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This portion of a series of chapters on metabolism, proteomics and metabolomics dealt mainly with carbohydrate metabolism. Amino acids and lipids are presented more fully in the chapters that follow. There are features on the
functioning of enzymes and proteins,
on sequential changes in a chain reaction, and
on conformational changes that we shall also cover.
These are critical to developing a more complete understanding of life processes.
I needed to lay out the scope of metabolic reactions and pathways, and their complementary changes. These may not appear to be adaptive, if the circumstances and the duration is not clear. The metabolic pathways map in total
is in interaction with environmental conditions – light, heat, external nutrients and minerals, and toxins – all of which give direction and strength to these reactions. A developing goal is to discover how views introduced by molecular biology and genomics don’t clarify functional cellular dynamics that are not related to the classical view. The work is vast.
Carbohydrate metabolism denotes the various biochemical processes responsible for the formation, breakdown and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms. The most important carbohydrate is glucose, a simple sugar (monosaccharide) that is metabolized by nearly all known organisms. Glucose and other carbohydrates are part of a wide variety of metabolic pathways across species: plants synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis storing the absorbed energy internally, often in the form of starch or lipids. Plant components are consumed by animals and fungi, and used as fuel for cellular respiration. Oxidation of one gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 4 kcal of energy and from lipids about 9 kcal. Energy obtained from metabolism (e.g. oxidation of glucose) is usually stored temporarily within cells in the form of ATP. Organisms capable of aerobic respiration metabolize glucose and oxygen to release energy with carbon dioxide and water as byproducts.
Carbohydrates are used for short-term fuel, and even though they are simpler to metabolize than fats, they don’t produce as equivalent energy yield measured by ATP. In animals, the concentration of glucose in the blood is linked to the pancreatic endocrine hormone, insulin. . In most organisms, excess carbohydrates are regularly catabolized to form acetyl-CoA, which is a feed stock for the fatty acid synthesis pathway; fatty acids, triglycerides, and other lipids are commonly used for long-term energy storage. The hydrophobic character of lipids makes them a much more compact form of energy storage than hydrophilic carbohydrates.
Glucose is metabolized obtaining ATP and pyruvate by way of first splitting a six-carbon into two three carbon chains, which are converted to lactic acid from pyruvate in the lactic dehydrogenase reaction. The reverse conversion is by a separate unidirectional reaction back to pyruvate after moving through pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.
Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) is a complex of three enzymes that convert pyruvate into acetyl-CoA by a process called pyruvate decarboxylation. Acetyl-CoA may then be used in the citric acid cycle to carry out cellular respiration, and this complex links the glycolysis metabolic pathway to the citric acid cycle. This multi-enzyme complex is related structurally and functionally to the oxoglutarate dehydrogenase and branched-chain oxo-acid dehydrogenase multi-enzyme complexes. In eukaryotic cells the reaction occurs inside the mitochondria, after transport of the substrate, pyruvate, from the cytosol. The transport of pyruvate into the mitochondria is via a transport protein and is active, consuming energy. On entry to the mitochondria pyruvate decarboxylation occurs, producing acetyl CoA. This irreversible reaction traps the acetyl CoA within the mitochondria. Pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency from mutations in any of the enzymes or cofactors results in lactic acidosis.
PDH-rxns The acetyl group is transferred to coenzyme A
Typically, a breakdown of one molecule of glucose by aerobic respiration (i.e. involving both glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle) is about 33-35 ATP. This is categorized as:
Glycogenolysis – the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which provides a glucose supply for glucose-dependent tissues.
Glycogenolysis in liver provides circulating glucose short term.
Glycogenolysis in muscle is obligatory for muscle contraction.
Pyruvate from glycolysis enters the Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle, in aerobic organisms.
Anaerobic breakdown by glycolysis – yielding 8-10 ATP
Aerobic respiration by Kreb’s cycle – yielding 25 ATP
The pentose phosphate pathway (shunt) converts hexoses into pentoses and regenerates NADPH. NADPH is an essential antioxidant in cells which prevents oxidative damage and acts as precursor for production of many biomolecules.
Glycogenesis – the conversion of excess glucose into glycogen as a cellular storage mechanism; achieving low osmotic pressure.
Gluconeogenesis – de novo synthesis of glucose molecules from simple organic compounds. An example in humans is the conversion of a few amino acids in cellular protein to glucose.
Metabolic use of glucose is highly important as an energy source for muscle cells and in the brain, and red blood cells.
The hormone insulin is the primary glucose regulatory signal in animals. It mainly promotes glucose uptake by the cells, and it causes the liver to store excess glucose as glycogen. Its absence
turns off glucose uptake,
reverses electrolyte adjustments,
begins glycogen breakdown and glucose release into the circulation by some cells,
begins lipid release from lipid storage cells, etc.
The level of circulatory glucose (known informally as “blood sugar”) is the most important signal to the insulin-producing cells.
insulin is made by beta cells in the pancreas,
fat is stored n adipose tissue cells, and
glycogen is both stored and released as needed by liver cells.
no glucose is released to the blood from internal glycogen stores from muscle cells.
The hormone glucagon, on the other hand, opposes that of insulin, forcing the conversion of glycogen in liver cells to glucose, and then release into the blood. Growth hormone, cortisol, and certain catecholamines (such as epinepherine) have glucoregulatory actions similar to glucagon. These hormones are referred to as stress hormones because they are released under the influence of catabolic proinflammatory (stress) cytokines – interleukin-1 (IL1) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα).
Net Yield of GlycolysisThe preparatory phase consumes 2 ATP
The pay-off phase produces 4 ATP.
The gross yield of glycolysis is therefore
4 ATP – 2 ATP = 2 ATP
The pay-off phase also produces 2 molecules of NADH + H+ which can be further converted to a total of 5 molecules of ATP* by the electron transport chain (ETC) during oxidative phosphorylation.
Thus the net yield during glycolysis is 7 molecules of ATP*
This is calculated assuming one NADH molecule gives 2.5 molecules of ATP during oxidative phosphorylation.
Cellular respiration involves 3 stages for the breakdown of glucose – glycolysis, Kreb’s cycle and the electron transport system. Kreb’s cycle produces about 60-70% of ATP for release of energy in the body. It directly or indirectly connects with all the other individual pathways in the body.
The Kreb’s Cycle occurs in two stages:
Conversion of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
Acetyl CoA Enters the Kreb’s Cycle
Each pyruvate in the presence of pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) complex in the mitochondria gets converted to acetyl CoA which in turn enters the Kreb’s cycle. This reaction is called as oxidative decarboxylation as the carboxyl group is removed from the pyruvate molecule in the form of CO2 thus yielding 2-carbon acetyl group which along with the coenzyme A forms acetyl CoA.
The PDH requires the sequential action of five co-factors or co-enzymes for the combined action of dehydrogenation and decarboxylation to take place. These five are TPP (thiamine phosphate), FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide), NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), coenzyme A (denoted as CoA-SH at times to depict role of -SH group) and lipoamide.
Acetyl CoA condenses with oxaloacetate (4C) to form a citrate (6C) by transferring its acetyl group in the presence of enzyme citrate synthase. The CoA liberated in this reaction is ready to participate in the oxidative decarboxylation of another molecule of pyruvate by PDH complex.
Isocitrate undergoes oxidative decarboxylation by the enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase to form oxalosuccinate (intermediate- not shown) which in turn forms α-ketoglutarate (also known as oxoglutarate) which is a five carbon compound. CO2 and NADH are released in this step. α-ketoglutarate (5C) undergoes oxidative decarboxylation once again to form succinyl CoA (4C) catalysed by the enzyme α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex.
Succinyl CoA is then converted to succinate by succinate thiokinase or succinyl coA synthetase in a reversible manner. This reaction involves an intermediate step in which the enzyme gets phosphorylated and then the phosphoryl group which has a high group transfer potential is transferred to GDP to form GTP.
Succinate then gets oxidised reversibly to fumarate by succinate dehydrogenase. The enzyme contains iron-sulfur clusters and covalently bound FAD which when undergoes electron exchange in the mitochondria causes the production of FADH2.
Fumarate is then by the enzyme fumarase converted to malate by hydration(addition of H2O) in a reversible manner.
Malate is then reversibly converted to oxaloacetate by malate dehydrogenase which is NAD linked and thus produces NADH.
The oxaloacetate produced is now ready to be utilized in the next cycle by the citrate synthase reaction and thus the equilibrium of the cycle shifts to the right.
The NADH formed in the cytosol can yield variable amounts of ATP depending on the shuttle system utilized to transport them into the mitochondrial matrix. This NADH, formed in the cytosol, is impermeable to the mitochondrial inner-membrane where oxidative phosphorylation takes place. Thus to carry this NADH to the mitochondrial matrix there are special shuttle systems in the body. The most active shuttle is the malate-aspartate shuttle via which 2.5 molecules of ATP are generated for 1 NADH molecule. This shuttle is mainly used by the heart, liver and kidneys. The brain and skeletal muscles use the other shuttle known as glycerol 3-phosphate shuttle which synthesizes 1.5 molecules of ATP for 1 NADH.
Glucose-6-phosphate Dehydrogenase is the committed step of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway. This enzyme is regulated by availability of the substrate NADP+. As NADPH is utilized in reductive synthetic pathways, the increasing concentration of NADP+ stimulates the Pentose Phosphate Pathway, to replenish NADPH. The importance of this pathway can easily be underestimated. The main source for energy in respiration was considered to be tied to the high energy phosphate bond in phosphorylation and utilizes NADPH, converting it to NADP+. The pentose phosphate shunt is essential for the generation of nucleic acids, in regeneration of red cells and lens – requiring NADPH.
NAD+ serves as electron acceptor in catabolic pathways in which metabolites are oxidized. The resultant NADH is reoxidized by the respiratory chain, producing ATP.
The pyridine nucleotide transhydrogenase reaction concerns the energy-dependent reduction of TPN by DPNH. In 1959, Klingenberg and Slenczka made the important observation that incubation of isolated liver mitochondria with DPN-specific substrates or succinate in the absence of phosphate acceptor resulted in a rapid and almost complete reduction of the intramitochondrial TPN. These and related findings led Klingenberg and co-workers (1-3) to postulate the occurrence of a ATP-controlled transhydrogenase reaction catalyzing the reduction of TPN by DPNH. (The role of transhydrogenase in the energy-linked reduction of TPN. Fritz Hommes, Ronald W. Estabrook, The Wenner-Gren Institute, University of Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 11, (1), 2 Apr 1963, Pp 1–6. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/0006-291X(63)90017-2/).
Further studies observed the coupling of TPN-specific dehydrogenases with the transhydrogenase and observing the reduction of large amounts of diphosphopyridine nucleotide (DPN) in the presence of catalytic amounts of triphosphopyridine nucleotide (TPN). The studies showed the direct interaction between TPNHz and DPN, in the presence of transhydrogenase to yield products having the properties of TPN and DPNHZ. The reaction involves a transfer of electrons (or hydrogen) rather than a phosphate. (Pyridine Nucleotide Transhydrogenase II. Direct Evidence for and Mechanism of the Transhydrogenase Reaction* by Nathan 0. Kaplan, Sidney P. Colowick, And Elizabeth F. Neufeld. (From The Mccollum-Pratt Institute, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland) J. Biol. Chem. 1952, 195:107-119.) http://www.JBC.org/Content/195/1/107.Citation
Notation: TPN, NADP; DPN, NAD+; reduced pyridine nucleotides: TPNH (NADPH2), DPNH (NADH).
Note: In this discussion there is a detailed presentation of the activity of lactic acid conversion in the mitochondria by way of PDH. In a later section there is mention of the bidirectional reaction of lactate dehydrogenase. However, the forward reaction is dominant (pyruvate to lactate) and is described. This is not related to the kinetics of the LD reaction with respect to the defining characteristic – Km.
Biochemical Education Jan 1977; 5(1):15. Kinetics of Lactate Dehydrogenase: A Textbook Problem.
K.L. MANCHESTER. Department of Biochemistry, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg South Africa.
One presupposes that determined Km values are meaningful under intracellular conditions. In relation to teaching it is a simple experiment for students to determine for themselves the Km towards pyruvate of LDH in a post-mitochondrial supernatant of rat heart and thigh muscle. The difference in Km may be a factor of 3 or 4-fold.It is pertinent then to ask what is the range of suhstrate concentrations over which a difference in Km may be expected to lead to significant differences in activity and how these concentrations compare with pyruvate concentrations in the cell. The evidence of Vesell and co-workers that inhibition by pyruvate is more readily seen at low than at high enzyme concentration is important in emphasizing that under intracellular conditions enzyme concentrations may be relatively large in relation to the substrate available. This will be particularly so in relation to [NADH] which in the cytoplasm is likely to be in the ~M range.
A final point concerns the kinetic parameters for LDH quoted by Bergmeyer for lactate estimations a pH of 9 is recommended and the Km towards lactate at that pH is likely to be appreciably different from the quoted values at pH 7 — Though still at pH 9 showing a substantially lower value for lactate with the heart preparation. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/0307-4412%2877%2990013-9/pdf
Several investigators have established that epidermis converts most of the glucose it uses to lactic acid even in the presence of oxygen. This is in contrast to most tissues where lactic acid production is used for energy production only when oxygen is not available. This large amount of lactic acid being continually produced within the epidermal cell must be excreted by the cell and then carried away by the blood stream to other tissues where the lactate can be utilized. The LDH reaction with pyruvate and NADH is reversible although at physiological pH the equilibrium position for the reaction lies very far to the right, i.e., in favor of lactate production. The speed of this reaction depends not only on the amount of enzyme present but also on the concentrations of the substances involved on both sides of the equation. The net direction in which the reaction will proceed depends solely on the relative concentrations of the substances on each side of the equation.
In vivo there is net conversion of pyruvate (formed from glucose) to lactate. Measurements of the speed of lactate production by sheets of epidermis floating on a medium containing glucose indicate a rate of lactate production of approximately 0.7 rn/sm/
mm/mg of fresh epidermis.Slice incubation experiments are presumably much closer to the actual in vivo conditions than
the homogenate experiments. The discrepancy between the
two indicates that in vivo conditions are far from optimal for the conversion of pyruvate to lactate. Only 1/100th of the maximal activity of the enzyme present is being achieved. The concentrations of the various substances involved are not
optimal in vivo since pyruvate and NADH concentrations are
lower than lactate and NAD concentrations and this might explain the in vivo inhibition of LDH activity. (Lactate Production And Lactate Dehydrogenase In The Human Epidermis*. KM. Halprin, A Ohkawara. J Invest Dermat 1966; 47(3): 222-6.) http://www.nature.com/jid/journal/v47/n3/pdf/jid1966133a.pdf
Humans, mammals, plants and animals, and eukaryotes and prokaryotes all share a common denominator in their manner of existence. It makes no difference whether they inhabit the land, or the sea, or another living host. They exist by virtue of their metabolic adaptation by way of taking in nutrients as fuel, and converting the nutrients to waste in the expenditure of carrying out the functions of motility, breakdown and utilization of fuel, and replication of their functional mass.
There are essentially two major sources of fuel, mainly, carbohydrate and fat. A third source, amino acids which requires protein breakdown, is utilized to a limited extent as needed from conversion of gluconeogenic amino acids for entry into the carbohydrate pathway. Amino acids follow specific metabolic pathways related to protein synthesis and cell renewal tied to genomic expression.
Carbohydrates are a major fuel utilized by way of either of two pathways. They are a source of readily available fuel that is accessible either from breakdown of disaccharides or from hepatic glycogenolysis by way of the Cori cycle. Fat derived energy is a high energy source that is metabolized by one carbon transfers using the oxidation of fatty acids in mitochondria. In the case of fats, the advantage of high energy is conferred by chain length.
Carbohydrate metabolism has either of two routes of utilization. This introduces an innovation by way of the mitochondrion or its equivalent, for the process of respiration, or aerobic metabolism through the tricarboxylic acid, or Krebs cycle. In the presence of low oxygen supply, carbohydrate is metabolized anaerobically, the six carbon glucose being split into two three carbon intermediates, which are finally converted from pyruvate to lactate. In the presence of oxygen, the lactate is channeled back into respiration, or mitochondrial oxidation, referred to as oxidative phosphorylation. The actual mechanism of this process was of considerable debate for some years until it was resolved that the mechanism involve hydrogen transfers along the “electron transport chain” on the inner membrane of the mitochondrion, and it was tied to the formation of ATP from ADP linked to the so called “active acetate” in Acetyl-Coenzyme A, discovered by Fritz Lipmann (and Nathan O. Kaplan) at Massachusetts General Hospital. Kaplan then joined with Sidney Colowick at the McCollum Pratt Institute at Johns Hopkins, where they shared tn the seminal discovery of the “pyridine nucleotide transhydrogenases” with Elizabeth Neufeld, who later established her reputation in the mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS) with L-iduronidase and lysosomal storage disease.
This chapter covers primarily the metabolic pathways for glucose, anaerobic and by mitochondrial oxidation, the electron transport chain, fatty acid oxidation, galactose assimilation, and the hexose monophosphate shunt, essential for the generation of NADPH. The is to be more elaboration on lipids and coverage of transcription, involving amino acids and RNA in other chapters.
The subchapters are as follows:
1.1 Carbohydrate Metabolism
1.2 Studies of Respiration Lead to Acetyl CoA
1.3 Pentose Shunt, Electron Transfer, Galactose, more Lipids in brief
1.4 The Multi-step Transfer of Phosphate Bond and Hydrogen Exchange Energy
Extracellular evaluation of intracellular flux in yeast cells
Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence
This is the fourth article in a series on metabolomics, which is a major development in -omics, integrating transcriptomics, proteomics, genomics, metabolic pathways analysis, metabolic and genomic regulatory control using computational mapping. In the previous two part presentation, flux analysis was not a topic for evaluation, but here it is the major focus. It is a study of yeast cells, and bears some relationship to the comparison of glycemia, oxidative phosphorylation, TCA cycle, and ETC in leukemia cell lines. In the previous study – system flux was beyond the scope of analysis, and explicitly stated. The inferences made in comparing the two lymphocytic leukemia cells was of intracellular metabolism from extracellular measurements. The study of yeast cells is aimed at looking at cellular effluxes, which is also an important method for studying pharmacological effects and drug resistance.
Metabolomic series
1. Metabolomics, Metabonomics and Functional Nutrition: the next step in nutritional metabolism and biotherapeutics
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
Metabolomics has emerged as a powerful tool in the
quantitative identification of physiological and disease-induced biological states.
Extracellular metabolome or metabolic profiling data, in particular,
can provide an insightful view of intracellular physiological states in a noninvasive manner.
Results
We used an updated genome-scale
metabolic network model of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, iMM904, to investigate
how changes in the extracellular metabolome can be used
to study systemic changes in intracellular metabolic states.
The iMM904 metabolic network was reconstructed based on
an existing genome-scale network, iND750,
and includes 904 genes and 1,412 reactions.
The network model was first validated by
comparing 2,888 in silico single-gene deletion strain growth phenotype predictions
to published experimental data.
Extracellular metabolome data measured
of ammonium assimilation pathways
in response to environmental and genetic perturbations
was then integrated with the iMM904 network
in the form of relative overflow secretion constraints and
a flux sampling approach was used to characterize candidate flux distributions allowed by these constraints.
Predicted intracellular flux changes were
consistent with published measurements
on intracellular metabolite levels and fluxes.
Patterns of predicted intracellular flux changes
could also be used to correctly identify the regions of
The inferred perturbations in intracellular reaction fluxes were further analyzed
using reporter metabolite and subsystem (i.e., metabolic pathway) approaches [30]
in order to identify dominant metabolic features that are collectively perturbed (Figure 2).
The sampling-based approach also has the additional benefit of
being less sensitive to inaccuracies in metabolite secretion profiles than
optimization-based methods and can effectively be used – in biofluid metabolome analysis.
integration of exometabolomic (EM) data
Figure 1.Schematic illustrating the integration of exometabolomic (EM) data with the constraint-based framework.
(A) Cells are subjected to genetic and/or environmental perturbations to secrete metabolite patterns unique to that condition.
(B) EM is detected, identified, and quantified.
(C) EM data is integrated as required secretion flux constraints to define allowable solution space.
(D) Random sampling of solution space yields the range of feasible flux distributions for intracellular reactions.
(E) Sampled fluxes were compared to sampled fluxes of another condition to determine
which metabolic regions were altered between the two conditions (see Figure 2).
(F) Significantly altered metabolic regions were identified.
sampling and scoring analysis to determine intracellular flux changes
Figure 2.Schematic of sampling and scoring analysis to determine intracellular flux changes.
(A) Reaction fluxes are sampled for two conditions.
(B & C) Sample of flux differences is calculated by selecting random flux values from each condition
to obtain a distribution of flux differences for each reaction.
(D) Standardized reaction Z-scores are determined, which represent
how far the sampled flux differences deviates from a zero flux change.
This study was divided into two parts and describes:
(i) the reconstruction and validation of an expanded S. cerevisiae metabolic network, iMM904; and
(ii) the systematic inference of intracellular metabolic states from
two yeast EM data sets using a constraint-based sampling approach.
The first EM data set compares wild type yeast to the gdh1/GDH2 (glutamate dehydrogenase) strain [31],
which indicated good agreement between predicted metabolic changes
of intracellular metabolite levels and fluxes [31,32].
The second EM data set focused on secreted amino acid measurements
from a separate study of yeast cultured in different ammonium and potassium concentrations [33].
We analyzed the EM data to gain further insight into
perturbed ammonium assimilation processes as well as
metabolic states relating potassium limitation and
ammonium excess conditions to one another.
The model-based analysis of both
separately published extracellular metabolome datasets
suggests a relationship between
glutamate,
threonine and
folate metabolism,
which are collectively perturbed when ammonium assimilation processes are broadly disrupted
The data provided are the model text files of the iMM904 metabolic network
that is compatible with the available COBRA Toolbox [13]. The model structure
can be loaded into Matlab using the ‘SimPhenyPlus’ format with GPR and compound information.
Minimization of Metabolic Adjustment (MoMA) [39], and
a linear version of MoMA (linearMoMA).
In the linearMoMA method, minimization of the quadratic objective function
of the original MoMA algorithm
was replaced by minimization of the corresponding 1-norm objective function
(i.e. sum of the absolute values of the differences of wild type FBA solution
and the knockout strain flux solution).
The computed results were then compared to growth phenotype data
(viable/lethal) from a previously published experimental gene deletion study [3].
The comparison between experimental and in silico deletion phenotypes involved
choosing a threshold for the predicted relative growth rate of
a deletion strain that is considered to be viable.
We used standard ROC curve analysis
to assess the accuracy of different prediction methods and models
across the full range of the viability threshold parameter,
results shown in Figure S2 [see Additional file 3].
The ROC curve plots the true viable rate against the false viable rate
allowing comparison of different models and methods
without requiring arbitrarily choosing this parameter a priori [40].
The optimal prediction performance corresponds to
the point closest to the top left corner of the ROC plot
(i.e. 100% true viable rate, 0% false viable rate).
Comparison of iMM904 and iLL672 gene deletion predictions and experimental data under minimal media conditions
Media
Model
Method
True viable
False viable
False lethal
True lethal
True viable %
False viable %
MCC
Glucose
iMM904 full
FBA
647
10
32
33
95.29
23.26
0.6
iMM904 full
linMOMA
644
10
35
33
94.85
23.26
0.58
iMM904 full
MOMA
644
10
35
33
94.85
23.26
0.58
iMM904 red
FBA
440
9
28
33
94.02
21.43
0.61
iMM904 red
linMOMA
437
9
31
33
93.38
21.43
0.6
iMM904 red
MOMA
437
9
31
33
93.38
21.43
0.6
iLL672 full
MOMA
433
9
35
33
92.52
21.43
0.57
Galactose
iMM904 full
FBA
595
32
36
59
94.29
35.16
0.58
iMM904 full
linMOMA
595
32
36
59
94.29
35.16
0.58
iMM904 full
MOMA
595
32
36
59
94.29
35.16
0.58
iMM904 red
FBA
409
12
33
56
92.53
17.65
0.67
iMM904 red
linMOMA
409
12
33
56
92.53
17.65
0.67
iMM904 red
MOMA
409
12
33
56
92.53
17.65
0.67
iLL672 full
MOMA
411
19
31
49
92.99
27.94
0.61
Glycerol
iMM904 full
FBA
596
43
36
47
94.3
47.78
0.48
iMM904 full
linMOMA
595
44
37
46
94.15
48.89
0.47
iMM904 full
MOMA
598
44
34
46
94.62
48.89
0.48
iMM904 red
FBA
410
20
34
46
92.34
30.3
0.57
iMM904 red
linMOMA
409
21
35
45
92.12
31.82
0.56
iMM904 red
MOMA
412
21
32
45
92.79
31.82
0.57
iLL672 full
MOMA
406
20
38
46
91.44
30.3
0.55
Ethanol
iMM904 full
FBA
593
45
29
55
95.34
45
0.54
iMM904 full
linMOMA
592
45
30
55
95.18
45
0.54
iMM904 full
MOMA
592
44
30
56
95.18
44
0.55
iMM904 red
FBA
408
21
27
54
93.79
28
0.64
iMM904 red
linMOMA
407
21
28
54
93.56
28
0.63
iMM904 red
MOMA
407
20
28
55
93.56
26.67
0.64
iLL672 full
MOMA
401
13
34
62
92.18
17.33
0.68
MCC, Matthews correlation coefficient (see Methods). Note that the iLL672 predictions were obtained directly from [3] and thus the viability threshold was not optimized using the maximum MCC approach.
we assumed that sampling of the optimal solution space was appropriate for this study.
In order to sample a physiologically reasonable range of flux distributions,
samples for four different oxygen uptake rates
(1, 2, 3, and 4 mmol/hr/gDW with 5 million steps each)
were combined in the final analysis.
Standardized scoring of flux differences between perturbation and control conditions
A Z-score based approach was implemented to quantify differences in flux samples between two conditions (Figure 2).
First, two flux vectors were chosen randomly,
one from each of the two samples to be compared and
the difference between the flux vectors was computed.
This approach was repeated to create a sample of 10,000 (n) flux difference vectors
for each pair of conditions considered (e.g. mutant or perturbed environment vs. wild type).
Based on this flux difference sample, the sample mean (μdiff,i) and standard deviation (σdiff,i)
between the two conditions was calculated for each reaction i. The reaction Z-score was calculated as:
reaction Z-score
which describes the sampled mean difference deviation
from a population mean change of zero (i.e. no flux difference
between perturbation and wild type).
Note that this approach allows accounting for uncertainty in the
flux distributions inferred based on the extracellular metabolite secretion constraints.
This is in contrast to approaches such as FBA or MoMA that would predict
a single flux distribution for each condition and thus potentially
overestimate differences between conditions.
The reaction Z-scores can then be further used in analysis
to identify significantly perturbed regions of the metabolic network
based on reporter metabolite [44] or subsystem [30] Z-scores.
These reporter regions indicate, or “report”, dominant perturbation features
at the metabolite and pathway levels for a particular condition.
The reporter metabolite Z-score for any metabolite j can be derived from the reaction Z-scores
of the reactions consuming or producing j (set of reactions denoted as Rj) as:
reporter z-score for any metabolite j
where Nj is the number of reactions in Rj and mmet,j is calculated as
distributional correction for m_met,j SQRT
To account and correct for background distribution, the metabolite Z-score was normalized
by computing μmet,Nj and σmet,,Nj corresponding to the mean mmet and
its standard deviation for 1,000 randomly generated reaction sets of size Nj.
Z-scores for subsystems were calculated similarly by considering the set of reactions Rk
that belongs to each subsystem k.
Hence, positive metabolite and subsystem scores indicate a significantly perturbed metabolic region
relative to other regions, whereas
a negative score indicate regions that are not perturbed
more significantly than what is expected by random chance.
Perturbation subnetworks of reactions and connecting metabolites were visualized using Cytoscape [45].
Results and discussion
Reconstruction and validation of iMM904 network iMM904 network content
A previously reconstructed S. cerevisiae network, iND750,
was used as the basis for the construction of the expanded iMM904 network.
Prior to its presentation here, the iMM904 network content was the basis for a consensus jamboree network that was recently published
but has not yet been adapted for FBA calculations [46].
The majority of iND750 content was carried over and
further expanded on to construct iMM904, which accounts for
904 genes,
1,228 individual metabolites, and
1,412 reactions of which
395 are transport reactions.
Both the number of gene-associated reactions and the number of metabolites
increased in iMM904 compared with the iND750 network.
Additional genes and reactions included in the network primarily expanded the
lipid,
transport, and
carbohydrate subsystems.
The lipid subsystem includes
new genes and
reactions involving the degradation of sphingolipids and glycerolipids.
Sterol metabolism was also expanded to include
the formation and degradation of steryl esters, the
storage form of sterols.
The majority of the new transport reactions were added
to connect network gaps between intracellular compartments
to enable the completion of known physiological functions.
We also added a number of new secretion pathways
based on experimentally observed secreted metabolites [31].
A number of gene-protein-reaction (GPR) relationships were modified
to include additional gene products that are required to catalyze a reaction.
For example, the protein compounds
thioredoxin and
ferricytochrome C
were explicitly represented as compounds in iND750 reactions, but
the genes encoding these proteins were not associated with their corresponding GPRs.
Other examples include glycogenin and NADPH cytochrome p450 reductases (CPRs),
which are required in the assembly of glycogen and
to sustain catalytic activity in cytochromes p450, respectively.
These additional proteins were included in iMM904 as
part of protein complexes to provide a more complete
representation of the genes and
their corresponding products necessary for a catalytic activity to occur.
Major modifications to existing reactions were in cofactor biosynthesis, namely in
quinone,
beta-alanine, and
riboflavin biosynthetic pathways.
Reactions from previous S. cerevisiae networks associated with
quinone,
beta-alanine, and
riboflavin biosynthetic pathways
were essentially inferred from known reaction mechanisms based on
reactions in previous network reconstructions of E. coli [2,47].
These pathways were manually reviewed
based on current literature and subsequently replaced by
reactions and metabolites specific to yeast.
Additional changes in other subsystems were also made, such as
changes to the compartmental location of a gene and
its corresponding reaction(s),
changes in reaction reversibility and cofactor specificity, and
the elucidation of particular transport mechanisms.
A comprehensive listing of iMM904 network contents as well as
a detailed list of changes between iND750 and iMM904 is included
[see Additional file 1].
Predicting deletion growth phenotypes
The updated genome-scale iMM904 metabolic network was validated
by comparing in silico single-gene deletion predictions to
in vivo results from a previous study used
to analyze another S. cerevisiae metabolic model, iLL672 [3].
This network was constructed based on the iFF708 network [22],
To validate the predicted results, reaction flux changes from both FBA and sampling methods were compared to differential intracellular metabolite level data measured from the same study. Intracellular metabolites involved in highly perturbed reactions (i.e. reactants and products) predicted from FBA and sampling analyses were identified and
compared to metabolites that were experimentally identified as significantly changed (p < 0.05) between mutant and wild-type. Statistical measures of recall, accuracy, and
precision were calculated and represent the predictive sensitivity, exactness, and reproducibility respectively. From the sampling analysis, a considerably larger number of
significantly perturbed reactions are predicted in the anaerobic case (505 reactions, or 70.7% of active reactions) than in aerobic (394 reactions, or 49.8% of active reactions). The top percentile of FBA flux changes equivalent to the percentage of significantly perturbed sampling reactions were compared to the intracellular data. Results from both analyses are summarized in Table 2. Sampling predictions were considerably higher in recall than FBA predictions for both conditions, with respective ranges of 0.83–1
compared to 0.48–0.96. Accuracy was also higher in sampling predictions; however, precision was slightly better in the FBA predictions as expected due to the smaller
number of predicted changes. Overall, the sampling predictions of perturbed intracellular metabolites are strongly consistent with the experimental data and significantly
outperforms that of FBA optimization predictions in accurately predicting differential metabolites involved in perturbed intracellular fluxes.
Table 2. Statistical comparison of the differential intracellular metabolite data set (p < 0.05) with metabolites involved in perturbed reactions predicted by FBA optimization and sampling analyses for aerobic and anaerobic gdh1/GDH2 mutant.
Table 2 Statistical comparison of the differential intracellular metabolite data set (p < 0.05)
with metabolites involved in perturbed reactions predicted by FBA optimization and
sampling analyses for aerobic and anaerobic gdh1/GDH2 mutant.
Aerobic
Anaerobic
Overall
FBA
Sampling
FBA
Sampling
FBA
Recall
0.48
0.83
0.96
1
0.71
0.91
Accuracy
0.55
0.62
0.64
0.64
0.6
0.63
Precision
0.78
0.69
0.64
0.63
0.68
0.66
Overall statistics indicate combined results of both conditions.
Figure 3.Perturbation reaction subnetwork of gdh1/GDH2 mutant under aerobic conditions.
The network illustrates a simplified subset of highly perturbedPerturbation subnetworks can be drawn to visualize predicted significantly perturbed intracellular reactions and illustrate their connection to the observed secreted metabolites in the aerobic and anaerobic gdh1/GDH2 mutants.
Perturbation reaction subnetwork of gdh1.GDH2 mutant under aerobic conditions.
Figure 3 shows an example of a simplified aerobic perturbation subnetwork consisting primarily of proximal pathways connected directly to a subset of major secreted
metabolites
glutamate,
proline,
D-lactate, and
2-hydroxybuturate.
Figure 4 displays anaerobic reactions with Z-scores of similar magnitude to the perturbed reactions in Figure 3. The same subset of metabolites is also present in the
larger anaerobic perturbation network and indicates that the NADPH/NADH balance perturbation induced by the gdh1/GDH2 manipulation has widespread effects
beyond just altering glutamate metabolism anaerobically.
Interestingly, it is clear that the majority of the secreted metabolite pathways involve connected perturbed reactions that broadly converge on glutamate.
Note that Figures 3 and 4 only show the subnetworks that consisted of two or more connected reactions for a number of secreted metabolites no contiguous perturbed pathway could be identified by the sampling approach. This indicates that the secreted metabolite pattern alone is not sufficient to determine which specific
production and secretion pathways are used by the cell for these metabolites.
Reactions connected to aerobically-secreted metabolites predicted from the sampling analysis of the gdh1/GDH2 mutant strain.
The major secreted metabolites
glutamate,
proline,
D-lactate, and
2-hydroxybuturate
were also detected in the anaerobic condition. Metabolite abbreviations are found in Additional file 1.
Perturbation reaction subnetwork of gdh1/GDH2 mutant under anaerobic conditions.
Perturbation reaction subnetwork of gdh1.GDH2 mutant under anaerobic conditions
Subnetwork illustrates the highly perturbed anaerobic reactions of similar Z-reaction magnitude to the reactions in Figure 3.
A significantly larger number of reactions indicates mutant metabolic effects are more widespread in the anaerobic environment.
The network shows that perturbed pathways converge on glutamate, the main site in which the gdh1/GDH2 modification was introduced, which
suggests that the direct genetic perturbation effects are amplified under this environment. Metabolite abbreviations are found in Additional file 1.
To further highlight metabolic regions that have been systemically affected by the gdh1/GDH2 modification, reporter metabolite and subsystem methods [30] were used to
summarize reaction scores around specific metabolites and in specific metabolic subsystems. The top ten significant scores for metabolites/subsystems associated with more
than three reactions are summarized in Tables 3 (aerobic) and 4 (anaerobic), with Z > 1.64 corresponding to p < 0.05 for a one-tailed distribution. Full data for all reactions,
reporter metabolites, and reporter subsystems is included [see Additional file 4].
Table 3. List of the top ten significant reporter metabolite and subsystem scores for the gdh1/GDH2 vs. wild type comparison in aerobic conditions.
Table 3
List of the top ten significant reporter metabolite and subsystem scores for the gdh1/GDH2 vs. wild type comparison in aerobic conditions.
Reporter metabolite
Z-score
No of reactions*
L-proline [c]
2.71
4
Carbon dioxide [m]
2.51
15
Proton [m]
2.19
51
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate [c]
1.93
7
Ubiquinone-6 [m]
1.82
5
Ubiquinol-6 [m]
1.82
5
Ribulose-5-phosphate [c]
1.8
4
Uracil [c]
1.74
4
L-homoserine [c]
1.72
4
Alpha-ketoglutarate [m]
1.71
8
Reporter subsystem
Z-score
No of reactions
Citric Acid Cycle
4.58
7
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
3.29
12
Glycine and Serine Metabolism
2.69
17
Alanine and Aspartate Metabolism
2.65
6
Oxidative Phosphorylation
1.79
8
Thiamine Metabolism
1.54
8
Arginine and Proline Metabolism
1.44
20
Other Amino Acid Metabolism
1.28
5
Glycolysis/Gluconeogenesis
0.58
14
Anaplerotic reactions
0.19
9
*Number of reactions categorized in a subsystem or found to be neighboring each metabolite
Perturbations under aerobic conditions largely consisted of pathways involved in mediating the NADH and NADPH balance. Among the highest scoring aerobic subsystems
are TCA cycle and pentose phosphate pathway – key pathways directly involved in the generation of NADH and NADPH. Reporter metabolites involved in these
subsystems –
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate,
ribulose-5-phosphate, and
alpha-ketoglutarate – were also identified.
These results are consistent with flux and enzyme activity measurements
of the gdh1/GDH2 strain under aerobic conditions [32],
which reported significant reduction in the pentose phosphate pathway flux
with concomitant changes in other central metabolic pathways.
Levels of several TCA cycle intermediates (e.g. fumarate, succinate, malate) were also elevated
in the gdh1/GDH2 mutant according to the differential intracellular metabolite data.
Clustergram of top reporter metabolites – y in ammonium-toxic and potassium-limited conditions
Clustergram of top reporter metabolites (i.e. in yellow) in ammonium-toxic and potassium-limited conditions.
Amino acid perturbation patterns (shown in red) were shown to be consistently scored across conditions, indicating that potassium-limited environments K1 (lowest
concentration) and K2 (low concentration) elicited a similar ammonium detoxification response as ammonium-toxic environments N1 (high concentration) and N2
(highest concentration). Metabolites associated with folate metabolism (highlighted in green) are also highly perturbed in ammonium-toxic conditions. Metabolite
abbreviations are found in Additional file 1.
In addition to perturbed amino acids, a secondary effect notably appears at high ammonia levels in which metabolic regions related to folate metabolism are significantly affected. As highlighted in green in Figure 3, we predicted significantly perturbed key metabolites involved in the cytosolic folate cycle. These include tetrahydrofolate derivatives and other metabolites connected to the folate pathway, namely glycine and the methionine-derived methylation cofactors S-adenosylmethionine and S-adenosyl-homocysteine. Additionally, threonine was identified to be a key perturbed metabolite in excess ammonium conditions. These results further illustrate the close
connection between threonine biosynthesis, folate metabolism involving glycine derived from its threonine precursor, and nucleotide biosynthesis [51] that was discussed in
conjunction with the gdh1/GDH2 strain data. Taken together with the anaerobic gdh1/GDH2 data, the results consistently suggest highly perturbed threonine and folate
metabolism when amino acid-related pathways are broadly affected.
In both ammonium-toxic and potassium-limited environments, impaired cellular growth was observed, which can be attributed to high energetic costs of increased
ammonium assimilation to synthesize and excrete amino acids. However, under high ammonium environments, reporter metabolites related to threonine and folate
metabolism indicated that their perturbation, and thus purine supply, may be an additional factor in decreasing cellular viability as there is a direct relationship between
intracellular folate levels and growth rate [54]. Based on these results, we concluded that while potassiumlimited growth in yeast indeed shares physiological features with
growth in ammonium excess, its effects are not as detrimental as actual ammonium excess. The effects on proximal amino acid metabolic pathways are similar in both
environments as indicated by the secretion of the majority of amino acids. However, when our method was applied to analyze the physiological basis behind differences in
secretion profiles between low potassium and high ammonium conditions, ammonium excess was predicted to likely disrupt physiological ammonium assimilation processes,
which in turn potentially impacts folate metabolism and associated cellular growth.
Conclusion
The method presented in this study presents an approach to connecting intracellular flux states to metabolites that are excreted under various physiological conditions. We
showed that well-curated genome-scale metabolic networks can be used to integrate and analyze quantitative EM data by systematically identifying altered intracellular
pathways related to measured changes in the extracellular metabolome. We were able to identify statistically significant metabolic regions that were altered as a result of
genetic (gdh1/GD2 mutant) and environmental (excess ammonium and limited potassium) perturbations, and the predicted intracellular metabolic changes were consistent
with previously published experimental data including measurements of intracellular metabolite levels and metabolic fluxes. Our reanalysis of previously published EM data
on ammonium assimilation-related genetic and environmental perturbations also resulted in testable hypotheses about the role of threonine and folate pathways in mediating
broad responses to changes in ammonium utilization. These studies also demonstrated that the samplingbased method can be readily applied when only partial secreted
metabolite profiles (e.g. only amino acids) are available.
With the emergence of metabolite biofluid biomarkers as a diagnostic tool in human disease [55,56] and the availability of genome-scale human metabolic networks [1],
extensions of the present method would allow identifying potential pathway changes linked to these biomarkers. Employing such a method for studying yeast metabolism was possible as the metabolomic data was measured under controllable environmental conditions where the inputs and outputs of the system were defined. Measured metabolite biomarkers in a clinical setting, however, is far from a controlled environment with significant variations in genetic, nutritional, and environmental factors between different
patients. While there are certainly limitations for clinical applications, the method introduced here is a progressive step towards applying genome-scale metabolic networks
towards analyzing biofluid metabolome data as it 1) avoids the need to only study optimal metabolic states based on a predetermined objective function, 2) allows dealing with noisy experimental data through the sampling approach, and 3) enables analysis even with limited identification of metabolites in the data. The ability to establish potential
connections between extracellular markers and intracellular pathways would be valuable in delineating the genetic and environmental factors associated with a particular
disease.
Authors’ contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: MLM MJH BOP. Performed experiments: MLM MJH. Analyzed the data: MLM MJH. Wrote the paper: MLM MJH BOP. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.
Acknowledgements
We thank Jens Nielsen for providing the raw metabolome data for the mutant strain, and Jan Schellenberger and Ines Thiele for valuable discussions. This work was supported by NIH grant R01 GM071808. BOP serves on the scientific advisory board of Genomatica Inc.
References
Duarte NC, Becker SA, Jamshidi N, Thiele I, Mo ML, Vo TD, Srivas R, Palsson BO: Global reconstruction of the human metabolic network based on genomic and bibliomic data.
Nookaew I, Jewett MC, Meechai A, Thammarongtham C, Laoteng K, Cheevadhanarak S, Nielsen J, Bhumiratana S: The genome-scale metabolic model iIN800 of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and its validation: a scaffold to query lipid metabolism.
Thiele I, Vo TD, Price ND, Palsson B: An Expanded Metabolic Reconstruction of Helicobacter pylori (i IT341 GSM/GPR): An in silico genome-scale characterization of single and double deletion mutants.
Vo TD, Greenberg HJ, Palsson BO: Reconstruction and functional characterization of the human mitochondrial metabolic network based on proteomic and biochemical data.
Feist AM, Henry CS, Reed JL, Krummenacker M, Joyce AR, Karp PD, V H, Palsson BO: A genome-scale metabolic reconstruction for Escherichia coli K-12 MG1655 that accounts for 1261 ORFs and thermodynamic information.
Becker SA, Feist AM, Mo ML, Hannum G, Palsson BO, Herrgard MJ: Quantitative Prediction of Cellular Metabolism with Constraint-based Models: The COBRA Toolbox.
Reed JL, Palsson BO: Genome-Scale In Silico Models of E. coli Have Multiple Equivalent Phenotypic States: Assessment of Correlated Reaction Subsets That Comprise Network States.
Allen J, Davey HM, Broadhurst D, Heald JK, Rowland JJ, Oliver SG, Kell DB: High-throughput classification of yeast mutants for functional genomics using metabolic footprinting.
Mortishire-Smith RJ, Skiles GL, Lawrence JW, Spence S, Nicholls AW, Johnson BA, Nicholson JK: Use of metabonomics to identify impaired fatty acid metabolism as the mechanism of a drug-induced toxicity.
Sabatine MS, Liu E, Morrow DA, Heller E, McCarroll R, Wiegand R, Berriz GF, Roth FP, Gerszten RE: Metabolomic identification of novel biomarkers of myocardial ischemia.
Cakir T, Efe C, Dikicioglu D, Hortaçsu AKB, Oliver SG: Flux balance analysis of a genome-scale yeast model constrained by exometabolomic data allows metabolic system identification of genetically different strains.
Bang JW, Crockford DJ, Holmes E, Pazos F, Sternberg MJ, Muggleton SH, Nicholson JK: Integrative top-down system metabolic modeling in experimental disease states via data-driven Bayesian methods.
Oliveira AP, Patil KR, Nielsen J: Architecture of transcriptional regulatory circuits is knitted over the topology of bio-molecular interaction networks.
Villas-Boas SG, Moxley JF, Akesson M, Stephanopoulos G, Nielsen J: High-throughput metabolic state analysis: the missing link in integrated functional genomics of yeasts.
Moreira dos Santos M, Thygesen G, Kötter P, Olsson L, Nielsen J: Aerobic physiology of redox-engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains modified in the ammonium assimilation for increased NADPH availability.
Famili I, Forster J, Nielsen J, Palsson BO: Saccharomyces cerevisiae phenotypes can be predicted by using constraint-based analysis of a genome-scale reconstructed metabolic network.
Price ND, Thiele I, Palsson BO: Candidate states of Helicobacter pylori’s genome-scale metabolic network upon application of “loop law” thermodynamic constraints.
Shannon P, Markiel A, Ozier O, Baliga NS, Wang JT, Ramage D, Amin N, Schwikowski B, Ideker T: Cytoscape: a software environment for integrated models of biomolecular interaction networks.
Herrgard MJ, Swainston N, Dobson P, Dunn WB, Arga KY, Arvas M, Bluthgen N, Borger S, Costenoble R, Heinemann M, et al.: A consensus yeast metabolic network reconstruction obtained from a community approach to systems biology.
Nissen TL, Kielland-Brandt MC, Nielsen J, Villadsen J: Optimization of ethanol production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by metabolic engineering of the ammonium assimilation.
Denis V, Daignan-Fornier B: Synthesis of glutamine, glycine and 10-formyl tetrahydrofolate is coregulated with purine biosynthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
This is the portion of the discussion in a series of articles that began with signaling and signaling pathways. There are features on the functioning of enzymes and proteins, on sequential changes in a chain reaction, and on conformational changes that we shall return to. These are critical to developing a more complete understanding of life processes. I have indicated that many of the protein-protein interactions or protein-membrane interactions and associated regulatory features have been referred to previously, but the focus of the discussion or points made were different. Even though I considered placing this after the discussion of proteins and how they play out their essential role, I needed to lay out the scope of metabolic reactions and pathways, and their complementary changes. These may not appear to be adaptive, if the circumstances and the duration is not clear. The metabolic pathways map in total is in interaction with environmental conditions – light, heat, external nutrients and minerals, and toxins – all of which give direction and strength to these reactions. I shall again take from Wikipedia, as needed, and also follow mechanisms and examples from the literature, which give insight into the developments in cell metabolism. A developing goal is to discover how views introduced by molecular biology and genomics don’t clarify functional cellular dynamics that are not related to the classical view. The work is vast.
Signaling and signaling pathways
Signaling transduction tutorial.
Carbohydrate metabolism
Lipid metabolism
Protein synthesis and degradation
Subcellular structure
Impairments in pathological states: endocrine disorders; stress hypermetabolism; cancer.
The most important carbohydrate is glucose, a simple sugar (monosaccharide) that is metabolized by nearly all known organisms. Glucose and other carbohydrates are part of a wide variety of metabolic pathways across species: plants synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis storing the absorbed energy internally, often in the form of starch or lipids. Plant components are consumed by animals and fungi, and used as fuel for cellular respiration. Oxidation of one gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 4 kcal of energy and from lipids about 9 kcal. Energy obtained from metabolism (e.g. oxidation of glucose) is usually stored temporarily within cells in the form of ATP.[1] Organisms capable of aerobic respiration metabolize glucose and oxygen to release energy with carbon dioxide and water as byproducts.
Complex carbohydrates contain three or more sugar units linked in a chain, with most containing hundreds to thousands of sugar units. They are digested by enzymes to release the simple sugars.
I shall not go into the digestion, breakdown and absorption of these sugar molecules. Carbohydrates are used for short-term fuel, and the most important is glucose. Even though they are simpler to metabolize than fats or those amino acids (components of proteins) that can be used for fuel, they do not produce as effect an energy yield measured by ATP. In animals, The concentration of glucose in the blood is linked to the pancreatic endocrine hormone, insulin.
Carbohydrates are typically stored as long polymers of glucose molecules with glycosidic bonds for structural support (e.g. chitin, cellulose) or for energy storage (e.g. glycogen, starch). However, the strong affinity of most carbohydrates for water makes storage of large quantities of carbohydrates inefficient due to the large molecular weight of the solvated water-carbohydrate complex. In most organisms, excess carbohydrates are regularly catabolised to form acetyl-CoA, which is a feed stock for the fatty acid synthesis pathway; fatty acids, triglycerides, and other lipids are commonly used for long-term energy storage. The hydrophobic character of lipids makes them a much more compact form of energy storage than hydrophilic carbohydrates. However, animals, including humans, lack the necessary enzymatic machinery and so do not synthesize glucose from lipids, though glycerol can be converted to glucose.[6]
Metabolic pathways in eukaryotes
Carbon fixation, or photosynthesis, in which CO2 is reduced to carbohydrate. [omitted]
Glycolysis – the metabolism of glucose molecules to obtain ATP and pyruvate[7] by way of first splitting a six-carbon into two three csrbon chains, which are converted to lactic acid from pyruvate in the lactic dehydrogenase reaction. The reverse conversion is by a separate unidirectional reaction back to pyruvate after moving through pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.[8]
Krebs, tricarboxylic acic, or citric acid cycle
Typically, a breakdown of one molecule of glucose by aerobic respiration (i.e. involving both glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle) is about 33-35 ATP.[1] This is categorized as:
Glycogenolysis – the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which provides a glucose supply for glucose-dependent tissues.
Glycogenolysis in liver provides circulating glucose short term.
Glycogenolysis in muscle is obligatory for muscle contraction.
Anaerobic breakdown by glycolysis – yielding 8-10 ATP
Aerobic respiration by kreb’s cycle – yielding 25 ATP
The pentose phosphate pathway (shunt) converts hexoses into pentoses and regenerates NADPH.[9] NADPH is an essential antioxidant in cells which prevents oxidative damage and acts as precursor for production of many biomolecules.
Gluconeogenesis – de novo synthesis of glucose molecules from simple organic compounds. An example in humans is the conversion of a few amino acids in cellular protein to glucose.
Metabolic use of glucose is highly important as an energy source for muscle cells and in the brain, and red blood cells.
Glucoregulation
The hormone insulin is the primary glucose regulatory signal in animals. It mainly promotes glucose uptake by the cells, and causes liver to store excess glucose as glycogen. Its absence turns off glucose uptake, reverses electrolyte adjustments, begins glycogen breakdown and glucose release into the circulation by some cells, begins lipid release from lipid storage cells, etc. The level of circulatory glucose (known informally as “blood sugar”) is the most important signal to the insulin-producing cells. Because the level of circulatory glucose is largely determined by the intake of dietary carbohydrates, diet controls major aspects of metabolism via insulin. In humans, insulin is made by beta cells in the pancreas, fat is stored in adipose tissue cells, and glycogen is both stored and released as needed by liver cells. Regardless of insulin levels, no glucose is released to the blood from internal glycogen stores from muscle cells.
The hormone glucagon, on the other hand, opposes that of insulin, forcing the conversion of glycogen in liver cells to glucose, and then release into the blood. Muscle cells, however, lack the ability to export glucose into the blood. The release of glucagon is precipitated by low levels of blood glucose. Other hormones, notably growth hormone, cortisol, and certain catecholamines (such as epinepherine) have glucoregulatory actions similar to glucagon. These hormones are referred to as stress hormones because they are released under the influence of catabolic proinflammatory (stress) cytokines – interleukin-1 (IL1) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα).
Tumor necrosis factor as a mediator of shock, cachexia and inflammation. Cerami A. Blood Purif. 1993; 11(2):108-17.
Mediators of cytokine-induced insulin resistance in obesity and other inflammatory settings. Marette A. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2002 Jul; 5(4):377-83.
Inflammation: the link between insulin resistance, obesity and diabetes. Dandona P, Aljada A, Bandyopadhyay A. Trends Immunol. 2004 Jan; 25(1):4-7
Cellular respiration involves breaking the bonds of glucose to produce energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). The total energy produced during glucose metabolism is described at Energetics of Cellular Respiration. Glycolysis is the most critical phase in glucose metabolism during cellular respiration. The term “glycolysis” literally means breakdown of glucose and sugars. Biochemically, it involves the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate (or pyruvic acid) via a series of enzymes. Glycolysis does not require molecular oxygen and is hence considered anaerobic. Therefore, it is a common pathway for all living organisms.
Glycolysis is followed by
Kreb’s cycle in the stages of cellular respiration.
Glycolysis is said to occur in two phases:
The Preparatory Phase: From glucose till formation of Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate (GADP)
The Pay-off Phase: From Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate (GADP) to the final product pyruvate
.
.
The animation below gives an outline of the entire pathway of glucose metabolism by glycolysis
Note – The animation is best played in full screen. To go forward in the animation, press the Play button. To skip the whole section press the forward button. To go back press the rewind button.
The Preparatory Phase
In this stage of the cycle, ATP or energy is actually consumed and is hence also known as the investment phase of glycolysis.
Step 1, involves the conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) with the help of the enzyme hexokinase and the consumption of 1 molecule of ATP. This reaction helps keep the concentration of glucose low in the cell, allowing for more absorption of glucose into it. Additionally, G6P is not transported out of the cell as there are no G6P transporters on the cell.
Step 2 involves the rearrangement of glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate (F6P) with the help of the enzyme phosphohexose isomerase in a reversible manner. Fructose can directly enter the glycolysis pathway at this point. This isomerization to a keto-sugar such as fructose is essential for carbanion stabilization required for the next step.
Step 3 involves the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-biphosphate (F1,6BP) by the use of 1 molecule of ATP and the enzyme phosphofructokinase-1 (PPK1). This phosphorylation step destabilizes the molecule and helps drive the next reaction which ensures breakdown of the molecule to a 3-carbon unit.
Step 4 involves the breakdown of fructose-1,6-biphosphate (6 carbons) to two molecules of 3-carbon units i.e. glyceralde 3-phosphate (GADP) and Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP). The GADP can be interconverted to DHAP by enzyme triose phosphate isomerase.
The Pay-Off Phase
In this stage of the cycle, ATP or energy is produced either in the form of ATP alone or in the form of NADH + H+ which can be later converted to ATP via the electron transport chain (ETS). In this since energy is restored it is known as the pay-off phase of glycolysis. All steps in this phase occur with 2 molecules of the substrates each as indicated in the brackets by the name of the molecules.
Step 1, involves the dehydrogenation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GADP) to 1,3-biphophoglycerate (1,3BPG) by the use of 2 molecules of inorganic phosphate (Pi) with the production of 2 molecules of NADH + H+ in the presence of the enzyme glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase.
Step 2, in this step dephosphorylation of 1,3-biphosphoglycerate (1,3BPG) to 3-phospoglycerate (3PG) produces 2 molecules of ATP by the enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase.
Step 3, involves the isomerisation of 3-phosphoglycerate (3PG) to 2-phosphoglycerate (2PG) by the enzyme phosphoglycerate mutase in a reversible manner.
Step 4 involves the enolization of 2-phosphoglycerate (2PG) to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) with the loss of one molecule of water in the presence of enzyme enolase.
Step 5 is the final step of the glycolysis pathway and it involves the dephosphorylation of the phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to pyruvate by enzyme pyruvate kinase to produce 2 more molecules of ATP.
Net Yield of Glycolysis
The preparatory phase consumes 2 ATP
The pay-off phase produces 4 ATP.
The gross yield of glycolysis is therefore
4 ATP – 2 ATP = 2 ATP
The pay-off phase also produces 2 molecules of NADH + H+ which can be further converted to a total of 5 molecules of ATP* by the electron transport chain (ETC) during oxidative phosphorylation.
Thus the net yield during glycolysis is 7 molecules of ATP.
* This is calculated assuming one NADH molecule gives 2.5 molecules of ATP during oxidative phosphorylation.
References
David L. Nelson and Michael M. Cox, Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry, 4th Ed.
Jeremy M. Berg, John L. Tymockzo and Luber Stryer, Biochemistry, 7th Ed.
Cellular respiration involves 3 stages for the breakdown of glucose – glycolysis, Kreb’s cycle and the electron transport system. The total energy produced during glucose metabolism is described at Energetics of Cellular Respiration. We have seen the glycolysis pathway with animation previously. The Kreb’s cycle is named after Adolf Krebs who studied the utilization of oxygen in a pigeon. It is also commonly known as the citric acid cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle. Kreb’s cycle is a very important step in the metabolic pathway as it produces about 60-70% of ATP for release of energy in the body. It directly or indirectly connects with all the other individual pathways in the body too. It takes place in the mitochondria as all the enzymes and co-enzymes required are present there.
The Kreb’s Cycle occurs in two stages:
1. Conversion of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
Glycolysis of 1 molecule of glucose produces 2 molecules of pyruvate. Each pyruvate in the presence of pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) complex in the mitochondria gets converted to acetyl CoA which in turn enters the Kreb’s cycle. This reaction is called as oxidative decarboxylation as the carboxyl group is removed from the pyruvate molecule in the form of CO2 thus yielding 2-carbon acetyl group which along with the coenzyme A forms acetyl CoA.
The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDH) comprises of three enzymes – pyruvate dehydrogenase, dihydrolipoyl transacetylase and dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase each one playing an important role in the reaction as shown below. The PDH requires the sequential action of five co-factors or co-enzymes for the combined action of dehydrogenation and decarboxylation to take place. These five are TPP (thiamine phosphate), FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide), NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), coenzyme A (denoted as CoA-SH at times to depict role of -SH group) and lipoamide.
Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
Pyruvate reacts with the TPP (Thiamine Phosphate) bound part of pyruvate dehydrogenase and undergoes decarboxylation to give hydroxyethyl-TPP.
This hydroxyethyl-TPP in turn gets oxidised to acetyl lipoamide by the same enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase by the transfer of two electrons. These electrons then reduce the disulfide bond of the enzyme dihydrolipoyl transacetylase with the transfer of the acetyl group as highlighted in purple.
Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase catalyses the transesterification forming acetyl CoA by transfer of acetyl group to coenzyme A.
When acetyl CoA is being formed, at the same time reduced lipoamide is getting converted to oxidised lipoamide due to enzyme dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase by the transfer of 2 hydrogen atoms to FAD.
Dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase transfers the reduced equivalents (2 hydrogen atoms) to FAD thus forming FADH2. FADH2 in turn transfers a hydride ion to NAD+ to form NADH+H+.
2. Acetyl CoA Enters the Kreb’s Cycle
The acetyl CoA produced from the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex enters the Kreb’s cycle.
The animation below describes the Kreb’s cycle in detail followed by the discussion. A static image of the cycle can be found next to the discussion for reference. Press the play button to progress in the animation.
Discussion
The Kreb’s Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle in a static image version of the animation.
Acetyl CoA condenses with oxaloacetate (4C) to form a citrate (6C) by transferring its acetyl group in the presence of enzyme citrate synthase. The CoA liberated in this reaction is ready to participate in the oxidative decarboxylation of another molecule of pyruvate by PDH complex.
Citrate is then isomerised to Isocitrate by the enzyme aconitase through the formation of the intermediate cis-aconitate. This is a reversible reaction as aconitase has an iron-sulfur center which can promote reversible addition of H2O to the double bond of enzyme-bound cis-aconitate in 2 different ways, one forming citrate and the other isocitrate.
Isocitrate undergoes oxidative decarboxylation by the enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase to form oxalosuccinate (intermediate- not shown) which in turn forms α-ketoglutarate (also known as oxoglutarate) which is a five carbon compound. CO2 and NADH are released in this step.
α-ketoglutarate (5C) undergoes oxidative decarboxylation once again to form succinyl CoA (4C) catalysed by the enzyme α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex. α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex is similar to PDH complex and is made up of 3 enzymes and is dependent on five co-enzymes TPP, FAD, NAD, bound lipoate and conenzyme A. In this step once again NADH and CO2 are liberated. So in all 2 molecules of NADH and 2 molecules of CO2 is produced till now.
Succinyl CoA is then converted to succinate by succinate thiokinase or succinyl coA synthetase in a reversible manner. This reaction involves an intermediate step in which the enzyme gets phosphorylated and then the phosphoryl group which has a high group transfer potential is transferred to GDP to form GTP. This GTP is converted to ATP by the enzyme nucleoside diphosphate kinase by donating its phosphoryl group to ADP. This reaction which involves the formation of GTP is a substrate level phosphorylation as it happens by using the energy formed by the oxidative decarboxylation of α-ketoglutarate.
Succinate then gets oxidised reversibly to fumarate by succinate dehydrogenase. The enzyme contains iron-sulfur clusters and covalently bound FAD which when undergoes electron exchange in the mitochondria causes the production of FADH2.
Fumarate is then by the enzyme fumarase converted to malate by hydration(addition of H2O) in a reversible manner.
Malate is then reversibly converted to oxaloacetate by malate dehydrogenase which is NAD linked and thus produces NADH.
The oxaloacetate produced is now ready to be utilized in the next cycle by the citrate synthase reaction and thus the equilibrium of the cycle shifts to the right.
Schrodingers_cat
Energetics of the Kreb’s Cycle
Keeping in mind that 1 molecule of glucose would produce 2 molecules of pyruvate via glycolysis. Hence the net energy produced by the Kreb’s cycle for each molecule of pyruvate is doubled for each molecule of glucose. Thus net energy yield in Kreb’s cycle can be summarized as follows for each molecule of glucose:
Reaction Number of ATP or Number of ATP
reduced coenzyme formed ultimately formed
2 Pyruvate → 2 acetyl CoA 2 NADH 5
2 Isocitrate → 2 α- ketoglutarate 2 NADH 5
2 α- ketoglutarate → 2 succinyl CoA 2 NADH 5
2 Succinyl CoA → 2 succinate 2 ATP 2
2 Succinate → 2 fumarate 2 FADH2 3
2 Malate → 2 oxaloacetate 2 NADH 5
TOTAL 25 ATP
* Note- This is calculated as 2.5 ATP per NADH and 1.5 ATP per FADH2. This is because there are multiple electron transport shuttle pathways through which these can be broken to ATP.
Regulation of Kreb’s Cycle
The amount of ADP and ATP largely control the citric acid cycle along with the activity of three key enzymes within the cycle:
Availability of ADP: ADP is a key substrate which finally gets converted to ATP that is essential for the energetics of the cell. A drop in ADP levels would result in inhibition of the electron transport system leading to accumulation of NADH and FADH2. These in turn inhibit the enzymes below.
Citrate Synthase: inhibited by ATP, acetyl CoA, NADH, and succinyl CoA.
Isocitrate Dehydrogenase: activated by ADP, and inhibited by NADH and ATP.
α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase: inhibited by NADH and succinyl CoA.
Recommended Texts
David L. Nelson and Michael M. Cox, Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry 6th Edition
Jeremy M. Berg, John L. Tymockzo and Luber Stryer, Biochemistry 7th Edition
Important Note: The NADH formed in the cytosol can yield variable amounts of ATP depending on the shuttle system utilized to transport them into the mitochondrial matrix. This NADH, formed in the cytosol, is impermeable to the mitochondrial inner-membrane where oxidative phosphorylation takes place. Thus to carry this NADH to the mitochondrial matrix there are special shuttle systems in the body. The most active shuttle is the malate-aspartate shuttle via which 2.5 molecules of ATP are generated for 1 NADH molecule. This shuttle is mainly used by the heart, liver and kidneys. The brain and skeletal muscles use the other shuttle known as glycerol 3-phosphate shuttle which synthesizes 1.5 molecules of ATP for 1 NADH.
Note: The above calculations are done considering that one NADH molecules produces 2.5 ATP and one FADH2 molecule produces 1.5 ATP in the ETS cycle (See full reasoning above). This is because the Kreb’s cycle occurs within the mitochondria and therefore does not require any shuttle pathway for the transport of the NADH into the mitochondrial matrix. Hence there is optimal conversion of NADH to ATP.
Development of the acetylation problem: a personal account
FRITZ LI P M A N N Nobel Prize 1953
After my apprenticeship with Otto Meyerhof, a first interest on my own became the phenomenon we call the Pasteur effect, this peculiar depression of the wasteful fermentation in the respiring cell. By looking for a chemical explanation of this economy measure on the cellular level, I was prompted into a study of the mechanism of pyruvic acid oxidation, since it is at the pyruvic stage where respiration branches off from fermentation. For this study I chose as a promising system a relatively simple looking pyruvic acid oxidation enzyme in a certain strain of Lactobacillus delbrueckii1.
The most important event during this whole period, I now feel, was the accidental observation that in the L. delbrueckii system, pyruvic acid oxidation was completely dependent on the presence of inorganic phosphate. This observation was made in the course of attempts to replace oxygen by methylene blue. To measure the methylene blue reduction manometrically,
I had to switch to a bicarbonate buffer instead of the otherwise routinely used In bicarbonate, to my surprise, as shown in Fig. 1, pyruvate oxidation was very slow, but the addition of a little phosphate caused a remarkable increase in rate. The next figure, Fig. 2, shows the phosphate effect more drastically, using a preparation from which all phosphate was removed by washing with acetate buffer. Then it appeared that the reaction was really fully dependent on phosphate.
In spite of such a phosphate dependence, the phosphate balance measured by the ordinary Fiske-Subbarow procedure did not at first indicate any phosphorylative step. Nevertheless, the suspicion remained that phosphate in some manner was entering into the reaction and that a phosphorylated intermediary was formed. As a first approximation, a coupling of this pyruvate oxidation with adenylic acid phosphorylation was attempted. And,indeed, addition of adenylic acid to the pyruvic oxidation system brought out a net disappearance of inorganic phosphate, accounted for as adenosine triphosphate (Table 11).
I now concluded that the missing link in the reaction chain was acetyl phosphate. In partial confirmation it was shown that a crude preparation of acetyl phosphate, synthesized by the old method of Kämmerer and Carius 2 would transfer phosphate to adenylic acid (Table 2). However, it still took quite some time from then on to identify acetyl phosphate definitely as the initial product of the pyruvic oxidation in this system3,4
At the time when these observations were made, about a dozen years ago,there was, to say the least, a tendency to believe that phosphorylation was rather specifically coupled with the glycolytic reaction. Here, however, we had found a coupling of phosphorylation with a respiratory system. This observation immediately suggested a rather sweeping biochemical significance, of transformations of electron transfer potential, respiratory or fermentative, to phosphate bond energy and therefrom to a wide range of biosynthetic reactions7.
There was a further unusual feature in this pyruvate oxidation system in that the product emerging from the process not only carried an energy-rich phosphoryl radical such as already known, but the acetyl phosphate was even more impressive through its energy-rich acetyl. It rather naturally became a contender for the role of “active” acetate, for the widespread existence of which the isotope experience had already furnished extensive evidence. I became, therefore, quite attracted by the possibility that acetyl phosphate could serve two rather different purposes, either to transfer its phosphoryl group into the phosphate pool, or to supply its active acetyl for biosynthesisof carbon structures. Thus acetyl phosphate should be able to serve as acetyldonor as well as phosphoryl donor, transferring, as shown in Fig. 3, on either side of the oxygen center, such as indicated by Bentley’s early experiments on cleavage7a of acetyl phosphate in H218O.
Phosphate dependence of pyruvate oxidation
These two novel aspects of the energy problem, namely
(1) the emergence of an energy-rich phosphate bond from a purely
respiratory reaction; and
(2) the presumed derivation of a metabolic building-block through this same
reaction, prompted me to propose not only
the generalization of the phosphate bond as a versatie energy distributing system, but also to
aim from there towards
a general concept of transfer of activated groupings by carrier as the fundamental reaction in
biosynthesis8,9.
Although in the related manner the appearance of acetyl phosphate as a
metabolic intermediary first
focused attention to possible mechanisms for the metabolic elaboration of group activation,
it soon turned out that the relationship between acetyl phosphate and
acetyl transfer was much more complicated than anticipated.
Although acetylation was found with rabbit liver homogenate, the
reaction was rather weak. In search of a more active system, Pigeon
liver homogenate was tried and found to harbour an exceedingly potent
acetylation system (Ref. 11, cf. also Ref. 12). This finding of a particularly
active acetylation reaction in cell-free pigeon liver preparations was most
fortunate and played a quite important part in the development of the
acetylation problem.
[portion of lecture]
The pentose phosphate pathway is the major source for the NADPH
required for anabolic processes.Pentose Phosphate Pathway
The main molecule in the body that makes anabolic processes possible is NADPH. Because of the structure of this molecule it readily donates hydrogen ions to metabolites thus reducing them and making them available for energy harvest at a later time. The PPP is the main source of synthesis for NADPH. The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) is also responsible for the production of Ribose-5-phosphate which is an important part of nucleic acids. Finally the PPP can also be used to produce glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate which can then be fed into the TCA and ETC cycles allowing for the harvest of energy. Depending on the needs of the cell certain enzymes can be regulated and thus increasing or decreasing the production of desired metabolites. The enzymes reasonable for catalyzing the steps of the PPP are found most abundantly in the liver (the major site of gluconeogenesis) more specifically in the cytosol. The cytosol is where fatty acid synthesis takes place which is a NADPH dependent process.
Oxidation Phase
The beginning molecule for the PPP is glucose-6-P which is the second intermediate metabolite in glycolysis. Glucose-6-P is oxidized in the presence of glucose-6-P dehydrogenase and NADP+. This step is irreversible and is highly regulated. NADPH and fatty acyl-CoA are strong negative inhibitors to this enzyme. The purpose of this is to decrease production of NADPH when concentrations are high or the synthesis of fatty acids is no longer necessary.
The metabolic product of this step is gluconolactone which is hydrolytrically unstable. Gluconolactonase causes gluconolactone to undergo a ring opening hydrolysis. The product of this reaction is the more stable sugar acid, 6-phospho-D-gluconate.
6-phospho-D-gluconate is oxidized by NADP+ in the presence of 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase which yields ribulose-5-phosphate.
The oxidation phase of the PPP is solely responsible for the production of the NADPH to be used in anabolic processes.
Isomerization Phase
Ribulose-5-phosphate can then be isomerized by phosphopentose isomerase to produce ribose-5-phosphate. Ribose-5-phosphate is one of the main building blocks of nucleic acids and the PPP is the primary source of production of ribose-5-phosphate.
If production of ribose-5-phosphate exceeds the needs of required ribose-5-phosphate in the organism, then phosphopentose epimerase catalyzes a chiralty rearrangement about the center carbon creating xylulose-5-phosphate.
The products of these two reactions can then be rearranged to produce many different length carbon chains. These different length carbon chains have a variety of metabolic fates.
Rearrangement Phase
There are two main classes of enzymes responsible for the rearrangement and synthesis of the different length carbon chain molecules. These are transketolase and transaldolase.
Transketolase is responsible for the cleaving of a two carbon unit from xylulose-5-P and adding that two carbon unit to ribose-5-P thus resulting in glyceraldehyde-3-P and sedoheptulose-7-P.
Transketolase is also responsible for the cleaving of a two carbon unit from xylulose-5-P and adding that two carbon unit to erythrose-4-P resulting in glyceraldehyde-3-P and fructose-6-P.
Transaldolase is responsible for cleaving the three carbon unit from sedoheptulose-7-P and adding that three carbon unit to glyceraldehyde-3-P thus resulting in erythrose-4-P and fructose-6-P.
The end results of the rearrangement phase is a variety of different length sugars which can be fed into many other metabolic processes. For example, fructose-6-P is a key intermediate of glycolysis as well as glyceraldehyde-3-P.
References
Garrett, H., Reginald and Charles Grisham. Biochemistry. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 2008.
Glycogen is a readily mobilized storage form of glucose. It is a very large, branched polymer of glucose residues (Figure 21.1) that can be broken down to yield glucose molecules when energy is needed. Most of the glucose residues in glycogen are linked by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds. Branches at about every tenth residue are created by α-1,6-glycosidic bonds. Recall that α-glycosidic linkages form open helical polymers, whereas β linkages produce nearly straight strands that form structural fibrils, as in cellulose (Section 11.2.3).
Glycogen Structure. In this structure of two outer branches of a glycogen molecule, the residues at the nonreducing ends are shown in red and residue that starts a branch is shown in green. The rest of the glycogen molecule is represented by R.
Glycogen is not as reduced as fatty acids are and consequently not as energy rich. Why do animals store any energy as glycogen? Why not convert all excess fuel into fatty acids? Glycogen is an important fuel reserve for several reasons. The controlled breakdown of glycogen and release of glucose increase the amount of glucose that is available between meals. Hence, glycogen serves as a buffer to maintain blood-glucose levels. Glycogen’s role in maintaining blood-glucose levels is especially important because glucose is virtually the only fuel used by the brain, except during prolonged starvation. Moreover, the glucose from glycogen is readily mobilized and is therefore a good source of energy for sudden, strenuous activity. Unlike fatty acids, the released glucose can provide energy in the absence of oxygen and can thus supply energy for anaerobic activity.
Gluconeogenesis is much like glycolysis only the process occurs in reverse. However, there are exceptions. In glycolysis there are three highly exergonic steps (steps 1,3,10). These are also regulatory steps which include the enzymes hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase. Biological reactions can occur in both the forward and reverse direction. If the reaction occurs in the reverse direction the energy normally released in that reaction is now required. If gluconeogenesis were to simply occur in reverse the reaction would require too much energy to be profitable to that particular organism. In order to overcome this problem, nature has evolved three other enzymes to replace the glycolysis enzymes hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase when going through the process of gluconeogenesis:
The first step in gluconeogenesis is the conversion of pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP). In order to convert pyruvate to PEP there are several steps and several enzymes required. Pyruvate carboxylase, PEP carboxykinase and malate dehydrogenase are the three enzymes responsible for this conversion. Pyruvate carboxylase is found on the mitochondria and converts pyruvate into oxaloacetate. Because oxaloacetate cannot pass through the mitochondria membranes it must be first converted into malate by malate dehydrogenase. Malate can then cross the mitochondria membrane into the cytoplasm where it is then converted back into oxaloacetate with another malate dehydrogenase. Lastly, oxaloacetate is converted into PEP via PEP carboxykinase. The next several steps are exactly the same as glycolysis only the process is in reverse.
The second step that differs from glycolysis is the conversion of fructose-1,6-bP to fructose-6-P with the use of the enzyme fructose-1,6-phosphatase. The conversion of fructose-6-P to glucose-6-P uses the same enzyme as glycolysis, phosphoglucoisomerase.
The last step that differs from glycolysis is the conversion of glucose-6-P to glucose with the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase. This enzyme is located in the endoplasmic reticulum.
Glycolysis
Regulation
Because it is important for organisms to conserve energy, they have derived ways to regulate those metabolic pathways that require and release the most energy. In glycolysis and gluconeogenesis seven of the ten steps occur at or near equilibrium. In gluconeogenesis the conversion of pyruvate to PEP, the conversion of fructose-1,6-bP, and the conversion of glucose-6-P to glucose all occur very spontaneously which is why these processes are highly regulated. It is important for the organism to conserve as much energy as possible. When there is an excess of energy available, gluconeogenesis is inhibited. When energy is required, gluconeogenesis is activated.
The conversion of pyruvate to PEP is regulated by acetyl-CoA. More specifically pyruvate carboxylase is activated by acetyl-CoA. Because acetyl-CoA is an important metabolite in the TCA cycle which produces a lot of energy, when concentrations of acetyl-CoA are high organisms use pyruvate carboxylase to channel pyruvate away from the TCA cycle. If the organism does not need more energy, then it is best to divert those metabolites towards storage or other necessary processes.
The conversion of fructose-1,6-bP to fructose-6-P with the use of fructose-1,6-phosphatase is negatively regulated and inhibited by the molecules AMP and fructose-2,6-bP. These are reciprocal regulators to glycolysis’ phosphofructokinase. Phosphofructosekinase is positively regulated by AMP and fructose-2,6-bP. Once again, when the energy levels produced are higher than needed, i.e. a large ATP to AMP ratio, the organism increases gluconeogenesis and decreases glycolysis. The opposite also applies when energy levels are lower than needed, i.e. a low ATP to AMP ratio, the organism increases glycolysis and decreases gluconeogenesis.
The conversion of glucose-6-P to glucose with use of glucose-6-phosphatase is controlled by substrate level regulation. The metabolite responsible for this type of regulation is glucose-6-P. As levels of glucose-6-P increase, glucose-6-phosphatase increases activity and more glucose is produced. Thus glycolysis is unable to proceed.
Main health effects of sleep deprivation (See Wikipedia:Sleep deprivation). Model: Mikael Häggström. To discuss image, please see Template talk:Häggström diagrams (Photo credit: Wikipedia)
Reporter: Venkat Karra, Ph.D.
Sleep may influence weight by affecting hormones, glucose metabolism and inflammation, say scientists. A new study has found that sleeping more than nine hours a night appears to suppress genetic factors that lead to weight gain. In contrast, getting too little sleep seems to have the opposite effect. Adding a few hours sleep to your night may prevent you from gaining weight. These new findings reveal a complex interaction between sleep and genetic factors linked to body weight.
The study found heritability of body mass index (BMI) — a measurement relating weight and height — was twice as high for short than for long sleepers.
Sleep Duration and Body Mass Index in Twins: A Gene-Environment Interaction
by Nathaniel F. Watson, MD, MSc; Kathryn Paige Harden, PhD; Dedra Buchwald, MD; Michael V. Vitiello, PhD; Allan I. Pack, MB ChB, PhD; David S. Weigle, MD; Jack Goldberg, PhD
Sleep, Volume 35/ Issue 05 / Tuesday, May 01, 2012