetarianism
    Reporter and Curator: Dr. Sudipta Saha, Ph.D.
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/22/problems-of-vegetarianism/

 

Signaling Pathways

  1. Introduction to e-Series A: Cardiovascular Diseases, Volume Four Part 2: Regenerative Medicine
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, writer, and Aviva Lev- Ari, PhD, RN  http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/04/27/larryhbernintroduction_to_cardiovascular_diseases-translational_medicine-part_2/
  2. Epilogue: Envisioning New Insights in Cancer Translational Biology
    Series C: e-Books on Cancer & Oncology
    Author & Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Series C Content Consultant
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/03/29/epilogue-envisioning-new-insights/
  3. Ca2+-Stimulated Exocytosis:  The Role of Calmodulin and Protein Kinase C in Ca2+ Regulation of Hormone and Neurotransmitter  Writer and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Curator and Content Editor: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/23/calmodulin-and-protein-kinase-c-drive-the-ca2-regulation-of-hormone-and-neurotransmitter-release-that-triggers-ca2-stimulated-exocy
  4. Cardiac Contractility & Myocardial Performance: Therapeutic Implications of Ryanopathy (Calcium Release-related Contractile Dysfunction) and Catecholamine Responses
    Author, and Content Consultant to e-SERIES A: Cardiovascular Diseases: Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC
    Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Article Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/28/cardiac-contractility-myocardium-performance-ventricular-arrhythmias-and-non-ischemic-heart-failure-therapeutic-implications-for-cardiomyocyte-ryanopathy-calcium-release-related-contractile/
  5. Role of Calcium, the Actin Skeleton, and Lipid Structures in Signaling and Cell Motility
    Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP Author: Stephen Williams, PhD, and Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/26/role-of-calcium-the-actin-skeleton-and-lipid-structures-in-signaling-and-cell-motility/
  6. Identification of Biomarkers that are Related to the Actin Cytoskeleton
    Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/10/identification-of-biomarkers-that-are-related-to-the-actin-cytoskeleton/
  7. Advanced Topics in Sepsis and the Cardiovascular System at its End Stage
    Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/18/advanced-topics-in-Sepsis-and-the-Cardiovascular-System-at-its-End-Stage/
  8. The Delicate Connection: IDO (Indolamine 2, 3 dehydrogenase) and Cancer Immunology
    Demet Sag, PhD, Author and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/04/the-delicate-connection-ido-indolamine-2-3-dehydrogenase-and-immunology/
  9. IDO for Commitment of a Life Time: The Origins and Mechanisms of IDO, indolamine 2, 3-dioxygenase
    Demet Sag, PhD, Author and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/04/ido-for-commitment-of-a-life-time-the-origins-and-mechanisms-of-ido-indolamine-2-3-dioxygenase/
  10. Confined Indolamine 2, 3 dioxygenase (IDO) Controls the Homeostasis of Immune Responses for Good and Bad
    Author and Curator: Demet Sag, PhD, CRA, GCP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/31/confined-indolamine-2-3-dehydrogenase-controls-the-hemostasis-of-immune-responses-for-good-and-bad/
  11. Signaling Pathway that Makes Young Neurons Connect was discovered @ Scripps Research Institute
    Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/06/26/signaling-pathway-that-makes-young-neurons-connect-was-discovered-scripps-research-institute/
  12. Naked Mole Rats Cancer-Free
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/06/20/naked-mole-rats-cancer-free/
  13. Amyloidosis with Cardiomyopathy
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/31/amyloidosis-with-cardiomyopathy/
  14. Liver endoplasmic reticulum stress and hepatosteatosis
    Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/10/liver-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-hepatosteatosis/
  15. The Molecular Biology of Renal Disorders: Nitric Oxide – Part III
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/the-molecular-biology-of-renal-disorders/
  16. Nitric Oxide Function in Coagulation – Part II
    Curator and Author: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/nitric-oxide-function-in-coagulation/
  17. Nitric Oxide, Platelets, Endothelium and Hemostasis
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/08/nitric-oxide-platelets-endothelium-and-hemostasis/
  18. Interaction of Nitric Oxide and Prostacyclin in Vascular Endothelium
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/14/interaction-of-nitric-oxide-and-prostacyclin-in-vascular-endothelium/
  19. Nitric Oxide and Immune Responses: Part 1
    Curator and Author:  Aviral Vatsa PhD, MBBS
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/18/nitric-oxide-and-immune-responses-part-1/
  20. Nitric Oxide and Immune Responses: Part 2
    Curator and Author:  Aviral Vatsa PhD, MBBS
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/nitric-oxide-and-immune-responses-part-2/
  21. Nitric Oxide and iNOS have Key Roles in Kidney Diseases – Part II
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/nitric-oxide-and-inos-have-key-roles-in-kidney-diseases/
  22. New Insights on Nitric Oxide donors – Part IV
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/new-insights-on-no-donors/
  23. Crucial role of Nitric Oxide in Cancer
    Curator and Author: Ritu Saxena, Ph.D.
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/16/crucial-role-of-nitric-oxide-in-cancer/
  24. Nitric Oxide has a ubiquitous role in the regulation of glycolysis -with a concomitant influence on mitochondrial function
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/16/nitric-oxide-has-a-ubiquitous-role-in-the-regulation-of-glycolysis-with-a-concomitant-influence-on-mitochondrial-function/
  25. Nitric Oxide and Immune Responses: Part 2
    Author and Curator: Aviral Vatsa, PhD, MBBS
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/nitric-oxide-and-immune-responses-part-2/
  26. Mitochondrial Damage and Repair under Oxidative Stress
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/mitochondrial-damage-and-repair-under-oxidative-stress/
  27. Is the Warburg Effect the cause or the effect of cancer: A 21st Century View?
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/17/is-the-warburg-effect-the-cause-or-the-effect-of-cancer-a-21st-century-view/
  28. Targeting Mitochondrial-bound Hexokinase for Cancer Therapy
    Curator and Author: Ziv Raviv, PhD, RN 04/06/2013
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/06/targeting-mitochondrial-bound-hexokinase-for-cancer-therapy/
  29. Ubiquinin-Proteosome pathway, autophagy, the mitochondrion, proteolysis and cell apoptosis
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/30/ubiquinin-proteosome-pathway-autophagy-the-mitochondrion-proteolysis-and-cell-apoptosis/
  30. Ubiquitin-Proteosome pathway, Autophagy, the Mitochondrion, Proteolysis and Cell Apoptosis: Part III
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/02/14/ubiquinin-proteosome-pathway-autophagy-the-mitochondrion-proteolysis-and-cell-apoptosis-reconsidered/
  31. Biochemistry of the Coagulation Cascade and Platelet Aggregation – Part I
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/biochemistry-of-the-coagulation-cascade-and-platelet-aggregation/

 

Genomics, Transcriptomics, and Epigenetics

  1. What is the meaning of so many RNAs?
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/06/what-is-the-meaning-of-so-many-rnas/
  2. RNA and the transcription the genetic code
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Writer and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/02/rna-and-the-transcription-of-the-genetic-code/
  3. A Primer on DNA and DNA Replication
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/29/a_primer_on_dna_and_dna_replication/
  4. Pathology Emergence in the 21st Century
    Author and Curator: Larry Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/03/pathology-emergence-in-the-21st-century/
  5. RNA and the transcription the genetic code
    Writer and Curator, Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/02/rna-and-the-transcription-of-the-genetic-code/
  6. Commentary on Biomarkers for Genetics and Genomics of Cardiovascular Disease: Views by Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/16/commentary-on-biomarkers-for-genetics-and-genomics-of-cardiovascular-disease-views-by-larry-h-bernstein-md-fcap/
  7. Observations on Finding the Genetic Links in Common Disease: Whole Genomic Sequencing Studies
    Author an Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/18/observations-on-finding-the-genetic-links/
  8. Silencing Cancers with Synthetic siRNAs
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/09/silencing-cancers-with-synthetic-sirnas/
  9. Cardiometabolic Syndrome and the Genetics of Hypertension: The Neuroendocrine Transcriptome Control Points
    Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/12/cardiometabolic-syndrome-and-the-genetics-of-hypertension-the-neuroendocrine-transcriptome-control-points/
  10. Developments in the Genomics and Proteomics of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Treatment Targets
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/08/developments-in-the-genomics-and-proteomics-of-type-2-diabetes-mellitus-and-treatment-targets/
  11. CT Angiography & TrueVision™ Metabolomics (Genomic Phenotyping) for new Therapeutic Targets to Atherosclerosis
    Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/15/ct-angiography-truevision-metabolomics-genomic-phenotyping-for-new-therapeutic-targets-to-atherosclerosis/
  12. CRACKING THE CODE OF HUMAN LIFE: The Birth of BioInformatics & Computational Genomics
    Genomics Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/30/cracking-the-code-of-human-life-the-birth-of-bioinformatics-computational-genomics/
  13. Big Data in Genomic Medicine
    Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/17/big-data-in-genomic-medicine/
  14.  From Genomics of Microorganisms to Translational Medicine
    Author and Curator: Demet Sag, PhD
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/03/20/without-the-past-no-future-but-learn-and-move-genomics-of-microorganisms-to-translational-medicine/
  15.  Summary of Genomics and Medicine: Role in Cardiovascular Diseases
    Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/01/06/summary-of-genomics-and-medicine-role-in-cardiovascular-diseases/

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Extracellular evaluation of intracellular flux in yeast cells

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator

Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence

This is the fourth article in a series on metabolomics, which is a major development in -omics, integrating transcriptomics, proteomics,  genomics, metabolic pathways analysis, metabolic and genomic regulatory control using computational mapping.  In the previous two part presentation, flux analysis was not a topic for evaluation, but here it is the major focus.  It is a study of yeast cells, and bears some relationship to the comparison of glycemia, oxidative phosphorylation, TCA cycle, and ETC in leukemia cell lines.  In the previous study – system flux was beyond the scope of analysis, and explicitly stated.  The inferences made in comparing the two lymphocytic leukemia cells was of intracellular metabolism from extracellular measurements.  The study of yeast cells is aimed at looking at cellular effluxes, which is also an important method for studying pharmacological effects and drug resistance.

Metabolomic series

1.  Metabolomics, Metabonomics and Functional Nutrition: the next step in nutritional metabolism and biotherapeutics

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/22/metabolomics-metabonomics-and-functional-nutrition-the-next-step-in-nutritional-metabolism-and-biotherapeutics/

2.  Metabolomic analysis of two leukemia cell lines. I

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/23/metabolomic-analysis-of-two-leukemia-cell-lines-_i/

3.  Metabolomic analysis of two leukemia cell lines. II.

 http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/24/metabolomic-analysis-of-two-leukemia-cell-lines-ii/

4.  Extracellular evaluation of intracellular flux in yeast cells

Q1. What is efflux?

Q2. What measurements were excluded from the previous study that would not allow inference about fluxes?

Q3. Would this study bear any relationship to the Pasteur effect?

Q4 What is a genome scale network reconstruction?

Q5 What type of information is required for a network prediction model?

Q6. Is there a difference between the metabolites profiles for yeast grown under aerobic and anaerobuc conditions – under the constrainsts?

Q7.  If there is a difference in the S metabolism, would there be an effect on ATP production?

 

 

Connecting extracellular metabolomic measurements to intracellular flux
states in yeast

Monica L Mo1Bernhard Ø Palsson1 and Markus J Herrgård12*

Author Affiliations

1 Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA

2 Current address: Synthetic Genomics, Inc, 11149 N Torrey Pines Rd, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA

For all author emails, please log on.

BMC Systems Biology 2009, 3:37  doi:10.1186/1752-0509-3-37

 

The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1752-0509/3/37

 

Received: 15 December 2008
Accepted: 25 March 2009
Published: 25 March 2009

© 2009 Mo et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

Background

Metabolomics has emerged as a powerful tool in the

  • quantitative identification of physiological and disease-induced biological states.

Extracellular metabolome or metabolic profiling data, in particular,

  • can provide an insightful view of intracellular physiological states in a noninvasive manner.

Results

We used an updated genome-scale

  • metabolic network model of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, iMM904, to investigate
  1. how changes in the extracellular metabolome can be used
  2. to study systemic changes in intracellular metabolic states.

The iMM904 metabolic network was reconstructed based on

  • an existing genome-scale network, iND750,
  • and includes 904 genes and 1,412 reactions.

The network model was first validated by

  • comparing 2,888 in silico single-gene deletion strain growth phenotype predictions
  • to published experimental data.

Extracellular metabolome data measured

  • of ammonium assimilation pathways 
  • in response to environmental and genetic perturbations

was then integrated with the iMM904 network

  • in the form of relative overflow secretion constraints and
  • a flux sampling approach was used to characterize candidate flux distributions allowed by these constraints.

Predicted intracellular flux changes were

  • consistent with published measurements
  • on intracellular metabolite levels and fluxes.

Patterns of predicted intracellular flux changes

  • could also be used to correctly identify the regions of
  • the metabolic network that were perturbed.

Conclusion

Our results indicate that

  • integrating quantitative extracellular metabolomic profiles
  • in a constraint-based framework
  • enables inferring changes in intracellular metabolic flux states.

Similar methods could potentially be applied

  • towards analyzing biofluid metabolome variations
  • related to human physiological and disease states.

Background

“Omics” technologies are rapidly generating high amounts of data

  • at varying levels of biological detail.

In addition, there is a rapidly growing literature and

  • accompanying databases that compile this information.

This has provided the basis for the assembly of

  • genome-scale metabolic networks for various microbial and eukaryotic organisms [111].

These network reconstructions serve

  • as manually curated knowledge bases of
  • biological information as well as
  • mathematical representations of biochemical components and
  • interactions specific to each organism.

genome-scale network reconstruction is

  • structured collection of genes, proteins, biochemical reactions, and metabolites
  • determined to exist and operate within a particular organism.

This network can be converted into a predictive model

  • that enables in silico simulations of allowable network states based on
  • governing physico-chemical and genetic constraints [12,13].

A wide range of constraint-based methods have been developed and applied

  • to analyze network metabolic capabilities under
  • different environmental and genetic conditions [13].

These methods have been extensively used to

  • study genome-scale metabolic networks and have successfully predicted, for example,
  1. optimal metabolic states,
  2. gene deletion lethality, and
  3. adaptive evolutionary endpoints [1416].

Most of these applications utilize

  • optimization-based methods such as flux balance analysis (FBA)
  • to explore the metabolic flux space.

However, the behavior of genome-scale metabolic networks can also be studied

  • using unbiased approaches such as
  • uniform random sampling of steady-state flux distributions [17].

Instead of identifying a single optimal flux distribution based on

  • a given optimization criterion (e.g. biomass production),

these methods allow statistical analysis of

  • a large range of possible alternative flux solutions determined by
  • constraints imposed on the network.

Sampling methods have been previously used to study

  1. global organization of E. coli metabolism [18] as well as
  2. to identify candidate disease states in the cardiomyocyte mitochondria [19].

Network reconstructions provide a structured framework

  • to systematically integrate and analyze disparate datasets
  • including transcriptomic, proteomic, metabolomic, and fluxomic data.

Metabolomic data is one of the more relevant data types for this type of analysis as

  1. network reconstructions define the biochemical links between metabolites, and
  2. recent advancements in analytical technologies have allowed increasingly comprehensive
  • intracellular and extracellular metabolite level measurements [20,21].

The metabolome is

  1. the set of metabolites present under a given physiological condition
  2. at a particular time and is the culminating phenotype resulting from
  • various “upstream” control mechanisms of metabolic processes.

Of particular interest to this present study are

  • the quantitative profiles of metabolites that are secreted into the extracellular environment
  • by cells under different conditions.

Recent advances in profiling the extracellular metabolome (EM) have allowed

  • obtaining insightful biological information on cellular metabolism
  • without disrupting the cell itself.

This information can be obtained through various

  • analytical detection,
  • identification, and
  • quantization techniques

for a variety of systems ranging from

  • unicellular model organisms to human biofluids [2023].

Metabolite secretion by a cell reflects its internal metabolic state, and

  • its composition varies in response to
  • genetic or experimental perturbations
  • due to changes in intracellular pathway activities
  • involved in the production and utilization of extracellular metabolites [21].

Variations in metabolic fluxes can be reflected in EM changes which can

  • provide insight into the intracellular pathway activities related to metabolite secretion.

The extracellular metabolomic approach has already shown promise

  • in a variety of applications, including
  1. capturing detailed metabolite biomarker variations related to disease and
  2. drug-induced states and
  3. characterizing gene functions in yeast [2427].

However, interpreting changes in the extracellular metabolome can be challenging

  • due to the indirect relationship between the proximal cause of the change
    (e.g. a mutation)
  • and metabolite secretion.

Since metabolic networks describe

  • mechanistic,
  • biochemical links between metabolites,

integrating such data can allow a systematic approach

  • to identifying altered pathways linked to
  • quantitative changes in secretion profiles.

Measured secretion rates of major byproduct metabolites

  • can be applied as additional exchange flux constraints
  • that define observed metabolic behavior.

For example, a recent study integrating small-scale EM data

  • with a genome-scale yeast model
  • correctly predicted oxygen consumption and ethanol production capacities
  • in mutant strains with respiratory deficiencies [28].

The respiratory deficient mutant study

  • used high accuracy measurements for a small number of
  • major byproduct secretion rates
  • together with an optimization-based method well suited for such data.

Here, we expand the application range of the model-based method used in [28]

  • to extracellular metabolome profiles,
  • which represent a temporal snapshot of the relative abundance
  • for a larger number of secreted metabolites.

Our approach is complementary to

  • statistical (i.e. “top-down”) approaches to metabolome analysis [29]
  • and can potentially be used in applications such as biofluid-based diagnostics or
  • large-scale characterization of mutants strains using metabolite profiles.

This study implements a constraint-based sampling approach on

  • an updated genome-scale network of yeast metabolism
  • to systematically determine how EM level variations

are linked to global changes in intracellular metabolic flux states.

By using a sampling-based network approach and statistical methods (Figure 1),

  • EM changes were linked to systemic intracellular flux perturbations
    in an unbiased manner
  • without relying on defining single optimal flux distributions
  • used in the previously mentioned study [28].

The inferred perturbations in intracellular reaction fluxes were further analyzed

  • using reporter metabolite and subsystem (i.e., metabolic pathway) approaches [30]
  • in order to identify dominant metabolic features that are collectively perturbed (Figure 2).

The sampling-based approach also has the additional benefit of

  • being less sensitive to inaccuracies in metabolite secretion profiles than
  • optimization-based methods and can effectively be used – in biofluid metabolome analysis.
integration of exometabolomic (EM) data

integration of exometabolomic (EM) data

Figure 1. Schematic illustrating the integration of exometabolomic (EM) data with the constraint-based framework.

(A) Cells are subjected to genetic and/or environmental perturbations to secrete metabolite patterns unique to that condition.
(B) EM is detected, identified, and quantified.
(C) EM data is integrated as required secretion flux constraints to define allowable solution space.
(D) Random sampling of solution space yields the range of feasible flux distributions for intracellular reactions.
(E) Sampled fluxes were compared to sampled fluxes of another condition to determine

  • which metabolic regions were altered between the two conditions (see Figure 2).

(F) Significantly altered metabolic regions were identified.

http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/figures/1752-0509-3-37-1.jpg

 

sampling and scoring analysis to determine intracellular flux changes

sampling and scoring analysis to determine intracellular flux changes

Figure 2. Schematic of sampling and scoring analysis to determine intracellular flux changes.

(A) Reaction fluxes are sampled for two conditions.
(B & C) Sample of flux differences is calculated by selecting random flux values from each condition

  • to obtain a distribution of flux differences for each reaction.

(D) Standardized reaction Z-scores are determined, which represent

  • how far the sampled flux differences deviates from a zero flux change.

Reaction scores can be used in

  1. visualizing perturbation subnetworks and
  2. analyzing reporter metabolites and subsystems.

http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/figures/1752-0509-3-37-2.jpg

This study was divided into two parts and describes:

(i) the reconstruction and validation of an expanded S. cerevisiae metabolic network, iMM904; and
(ii) the systematic inference of intracellular metabolic states from

  • two yeast EM data sets using a constraint-based sampling approach.

The first EM data set compares wild type yeast to the gdh1/GDH2 (glutamate dehydrogenase) strain [31],

  • which indicated good agreement between predicted metabolic changes
  • of intracellular metabolite levels and fluxes [31,32].

The second EM data set focused on secreted amino acid measurements

  • from a separate study of yeast cultured in different
    ammonium and potassium concentrations [33].

We analyzed the EM data to gain further insight into

  • perturbed ammonium assimilation processes as well as
  1. metabolic states relating potassium limitation and
  2. ammonium excess conditions to one another.

The model-based analysis of both

  • separately published extracellular metabolome datasets
  • suggests a relationship between
  1. glutamate,
  2. threonine and
  3. folate metabolism,
  • which are collectively perturbed when
    ammonium assimilation processes are broadly disrupted
  1. either by environmental (excess ammonia) or
  2. genetic (gene deletion/overexpression) perturbations.

The methods herein present an approach to

  • interpreting extracellular metabolome data and
  • associating these measured secreted metabolite variations
  • to changes in intracellular metabolic network states.

Additional file 1. iMM904 network content.

The data provided represent the content description of the iMM904 metabolic network and
detailed information on the expanded content.

Format: XLS Size: 2.7MB Download file

This file can be viewed with: Microsoft Excel Viewer

Additional file 2. iMM904 model files.

The data provided are the model text files of the iMM904 metabolic network
that is compatible with the available COBRA Toolbox [13]. The model structure
can be loaded into Matlab using the ‘SimPhenyPlus’ format with GPR and compound information.

Format: ZIP Size: 163KB Download file

Conversion of the network to a predictive model

The network reconstruction was converted to a constraint-based model using established procedures [13].

Network reactions and metabolites were assembled into a stoichiometric matrix 

  • containing the stoichiometric coefficients of the reactions in the network.

The steady-state solution space containing possible flux distributions

  • is determined by calculating the null space of S= 0,

where is the reaction flux vector.

Minimal media conditions were set through constraints on exchange fluxes

  • corresponding to the experimental measured substrate uptake rates.

All the model-based calculations were done using the Matlab COBRA Toolbox [13]

  • utilizing the glpk or Tomlab/CPLEX (Tomopt, Inc.) optimization solvers.

Chemostat growth simulations

The iMM904 model was initially validated by

  1. simulating wild type yeast growth in aerobic and anaerobic
    carbon-limited chemostat conditions
  2. and comparing the simulation results to published experimental data

on substrate uptake and byproduct secretion in these conditions [34].

The study was performed following the approach taken to validate the iFF708 model in a previous study [35].

The predicted glucose uptake rates were determined

  1. by setting the in silico growth rate to the measured dilution rate,
    – equivalent under continuous culture growth,
  2. and minimizing the glucose uptake rate.

The accuracy of in silico predictions of

  • substrate uptake and byproduct secretion by the iMM904 model
  • was similar to the accuracy obtained using the iFF708 model
  • and results are shown in Figure S1 [see Additional file 3].

Additional file 3. Supplemental figures. 

The file provides the supplemental figures and descriptions of S1, S2, S3, and S4.

Format: PDF Size: 513KB Download file

This file can be viewed with: Adobe Acrobat Reader

Genome-scale gene deletion phenotype predictions

The iMM904 network was further validated by

  • performing genome-scale gene lethality computations
  • following established procedures to determine growth phenotypes
  1. under minimal medium conditions and
  2. compared to published data.

A modified version of the biomass function used in previous iND750 studies

  1. was set as the objective to be maximized and
  2. gene deletions were simulated by

setting the flux through the corresponding reaction(s) to zero.

The biomass function was based on the experimentally measured

  1. composition of major cellular constituents
  2. during exponential growth of yeast cells and
  3. was reformulated to include trace amounts of
  4. additional cofactors and metabolites
  5. with the assumed fractional contribution of 10-.

These additional biomass compounds were included

according to the biomass formulation used in the iLL672 study

  • to improve lethality predictions through
  • the inclusion of additional essential biomass components [3].

The model was constrained by limiting

  1. the carbon source uptake to 10 mmol/h/gDW
  2. and oxygen uptake to 2 mmol/h/gDW.

Ammonia, phosphate, and sulfate were assumed to be non-limiting.

The experimental phenotyping data was obtained

  • using strains that were auxotrophic for
  1. methionine,
  2. leucine,
  3. histidine, and
  4. uracil.

These auxotrophies were simulated

  1. by deleting the appropriate genes from the model and
  2. supplementing the in silico strain with the appropriate supplements
  3. at non-limiting, but low levels.

Furthermore, trace amounts of essential nutrients that are present

  • in the experimental minimal media formulation
  1. 4-aminobenzoate,
  2. biotin,
  3. inositol,
  4. nicotinate,
  5. panthothenate,
  6. thiamin)
  • were supplied in the simulations [3].

Three distinct methods to simulate the outcome of gene deletions were utilized:

  1. Flux-balance analysis (FBA) [36-38],
  2. Minimization of Metabolic Adjustment (MoMA) [39], and
  3. a linear version of MoMA (linearMoMA).

In the linearMoMA method, minimization of the quadratic objective function
of the original MoMA algorithm

  • was replaced by minimization of the corresponding 1-norm objective function
    (i.e. sum of the absolute values of the differences of wild type FBA solution
    and the knockout strain flux solution).

The computed results were then compared to growth phenotype data
(viable/lethal) from a previously published experimental gene deletion study [3].

The comparison between experimental and in silico deletion phenotypes involved

  • choosing a threshold for the predicted relative growth rate of
  • a deletion strain that is considered to be viable.

We used standard ROC curve analysis

  • to assess the accuracy of different prediction methods and models
  • across the full range of the viability threshold parameter,
    results shown in Figure S2 [see Additional file 3].

The ROC curve plots the true viable rate against the false viable rate

  • allowing comparison of different models and methods
  • without requiring arbitrarily choosing this parameter a priori [40].

The optimal prediction performance corresponds to

  • the point closest to the top left corner of the ROC plot
    (i.e. 100% true viable rate, 0% false viable rate).

Table 1

Table 1 Comparison of iMM904 and iLL672 gene deletion predictions and experimental data under minimal media conditions
Media Model Method True viable False viable False lethal True lethal True viable % False viable % MCC
Glucose iMM904 full FBA 647 10 32 33 95.29 23.26 0.6
iMM904 full linMOMA 644 10 35 33 94.85 23.26 0.58
iMM904 full MOMA 644 10 35 33 94.85 23.26 0.58
iMM904 red FBA 440 9 28 33 94.02 21.43 0.61
iMM904 red linMOMA 437 9 31 33 93.38 21.43 0.6
iMM904 red MOMA 437 9 31 33 93.38 21.43 0.6
iLL672 full MOMA 433 9 35 33 92.52 21.43 0.57
Galactose iMM904 full FBA 595 32 36 59 94.29 35.16 0.58
iMM904 full linMOMA 595 32 36 59 94.29 35.16 0.58
iMM904 full MOMA 595 32 36 59 94.29 35.16 0.58
iMM904 red FBA 409 12 33 56 92.53 17.65 0.67
iMM904 red linMOMA 409 12 33 56 92.53 17.65 0.67
iMM904 red MOMA 409 12 33 56 92.53 17.65 0.67
iLL672 full MOMA 411 19 31 49 92.99 27.94 0.61
Glycerol iMM904 full FBA 596 43 36 47 94.3 47.78 0.48
iMM904 full linMOMA 595 44 37 46 94.15 48.89 0.47
iMM904 full MOMA 598 44 34 46 94.62 48.89 0.48
iMM904 red FBA 410 20 34 46 92.34 30.3 0.57
iMM904 red linMOMA 409 21 35 45 92.12 31.82 0.56
iMM904 red MOMA 412 21 32 45 92.79 31.82 0.57
iLL672 full MOMA 406 20 38 46 91.44 30.3 0.55
Ethanol iMM904 full FBA 593 45 29 55 95.34 45 0.54
iMM904 full linMOMA 592 45 30 55 95.18 45 0.54
iMM904 full MOMA 592 44 30 56 95.18 44 0.55
iMM904 red FBA 408 21 27 54 93.79 28 0.64
iMM904 red linMOMA 407 21 28 54 93.56 28 0.63
iMM904 red MOMA 407 20 28 55 93.56 26.67 0.64
iLL672 full MOMA 401 13 34 62 92.18 17.33 0.68
MCC, Matthews correlation coefficient (see Methods). Note that the iLL672 predictions were obtained directly from [3] and thus the viability threshold was not optimized using the maximum MCC approach.
Mo et al. BMC Systems Biology 2009 3:37  http://dx.doi.org:/10.1186/1752-0509-3-37

 

The values reported in Table 1 correspond to selecting

  • the optimal viability threshold based on this criterion.

We summarized the overall prediction accuracy of a model and method

  • using the Matthews Correlation Coefficient (MCC) [40].

The MCC ranges from -1 (all predictions incorrect) to +1 (all predictions correct) and

  • is suitable for summarizing overall prediction performance

in our case where there are substantially more viable than lethal gene deletions.

ROC plots were produced in Matlab (Mathworks, Inc.).

 

Table 1. Comparison of iMM904 and iLL672

  • gene deletion predictions and
  • experimental data

Inferring perturbed metabolic regions based on EM profiles

The method implemented in this study is shown schematically in Figures 1 and 2

Constraining the iMM904 network 

Relative levels of quantitative EM data were incorporated into the constraint-based framework

  • as overflow secretion exchange fluxes to simulate the required low-level production of
  • experimentally observed excreted metabolites.

The primary objective of this study is to associate

  • relative metabolite levels that are generally measured for metabonomic or biofluid analyses
  • to the quantitative ranges of intracellular reaction fluxes required to produce them.

However, without detailed kinetic information or dynamic metabolite measurements available,

  • we approximated EM datasets of relative quantitative metabolite levels
  • to be proportional to the rate in which they are secreted and detected
  • (at a steady state) – into the extracellular media.

This approach is analogous to approximating uptake rates based

  • on metabolite concentrations from a previous study performing sampling analysis
  • on a cardiomyocyte mitochondrial network
  • to identify differential flux distribution ranges

for various environmental (i.e. substrate uptake) conditions [19].

The raw data was normalized by the raw maximum value of the dataset
(thus the maximum secretion flux was 1 mmol/hr/gDW) with

  • an assumed error of 10%
  • to set the lower and upper bounds and thus
  • inherently accounting for sampling calculation sensitivity.

The gdh1/GDH2 strains were flask cultured under minimal glucose media conditions; thus,

  • glucose and oxygen uptake rates were set at 15 and 2 mmol/hr/gDW, respectively,
  • for the gdh1/GDH2 strain study.

In the anaerobic case the oxygen uptake rate was set to zero, and

  • sterols and fatty acids were provided as in silico supplements as described in [35].

For the potassium limitation/ammonium toxicity study

  • the growth rate was set at 0.17 1/h, and
  • the glucose uptake rate was minimized
  • to mimic experimental chemostat cultivation conditions.

These input constraints were constant for each perturbation and comparative wild-type condition

  • such that the calculated solution spaces between the conditions
  • differed based only on variations in the output secretion constraints.

FBA optimization of EM-constrained networks

A modified FBA method with minimization of the 1-norm objective function

  • between two optimal flux distributions was used
  • to determine optimal intracellular fluxes
  • based on the EM-constrained metabolic models.

This method determines two optimal flux distributions simultaneously

  • for two differently constrained models (e.g. wild type vs. mutant) –
  • these flux distributions maximize biomass production in each case and
  • the 1-norm distance between the distributions is as small as possible
  • given the two sets of constraints.

This approach avoids problems with

  • alternative optimal solutions when comparing two FBA-computed flux distributions
  • by assuming minimal rerouting of flux distibution between a perturbed network and its reference network.

Reaction flux changes from the FBA optimization results were determined

  • by computing the relative percentage fold change for each reaction
  • between the mutant and wild-type flux distributions.

Random sampling of the steady-state solution space

We utilized artificial centering hit-and-run (ACHR) Monte Carlo sampling [19,41]

  • to uniformly sample the metabolic flux solution space
  • defined by the constraints described above.

Reactions, and their participating metabolites, found to participate in intracellular loops [42]

  • were discarded from further analysis as these reactions can have arbitrary flux values.

The following sections describe the approaches used for the analysis of the different datasets.

Sampling approach used in the gdh1/GDH2 study

Due to the overall shape of the metabolic flux solution space,

  • most of the sampled flux distributions resided close to the minimally allowed growth rate
    (i.e. biomass production) and
  • corresponded to various futile cycles that utilized substrates but
  • did not produce significant biomass.

In order to study more physiologically relevant portions of the flux space

  • we restricted the sampling to the part of the solution space
  • where the growth rate was at least 50% of the maximum growth rate
  • for the condition as determined by FBA.

This assumes that cellular growth remains an important overall objective by the yeast cells

  • even in batch cultivation conditions, but
  • that the intracellular flux distributions
  • may not correspond to maximum biomass production [43].

To test the sensitivity of the results to the minimum growth rate threshold,

  • separate Monte Carlo samples were created for each minimum threshold
  • ranging from 50% to 100% at 5% increments.

We also tested the sensitivity of the results

  • to the relative magnitude of the extracellular metabolite secretion rates
  • by performing the sampling at three different relative levels

(0 corresponding to no extracellular metabolite secretion, maximum rate of 0.5 mmol/hr/gDW,
and maximum rate of 1.0 mmol/hr/gDW).

For each minimum growth rate threshold and extracellular metabolite secretion rate,

  • the ACHR sampler was run for 5 million steps and
  • a flux distribution was stored every 5000 steps.

The sensitivity analysis results are presented in Figures S3 and S4 [see Additional File 3], and

  • the results indicate that the reaction Z-scores (see below) are not significantly affected by
  1. either the portion of the solution space sampled or
  2. the exact scaling of secretion rates.

The final overall sample used was created by combining the samples for all minimum growth rate thresholds

  • for the highest extracellular metabolite secretion rate (maximum 1 mmol/hr/gDW).

This approach allowed biasing the sampling towards

  • physiologically relevant parts of the solution space
  • without imposing the requirement of strictly maximizing a predetermined objective function.

The samples obtained with no EM data were used as control samples

  • to filter reporter metabolites/subsystems whose scores were significantly high
  • due to only random differences between sampling runs.

Sampling approach used in the potassium limitation/ammonium toxicity study

Since the experimental data used in this study was generated in chemostat conditions, and

  • previous studies have indicated that chemostat flux patterns predicted by FBA are
  • close to the experimentally measured ones [43],
  • we assumed that sampling of the optimal solution space was appropriate for this study.

In order to sample a physiologically reasonable range of flux distributions,

  • samples for four different oxygen uptake rates
    (1, 2, 3, and 4 mmol/hr/gDW with 5 million steps each)
  • were combined in the final analysis.

Standardized scoring of flux differences between perturbation and control conditions

Z-score based approach was implemented to quantify differences in flux samples between two conditions (Figure 2).
First, two flux vectors were chosen randomly,

  • one from each of the two samples to be compared and
  • the difference between the flux vectors was computed.

This approach was repeated to create a sample of 10,000 (n) flux difference vectors

  • for each pair of conditions considered (e.g. mutant or perturbed environment vs. wild type).

Based on this flux difference sample, the sample mean (μdiff,i) and standard deviation (σdiff,i)

  • between the two conditions was calculated for each reaction i. The reaction Z-score was calculated as:

 

reaction Z-score

reaction Z-score

which describes the sampled mean difference deviation

  • from a population mean change of zero (i.e. no flux difference
    between perturbation and wild type).

Note that this approach allows accounting for uncertainty in the

  • flux distributions inferred based on the extracellular metabolite secretion constraints.

This is in contrast to approaches such as FBA or MoMA that would predict

  • a single flux distribution for each condition and thus potentially
  • overestimate differences between conditions.

The reaction Z-scores can then be further used in analysis

  • to identify significantly perturbed regions of the metabolic network
  • based on reporter metabolite [44] or subsystem [30] Z-scores.

These reporter regions indicate, or “report”, dominant perturbation features

  • at the metabolite and pathway levels for a particular condition.

The reporter metabolite Z-score for any metabolite can be derived from the reaction Z-scores

  • of the reactions consuming or producing j (set of reactions denoted as Rj) as:

 

reporter z-score for any metabolite j

reporter z-score for any metabolite j

where Nis the number of reactions in Rand mmet,is calculated as

 

distributional correction for m_met,j SQRT

distributional correction for m_met,j SQRT

To account and correct for background distribution, the metabolite Z-score was normalized

  • by computing μmet,Nj and σmet,,Nj corresponding to the mean mmet and
  • its standard deviation for 1,000 randomly generated reaction sets of size Nj.

Z-scores for subsystems were calculated similarly by considering the set of reactions R

  • that belongs to each subsystem k.

Hence, positive metabolite and subsystem scores indicate a significantly perturbed metabolic region

  • relative to other regions, whereas
  • a negative score indicate regions that are not perturbed
  • more significantly than what is expected by random chance.

Perturbation subnetworks of reactions and connecting metabolites were visualized using Cytoscape [45].

Results and discussion

  1. Reconstruction and validation of iMM904 network iMM904 network content 

A previously reconstructed S. cerevisiae network, iND750,

  • was used as the basis for the construction of the expanded iMM904 network.
  • Prior to its presentation here, the
    iMM904 network content was the basis for a consensus jamboree network that was recently published
  • but has not yet been adapted for FBA calculations [46].

The majority of iND750 content was carried over and

  • further expanded on to construct iMM904, which accounts for
  1. 904 genes,
  2. 1,228 individual metabolites, and
  3. 1,412 reactions of which
  •                       395 are transport reactions.

Both the number of gene-associated reactions and the number of metabolites

  • increased in iMM904 compared with the iND750 network.

Additional genes and reactions included in the network primarily expanded the

  • lipid,
  • transport, and
  • carbohydrate subsystems.

The lipid subsystem includes

  • new genes and
  • reactions involving the degradation of sphingolipids and glycerolipids.

Sterol metabolism was also expanded to include

  • the formation and degradation of steryl esters, the
  •                      storage form of sterols.

The majority of the new transport reactions were added

  • to connect network gaps between intracellular compartments
  • to enable the completion of known physiological functions.

We also added a number of new secretion pathways

  • based on experimentally observed secreted metabolites [31].

A number of gene-protein-reaction (GPR) relationships were modified

  • to include additional gene products that are required to catalyze a reaction.

For example, the protein compounds

  • thioredoxin and
  • ferricytochrome C

were explicitly represented as compounds in iND750 reactions, but

  • the genes encoding these proteins were not associated with their corresponding GPRs.

Other examples include glycogenin and NADPH cytochrome p450 reductases (CPRs),

  1. which are required in the assembly of glycogen and
  2. to sustain catalytic activity in cytochromes p450, respectively.

These additional proteins were included in iMM904 as

  • part of protein complexes to provide a more complete
  • representation of the genes and
  • their corresponding products necessary for a catalytic activity to occur.

Major modifications to existing reactions were in cofactor biosynthesis, namely in

  • quinone,
  • beta-alanine, and
  • riboflavin biosynthetic pathways.

Reactions from previous S. cerevisiae networks associated with

  • quinone,
  • beta-alanine, and
  • riboflavin biosynthetic pathways

were essentially inferred from known reaction mechanisms based on

  • reactions in previous network reconstructions of E. coli [2,47].

These pathways were manually reviewed

  • based on current literature and subsequently replaced by
  • reactions and metabolites specific to yeast.

Additional changes in other subsystems were also made, such as

  1. changes to the compartmental location of a gene and
  2. its corresponding reaction(s),
  3. changes in reaction reversibility and cofactor specificity, and
  4. the elucidation of particular transport mechanisms.

A comprehensive listing of iMM904 network contents as well as

  • a detailed list of changes between iND750 and iMM904 is included
    [see Additional file 1].

Predicting deletion growth phenotypes

The updated genome-scale iMM904 metabolic network was validated

  • by comparing in silico single-gene deletion predictions to
  • in vivo results from a previous study used
  • to analyze another S. cerevisiae metabolic model, iLL672 [3].

This network was constructed based on the iFF708 network [22],

  • which was also the starting point for
  • reconstructing the iND750 network [2].

The experimental data used to validate the iLL672 model consisted of

3,360 single-gene knockout strain phenotypes evaluated

  • under minimal media growth conditions with
  1. glucose,
  2. galactose,
  3. glycerol, and
  4. ethanol

as sole carbon sources. Growth phenotypes for the iMM904 network were predictedusing

  1. FBA [3234],
  2. MoMA [35], and
  3. linear MoMA methods

as described in Methods and subsequently compared to the experimental data (Table 1).

Each deleted gene growth prediction comparison was classified as

  1. true lethal,
  2. true viable,
  3. false lethal, or
  4. false viable.

The growth rate threshold for considering a prediction viable was chosen

  • for each condition and method separately
  • to optimize the tradeoff between true viable and false viable predictions
    (maximum Matthews correlation coefficient, see Methods).

Since iMM904 has 212 more genes than iLL672 with experimental data, we also present results

  • for the subset of iMM904 predictions with genes included in iLL672 (reduced iMM904 set).

When the same gene sets are compared, iMM904 improves gene lethality predictions under

  • glucose,
  • galactose, and
  • glycerol conditions

over iLL672 somewhat, but is less accurate

  • at predicting growth phenotypes under the ethanol condition.

It should be noted that the iLL672 predictions were obtained directly from [3]

  • thus the growth rate threshold was not optimized similarly to iMM904 predictions.

Overall, when viability cutoff is chosen

  • as indicated above for each method separately,
  • the three prediction methods perform similarly
  1. FBA,
  2. MOMA, and
  3. linear MOMA) .

While the full gene complement in iMM904 greatly increased

  • the number of true viable predictions,
  • the full model also made significantly more false viable predictions
  • compared with reduced iMM904 and iLL672 predictions.

However, it is important to note that 143 reactions involved in dead-end biosynthetic pathways were actually

  • removed from iFF708 to build the iLL672 reconstruction [3].

These dead-ends are considered “knowledge gaps” in pathways

  • that have not been fully characterized and, as a result,
  • lead to false viable predictions when determining gene essentiality
  • if the pathway is in fact required for growth under a certain condition [2,26].

As more of these pathways are elucidated and

  • included in the model to
  • fill in existing network gaps,
  • we can expect false viable prediction rates to consequently decrease.

Thus, while a larger network has a temporarily reduced capacity to accurately predict gene deletion phenotypes,

  • it captures a more complete picture of currently known metabolic functions and
  • provides a framework for network expansion as new pathways are elucidated [48].

 

Inferring intracellular perturbation states from metabolic profiles – Aerobic and anaerobic gdh1/GDH2 mutant behavior

The gdh1/GDH2 mutant strain was previously developed [49,50]

  • to lower NADPH consumption in ammonia assimilation, which would
  • favor the NADPH-dependent fermentation of xylose.

In this strain, the NADPH-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase, Gdh1, was

  • deleted and the NADH-dependent form of the enzyme, Gdh2,
  •                     was overexpressed.

The net effect is to allow efficient assimilation of ammonia

  • into glutamate using NADH instead of NADPH as a cofactor.

While growth characteristics remained unaffected,

  • relative quantities of secreted metabolites differed between the wild-type and mutant strain
  • under aerobic and anaerobic conditions.

We analyzed EM data for the gdh1/GDH2 and wild-type strains reported

  • in [31] under aerobic and anaerobic conditions separately using
  • both FBA optimization and
  • sampling-based approaches as described in Methods.

43 measured extracellular and intracellular metabolites from the original dataset [31],

  • primarily of central carbon and amino acid metabolism,
  • were explicitly represented in the iMM904 network [see Additional file 4].

Extracellular metabolite levels were used

  • to formulate secretion constraints and
  • differential intracellular metabolites were used
  • to compare and validate the intracellular flux predictions.

Perturbed reactions from the FBA results were

  • determined by calculating relative flux changes, and
  • reaction Z-scores were calculated from the sampling analysis
  • to quantify flux changes between the mutant and wild-type strains,
  • with Z reaction > 1.96 corresponding to a two-tailed p-value < 0.05 and
  • considered to be significantly perturbed [see Additional file 4].

Additional file 4. Gdh mutant aerobic and anaerobic analysis results. 

The data provided are the full results for the exometabolomic analysis of aerobic and anerobic gdh1/GDH2 mutant.

Format: XLS Size: 669KB Download file

This file can be viewed with: Microsoft Excel Viewer

To validate the predicted results, reaction flux changes from both FBA and sampling methods were compared to differential intracellular metabolite level data measured from the same study. Intracellular metabolites involved in highly perturbed reactions (i.e. reactants and products) predicted from FBA and sampling analyses were identified and
compared to metabolites that were experimentally identified as significantly changed (< 0.05) between mutant and wild-type. Statistical measures of recall, accuracy, and
precision were calculated and represent the predictive sensitivity, exactness, and reproducibility respectively. From the sampling analysis, a considerably larger number of
significantly perturbed reactions are predicted in the anaerobic case (505 reactions, or 70.7% of active reactions) than in aerobic (394 reactions, or 49.8% of active reactions). The top percentile of FBA flux changes equivalent to the percentage of significantly perturbed sampling reactions were compared to the intracellular data. Results from both analyses are summarized in Table 2. Sampling predictions were considerably higher in recall than FBA predictions for both conditions, with respective ranges of 0.83–1
compared to 0.48–0.96. Accuracy was also higher in sampling predictions; however, precision was slightly better in the FBA predictions as expected due to the smaller
number of predicted changes. Overall, the sampling predictions of perturbed intracellular metabolites are strongly consistent with the experimental data and significantly
outperforms that of FBA optimization predictions in accurately predicting differential metabolites involved in perturbed intracellular fluxes.

Table 2. Statistical comparison of the differential intracellular metabolite data set (< 0.05) with metabolites involved in perturbed reactions predicted by FBA optimization and sampling analyses for aerobic and anaerobic gdh1/GDH2 mutant.

 

Table 2 Statistical comparison of the differential intracellular metabolite data set (p < 0.05)
with metabolites involved in perturbed reactions predicted by FBA optimization and
sampling analyses for aerobic and anaerobic gdh1/GDH2 mutant.
                           Aerobic                         Anaerobic                             Overall
FBA Sampling FBA Sampling FBA
Recall 0.48 0.83 0.96 1 0.71 0.91
Accuracy 0.55 0.62 0.64 0.64 0.6 0.63
Precision 0.78 0.69 0.64 0.63 0.68 0.66
Overall statistics indicate combined results of both conditions.
Mo et al. BMC Systems Biology 2009 3:37   http://dx.doi.org:/10.1186/1752-0509-3-37


Figure 3.
 Perturbation reaction subnetwork of gdh1/GDH2 mutant under aerobic conditions.

The network illustrates a simplified subset of highly perturbedPerturbation subnetworks can be drawn to visualize predicted significantly perturbed intracellular reactions and illustrate their connection to the observed secreted metabolites in the aerobic and anaerobic gdh1/GDH2 mutants.

Perturbation reaction subnetwork of gdh1.GDH2 mutant under aerobic conditions.

Perturbation reaction subnetwork of gdh1.GDH2 mutant under aerobic conditions.

Figure 3 shows an example of a simplified aerobic perturbation subnetwork consisting primarily of proximal pathways connected directly to a subset of major secreted
metabolites

  • glutamate,
  • proline,
  • D-lactate, and
  • 2-hydroxybuturate.

Figure 4 displays anaerobic reactions with Z-scores of similar magnitude to the perturbed reactions in Figure 3. The same subset of metabolites is also present in the
larger anaerobic perturbation network and indicates that the NADPH/NADH balance perturbation induced by the gdh1/GDH2 manipulation has widespread effects
beyond just altering glutamate metabolism anaerobically.

Interestingly, it is clear that the majority of the secreted metabolite pathways involve connected perturbed reactions that broadly converge on glutamate.

Note that Figures 3 and 4 only show the subnetworks that consisted of two or more connected reactions  for a number of secreted metabolites no contiguous perturbed pathway could be identified by the sampling approach. This indicates that the secreted metabolite pattern alone is not sufficient to determine which specific
production and secretion pathways are used by the cell for these metabolites.

Reactions connected to aerobically-secreted metabolites predicted from the sampling analysis of the gdh1/GDH2 mutant strain.
The major secreted metabolites

  • glutamate,
  • proline,
  • D-lactate, and
  • 2-hydroxybuturate

were also detected in the anaerobic condition. Metabolite abbreviations are found in Additional file 1.

Figure 4.

Perturbation reaction subnetwork of gdh1/GDH2 mutant under anaerobic conditions.

Perturbation reaction subnetwork of gdh1.GDH2 mutant under anaerobic conditions

Perturbation reaction subnetwork of gdh1.GDH2 mutant under anaerobic conditions

Subnetwork illustrates the highly perturbed anaerobic reactions of similar Z-reaction magnitude to the reactions in Figure 3.

A significantly larger number of reactions indicates mutant metabolic effects are more widespread in the anaerobic environment.
The network shows that perturbed pathways converge on glutamate, the main site in which the gdh1/GDH2 modification was introduced, which
suggests that the direct genetic perturbation effects are amplified under this environment. Metabolite abbreviations are found in Additional file 1.

To further highlight metabolic regions that have been systemically affected by the gdh1/GDH2 modification, reporter metabolite and subsystem methods [30] were used to
summarize reaction scores around specific metabolites and in specific metabolic subsystems. The top ten significant scores for metabolites/subsystems associated with more
than three reactions are summarized in Tables 3 (aerobic) and 4 (anaerobic), with Z > 1.64 corresponding to < 0.05 for a one-tailed distribution. Full data for all reactions,
reporter metabolites, and reporter subsystems is included [see Additional file 4].

Table 3. List of the top ten significant reporter metabolite and subsystem scores for the gdh1/GDH2 vs. wild type comparison in aerobic conditions.

Table 3
List of the top ten significant reporter metabolite and subsystem scores for the gdh1/GDH2 vs. wild type comparison in aerobic conditions.
Reporter metabolite Z-score No of reactions*
L-proline [c] 2.71 4
Carbon dioxide [m] 2.51 15
Proton [m] 2.19 51
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate [c] 1.93 7
Ubiquinone-6 [m] 1.82 5
Ubiquinol-6 [m] 1.82 5
Ribulose-5-phosphate [c] 1.8 4
Uracil [c] 1.74 4
L-homoserine [c] 1.72 4
Alpha-ketoglutarate [m] 1.71 8
Reporter subsystem Z-score No of reactions
Citric Acid Cycle 4.58 7
Pentose Phosphate Pathway 3.29 12
Glycine and Serine Metabolism 2.69 17
Alanine and Aspartate Metabolism 2.65 6
Oxidative Phosphorylation 1.79 8
Thiamine Metabolism 1.54 8
Arginine and Proline Metabolism 1.44 20
Other Amino Acid Metabolism 1.28 5
Glycolysis/Gluconeogenesis 0.58 14
Anaplerotic reactions 0.19 9
*Number of reactions categorized in a subsystem or found to be neighboring each metabolite
Mo et al. BMC Systems Biology 2009 3:37   http://dx.doi.org:/10.1186/1752-0509-3-37

Table 4. List of top ten significant reporter metabolite and subsystem scores for the gdh1/GDH2 vs. wild type comparison in anaerobic conditions.

 

Table 4
List of top ten significant reporter metabolite and subsystem scores for the gdh1/GDH2 vs. wild type comparison in anaerobic conditions.
Reporter metabolite Z-score No of reactions
Glutamate [c] 4.52 35
Aspartate [c] 3.21 11
Alpha-ketoglutarate [c] 2.66 17
Glycine [c] 2.65 7
Pyruvate [m] 2.56 7
Ribulose-5-phosphate [c] 2.43 4
Threonine [c] 2.28 6
10-formyltetrahydrofolate [c] 2.27 5
Fumarate [c] 2.27 5
L-proline [c] 2.04 4
Reporter subsystem Z-score No of reactions
Valine, Leucine, and Isoleucine Metabolism 3.97 15
Tyrosine, Tryptophan, and Phenylalanine Metabolism 3.39 23
Pentose Phosphate Pathway 3.29 11
Purine and Pyrimidine Biosynthesis 3.08 40
Arginine and Proline Metabolism 2.96 19
Threonine and Lysine Metabolism 2.74 14
NAD Biosynthesis 2.66 7
Alanine and Aspartate Metabolism 2.65 6
Histidine Metabolism 2.24 10
Cysteine Metabolism 1.85 10
Mo et al. BMC Systems Biology 2009 3:37   http://dx.doi.org:/10.1186/1752-0509-3-37
Open Data

Perturbations under aerobic conditions largely consisted of pathways involved in mediating the NADH and NADPH balance. Among the highest scoring aerobic subsystems
are TCA cycle and pentose phosphate pathway – key pathways directly involved in the generation of NADH and NADPH. Reporter metabolites involved in these
subsystems –

  • glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate,
  • ribulose-5-phosphate, and
  • alpha-ketoglutarate – were also identified.

These results are consistent with flux and enzyme activity measurements

  • of the gdh1/GDH2 strain under aerobic conditions [32],
  1. which reported significant reduction in the pentose phosphate pathway flux
  2. with concomitant changes in other central metabolic pathways.

Levels of several TCA cycle intermediates (e.g. fumarate, succinate, malate) were also elevated

  • in the gdh1/GDH2 mutant according to the differential intracellular metabolite data.

Altered energy metabolism, as indicated by

  • reporter metabolites (i.e. ubiquinone- , ubiquinol, mitochondrial proton)
  • and subsystem (oxidative phosphorylation),

is certainly feasible as NADH is a primary reducing agent for ATP production.

Pentose phosphate pathway and NAD biosynthesis also appears

  • among the most perturbed anaerobic subsystems, further suggesting
  • perturbed cofactor balance as a common, dominant effect under both conditions.

Glutamate dehydrogenase is a critical enzyme of amino acid biosynthesis as it acts as

  • the entry point for ammonium assimilation via glutamate.

Consequently, metabolic subsystems involved in amino acid biosynthesis were broadly perturbed

  • as a result of the gdh1/GDH2 modification in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.

For example, the proline biosynthesis pathway that uses glutamate as a precursor

  • was significantly perturbed in both conditions,
  • with significantly changed intracellular and extracellular levels.

There were differences, however, in that more amino acid related subsystems were

  • significantly affected in the anaerobic case (Table 4),
  • further highlighting that altered ammonium assimilation in the mutant
  • has a more widespread effect under anaerobic conditions.

This effect is especially pronounced for

  • threonine and nucleotide metabolism,
  • which were predicted to be significantly perturbed only in anaerobic conditions.

Intracellular threonine levels were amongst the most significantly reduced

  • relative to other differential intracellular metabolites in the anaerobically grown gdh1/GDH2 strain
    (see [31] and Additional file 4), and
  • the relationship between threonine and nucleotide biosynthesis is further supported

by threonine’s recently discovered role as a key precursor in yeast nucleotide biosynthesis [51].

Other key anaerobic reporter metabolites are

  • glycine and 10-formyltetrahydrofolate,
  • both of which are involved in the cytosolic folate cycle (one-carbon metabolism).

Folate is intimately linked to biosynthetic pathways of

  • glycine (with threonine as its precursor) and purines
  • by mediating one-carbon reaction transfers necessary in their metabolism and
  • is a key cofactor in cellular growth [52].

Thus, the anaerobic perturbations identified in the analysis emphasize the close relationship

  • between threonine, folate, and nucleotide metabolic pathways as well as
  • their potential connection to perturbed ammonium assimilation processes.

Interestingly, this association has been previously demonstrated at the transcriptional level

  • as yeast ammonium assimilation (via glutamine synthesis) was found to be
  • co-regulated with genes involved in glycine, folate, and purine synthesis [53].

In summary, the overall differences in predicted gdh1/GDH2 mutant behavior

  • under aerobic and anaerobic conditions show that changes in flux states
  • directly related to modified ammonium assimilation pathway
  1. are amplified anaerobically whereas the
  2. indirect effects through NADH/NADPH balance are more significant aerobically.

Perturbed metabolic regions under aerobic conditions were predominantly

  • in central metabolic pathways involved in responding to the changed NADH/NADPH demand
  • and did not necessarily emphasize that glutamate dehydrogenase was the site of the genetic modification.

The majority of affected anaerobic pathways were involved directly

  • in modified ammonium assimilation as evidenced by

1) significantly perturbed amino acid subsystems,

2) a broad perturbation subnetwork converging on glutamate (Figure 4), and

3) glutamate as the most significant reporter metabolite (Table 4).

Potassium-limited and excess ammonium environments

A recent study reported that potassium limitation resulted in significant

  • growth retardation effect in yeast due to excess ammonium uptake
  • when ammonium was provided as the sole nitrogen source [33].

The proposed mechanism for this effect was that ammonium

  • could to be freely transported through potassium channels
  • when potassium concentrations were low in the media environment, thereby
  • resulting in excess ammonium uptake [33].

As a result, yeast incurred a significant metabolic cost

  • in assimilating ammonia to glutamate and
  • secreting significant amounts of glutamate and other amino acids
  • in potassium-limited conditions as a means to detoxify the excess ammonium.

A similar effect was observed when yeast was grown

  • with no potassium limitation,
  • but with excess ammonia in the environment.

While the observed effect of both environments (low potassium or excess ammonia) was similar,

  • quantitatively unique amino acid secretion profiles suggested that
  • internal metabolic states in these conditions are potentially different.

In order to elucidate the differences in internal metabolic states, we utilized

  • the iMM904 model and the EM profile analysis method to analyze amino acid secretion profiles
  • for a range of low potassium and high ammonia conditions reported in [33].

As before, we utilized amino acid secretion patterns as constraints to the iMM904 model,

  1. sampled the allowable solution space,
  2. computed reaction Z-scores for changes from a reference condition (normal potassium and ammonia), and
  3. finally summarized the resulting changes using reporter metabolites.

Figure 5 shows a clustering of the most significant reporter metabolites (Z ≥ 1.96 in any of the four conditions studied)

  • obtained from this analysis across the four conditions studied.

Interestingly, the potassium-limited environment perturbed only a subset of

  • the significant reporter metabolites identified in the high ammonia environments.

Both low potassium environments shared a consistent pattern of

  • highly perturbed amino acids and related precursor biosynthesis metabolites
    (e.g. pyruvate, PRPP, alpha-ketoglutarate)
  • with high ammonium environments.

The amino acid perturbation pattern (indicated by red labels in Figure 5) was present in

  • the ammonium-toxic environments, although the pattern was
  • slightly weaker for the lower ammonium concentration.

Nevertheless, the results clearly indicate that a similar

  • ammonium detoxifying mechanism that primarily perturbs pathways
  • directly related to amino acid metabolism
  • exists under both types of media conditions.

Figure 5.

Clustergram of top reporter metabolites - y in ammonium-toxic and potassium-limited conditions

Clustergram of top reporter metabolites – y in ammonium-toxic and potassium-limited conditions

Clustergram of top reporter metabolites (i.e. in yellow) in ammonium-toxic and potassium-limited conditions.

Amino acid perturbation patterns (shown in red) were shown to be consistently scored across conditions, indicating that potassium-limited environments K1 (lowest
concentration) and K2 (low concentration) elicited a similar ammonium detoxification response as ammonium-toxic environments N1 (high concentration) and N2
(highest concentration). Metabolites associated with folate metabolism (highlighted in green) are also highly perturbed in ammonium-toxic conditions. Metabolite
abbreviations are found in Additional file 1.

In addition to perturbed amino acids, a secondary effect notably appears at high ammonia levels in which metabolic regions related to folate metabolism are significantly affected. As highlighted in green in Figure 3, we predicted significantly perturbed key metabolites involved in the cytosolic folate cycle. These include tetrahydrofolate derivatives and other metabolites connected to the folate pathway, namely glycine and the methionine-derived methylation cofactors S-adenosylmethionine and S-adenosyl-homocysteine. Additionally, threonine was identified to be a key perturbed metabolite in excess ammonium conditions. These results further illustrate the close
connection between threonine biosynthesis, folate metabolism involving glycine derived from its threonine precursor, and nucleotide biosynthesis [51] that was discussed in
conjunction with the gdh1/GDH2 strain data. Taken together with the anaerobic gdh1/GDH2 data, the results consistently suggest highly perturbed threonine and folate
metabolism when amino acid-related pathways are broadly affected.

In both ammonium-toxic and potassium-limited environments, impaired cellular growth was observed, which can be attributed to high energetic costs of increased
ammonium assimilation to synthesize and excrete amino acids. However, under high ammonium environments, reporter metabolites related to threonine and folate
metabolism indicated that their perturbation, and thus purine supply, may be an additional factor in decreasing cellular viability as there is a direct relationship between
intracellular folate levels and growth rate [54]. Based on these results, we concluded that while potassiumlimited growth in yeast indeed shares physiological features with
growth in ammonium excess, its effects are not as detrimental as actual ammonium excess. The effects on proximal amino acid metabolic pathways are similar in both
environments as indicated by the secretion of the majority of amino acids. However, when our method was applied to analyze the physiological basis behind differences in
secretion profiles between low potassium and high ammonium conditions, ammonium excess was predicted to likely disrupt physiological ammonium assimilation processes,
which in turn potentially impacts folate metabolism and associated cellular growth.

Conclusion

The method presented in this study presents an approach to connecting intracellular flux states to metabolites that are excreted under various physiological conditions. We
showed that well-curated genome-scale metabolic networks can be used to integrate and analyze quantitative EM data by systematically identifying altered intracellular
pathways related to measured changes in the extracellular metabolome. We were able to identify statistically significant metabolic regions that were altered as a result of
genetic (gdh1/GD2 mutant) and environmental (excess ammonium and limited potassium) perturbations, and the predicted intracellular metabolic changes were consistent
with previously published experimental data including measurements of intracellular metabolite levels and metabolic fluxes. Our reanalysis of previously published EM data
on ammonium assimilation-related genetic and environmental perturbations also resulted in testable hypotheses about the role of threonine and folate pathways in mediating
broad responses to changes in ammonium utilization. These studies also demonstrated that the samplingbased method can be readily applied when only partial secreted
metabolite profiles (e.g. only amino acids) are available.

With the emergence of metabolite biofluid biomarkers as a diagnostic tool in human disease [55,56] and the availability of genome-scale human metabolic networks [1],
extensions of the present method would allow identifying potential pathway changes linked to these biomarkers. Employing such a method for studying yeast metabolism was possible as the metabolomic data was measured under controllable environmental conditions where the inputs and outputs of the system were defined. Measured metabolite biomarkers in a clinical setting, however, is far from a controlled environment with significant variations in genetic, nutritional, and environmental factors between different
patients. While there are certainly limitations for clinical applications, the method introduced here is a progressive step towards applying genome-scale metabolic networks
towards analyzing biofluid metabolome data as it 1) avoids the need to only study optimal metabolic states based on a predetermined objective function, 2) allows dealing with noisy experimental data through the sampling approach, and 3) enables analysis even with limited identification of metabolites in the data. The ability to establish potential
connections between extracellular markers and intracellular pathways would be valuable in delineating the genetic and environmental factors associated with a particular
disease.

Authors’ contributions

Conceived and designed the experiments: MLM MJH BOP. Performed experiments: MLM MJH. Analyzed the data: MLM MJH. Wrote the paper: MLM MJH BOP. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

We thank Jens Nielsen for providing the raw metabolome data for the mutant strain, and Jan Schellenberger and Ines Thiele for valuable discussions. This work was supported by NIH grant R01 GM071808. BOP serves on the scientific advisory board of Genomatica Inc.

 

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Metabolomics, Metabonomics and Functional Nutrition: the next step in nutritional metabolism and biotherapeutics

Metabolomics, Metabonomics and Functional Nutrition: the next step in nutritional metabolism and biotherapeutics

Reviewer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP 

 

The human genome is estimated to encode over 30,000 genes, and to be responsible for generating more than 100,000 functionally distinct proteins. Understanding the interrelationships among

  1. genes,
  2. gene products, and
  3. dietary habits

is fundamental to identifying those who will benefit most from or be placed at risk by intervention strategies.

Unraveling the multitude of

  • nutrigenomic,
  • proteomic, and
  • metabolomic patterns

that arise from the ingestion of foods or their

  • bioactive food components

will not be simple but is likely to provide insights into a tailored approach to diet and health. The use of new and innovative technologies, such as

  • microarrays,
  • RNA interference, and
  • nanotechnologies,

will provide needed insights into molecular targets for specific bioactive food components and

  • how they harmonize to influence individual phenotypes(1).

Nutrigenetics asks the question how individual genetic disposition, manifesting as

  • single nucleotide polymorphisms,
  • copy-number polymorphisms and
  • epigenetic phenomena,

affects susceptibility to diet.

Nutrigenomics addresses the inverse relationship, that is how diet influences

  • gene transcription,
  • protein expression and
  • metabolism.

A major methodological challenge and first pre-requisite of nutrigenomics is integrating

  • genomics (gene analysis),
  • transcriptomics (gene expression analysis),
  • proteomics (protein expression analysis) and
  • metabonomics (metabolite profiling)

to define a “healthy” phenotype. The long-term deliverable of nutrigenomics is personalised nutrition (2).

Science is beginning to understand how genetic variation and epigenetic events

  • alter requirements for, and responses to, nutrients (nutrigenomics).

At the same time, methods for profiling almost all of the products of metabolism in a single sample of blood or urine are being developed (metabolomics). Relations between

  • diet and nutrigenomic and metabolomic profiles and
  • between those profiles and health

have become important components of research that could change clinical practice in nutrition.

Most nutrition studies assume that all persons have average dietary requirements, and the studies often

  • do not plan for a large subset of subjects who differ in requirements for a nutrient.

Large variances in responses that occur when such a population exists

  • can result in statistical analyses that argue for a null effect.

If nutrition studies could better identify responders and differentiate them from nonresponders on the basis of nutrigenomic or metabolomic profiles,

  • the sensitivity to detect differences between groups could be greatly increased, and
  • the resulting dietary recommendations could be appropriately targeted (3).

In recent years, nutrition research has moved from classical epidemiology and physiology to molecular biology and genetics. Following this trend,

  • Nutrigenomics has emerged as a novel and multidisciplinary research field in nutritional science that
  • aims to elucidate how diet can influence human health.

It is already well known that bioactive food compounds can interact with genes affecting

  • transcription factors,
  • protein expression and
  • metabolite production.

The study of these complex interactions requires the development of

  • advanced analytical approaches combined with bioinformatics.

Thus, to carry out these studies

  • Transcriptomics,
  • Proteomics and
  • Metabolomics

approaches are employed together with an adequate integration of the information that they provide(4).

Metabonomics is a diagnostic tool for metabolic classification of individuals with the asset of quantitative, non-invasive analysis of easily accessible human body fluids such as urine, blood and saliva. This feature also applies to some extent to Proteomics, with the constraint that

  • the latter discipline is more complex in terms of composition and dynamic range of the sample.

Apart from addressing the most complex “Ome”, Proteomics represents

  • the only platform that delivers not only markers for disposition and efficacy
  • but also targets of intervention.

Application of integrated Omic technologies will drive the understanding of

  • interrelated pathways in healthy and pathological conditions and
  • will help to define molecular ‘switchboards’,
  • necessary to develop disease related biomarkers.

This will contribute to the development of new preventive and therapeutic strategies for both pharmacological and nutritional interventions (5).

Human health is affected by many factors. Diet and inherited genes play an important role. Food constituents,

  • including secondary metabolites of fruits and vegetables, may
  • interact directly with DNA via methylation and changes in expression profiles (mRNA, proteins)
  • which results in metabolite content changes.

Many studies have shown that

  • food constituents may affect human health and
  • the exact knowledge of genotypes and food constituent interactions with
  • both genes and proteins may delay or prevent the onset of diseases.

Many high throughput methods have been employed to get some insight into the whole process and several examples of successful research, namely in the field of genomics and transcriptomics, exist. Studies on epigenetics and RNome significance have been launched. Proteomics and metabolomics need to encompass large numbers of experiments and linked data. Due to the nature of the proteins, as well as due to the properties of various metabolites, experimental approaches require the use of

  • comprehensive high throughput methods and a sufficiency of analysed tissue or body fluids (6).

New experimental tools that investigate gene function at the subcellular, cellular, organ, organismal, and ecosystem level need to be developed. New bioinformatics tools to analyze and extract meaning

  • from increasingly systems-based datasets will need to be developed.

These will require, in part, creation of entirely new tools. An important and revolutionary aspect of “The 2010 Project”  is that it implicitly endorses

  • the allocation of resources to attempts to assign function to genes that have no known function.

This represents a significant departure from the common practice of defining and justifying a scientific goal based on the biological phenomena. The rationale for endorsing this radical change is that

  • for the first time it is feasible to envision a whole-systems approach to gene and protein function.

This whole-systems approach promises to be orders of magnitude more efficient than the conventional approach (7).

The Institute of Medicine recently convened a workshop to review the state of the various domains of nutritional genomics research and policy and to provide guidance for further development and translation of this knowledge into nutrition practice and policy (8). Nutritional genomics holds the promise to revolutionize both clinical and public health nutrition practice and facilitate the establishment of

(a) genome-informed nutrient and food-based dietary guidelines for disease prevention and healthful aging,

(b) individualized medical nutrition therapy for disease management, and

(c) better targeted public health nutrition interventions (including micronutrient fortification and supplementation) that

  • maximize benefit and minimize adverse outcomes within genetically diverse human populations.

As the field of nutritional genomics matures, which will include filling fundamental gaps in

  • knowledge of nutrient-genome interactions in health and disease and
  • demonstrating the potential benefits of customizing nutrition prescriptions based on genetics,
  • registered dietitians will be faced with the opportunity of making genetically driven dietary recommendations aimed at improving human health.

The new era of nutrition research translates empirical knowledge to evidence-based molecular science (9). Modern nutrition research focuses on

  • promoting health,
  • preventing or delaying the onset of disease,
  • optimizing performance, and
  • assessing risk.

Personalized nutrition is a conceptual analogue to personalized medicine and means adapting food to individual needs. Nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics

  • build the science foundation for understanding human variability in
  • preferences, requirements, and responses to diet and
  • may become the future tools for consumer assessment

motivated by personalized nutritional counseling for health maintenance and disease prevention.

The primary aim of ―omic‖ technologies is

  • the non-targeted identification of all gene products (transcripts, proteins, and metabolites) present in a specific biological sample.

By their nature, these technologies reveal unexpected properties of biological systems.

A second and more challenging aspect of ―omic‖ technologies is

  • the refined analysis of quantitative dynamics in biological systems (10).

For metabolomics, gas and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry are well suited for coping with

  • high sample numbers in reliable measurement times with respect to
  • both technical accuracy and the identification and quantitation of small-molecular-weight metabolites.

This potential is a prerequisite for the analysis of dynamic systems. Thus, metabolomics is a key technology for systems biology.

In modern nutrition research, mass spectrometry has developed into a tool

  • to assess health, sensory as well as quality and safety aspects of food.

In this review, we focus on health-related benefits of food components and, accordingly,

  • on biomarkers of exposure (bioavailability) and bioefficacy.

Current nutrition research focuses on unraveling the link between

  • dietary patterns,
  • individual foods or
  • food constituents and

the physiological effects at cellular, tissue and whole body level

  • after acute and chronic uptake.

The bioavailability of bioactive food constituents as well as dose-effect correlations are key information to understand

  • the impact of food on defined health outcomes.

Both strongly depend on appropriate analytical tools

  • to identify and quantify minute amounts of individual compounds in highly complex matrices–food or biological fluids–and
  • to monitor molecular changes in the body in a highly specific and sensitive manner.

Based on these requirements,

  • mass spectrometry has become the analytical method of choice
  • with broad applications throughout all areas of nutrition research (11).

Recent advances in high data-density analytical techniques offer unrivaled promise for improved medical diagnostics in the coming decade. Genomics, proteomics and metabonomics (as well as a whole slew of less well known ―omics‖ technologies) provide a detailed descriptor of each individual. Relating the large quantity of data on many different individuals to their current (and possibly even future) phenotype is a task not well suited to classical multivariate statistics. The datasets generated by ―omics‖ techniques very often violate the requirements for multiple regression. However, another statistical approach exists, which is already well established in areas such as medicinal chemistry and process control, but which is new to medical diagnostics, that can overcome these problems. This approach, called megavariate analysis (MVA),

  • has the potential to revolutionise medical diagnostics in a broad range of diseases.

It opens up the possibility of expert systems that can diagnose the presence of many different diseases simultaneously, and

  • even make exacting predictions about the future diseases an individual is likely to suffer from (12).

Cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in Western countries. Although coronary thrombosis is the final event in acute coronary syndromes,

  • there is increasing evidence that inflammation also plays a role in development of atherosclerosis and its clinical manifestations, such as
  • myocardial infarction, stroke, and peripheral vascular disease.

The beneficial cardiovascular health effects of

  • diets rich in fruits and vegetables are in part mediated by their flavanol content.

This concept is supported by findings from small-scale intervention studies with surrogate endpoints including

  1. endothelium-dependent vasodilation,
  2. blood pressure,
  3. platelet function, and
  4. glucose tolerance.

Mechanistically, short term effects on endothelium-dependent vasodilation

  • following the consumption of flavanol-rich foods, as well as purified flavanols,
  • have been linked to an increased nitric oxide bioactivity.

The critical biological target(s) for flavanols have yet to be identified (13), but we are beginning to see over the horizon.

Nutritional sciences

Nutrition sciences apply

  1. transcriptomics,
  2. proteomics and
  3. metabolomics

to molecularly assess nutritional adaptations.

Transcriptomics can generate a

  • holistic overview on molecular changes to dietary interventions.

Proteomics is most challenging because of the higher complexity of proteomes as compared to transcriptomes and metabolomes. However, it delivers

  • not only markers but also
  • targets of intervention, such as
  • enzymes or transporters, and
  • it is the platform of choice for discovering bioactive food proteins and peptides.

Metabolomics is a tool for metabolic characterization of individuals and

  • can deliver metabolic endpoints possibly related to health or disease.

Omics in nutrition should be deployed in an integrated fashion to elucidate biomarkers

  • for defining an individual’s susceptibility to diet in nutritional interventions and
  • for assessing food ingredient efficacy (14).

The more elaborate tools offered by metabolomics opened the door to exploring an active role played by adipose tissue that is affected by diet, race, sex, and probably age and activity. When the multifactorial is brought into play, and the effect of changes in diet and activities studied we leave the study of metabolomics and enter the world of ―metabonomics‖. Adiponectin and adipokines arrive (15-22). We shall discuss ―adiposity‖ later.

Potential Applications of Metabolomics

Either individually or grouped as a profile, metabolites are detected by either

  • nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy or mass spectrometry.

There is potential for a multitude of uses of metabolome research, including

  1. the early detection and diagnosis of cancer and as
  2. both a predictive and pharmacodynamic marker of drug effect.

However, the knowledge regarding metabolomics, its technical challenges, and clinical applications is unappreciated

  • even though when used as a translational research tool,
  • it can provide a link between the laboratory and clinic.

Precise numbers of human metabolites is unknown, with estimates ranging from the thousands to tens of thousands. Metabolomics is a term that encompasses several types of analyses, including

(a) metabolic fingerprinting, which measures a subset of the whole profile with little differentiation or quantitation of metabolites;

(b) metabolic profiling, the quantitative study of a group of metabolites, known or unknown, within or associated with a particular metabolic pathway; and

(c) target isotope-based analysis, which focuses on a particular segment of the metabolome by analyzing

  • only a few selected metabolites that comprise a specific biochemical pathway.

 

Dynamic Construct of the –Omics

Dynamic Construct of the –Omics

 

Dynamic Construct of the –Omics

 

 

Iron metabolism – Anemia

Hepcidin is a key hormone governing mammalian iron homeostasis and may be directly or indirectly involved in the development of most iron deficiency/overload and inflammation-induced anemia. The anemia of chronic disease (ACD) is characterized by macrophage iron retention induced by cytokines and hepcidin regulation. Hepcidin controls cellular iron efflux on binding to the iron export protein ferroportin. While patients present with both ACD and iron deficiency anemia (ACD/IDA), the latter results from chronic blood loss. Iron retention during inflammation occurs in macrophages and the spleen, but not in the liver. In ACD, serum hepcidin concentrations are elevated, which is related to reduced duodenal and macrophage expression of ferroportin. Individuals with ACD/IDA have significantly lower hepcidin levels than ACD subjects. ACD/IDA patients, in contrast to ACD subjects, were able to absorb dietary iron from the gut and to mobilize iron from macrophages. Hepcidin elevation may affect iron transport in ACD and ACD/IDA and it is more responsive to iron demand with IDA than to inflammation. Hepcidin determination may aid in selecting appropriate therapy for these patients (23).

There is correlation between serum hepcidin, iron and inflammatory indicators associated with anemia of chronic disease (ACD), ACD, ACD concomitant iron-deficiency anemia (ACD/IDA), pure IDA and acute inflammation (AcI) patients. Hepcidin levels in anemia types were statistically different, from high to low: ACD, AcI > ACD/IDA > the control > IDA. Serum ferritin levels were significantly increased in ACD and AcI patients but were decreased significantly in ACD/IDA and IDA. Elevated serum EPO concentrations were found in ACD, ACD/IDA and IDA patients but not in AcI patients and the controls. A positive correlation exists between hepcidin and IL-6 levels only in ACD/IDA, AcI and the control groups. A positive correlation between hepcidin and ferritin was marked in the control group, while a negative correlation between hepcidin and ferritin was noted in IDA. The significant negative correlation between hepcidin expression and reticulocyte count was marked in both ACD/IDA and IDA groups. If the hepcidin role in pathogenesis of ACD, ACD/IDA and IDA, it could be a potential marker for detection and differentiation of these anemias (24).

Cancer

Because cancer cells are known to possess a highly unique metabolic phenotype, development of specific biomarkers in oncology is possible and might be used in identifying fingerprints, profiles, or signatures to detect the presence of cancer, determine prognosis, and/or assess the pharmacodynamic effects of therapy (25).

HDM2, a negative regulator of the tumor suppressor p53, is over-expressed in many cancers that retain wild-type p53. Consequently, the effectiveness of chemotherapies that induce p53 might be limited, and inhibitors of the HDM2–p53 interaction are being sought as tumor-selective drugs. A binding site within HDM2 has been dentified which can be blocked with peptides inducing p53 transcriptional activity. A recent report demonstrates the principle using drug-like small molecules that target HDM2 (26).

Obesity, CRP, interleukins, and chronic inflammatory disease

Elevated CRP levels and clinically raised CRP levels were present in 27.6% and 6.7% of the population, respectively. Both overweight (body mass index [BMI], 25-29.9 kg/m2) and obese (BMI, 30 kg/m2) persons were more likely to have elevated CRP levels than their normal-weight counterparts (BMI, <25 kg/m2). After adjusting for potential confounders, the odds ratio (OR) for elevated CRP was 2.13 for obese men and 6.21 for obese women. In addition, BMI was associated with clinically raised CRP levels in women, with an OR of 4.76 (95% CI, 3.42-6.61) for obese women. Waist-to-hip ratio was positively associated with both elevated and clinically raised CRP levels, independent of BMI. Restricting the analyses to young adults (aged 17-39 years) and excluding smokers, persons with inflammatory disease, cardiovascular disease, or diabetes mellitus and estrogen users did not change the main findings (27).

A study of C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 with measures of obesity and of chronic infection as their putative determinants related levels of C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 to markers of the insulin resistance syndrome and of endothelial dysfunction. Levels of C-reactive protein were significantly related to those of interleukin-6 (r=0.37, P<0.0005) and tumor necrosis factor-a (r=0.46, P<0.0001), and concentrations of C-reactive protein were related to insulin resistance as calculated from the homoeostasis model and to markers of endothelial dysfunction (plasma levels of von Willebrand factor, tissue plasminogen activator, and cellular fibronectin). A mean standard deviation score of levels of acute phase markers correlated closely with a similar score of insulin resistance syndrome variables (r=0.59, P<0.00005) and the data suggested that adipose tissue is an important determinant of a low level, chronic inflammatory state as reflected by levels of interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-a, and C-reactive protein (28).

A number of other studies have indicated the inflammatory ties of visceral obesity to adipose tissue metabolic profiles, suggesting a role in ―metabolic syndrome‖. There is now a concept of altered liver metabolism in ―non-alcoholic‖ fatty liver disease (NAFLD) progressing from steatosis to steatohepatitis (NASH) (31,32).

These unifying concepts were incomprehensible 50 years ago. It was only known that insulin is anabolic and that insulin deficiency (or resistance) would have consequences in the point of entry into the citric acid cycle, which generates 16 ATPs. In fat catabolism, triglycerides are hydrolyzed to break them into fatty acids and glycerol. In the liver the glycerol can be converted into glucose via dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate by way of gluconeogenesis. In the case of this cycle there is a tie in with both catabolism and anabolism.

 

TCA_reactions

TCA_reactions

 http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Image:TCA_reactions.gif

 

For bypass of the Pyruvate Kinase reaction of Glycolysis, cleavage of 2 ~P bonds is required. The free energy change associated with cleavage of one ~P bond of ATP is insufficient to drive synthesis of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), since PEP has a higher negative G of phosphate hydrolysis than ATP.

The two enzymes that catalyze the reactions for bypass of the Pyruvate Kinase reaction are the following:

(a) Pyruvate Carboxylase (Gluconeogenesis) catalyzes:

pyruvate + HCO3 + ATP — oxaloacetate + ADP + Pi

(b) PEP Carboxykinase (Gluconeogenesis) catalyzes:

oxaloacetate + GTP — phosphoenolpyruvate + GDP + CO2

The concept of anomalies in the pathways with respect to diabetes was sketchy then, and there was much to be filled in. This has been substantially done, and is by no means complete. However, one can see how this comes into play with diabetic ketoacidosis accompanied by gluconeogenesis and in severe injury or sepsis with peripheral proteolysis to provide gluconeogenic precursors. The reprioritization of liver synthetic processes is also brought into play with the conundrum of protein-energy malnutrition.

The picture began to be filled in with the improvements in technology that emerged at the end of the 1980s with the ability to profile tissue and body fluids by NMR and by MS. There was already a good inkling of a relationship of type 2 diabetes to major indicators of CVD (29,30). And a long suspected relationship between obesity and type 2 diabetes was evident. But how did it tie together?

End Stage Renal Disease and Cardiovascular Risk

Mortality is markedly elevated in patients with end-stage renal disease. The leading cause of death is cardiovascular disease.

As renal function declines,

  • the prevalence of both malnutrition and cardiovascular disease increase.

Malnutrition and vascular disease correlate with the levels of

  • markers of inflammation in patients treated with dialysis and in those not yet on dialysis.

The causes of inflammation are likely to be multifactorial. CRP levels are associated with cardio-vascular risk in the general population.

The changes in endothelial cell function,

  • in plasma proteins, and
  • in lpiids in inflammation

are likely to be atherogenic.

That cardiovascular risk is inversely correlated with serum cholesterol in dialysis patients, suggests that

  • hyperlipidemia plays a minor role in the incidence of cardiovascular disease.

Hypoalbuminemia, ascribed to malnutrition, has been one of the most powerful risk factors that predict all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in dialysis patients. The presence of inflammation, as evidenced by increased levels of specific cytokines (interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor a) or acute-phase proteins (C-reactive protein and serum amyloid A), however, has been found to be associated with vascular disease in the general population as well as in dialysis patients. Patients have

  • loss of muscle mass and changes in plasma composition—decreases in serum albumin, prealbumin, and transferrin levels, also associated with malnutrition.

Inflammation alters

  • lipoprotein structure and function as well as
  • endothelial structure and function

to favor atherogenesis and increases

  • the concentration of atherogenic proteins in serum.

In addition, proinflammatory compounds, such as

  • advanced glycation end products, accumulate in renal failure, and
  • defense mechanisms against oxidative injury are reduced,

contributing to inflammation and to its effect on the vascular endothelium (33,34).

Endogenous copper can play an important role in postischemic reperfusion injury, a condition associated with endothelial cell activation and increased interleukin 8 (IL-8) production. Excessive endothelial IL-8 secreted during trauma, major surgery, and sepsis may contribute to the development of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and multiple organ failure (MOF). No previous reports have indicated that copper has a direct role in stimulating human endothelial IL-8 secretion. Copper did not stimulate secretion of other cytokines. Cu(II) appeared to be the primary copper ion responsible for the observed increase in IL-8 because a specific high-affinity Cu(II)-binding peptide, d-Asp-d-Ala-d-Hisd-Lys (d-DAHK), completely abolished this effect in a dose-dependent manner. These results suggest that Cu(II) may induce endothelial IL-8 by a mechanism independent of known Cu(I) generation of reactive oxygen species (35).

Blood coagulation plays a key role among numerous mediating systems that are activated in inflammation. Receptors of the PAR family serve as sensors of serine proteinases of the blood clotting system in the target cells involved in inflammation. Activation of PAR_1 by thrombin and of PAR_2 by factor Xa leads to a rapid expression and exposure on the membrane of endothelial cells of both adhesive proteins that mediate an acute inflammatory reaction and of the tissue factor that initiates the blood coagulation cascade. Other receptors that can modulate responses of the cells activated by proteinases through PAR receptors are also involved in the association of coagulation and inflammation together with the receptors of the PAR family. The presence of PAR receptors on mast cells is responsible for their reactivity to thrombin and factor Xa , essential to the inflammation and blood clotting processes (36).

The understanding of regulation of the inflammatory process in chronic inflammatory diseases is advancing.

Evidence consistently indicates that T-cells play a key role in initiating and perpetuating inflammation, not only via the production of soluble mediators but also via cell/cell contact interactions with a variety of cell types through membrane receptors and their ligands. Signalling through CD40 and CD40 ligand is a versatile pathway that is potently involved in all these processes. Many inflammatory genes relevant to atherosclerosis are influenced by the transcriptional regulator nuclear factor κ B (NFκB). In these events T-cells become activated by dendritic cells or inflammatory cytokines, and these T-cells activate, in turn, monocytes / macrophages, endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts to produce pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, the coagulation cascade in vivo, and finally matrix metalloproteinases, responsible for tissue destruction. Moreover, CD40 ligand at inflammatory sites stimulates fibroblasts and tissue monocyte/macrophage production of VEGF, leading to angiogenesis, which promotes and maintains the chronic inflammatory process.

NFκB plays a pivotal role in co-ordinating the expression of genes involved in the immune and inflammatory response, evoking tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), chemokines such as monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and interleukin (IL)-8, matrix metalloproteinase enzymes (MMP), and genes involved in cell survival. A complex array of mechanisms, including T cell activation, leukocyte extravasation, tissue factor expression, MMP expression and activation, as well induction of cytokines and chemokines, implicated in atherosclerosis, are regulated by NFκB.

Expression of NFκB in the atherosclerotic milieu may have a number of potentially harmful consequences. IL-1 activates NFκB upregulating expression of MMP-1, -3, and -9. Oxidized LDL increases macrophage MMP-9, associated with increased nuclear binding of NFκB and AP-1. Expression of tissue factor, initiating the coagulation cascade, is regulated by NFκB. In atherosclerotic plaque cells, tissue factor antigen and activity were inhibited following over-expression of IκBα and dominant-negative IKK-2, but not by dominant negative IKK-1 or NIK. Tis supports the concept that activation of the ―canonical‖ pathway upregulates pro-thrombotic mediators involved in disease. Many of the cytokines and chemokines which have been detected in human atherosclerotic plaques are also regulated by NFκB. Over-expression of IκBα inhibits release of TNFα, IL-1, IL-6, and IL-8 in macrophages stimulated with LPS and CD40 ligand (CD40L). This report describes how NFκB activation upregulates major pro-inflammatory and pro-thrombotic mediators of atherosclerosis (37-41).

This review is both focused and comprehensive. The details of evolving methods are avoided in order to build the argument that a very rapid expansion of discovery has been evolving depicting disease, disease mechanisms, disease associations, metabolic biomarkers, study of effects of diet and diet modification, and opportunities for targeted drug development. The extent of future success will depend on the duration and strength of the developed interventions, and possibly the avoidance of dead end interventions that are unexpectedly bypassed. I anticipate the prospects for the interplay between genomics, metabolomics, metabonomics, and personalized medicine may be realized for several of the most common conditions worldwide within a few decades (42-44).

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Reporter and Curator: Dr. Sudipta Saha, Ph.D.

Conventional tumor markers are unsuitable for detecting carcinoma at an early stage and lack clinical efficacy and utility. Multiple classification analysis revealed that the variations in the levels of malonic acid and L-serine largely contributed to the separation of esophageal cancer; gastric cancer was characterized by changes in the levels of 3-hydroxypropionic acid and pyruvic acid; and L-alanine, glucuronoic lactone and L-glutamine contributed to the separation of colorectal cancer. Some metabolites are more sensitive for detecting gastrointestinal cancer than conventional biomarkers and thus metabolomics has the potential as an early diagnostic tool for cancer. Studies also showed that global metabolic profiling of colon mucosae would define metabolic signatures that not only discriminate malignant from normal mucosae, but also could distinguish the anatomical and clinicopathological characteristics of colorectal cancer. Thus it is suggested that metabolic profiling of colorectal cancer mucosae could provide new phenotypic biomarkers for colorectal cancer management.

A full spectrum of metabolic aberrations that are directly linked to colorectal cancer at early curable stages is critical for developing and deploying molecular diagnostic and therapeutic approaches that will significantly improve patient survival. A number of dysregulated metabolic pathways, such as glycolysis, tricarboxylic acid cycle, urea cycle, pyrimidine metabolism, tryptophan metabolism, polyamine metabolism, as well as gut microbial-host co-metabolism in colorectal cancer subjects are reported. Significantly increased tryptophan metabolism, and disturbed tricarboxylic acid cycle and the gut microflora metabolism were observed in the colorectal cancer patients. The urinary metabolite profile of postoperative colorectal cancer subjects altered significantly from that of the preoperative stage. The significantly down-regulated gut microflora metabolism and tricarboxylic acid cycle were observed in postoperative colorectal cancer subjects, presumably due to the colon flush involved in the surgical procedure and weakened physical conditions of the patients. The expression of 5-hydroxytryptophan significantly decreased in postsurgery cases, suggesting a recovered tryptophan metabolism toward healthy state. Abnormal histamine metabolism and glutamate metabolism were found only in the urine samples of colorectal cancer patients. There are distinct urinary metabolic footprints of colorectal cancer patients characterized by altered levels of metabolites derived from gut microbial-host co-metabolism. A panel of metabolite markers composed of citrate, hippurate, p-cresol, 2-aminobutyrate, myristate, putrescine, and kynurenate was able to discriminate colorectal cancer subjects from their healthy counterparts. These potential metabolite markers provide a novel and promising molecular diagnostic approach for the early detection of colorectal cancer.

Source References:

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21773981

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22792336

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19063642

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20121166

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22148915

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