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This portion of a series of chapters on metabolism, proteomics and metabolomics dealt mainly with carbohydrate metabolism. Amino acids and lipids are presented more fully in the chapters that follow. There are features on the
functioning of enzymes and proteins,
on sequential changes in a chain reaction, and
on conformational changes that we shall also cover.
These are critical to developing a more complete understanding of life processes.
I needed to lay out the scope of metabolic reactions and pathways, and their complementary changes. These may not appear to be adaptive, if the circumstances and the duration is not clear. The metabolic pathways map in total
is in interaction with environmental conditions – light, heat, external nutrients and minerals, and toxins – all of which give direction and strength to these reactions. A developing goal is to discover how views introduced by molecular biology and genomics don’t clarify functional cellular dynamics that are not related to the classical view. The work is vast.
Carbohydrate metabolism denotes the various biochemical processes responsible for the formation, breakdown and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms. The most important carbohydrate is glucose, a simple sugar (monosaccharide) that is metabolized by nearly all known organisms. Glucose and other carbohydrates are part of a wide variety of metabolic pathways across species: plants synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis storing the absorbed energy internally, often in the form of starch or lipids. Plant components are consumed by animals and fungi, and used as fuel for cellular respiration. Oxidation of one gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 4 kcal of energy and from lipids about 9 kcal. Energy obtained from metabolism (e.g. oxidation of glucose) is usually stored temporarily within cells in the form of ATP. Organisms capable of aerobic respiration metabolize glucose and oxygen to release energy with carbon dioxide and water as byproducts.
Carbohydrates are used for short-term fuel, and even though they are simpler to metabolize than fats, they don’t produce as equivalent energy yield measured by ATP. In animals, the concentration of glucose in the blood is linked to the pancreatic endocrine hormone, insulin. . In most organisms, excess carbohydrates are regularly catabolized to form acetyl-CoA, which is a feed stock for the fatty acid synthesis pathway; fatty acids, triglycerides, and other lipids are commonly used for long-term energy storage. The hydrophobic character of lipids makes them a much more compact form of energy storage than hydrophilic carbohydrates.
Glucose is metabolized obtaining ATP and pyruvate by way of first splitting a six-carbon into two three carbon chains, which are converted to lactic acid from pyruvate in the lactic dehydrogenase reaction. The reverse conversion is by a separate unidirectional reaction back to pyruvate after moving through pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.
Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) is a complex of three enzymes that convert pyruvate into acetyl-CoA by a process called pyruvate decarboxylation. Acetyl-CoA may then be used in the citric acid cycle to carry out cellular respiration, and this complex links the glycolysis metabolic pathway to the citric acid cycle. This multi-enzyme complex is related structurally and functionally to the oxoglutarate dehydrogenase and branched-chain oxo-acid dehydrogenase multi-enzyme complexes. In eukaryotic cells the reaction occurs inside the mitochondria, after transport of the substrate, pyruvate, from the cytosol. The transport of pyruvate into the mitochondria is via a transport protein and is active, consuming energy. On entry to the mitochondria pyruvate decarboxylation occurs, producing acetyl CoA. This irreversible reaction traps the acetyl CoA within the mitochondria. Pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency from mutations in any of the enzymes or cofactors results in lactic acidosis.
PDH-rxns The acetyl group is transferred to coenzyme A
Typically, a breakdown of one molecule of glucose by aerobic respiration (i.e. involving both glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle) is about 33-35 ATP. This is categorized as:
Glycogenolysis – the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which provides a glucose supply for glucose-dependent tissues.
Glycogenolysis in liver provides circulating glucose short term.
Glycogenolysis in muscle is obligatory for muscle contraction.
Pyruvate from glycolysis enters the Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle, in aerobic organisms.
Anaerobic breakdown by glycolysis – yielding 8-10 ATP
Aerobic respiration by Kreb’s cycle – yielding 25 ATP
The pentose phosphate pathway (shunt) converts hexoses into pentoses and regenerates NADPH. NADPH is an essential antioxidant in cells which prevents oxidative damage and acts as precursor for production of many biomolecules.
Glycogenesis – the conversion of excess glucose into glycogen as a cellular storage mechanism; achieving low osmotic pressure.
Gluconeogenesis – de novo synthesis of glucose molecules from simple organic compounds. An example in humans is the conversion of a few amino acids in cellular protein to glucose.
Metabolic use of glucose is highly important as an energy source for muscle cells and in the brain, and red blood cells.
The hormone insulin is the primary glucose regulatory signal in animals. It mainly promotes glucose uptake by the cells, and it causes the liver to store excess glucose as glycogen. Its absence
turns off glucose uptake,
reverses electrolyte adjustments,
begins glycogen breakdown and glucose release into the circulation by some cells,
begins lipid release from lipid storage cells, etc.
The level of circulatory glucose (known informally as “blood sugar”) is the most important signal to the insulin-producing cells.
insulin is made by beta cells in the pancreas,
fat is stored n adipose tissue cells, and
glycogen is both stored and released as needed by liver cells.
no glucose is released to the blood from internal glycogen stores from muscle cells.
The hormone glucagon, on the other hand, opposes that of insulin, forcing the conversion of glycogen in liver cells to glucose, and then release into the blood. Growth hormone, cortisol, and certain catecholamines (such as epinepherine) have glucoregulatory actions similar to glucagon. These hormones are referred to as stress hormones because they are released under the influence of catabolic proinflammatory (stress) cytokines – interleukin-1 (IL1) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα).
Net Yield of GlycolysisThe preparatory phase consumes 2 ATP
The pay-off phase produces 4 ATP.
The gross yield of glycolysis is therefore
4 ATP – 2 ATP = 2 ATP
The pay-off phase also produces 2 molecules of NADH + H+ which can be further converted to a total of 5 molecules of ATP* by the electron transport chain (ETC) during oxidative phosphorylation.
Thus the net yield during glycolysis is 7 molecules of ATP*
This is calculated assuming one NADH molecule gives 2.5 molecules of ATP during oxidative phosphorylation.
Cellular respiration involves 3 stages for the breakdown of glucose – glycolysis, Kreb’s cycle and the electron transport system. Kreb’s cycle produces about 60-70% of ATP for release of energy in the body. It directly or indirectly connects with all the other individual pathways in the body.
The Kreb’s Cycle occurs in two stages:
Conversion of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
Acetyl CoA Enters the Kreb’s Cycle
Each pyruvate in the presence of pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) complex in the mitochondria gets converted to acetyl CoA which in turn enters the Kreb’s cycle. This reaction is called as oxidative decarboxylation as the carboxyl group is removed from the pyruvate molecule in the form of CO2 thus yielding 2-carbon acetyl group which along with the coenzyme A forms acetyl CoA.
The PDH requires the sequential action of five co-factors or co-enzymes for the combined action of dehydrogenation and decarboxylation to take place. These five are TPP (thiamine phosphate), FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide), NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), coenzyme A (denoted as CoA-SH at times to depict role of -SH group) and lipoamide.
Acetyl CoA condenses with oxaloacetate (4C) to form a citrate (6C) by transferring its acetyl group in the presence of enzyme citrate synthase. The CoA liberated in this reaction is ready to participate in the oxidative decarboxylation of another molecule of pyruvate by PDH complex.
Isocitrate undergoes oxidative decarboxylation by the enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase to form oxalosuccinate (intermediate- not shown) which in turn forms α-ketoglutarate (also known as oxoglutarate) which is a five carbon compound. CO2 and NADH are released in this step. α-ketoglutarate (5C) undergoes oxidative decarboxylation once again to form succinyl CoA (4C) catalysed by the enzyme α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex.
Succinyl CoA is then converted to succinate by succinate thiokinase or succinyl coA synthetase in a reversible manner. This reaction involves an intermediate step in which the enzyme gets phosphorylated and then the phosphoryl group which has a high group transfer potential is transferred to GDP to form GTP.
Succinate then gets oxidised reversibly to fumarate by succinate dehydrogenase. The enzyme contains iron-sulfur clusters and covalently bound FAD which when undergoes electron exchange in the mitochondria causes the production of FADH2.
Fumarate is then by the enzyme fumarase converted to malate by hydration(addition of H2O) in a reversible manner.
Malate is then reversibly converted to oxaloacetate by malate dehydrogenase which is NAD linked and thus produces NADH.
The oxaloacetate produced is now ready to be utilized in the next cycle by the citrate synthase reaction and thus the equilibrium of the cycle shifts to the right.
The NADH formed in the cytosol can yield variable amounts of ATP depending on the shuttle system utilized to transport them into the mitochondrial matrix. This NADH, formed in the cytosol, is impermeable to the mitochondrial inner-membrane where oxidative phosphorylation takes place. Thus to carry this NADH to the mitochondrial matrix there are special shuttle systems in the body. The most active shuttle is the malate-aspartate shuttle via which 2.5 molecules of ATP are generated for 1 NADH molecule. This shuttle is mainly used by the heart, liver and kidneys. The brain and skeletal muscles use the other shuttle known as glycerol 3-phosphate shuttle which synthesizes 1.5 molecules of ATP for 1 NADH.
Glucose-6-phosphate Dehydrogenase is the committed step of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway. This enzyme is regulated by availability of the substrate NADP+. As NADPH is utilized in reductive synthetic pathways, the increasing concentration of NADP+ stimulates the Pentose Phosphate Pathway, to replenish NADPH. The importance of this pathway can easily be underestimated. The main source for energy in respiration was considered to be tied to the high energy phosphate bond in phosphorylation and utilizes NADPH, converting it to NADP+. The pentose phosphate shunt is essential for the generation of nucleic acids, in regeneration of red cells and lens – requiring NADPH.
NAD+ serves as electron acceptor in catabolic pathways in which metabolites are oxidized. The resultant NADH is reoxidized by the respiratory chain, producing ATP.
The pyridine nucleotide transhydrogenase reaction concerns the energy-dependent reduction of TPN by DPNH. In 1959, Klingenberg and Slenczka made the important observation that incubation of isolated liver mitochondria with DPN-specific substrates or succinate in the absence of phosphate acceptor resulted in a rapid and almost complete reduction of the intramitochondrial TPN. These and related findings led Klingenberg and co-workers (1-3) to postulate the occurrence of a ATP-controlled transhydrogenase reaction catalyzing the reduction of TPN by DPNH. (The role of transhydrogenase in the energy-linked reduction of TPN. Fritz Hommes, Ronald W. Estabrook, The Wenner-Gren Institute, University of Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 11, (1), 2 Apr 1963, Pp 1–6. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/0006-291X(63)90017-2/).
Further studies observed the coupling of TPN-specific dehydrogenases with the transhydrogenase and observing the reduction of large amounts of diphosphopyridine nucleotide (DPN) in the presence of catalytic amounts of triphosphopyridine nucleotide (TPN). The studies showed the direct interaction between TPNHz and DPN, in the presence of transhydrogenase to yield products having the properties of TPN and DPNHZ. The reaction involves a transfer of electrons (or hydrogen) rather than a phosphate. (Pyridine Nucleotide Transhydrogenase II. Direct Evidence for and Mechanism of the Transhydrogenase Reaction* by Nathan 0. Kaplan, Sidney P. Colowick, And Elizabeth F. Neufeld. (From The Mccollum-Pratt Institute, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland) J. Biol. Chem. 1952, 195:107-119.) http://www.JBC.org/Content/195/1/107.Citation
Notation: TPN, NADP; DPN, NAD+; reduced pyridine nucleotides: TPNH (NADPH2), DPNH (NADH).
Note: In this discussion there is a detailed presentation of the activity of lactic acid conversion in the mitochondria by way of PDH. In a later section there is mention of the bidirectional reaction of lactate dehydrogenase. However, the forward reaction is dominant (pyruvate to lactate) and is described. This is not related to the kinetics of the LD reaction with respect to the defining characteristic – Km.
Biochemical Education Jan 1977; 5(1):15. Kinetics of Lactate Dehydrogenase: A Textbook Problem.
K.L. MANCHESTER. Department of Biochemistry, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg South Africa.
One presupposes that determined Km values are meaningful under intracellular conditions. In relation to teaching it is a simple experiment for students to determine for themselves the Km towards pyruvate of LDH in a post-mitochondrial supernatant of rat heart and thigh muscle. The difference in Km may be a factor of 3 or 4-fold.It is pertinent then to ask what is the range of suhstrate concentrations over which a difference in Km may be expected to lead to significant differences in activity and how these concentrations compare with pyruvate concentrations in the cell. The evidence of Vesell and co-workers that inhibition by pyruvate is more readily seen at low than at high enzyme concentration is important in emphasizing that under intracellular conditions enzyme concentrations may be relatively large in relation to the substrate available. This will be particularly so in relation to [NADH] which in the cytoplasm is likely to be in the ~M range.
A final point concerns the kinetic parameters for LDH quoted by Bergmeyer for lactate estimations a pH of 9 is recommended and the Km towards lactate at that pH is likely to be appreciably different from the quoted values at pH 7 — Though still at pH 9 showing a substantially lower value for lactate with the heart preparation. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/0307-4412%2877%2990013-9/pdf
Several investigators have established that epidermis converts most of the glucose it uses to lactic acid even in the presence of oxygen. This is in contrast to most tissues where lactic acid production is used for energy production only when oxygen is not available. This large amount of lactic acid being continually produced within the epidermal cell must be excreted by the cell and then carried away by the blood stream to other tissues where the lactate can be utilized. The LDH reaction with pyruvate and NADH is reversible although at physiological pH the equilibrium position for the reaction lies very far to the right, i.e., in favor of lactate production. The speed of this reaction depends not only on the amount of enzyme present but also on the concentrations of the substances involved on both sides of the equation. The net direction in which the reaction will proceed depends solely on the relative concentrations of the substances on each side of the equation.
In vivo there is net conversion of pyruvate (formed from glucose) to lactate. Measurements of the speed of lactate production by sheets of epidermis floating on a medium containing glucose indicate a rate of lactate production of approximately 0.7 rn/sm/
mm/mg of fresh epidermis.Slice incubation experiments are presumably much closer to the actual in vivo conditions than
the homogenate experiments. The discrepancy between the
two indicates that in vivo conditions are far from optimal for the conversion of pyruvate to lactate. Only 1/100th of the maximal activity of the enzyme present is being achieved. The concentrations of the various substances involved are not
optimal in vivo since pyruvate and NADH concentrations are
lower than lactate and NAD concentrations and this might explain the in vivo inhibition of LDH activity. (Lactate Production And Lactate Dehydrogenase In The Human Epidermis*. KM. Halprin, A Ohkawara. J Invest Dermat 1966; 47(3): 222-6.) http://www.nature.com/jid/journal/v47/n3/pdf/jid1966133a.pdf
Humans, mammals, plants and animals, and eukaryotes and prokaryotes all share a common denominator in their manner of existence. It makes no difference whether they inhabit the land, or the sea, or another living host. They exist by virtue of their metabolic adaptation by way of taking in nutrients as fuel, and converting the nutrients to waste in the expenditure of carrying out the functions of motility, breakdown and utilization of fuel, and replication of their functional mass.
There are essentially two major sources of fuel, mainly, carbohydrate and fat. A third source, amino acids which requires protein breakdown, is utilized to a limited extent as needed from conversion of gluconeogenic amino acids for entry into the carbohydrate pathway. Amino acids follow specific metabolic pathways related to protein synthesis and cell renewal tied to genomic expression.
Carbohydrates are a major fuel utilized by way of either of two pathways. They are a source of readily available fuel that is accessible either from breakdown of disaccharides or from hepatic glycogenolysis by way of the Cori cycle. Fat derived energy is a high energy source that is metabolized by one carbon transfers using the oxidation of fatty acids in mitochondria. In the case of fats, the advantage of high energy is conferred by chain length.
Carbohydrate metabolism has either of two routes of utilization. This introduces an innovation by way of the mitochondrion or its equivalent, for the process of respiration, or aerobic metabolism through the tricarboxylic acid, or Krebs cycle. In the presence of low oxygen supply, carbohydrate is metabolized anaerobically, the six carbon glucose being split into two three carbon intermediates, which are finally converted from pyruvate to lactate. In the presence of oxygen, the lactate is channeled back into respiration, or mitochondrial oxidation, referred to as oxidative phosphorylation. The actual mechanism of this process was of considerable debate for some years until it was resolved that the mechanism involve hydrogen transfers along the “electron transport chain” on the inner membrane of the mitochondrion, and it was tied to the formation of ATP from ADP linked to the so called “active acetate” in Acetyl-Coenzyme A, discovered by Fritz Lipmann (and Nathan O. Kaplan) at Massachusetts General Hospital. Kaplan then joined with Sidney Colowick at the McCollum Pratt Institute at Johns Hopkins, where they shared tn the seminal discovery of the “pyridine nucleotide transhydrogenases” with Elizabeth Neufeld, who later established her reputation in the mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS) with L-iduronidase and lysosomal storage disease.
This chapter covers primarily the metabolic pathways for glucose, anaerobic and by mitochondrial oxidation, the electron transport chain, fatty acid oxidation, galactose assimilation, and the hexose monophosphate shunt, essential for the generation of NADPH. The is to be more elaboration on lipids and coverage of transcription, involving amino acids and RNA in other chapters.
The subchapters are as follows:
1.1 Carbohydrate Metabolism
1.2 Studies of Respiration Lead to Acetyl CoA
1.3 Pentose Shunt, Electron Transfer, Galactose, more Lipids in brief
1.4 The Multi-step Transfer of Phosphate Bond and Hydrogen Exchange Energy
Extracellular evaluation of intracellular flux in yeast cells
Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence
This is the fourth article in a series on metabolomics, which is a major development in -omics, integrating transcriptomics, proteomics, genomics, metabolic pathways analysis, metabolic and genomic regulatory control using computational mapping. In the previous two part presentation, flux analysis was not a topic for evaluation, but here it is the major focus. It is a study of yeast cells, and bears some relationship to the comparison of glycemia, oxidative phosphorylation, TCA cycle, and ETC in leukemia cell lines. In the previous study – system flux was beyond the scope of analysis, and explicitly stated. The inferences made in comparing the two lymphocytic leukemia cells was of intracellular metabolism from extracellular measurements. The study of yeast cells is aimed at looking at cellular effluxes, which is also an important method for studying pharmacological effects and drug resistance.
Metabolomic series
1. Metabolomics, Metabonomics and Functional Nutrition: the next step in nutritional metabolism and biotherapeutics
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
Metabolomics has emerged as a powerful tool in the
quantitative identification of physiological and disease-induced biological states.
Extracellular metabolome or metabolic profiling data, in particular,
can provide an insightful view of intracellular physiological states in a noninvasive manner.
Results
We used an updated genome-scale
metabolic network model of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, iMM904, to investigate
how changes in the extracellular metabolome can be used
to study systemic changes in intracellular metabolic states.
The iMM904 metabolic network was reconstructed based on
an existing genome-scale network, iND750,
and includes 904 genes and 1,412 reactions.
The network model was first validated by
comparing 2,888 in silico single-gene deletion strain growth phenotype predictions
to published experimental data.
Extracellular metabolome data measured
of ammonium assimilation pathways
in response to environmental and genetic perturbations
was then integrated with the iMM904 network
in the form of relative overflow secretion constraints and
a flux sampling approach was used to characterize candidate flux distributions allowed by these constraints.
Predicted intracellular flux changes were
consistent with published measurements
on intracellular metabolite levels and fluxes.
Patterns of predicted intracellular flux changes
could also be used to correctly identify the regions of
The inferred perturbations in intracellular reaction fluxes were further analyzed
using reporter metabolite and subsystem (i.e., metabolic pathway) approaches [30]
in order to identify dominant metabolic features that are collectively perturbed (Figure 2).
The sampling-based approach also has the additional benefit of
being less sensitive to inaccuracies in metabolite secretion profiles than
optimization-based methods and can effectively be used – in biofluid metabolome analysis.
integration of exometabolomic (EM) data
Figure 1.Schematic illustrating the integration of exometabolomic (EM) data with the constraint-based framework.
(A) Cells are subjected to genetic and/or environmental perturbations to secrete metabolite patterns unique to that condition.
(B) EM is detected, identified, and quantified.
(C) EM data is integrated as required secretion flux constraints to define allowable solution space.
(D) Random sampling of solution space yields the range of feasible flux distributions for intracellular reactions.
(E) Sampled fluxes were compared to sampled fluxes of another condition to determine
which metabolic regions were altered between the two conditions (see Figure 2).
(F) Significantly altered metabolic regions were identified.
sampling and scoring analysis to determine intracellular flux changes
Figure 2.Schematic of sampling and scoring analysis to determine intracellular flux changes.
(A) Reaction fluxes are sampled for two conditions.
(B & C) Sample of flux differences is calculated by selecting random flux values from each condition
to obtain a distribution of flux differences for each reaction.
(D) Standardized reaction Z-scores are determined, which represent
how far the sampled flux differences deviates from a zero flux change.
This study was divided into two parts and describes:
(i) the reconstruction and validation of an expanded S. cerevisiae metabolic network, iMM904; and
(ii) the systematic inference of intracellular metabolic states from
two yeast EM data sets using a constraint-based sampling approach.
The first EM data set compares wild type yeast to the gdh1/GDH2 (glutamate dehydrogenase) strain [31],
which indicated good agreement between predicted metabolic changes
of intracellular metabolite levels and fluxes [31,32].
The second EM data set focused on secreted amino acid measurements
from a separate study of yeast cultured in different ammonium and potassium concentrations [33].
We analyzed the EM data to gain further insight into
perturbed ammonium assimilation processes as well as
metabolic states relating potassium limitation and
ammonium excess conditions to one another.
The model-based analysis of both
separately published extracellular metabolome datasets
suggests a relationship between
glutamate,
threonine and
folate metabolism,
which are collectively perturbed when ammonium assimilation processes are broadly disrupted
The data provided are the model text files of the iMM904 metabolic network
that is compatible with the available COBRA Toolbox [13]. The model structure
can be loaded into Matlab using the ‘SimPhenyPlus’ format with GPR and compound information.
Minimization of Metabolic Adjustment (MoMA) [39], and
a linear version of MoMA (linearMoMA).
In the linearMoMA method, minimization of the quadratic objective function
of the original MoMA algorithm
was replaced by minimization of the corresponding 1-norm objective function
(i.e. sum of the absolute values of the differences of wild type FBA solution
and the knockout strain flux solution).
The computed results were then compared to growth phenotype data
(viable/lethal) from a previously published experimental gene deletion study [3].
The comparison between experimental and in silico deletion phenotypes involved
choosing a threshold for the predicted relative growth rate of
a deletion strain that is considered to be viable.
We used standard ROC curve analysis
to assess the accuracy of different prediction methods and models
across the full range of the viability threshold parameter,
results shown in Figure S2 [see Additional file 3].
The ROC curve plots the true viable rate against the false viable rate
allowing comparison of different models and methods
without requiring arbitrarily choosing this parameter a priori [40].
The optimal prediction performance corresponds to
the point closest to the top left corner of the ROC plot
(i.e. 100% true viable rate, 0% false viable rate).
Comparison of iMM904 and iLL672 gene deletion predictions and experimental data under minimal media conditions
Media
Model
Method
True viable
False viable
False lethal
True lethal
True viable %
False viable %
MCC
Glucose
iMM904 full
FBA
647
10
32
33
95.29
23.26
0.6
iMM904 full
linMOMA
644
10
35
33
94.85
23.26
0.58
iMM904 full
MOMA
644
10
35
33
94.85
23.26
0.58
iMM904 red
FBA
440
9
28
33
94.02
21.43
0.61
iMM904 red
linMOMA
437
9
31
33
93.38
21.43
0.6
iMM904 red
MOMA
437
9
31
33
93.38
21.43
0.6
iLL672 full
MOMA
433
9
35
33
92.52
21.43
0.57
Galactose
iMM904 full
FBA
595
32
36
59
94.29
35.16
0.58
iMM904 full
linMOMA
595
32
36
59
94.29
35.16
0.58
iMM904 full
MOMA
595
32
36
59
94.29
35.16
0.58
iMM904 red
FBA
409
12
33
56
92.53
17.65
0.67
iMM904 red
linMOMA
409
12
33
56
92.53
17.65
0.67
iMM904 red
MOMA
409
12
33
56
92.53
17.65
0.67
iLL672 full
MOMA
411
19
31
49
92.99
27.94
0.61
Glycerol
iMM904 full
FBA
596
43
36
47
94.3
47.78
0.48
iMM904 full
linMOMA
595
44
37
46
94.15
48.89
0.47
iMM904 full
MOMA
598
44
34
46
94.62
48.89
0.48
iMM904 red
FBA
410
20
34
46
92.34
30.3
0.57
iMM904 red
linMOMA
409
21
35
45
92.12
31.82
0.56
iMM904 red
MOMA
412
21
32
45
92.79
31.82
0.57
iLL672 full
MOMA
406
20
38
46
91.44
30.3
0.55
Ethanol
iMM904 full
FBA
593
45
29
55
95.34
45
0.54
iMM904 full
linMOMA
592
45
30
55
95.18
45
0.54
iMM904 full
MOMA
592
44
30
56
95.18
44
0.55
iMM904 red
FBA
408
21
27
54
93.79
28
0.64
iMM904 red
linMOMA
407
21
28
54
93.56
28
0.63
iMM904 red
MOMA
407
20
28
55
93.56
26.67
0.64
iLL672 full
MOMA
401
13
34
62
92.18
17.33
0.68
MCC, Matthews correlation coefficient (see Methods). Note that the iLL672 predictions were obtained directly from [3] and thus the viability threshold was not optimized using the maximum MCC approach.
we assumed that sampling of the optimal solution space was appropriate for this study.
In order to sample a physiologically reasonable range of flux distributions,
samples for four different oxygen uptake rates
(1, 2, 3, and 4 mmol/hr/gDW with 5 million steps each)
were combined in the final analysis.
Standardized scoring of flux differences between perturbation and control conditions
A Z-score based approach was implemented to quantify differences in flux samples between two conditions (Figure 2).
First, two flux vectors were chosen randomly,
one from each of the two samples to be compared and
the difference between the flux vectors was computed.
This approach was repeated to create a sample of 10,000 (n) flux difference vectors
for each pair of conditions considered (e.g. mutant or perturbed environment vs. wild type).
Based on this flux difference sample, the sample mean (μdiff,i) and standard deviation (σdiff,i)
between the two conditions was calculated for each reaction i. The reaction Z-score was calculated as:
reaction Z-score
which describes the sampled mean difference deviation
from a population mean change of zero (i.e. no flux difference
between perturbation and wild type).
Note that this approach allows accounting for uncertainty in the
flux distributions inferred based on the extracellular metabolite secretion constraints.
This is in contrast to approaches such as FBA or MoMA that would predict
a single flux distribution for each condition and thus potentially
overestimate differences between conditions.
The reaction Z-scores can then be further used in analysis
to identify significantly perturbed regions of the metabolic network
based on reporter metabolite [44] or subsystem [30] Z-scores.
These reporter regions indicate, or “report”, dominant perturbation features
at the metabolite and pathway levels for a particular condition.
The reporter metabolite Z-score for any metabolite j can be derived from the reaction Z-scores
of the reactions consuming or producing j (set of reactions denoted as Rj) as:
reporter z-score for any metabolite j
where Nj is the number of reactions in Rj and mmet,j is calculated as
distributional correction for m_met,j SQRT
To account and correct for background distribution, the metabolite Z-score was normalized
by computing μmet,Nj and σmet,,Nj corresponding to the mean mmet and
its standard deviation for 1,000 randomly generated reaction sets of size Nj.
Z-scores for subsystems were calculated similarly by considering the set of reactions Rk
that belongs to each subsystem k.
Hence, positive metabolite and subsystem scores indicate a significantly perturbed metabolic region
relative to other regions, whereas
a negative score indicate regions that are not perturbed
more significantly than what is expected by random chance.
Perturbation subnetworks of reactions and connecting metabolites were visualized using Cytoscape [45].
Results and discussion
Reconstruction and validation of iMM904 network iMM904 network content
A previously reconstructed S. cerevisiae network, iND750,
was used as the basis for the construction of the expanded iMM904 network.
Prior to its presentation here, the iMM904 network content was the basis for a consensus jamboree network that was recently published
but has not yet been adapted for FBA calculations [46].
The majority of iND750 content was carried over and
further expanded on to construct iMM904, which accounts for
904 genes,
1,228 individual metabolites, and
1,412 reactions of which
395 are transport reactions.
Both the number of gene-associated reactions and the number of metabolites
increased in iMM904 compared with the iND750 network.
Additional genes and reactions included in the network primarily expanded the
lipid,
transport, and
carbohydrate subsystems.
The lipid subsystem includes
new genes and
reactions involving the degradation of sphingolipids and glycerolipids.
Sterol metabolism was also expanded to include
the formation and degradation of steryl esters, the
storage form of sterols.
The majority of the new transport reactions were added
to connect network gaps between intracellular compartments
to enable the completion of known physiological functions.
We also added a number of new secretion pathways
based on experimentally observed secreted metabolites [31].
A number of gene-protein-reaction (GPR) relationships were modified
to include additional gene products that are required to catalyze a reaction.
For example, the protein compounds
thioredoxin and
ferricytochrome C
were explicitly represented as compounds in iND750 reactions, but
the genes encoding these proteins were not associated with their corresponding GPRs.
Other examples include glycogenin and NADPH cytochrome p450 reductases (CPRs),
which are required in the assembly of glycogen and
to sustain catalytic activity in cytochromes p450, respectively.
These additional proteins were included in iMM904 as
part of protein complexes to provide a more complete
representation of the genes and
their corresponding products necessary for a catalytic activity to occur.
Major modifications to existing reactions were in cofactor biosynthesis, namely in
quinone,
beta-alanine, and
riboflavin biosynthetic pathways.
Reactions from previous S. cerevisiae networks associated with
quinone,
beta-alanine, and
riboflavin biosynthetic pathways
were essentially inferred from known reaction mechanisms based on
reactions in previous network reconstructions of E. coli [2,47].
These pathways were manually reviewed
based on current literature and subsequently replaced by
reactions and metabolites specific to yeast.
Additional changes in other subsystems were also made, such as
changes to the compartmental location of a gene and
its corresponding reaction(s),
changes in reaction reversibility and cofactor specificity, and
the elucidation of particular transport mechanisms.
A comprehensive listing of iMM904 network contents as well as
a detailed list of changes between iND750 and iMM904 is included
[see Additional file 1].
Predicting deletion growth phenotypes
The updated genome-scale iMM904 metabolic network was validated
by comparing in silico single-gene deletion predictions to
in vivo results from a previous study used
to analyze another S. cerevisiae metabolic model, iLL672 [3].
This network was constructed based on the iFF708 network [22],
To validate the predicted results, reaction flux changes from both FBA and sampling methods were compared to differential intracellular metabolite level data measured from the same study. Intracellular metabolites involved in highly perturbed reactions (i.e. reactants and products) predicted from FBA and sampling analyses were identified and
compared to metabolites that were experimentally identified as significantly changed (p < 0.05) between mutant and wild-type. Statistical measures of recall, accuracy, and
precision were calculated and represent the predictive sensitivity, exactness, and reproducibility respectively. From the sampling analysis, a considerably larger number of
significantly perturbed reactions are predicted in the anaerobic case (505 reactions, or 70.7% of active reactions) than in aerobic (394 reactions, or 49.8% of active reactions). The top percentile of FBA flux changes equivalent to the percentage of significantly perturbed sampling reactions were compared to the intracellular data. Results from both analyses are summarized in Table 2. Sampling predictions were considerably higher in recall than FBA predictions for both conditions, with respective ranges of 0.83–1
compared to 0.48–0.96. Accuracy was also higher in sampling predictions; however, precision was slightly better in the FBA predictions as expected due to the smaller
number of predicted changes. Overall, the sampling predictions of perturbed intracellular metabolites are strongly consistent with the experimental data and significantly
outperforms that of FBA optimization predictions in accurately predicting differential metabolites involved in perturbed intracellular fluxes.
Table 2. Statistical comparison of the differential intracellular metabolite data set (p < 0.05) with metabolites involved in perturbed reactions predicted by FBA optimization and sampling analyses for aerobic and anaerobic gdh1/GDH2 mutant.
Table 2 Statistical comparison of the differential intracellular metabolite data set (p < 0.05)
with metabolites involved in perturbed reactions predicted by FBA optimization and
sampling analyses for aerobic and anaerobic gdh1/GDH2 mutant.
Aerobic
Anaerobic
Overall
FBA
Sampling
FBA
Sampling
FBA
Recall
0.48
0.83
0.96
1
0.71
0.91
Accuracy
0.55
0.62
0.64
0.64
0.6
0.63
Precision
0.78
0.69
0.64
0.63
0.68
0.66
Overall statistics indicate combined results of both conditions.
Figure 3.Perturbation reaction subnetwork of gdh1/GDH2 mutant under aerobic conditions.
The network illustrates a simplified subset of highly perturbedPerturbation subnetworks can be drawn to visualize predicted significantly perturbed intracellular reactions and illustrate their connection to the observed secreted metabolites in the aerobic and anaerobic gdh1/GDH2 mutants.
Perturbation reaction subnetwork of gdh1.GDH2 mutant under aerobic conditions.
Figure 3 shows an example of a simplified aerobic perturbation subnetwork consisting primarily of proximal pathways connected directly to a subset of major secreted
metabolites
glutamate,
proline,
D-lactate, and
2-hydroxybuturate.
Figure 4 displays anaerobic reactions with Z-scores of similar magnitude to the perturbed reactions in Figure 3. The same subset of metabolites is also present in the
larger anaerobic perturbation network and indicates that the NADPH/NADH balance perturbation induced by the gdh1/GDH2 manipulation has widespread effects
beyond just altering glutamate metabolism anaerobically.
Interestingly, it is clear that the majority of the secreted metabolite pathways involve connected perturbed reactions that broadly converge on glutamate.
Note that Figures 3 and 4 only show the subnetworks that consisted of two or more connected reactions for a number of secreted metabolites no contiguous perturbed pathway could be identified by the sampling approach. This indicates that the secreted metabolite pattern alone is not sufficient to determine which specific
production and secretion pathways are used by the cell for these metabolites.
Reactions connected to aerobically-secreted metabolites predicted from the sampling analysis of the gdh1/GDH2 mutant strain.
The major secreted metabolites
glutamate,
proline,
D-lactate, and
2-hydroxybuturate
were also detected in the anaerobic condition. Metabolite abbreviations are found in Additional file 1.
Perturbation reaction subnetwork of gdh1/GDH2 mutant under anaerobic conditions.
Perturbation reaction subnetwork of gdh1.GDH2 mutant under anaerobic conditions
Subnetwork illustrates the highly perturbed anaerobic reactions of similar Z-reaction magnitude to the reactions in Figure 3.
A significantly larger number of reactions indicates mutant metabolic effects are more widespread in the anaerobic environment.
The network shows that perturbed pathways converge on glutamate, the main site in which the gdh1/GDH2 modification was introduced, which
suggests that the direct genetic perturbation effects are amplified under this environment. Metabolite abbreviations are found in Additional file 1.
To further highlight metabolic regions that have been systemically affected by the gdh1/GDH2 modification, reporter metabolite and subsystem methods [30] were used to
summarize reaction scores around specific metabolites and in specific metabolic subsystems. The top ten significant scores for metabolites/subsystems associated with more
than three reactions are summarized in Tables 3 (aerobic) and 4 (anaerobic), with Z > 1.64 corresponding to p < 0.05 for a one-tailed distribution. Full data for all reactions,
reporter metabolites, and reporter subsystems is included [see Additional file 4].
Table 3. List of the top ten significant reporter metabolite and subsystem scores for the gdh1/GDH2 vs. wild type comparison in aerobic conditions.
Table 3
List of the top ten significant reporter metabolite and subsystem scores for the gdh1/GDH2 vs. wild type comparison in aerobic conditions.
Reporter metabolite
Z-score
No of reactions*
L-proline [c]
2.71
4
Carbon dioxide [m]
2.51
15
Proton [m]
2.19
51
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate [c]
1.93
7
Ubiquinone-6 [m]
1.82
5
Ubiquinol-6 [m]
1.82
5
Ribulose-5-phosphate [c]
1.8
4
Uracil [c]
1.74
4
L-homoserine [c]
1.72
4
Alpha-ketoglutarate [m]
1.71
8
Reporter subsystem
Z-score
No of reactions
Citric Acid Cycle
4.58
7
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
3.29
12
Glycine and Serine Metabolism
2.69
17
Alanine and Aspartate Metabolism
2.65
6
Oxidative Phosphorylation
1.79
8
Thiamine Metabolism
1.54
8
Arginine and Proline Metabolism
1.44
20
Other Amino Acid Metabolism
1.28
5
Glycolysis/Gluconeogenesis
0.58
14
Anaplerotic reactions
0.19
9
*Number of reactions categorized in a subsystem or found to be neighboring each metabolite
Perturbations under aerobic conditions largely consisted of pathways involved in mediating the NADH and NADPH balance. Among the highest scoring aerobic subsystems
are TCA cycle and pentose phosphate pathway – key pathways directly involved in the generation of NADH and NADPH. Reporter metabolites involved in these
subsystems –
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate,
ribulose-5-phosphate, and
alpha-ketoglutarate – were also identified.
These results are consistent with flux and enzyme activity measurements
of the gdh1/GDH2 strain under aerobic conditions [32],
which reported significant reduction in the pentose phosphate pathway flux
with concomitant changes in other central metabolic pathways.
Levels of several TCA cycle intermediates (e.g. fumarate, succinate, malate) were also elevated
in the gdh1/GDH2 mutant according to the differential intracellular metabolite data.
Clustergram of top reporter metabolites – y in ammonium-toxic and potassium-limited conditions
Clustergram of top reporter metabolites (i.e. in yellow) in ammonium-toxic and potassium-limited conditions.
Amino acid perturbation patterns (shown in red) were shown to be consistently scored across conditions, indicating that potassium-limited environments K1 (lowest
concentration) and K2 (low concentration) elicited a similar ammonium detoxification response as ammonium-toxic environments N1 (high concentration) and N2
(highest concentration). Metabolites associated with folate metabolism (highlighted in green) are also highly perturbed in ammonium-toxic conditions. Metabolite
abbreviations are found in Additional file 1.
In addition to perturbed amino acids, a secondary effect notably appears at high ammonia levels in which metabolic regions related to folate metabolism are significantly affected. As highlighted in green in Figure 3, we predicted significantly perturbed key metabolites involved in the cytosolic folate cycle. These include tetrahydrofolate derivatives and other metabolites connected to the folate pathway, namely glycine and the methionine-derived methylation cofactors S-adenosylmethionine and S-adenosyl-homocysteine. Additionally, threonine was identified to be a key perturbed metabolite in excess ammonium conditions. These results further illustrate the close
connection between threonine biosynthesis, folate metabolism involving glycine derived from its threonine precursor, and nucleotide biosynthesis [51] that was discussed in
conjunction with the gdh1/GDH2 strain data. Taken together with the anaerobic gdh1/GDH2 data, the results consistently suggest highly perturbed threonine and folate
metabolism when amino acid-related pathways are broadly affected.
In both ammonium-toxic and potassium-limited environments, impaired cellular growth was observed, which can be attributed to high energetic costs of increased
ammonium assimilation to synthesize and excrete amino acids. However, under high ammonium environments, reporter metabolites related to threonine and folate
metabolism indicated that their perturbation, and thus purine supply, may be an additional factor in decreasing cellular viability as there is a direct relationship between
intracellular folate levels and growth rate [54]. Based on these results, we concluded that while potassiumlimited growth in yeast indeed shares physiological features with
growth in ammonium excess, its effects are not as detrimental as actual ammonium excess. The effects on proximal amino acid metabolic pathways are similar in both
environments as indicated by the secretion of the majority of amino acids. However, when our method was applied to analyze the physiological basis behind differences in
secretion profiles between low potassium and high ammonium conditions, ammonium excess was predicted to likely disrupt physiological ammonium assimilation processes,
which in turn potentially impacts folate metabolism and associated cellular growth.
Conclusion
The method presented in this study presents an approach to connecting intracellular flux states to metabolites that are excreted under various physiological conditions. We
showed that well-curated genome-scale metabolic networks can be used to integrate and analyze quantitative EM data by systematically identifying altered intracellular
pathways related to measured changes in the extracellular metabolome. We were able to identify statistically significant metabolic regions that were altered as a result of
genetic (gdh1/GD2 mutant) and environmental (excess ammonium and limited potassium) perturbations, and the predicted intracellular metabolic changes were consistent
with previously published experimental data including measurements of intracellular metabolite levels and metabolic fluxes. Our reanalysis of previously published EM data
on ammonium assimilation-related genetic and environmental perturbations also resulted in testable hypotheses about the role of threonine and folate pathways in mediating
broad responses to changes in ammonium utilization. These studies also demonstrated that the samplingbased method can be readily applied when only partial secreted
metabolite profiles (e.g. only amino acids) are available.
With the emergence of metabolite biofluid biomarkers as a diagnostic tool in human disease [55,56] and the availability of genome-scale human metabolic networks [1],
extensions of the present method would allow identifying potential pathway changes linked to these biomarkers. Employing such a method for studying yeast metabolism was possible as the metabolomic data was measured under controllable environmental conditions where the inputs and outputs of the system were defined. Measured metabolite biomarkers in a clinical setting, however, is far from a controlled environment with significant variations in genetic, nutritional, and environmental factors between different
patients. While there are certainly limitations for clinical applications, the method introduced here is a progressive step towards applying genome-scale metabolic networks
towards analyzing biofluid metabolome data as it 1) avoids the need to only study optimal metabolic states based on a predetermined objective function, 2) allows dealing with noisy experimental data through the sampling approach, and 3) enables analysis even with limited identification of metabolites in the data. The ability to establish potential
connections between extracellular markers and intracellular pathways would be valuable in delineating the genetic and environmental factors associated with a particular
disease.
Authors’ contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: MLM MJH BOP. Performed experiments: MLM MJH. Analyzed the data: MLM MJH. Wrote the paper: MLM MJH BOP. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.
Acknowledgements
We thank Jens Nielsen for providing the raw metabolome data for the mutant strain, and Jan Schellenberger and Ines Thiele for valuable discussions. This work was supported by NIH grant R01 GM071808. BOP serves on the scientific advisory board of Genomatica Inc.
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Metabolomic analysis of two leukemia cell lines. I.
Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence
I have just posted a review of metabolomics. In the last few weeks, the Human Metabolome was published. I am hopeful that my decision has taken the right path to prepare my readers adequately if they will have read the articles that preceded this. I pondered how I would present this massive piece of work, a study using two leukemia cell lines and mapping the features and differences that drive the carcinogenesis pathways, and identify key metabolic signatures in these differentiated cell types and subtypes. It is a culmination of a large collaborative effort that required cell culture, enzymatic assays, mass spectrometry, the full measure of which I need not present here, and a very superb validation of the model with a description of method limitations or conflicts. This is a beautiful piece of work carried out by a small group by today’s standards.
I shall begin this by asking a few questions that will be addressed in the article, which I need to beak up into parts, to draw the readers in more effectively.
Q 1. What metabolic pathways do you expect to have the largest role in the study about to be presented?
Q2. What are the largest metabolic differences that one expects to see in compairing the two lymphoblastic cell lines?
Q3. What methods would be used to extract the information based on external metabolites, enzymes, substrates, etc., to create the model for the cell internal metabolome?
Abstract
Metabolic models can provide a mechanistic framework to analyze information-rich omics data sets, and are increasingly being used
to investigate metabolic alternations in human diseases.
An expression of the altered metabolic pathway utilization is
the selection of metabolites consumed and released by cells.
However, methods for the inference of intracellular metabolic states from extracellular measurements in the context of metabolic models
remain underdeveloped compared to methods for other omics data.
Herein, we describe a workflow for such an integrative analysis
extracting the information from extracellular metabolomics data.
We demonstrate, using the lymphoblastic leukemia cell lines Molt-4 and CCRF-CEM, how
our methods can reveal differences in cell metabolism.
Our models explain metabolite uptake and secretion by
predicting a more glycolytic phenotype for the CCRF-CEM model and
a more oxidative phenotype for the Molt-4 model, which
was supported by our experimental data.
Gene expression analysis revealed altered expression of gene products at
key regulatory steps in those central metabolic pathways,
and literature query emphasized
the role of these genes in cancer metabolism.
Moreover, in silico gene knock-outs identified
unique control points for each cell line model, e.g., phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase for the Molt-4 model.
Thus, our workflow is well suited to the characterization of cellular metabolic traits based on
extracellular metabolomic data, and
it allows the integration of multiple omics data sets into a cohesive picture based on a defined model context.
A model is introduced to demonstrate a lymphocytic integrated data set using to cell lines.
The method is required to integrate extracted data sets from extracellular metabolites to an intracellular picture of cellular metabolism for each cell line.
The method predicts a more glycolytic or a more oxidative metabolic framework for one or the othe cell line.
The genetic phenotypes differ with a unique control point for each cell line.
The model presents an integration of omics data sets into a cohesive picture based on the model context.
Without having seen the full presentation –
Is the method a snapshot of the neoplastic processes described?
Does the model give insight into the cellular metabolism of an initial cell state for either one or both cell lines?
Would one be able to predict a therapeutic strategy based on the model for either or both cell lines?
Before proceeding further into the study, I would conjecture that there is no way of knowing the initial state ( consistent with what is described by Ilya Prigogine for a self-organizing system) because the model is based on the study of cultured cells that had an unknown metabolic control profile in a host proliferating bone marrow that is likely B-cell origin. So this is a snapshot of a stable state of two incubated cell lines. Then the question that is raised is whether there is not only a genetic-phenotypic relationship between the cells in culture and the external metabolites produced, but also whether differences can be discerned between the internal metabolic constructions that would fit into a family tree.
Introduction
Modern high-throughput techniques
have increased the pace of biological data generation.
Also referred to as the ‘‘omics avalanche’’, this wealth of data
provides great opportunities for metabolic discovery.
Omics data sets contain a snapshot of almost the entire repertoire of
mRNA, protein, or metabolites at a given time point or
under a particular set of experimental conditions.
Because of the high complexity of the data sets,
computational modeling is essential for their integrative analysis.
Currently, such data analysis
is a bottleneck in the research process and
methods are needed to facilitate the use of these data sets, e.g.,
through meta-analysis of data available in public databases
[e.g., the human protein atlas (Uhlen et al. 2010)
or the gene expression omnibus (Barrett et al. 2011)], and
to increase the accessibility of valuable information
for the biomedical research community.
Constraint-based modeling and analysis (COBRA) is
a computational approach that has been successfully used
to investigate and engineer microbial metabolism through
the prediction of steady-states (Durot et al.2009).
The basis of COBRA is network reconstruction: networks are assembled
in a bottom-up fashion based on genomic data and
extensive organism-specific information from the literature.
Metabolic reconstructions
capture information on the known biochemical transformations
taking place in a target organism
to generate a biochemical, genetic and genomic knowledge base
(Reed et al. 2006).
Once assembled, a metabolic reconstruction
can be converted into a mathematical model
(Thiele and Palsson 2010), and
model properties can be interrogated using a great variety of methods
(Schellenberger et al. 2011).
The ability of COBRA models to represent
genotype–phenotype and environment–phenotype relationships
arises through the imposition of constraints,
which limit the system to a subset of possible network states
(Lewis et al. 2012).
Currently, COBRA models exist for more than 100 organisms, including humans
(Duarte et al. 2007; Thiele et al. 2013).
Since the first human metabolic reconstruction was described
[Recon 1 (Duarte et al. 2007)],
biomedical applications of COBRA have increased
(Bordbar and Palsson 2012).
One way to contextualize networks is to
define their system boundaries
according to the metabolic states of the system,
e.g., disease or dietary regimes.
The consequences of the applied constraints
can then be assessed for the entire network
(Sahoo and Thiele 2013).
Additionally, omics data sets have frequently been used
to generate cell-type or condition-specific metabolic models.
particularly valuable for interrogation of metabolic phenotypes.
Thus, the integration of these data sets is now an active field of research
(Li et al. 2013; Mo et al. 2009; Paglia et al. 2012b; Schmidt et al. 2013).
Generally, metabolomic data can be incorporated into metabolic networks as
qualitative,
quantitative, and
thermodynamic constraints
(Fleming et al. 2009; Mo et al. 2009).
Mo et al. used metabolites detected in the spent medium
of yeast cells to determine
intracellular flux states through a sampling analysis (Mo et al. 2009),
which allowed unbiased interrogation of the possible network states
(Schellenberger and Palsson 2009)
and prediction of internal pathway use.
Such analyses have also been used
to reveal the effects of enzymopathies on red blood cells (Price et al. 2004),
to study effects of diet on diabetes (Thiele et al. 2005) and
to define macrophage metabolic states (Bordbar et al. 2010).
This type of analysis is available as a function in the COBRA toolbox
(Schellenberger et al. 2011).
In this study, we established a workflow for the generation and analysis of
condition-specific metabolic cell line models that
can facilitate the interpretation of metabolomic data.
ACombined experimental and computational pipeline to study human metabolism.
Experimental work and omics data analysis steps precede computational modeling. Model
predictions are validated based on targeted experimental data.
Metabolomic and transcriptomic data are used for
model refinement and submodel extraction.
Functional analysis methods are used to characterize
the metabolism of the cell-line models and compare it to additional experimental
data.
The validated models are subsequently
used for the prediction of drug targets.
BUptake and secretion pattern of model.
All metabolite uptakes and secretions that were mapped during model
generation are shown.
Metabolite uptakes are depicted on the left, and
secreted metabolites are shown on the right.
A number of metabolite exchanges mapped to the model
were unique to one cell line.
Differences between cell lines were used to set
quantitative constraints for the sampling analysis.
CStatistics about the cell line-specific network generation.
D Quantitative constraints.
For the sampling analysis, an additional
set of constraints was imposed on the cell line specific models,
emphasizing the differences in metabolite uptake and secretion between cell lines.
Higher uptake of a metabolite was allowed in the model of the cell line
that consumed more of the metabolite in vitro, whereas
the supply was restricted for the model with lower in vitro uptake.
This was done by establishing the same ratio between the models bounds as detected in vitro. X denotes the factor(slope ratio) that
distinguishes the bounds, and
which was individual for each metabolite.
(a) The uptake of a metabolite could be x times higher in CCRF-CEM cells,
(b) the metabolite uptake could be x times higher in Molt-4,
(c) metabolite secretion could be x times higher in CCRF-CEM, or
(d) metabolite secretion could be x times higher in Molt-4 cells. LOD limit of detection.
The consequence of the adjustment was, in case of uptake, that one model
was constrained to a lower metabolite uptake (A, B), and the difference
depended on the ratio detected in vitro.
In case of secretion,
one model had to secrete more of the metabolite, and again
the difference depended on
the experimental difference detected between the cell lines.
Q5. What is your expectation that this type of integrative approach could be used for facilitating medical data interpretations?
The most inventive approach was made years ago by using data constructions from the medical literature by a pioneer in the medical record development, but the technology was not what it is today, and the cost of data input was high. Nevertheless, the data acquisition would not be uniform across institutions, except for those that belong to a consolidated network with all of the data in the cloud, and the calculations would be carried out with a separate engine. However, whether the uniform capture of the massive amount of data needed is not possible in the near foreseeable future. There is no accurate way of assessing the system cost, and predicting the benefits. In carrying this model forward there has to be a minimal amount of insufficient data. The developments in the regulatory sphere have created a high barrier.
This concludes a first portion of this presentation.
Pentose Shunt, Electron Transfer, Galactose, more Lipids in brief
Reviewer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
Pentose Shunt, Electron Transfer, Galactose, and other Lipids in brief
This is a continuation of the series of articles that spans the horizon of the genetic
code and the progression in complexity from genomics to proteomics, which must
be completed before proceeding to metabolomics and multi-omics. At this point
we have covered genomics, transcriptomics, signaling, and carbohydrate metabolism
with considerable detail.In carbohydrates. There are two topics that need some attention –
(1) pentose phosphate shunt;
(2) H+ transfer
(3) galactose.
(4) more lipids
Then we are to move on to proteins and proteomics.
Summary of this series:
The outline of what I am presenting in series is as follows:
Bernard L. Horecker’s Contributions to Elucidating the Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Nicole Kresge, Robert D. Simoni and Robert L. Hill
The Enzymatic Conversion of 6-Phosphogluconate to Ribulose-5-Phosphate
and Ribose-5-Phosphate (Horecker, B. L., Smyrniotis, P. Z., and Seegmiller,
J. E. J. Biol. Chem. 1951; 193: 383–396
Bernard Horecker
Bernard Leonard Horecker (1914) began his training in enzymology in 1936 as a
graduate student at the University of Chicago in the laboratory of T. R. Hogness.
His initial project involved studying succinic dehydrogenase from beef heart using
the Warburg manometric apparatus. However, when Erwin Hass arrived from Otto
Warburg’s laboratory he asked Horecker to join him in the search for an enzyme
that would catalyze the reduction of cytochrome c by reduced NADP. This marked
the beginning of Horecker’s lifelong involvement with the pentose phosphate pathway.
During World War II, Horecker left Chicago and got a job at the National Institutes of
Health (NIH) in Frederick S. Brackett’s laboratory in the Division of Industrial Hygiene.
As part of the wartime effort, Horecker was assigned the task of developing a method
to determine the carbon monoxide hemoglobin content of the blood of Navy pilots
returning from combat missions. When the war ended, Horecker returned to research
in enzymology and began studying the reduction of cytochrome c by the succinic
dehydrogenase system.
Shortly after he began these investigation changes, Horecker was approached by
future Nobel laureate Arthur Kornberg, who was convinced that enzymes were the
key to understanding intracellular biochemical processes. Kornberg suggested
they collaborate, and the two began to study the effect of cyanide on the succinic
dehydrogenase system. Cyanide had previously been found to inhibit enzymes
containing a heme group, with the exception of cytochrome c. However, Horecker
and Kornberg found that
cyanide did in fact react with cytochrome c and concluded that
previous groups had failed to perceive this interaction because
the shift in the absorption maximum was too small to be detected by
visual examination.
Two years later, Kornberg invited Horecker and Leon Heppel to join him in setting up
a new Section on Enzymes in the Laboratory of Physiology at the NIH. Their Section on Enzymes eventually became part of the new Experimental Biology and Medicine
Institute and was later renamed the National Institute of Arthritis and Metabolic
Diseases.
Horecker and Kornberg continued to collaborate, this time on
the isolation of DPN and TPN.
By 1948 they had amassed a huge supply of the coenzymes and were able to
present Otto Warburg, the discoverer of TPN, with a gift of 25 mg of the enzyme
when he came to visit. Horecker also collaborated with Heppel on
the isolation of cytochrome c reductase from yeast and
eventually accomplished the first isolation of the flavoprotein from
mammalian liver.
Along with his lab technician Pauline Smyrniotis, Horecker began to study
the enzymes involved in the oxidation of 6-phosphogluconate and the
metabolic intermediates formed in the pentose phosphate pathway.
Joined by Horecker’s first postdoctoral student, J. E. Seegmiller, they worked
out a new method for the preparation of glucose 6-phosphate and 6-phosphogluconate, both of which were not yet commercially available.
As reported in the Journal of Biological Chemistry (JBC) Classic reprinted here, they
purified 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase from brewer’s yeast (1), and
by coupling the reduction of TPN to its reoxidation by pyruvate in
the presence of lactic dehydrogenase,
they were able to show that the first product of 6-phosphogluconate oxidation,
in addition to carbon dioxide, was ribulose 5-phosphte.
This pentose ester was then converted to ribose 5-phosphate by a pentose-phosphate isomerase.
They were able to separate ribulose 5-phosphate from ribose 5- phosphate and demonstrate their interconversion using a recently developed nucleotide separation
technique called ion-exchange chromatography. Horecker and Seegmiller later
showed that 6-phosphogluconate metabolism by enzymes from mammalian
tissues also produced the same products.8
Over the next several years, Horecker played a key role in elucidating the
remaining steps of the pentose phosphate pathway.
His total contributions included the discovery of three new sugar phosphate esters,
ribulose 5-phosphate, sedoheptulose 7-phosphate, and erythrose 4-phosphate, and
three new enzymes, transketolase, transaldolase, and pentose-phosphate 3-epimerase. The outline of the complete pentose phosphate cycle was published in 1955
(2). Horecker’s personal account of his work on the pentose phosphate pathway can
be found in his JBC Reflection (3).1
Horecker’s contributions to science were recognized with many awards and honors
including the Washington Academy of Sciences Award for Scientific Achievement in
Biological Sciences (1954) and his election to the National Academy of Sciences in
1961. Horecker also served as president of the American Society of Biological
Chemists (now the American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) in 1968.
Footnotes
↵1 All biographical information on Bernard L. Horecker was taken from Ref. 3.
The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.
References
↵Horecker, B. L., and Smyrniotis, P. Z. (1951) Phosphogluconic acid dehydrogenase
from yeast. J. Biol. Chem. 193, 371–381FREE Full Text
↵Gunsalus, I. C., Horecker, B. L., and Wood, W. A. (1955) Pathways of carbohydrate
metabolism in microorganisms. Bacteriol. Rev. 19, 79–128 FREE Full Text
↵Horecker, B. L. (2002) The pentose phosphate pathway. J. Biol. Chem. 277, 47965–
47971 FREE Full Text
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway (also called Phosphogluconate Pathway, or Hexose
Monophosphate Shunt) is depicted with structures of intermediates in Fig. 23-25
p. 863 of Biochemistry, by Voet & Voet, 3rd Edition. The linear portion of the pathway
carries out oxidation and decarboxylation of glucose-6-phosphate, producing the
5-C sugar ribulose-5-phosphate.
Glucose-6-phosphate Dehydrogenase catalyzes oxidation of the aldehyde
(hemiacetal), at C1 of glucose-6-phosphate, to a carboxylic acid in ester linkage
(lactone). NADP+ serves as electron acceptor.
6-Phosphogluconolactonase catalyzes hydrolysis of the ester linkage (lactone)
resulting in ring opening. The product is 6-phosphogluconate. Although ring opening
occurs in the absence of a catalyst, 6-Phosphogluconolactonase speeds up the
reaction, decreasing the lifetime of the highly reactive, and thus potentially
toxic, 6-phosphogluconolactone.
Phosphogluconate Dehydrogenase catalyzes oxidative decarboxylation of
6-phosphogluconate, to yield the 5-C ketose ribulose-5-phosphate. The
hydroxyl at C3 (C2 of the product) is oxidized to a ketone. This promotes loss
of the carboxyl at C1 as CO2. NADP+ again serves as oxidant (electron acceptor).
Reduction of NADP+ (as with NAD+) involves transfer of 2e- plus 1H+ to the
nicotinamide moiety.
NADPH, a product of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway, functions as a reductant in
various synthetic (anabolic) pathways, including fatty acid synthesis.
NAD+ serves as electron acceptor in catabolic pathways in which metabolites are
oxidized. The resultant NADH is reoxidized by the respiratory chain, producing ATP.
Regulation: Glucose-6-phosphate Dehydrogenase is the committed step of the Pentose
Phosphate Pathway. This enzyme is regulated by availability of the substrate NADP+.
As NADPH is utilized in reductive synthetic pathways, the increasing concentration of
NADP+ stimulates the Pentose Phosphate Pathway, to replenish NADPH.
The remainder of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway accomplishes conversion of the 5-C ribulose-5-phosphate to the 5-C product ribose-5-phosphate, or to the 3-C glyceraldehyde -3-phosphate and the 6-C fructose-6-phosphate (reactions 4 to 8
p. 863).
Transketolase utilizes as prosthetic group thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), a
derivative of vitamin B1.
Thiamine pyrophosphate binds at the active sites of enzymes in a “V” conformation.The amino group of the aminopyrimidine moiety is close to the dissociable proton,
and serves as the proton acceptor. This proton transfer is promoted by a glutamate
residue adjacent to the pyrimidine ring.
The positively charged N in the thiazole ring acts as an electron sink, promoting C-C bond cleavage. The 3-C aldose glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is released.
A 2-Cfragment remains on TPP.
The importance of this pathway can easily be underestimated. The main source for
energy in respiration was considered to be tied to the
high energy phosphate bond in phosphorylation and utilizes NADPH, converting it to NADP+.
glycolysis n skeletal muscle in short term, dependent on muscle glycogen conversion
to glucose, and there is a buildup of lactic acid – used as fuel by the heart. This
pathway accounts for roughly 5% of metabolic needs, varying between tissues,
depending on there priority for synthetic functions, such as endocrine or nucleic
acid production.
The mature erythrocyte and the ocular lens both are enucleate. 85% of their
metabolic energy needs are by anaerobic glycolysis. Consider the erythrocyte
somewhat different than the lens because it has iron-based hemoglobin, which
exchanges O2 and CO2 in the pulmonary alveoli, and in that role, is a rapid
regulator of H+ and pH in the circulation (carbonic anhydrase reaction), and also to
a lesser extent in the kidney cortex, where H+ is removed from the circulation to
the urine, making the blood less acidic, except when there is a reciprocal loss of K+.
This is how we need a nomogram to determine respiratory vs renal acidosis or
alkalosis. In the case of chronic renal disease, there is substantial loss of
functioning nephrons, loss of countercurrent multiplier, and a reduced capacity to
remove H+. So there is both a metabolic acidosis and a hyperkalemia, with increased
serum creatinine, but the creatinine is only from muscle mass – not accurately
reflecting total body mass, which includes visceral organs. The only accurate
measure of lean body mass would be in the linear relationship between circulating
hepatic produced transthyretin (TTR).
The pentose phosphate shunt is essential for
the generation of nucleic acids, in regeneration of red cells and lens – requiring NADPH.
Insofar as the red blood cell is engaged in O2 exchange, the lactic dehydrogenase
isoenzyme composition is the same as the heart. What about the lens of and cornea the eye, and platelets? The explanation does appear to be more complex than
has been proposed and is not discussed here.
Section II. Mitochondrial NADH – NADP+ Transhydrogenase Reaction
There is also another consideration for the balance of di- and tri- phospopyridine
nucleotides in their oxidized and reduced forms. I have brought this into the
discussion because of the centrality of hydride tranfer to mitochondrial oxidative
phosphorylation and the energetics – for catabolism and synthesis.
The role of transhydrogenase in the energy-linked reduction of TPN☆
In 1959, Klingenberg and Slenczka (1) made the important observation that incubation of isolated
liver mitochondria with DPN-specific substrates or succinate in the absence of phosphate
acceptor resulted in a rapid and almost complete reduction of the intramitochondrial TPN.
These and related findings led Klingenberg and co-workers (1-3) to postulate
the occurrence of an ATP-controlled transhydrogenase reaction catalyzing the reduction of
mitochondrial TPN by DPNH. A similar conclusion was reached by Estabrook and Nissley (4).
The present paper describes the demonstration and some properties of an
energy-dependent reduction of TPN by DPNH, catalyzed by submitochondrial particles.
Preliminary reports of some of these results have already appeared (5, 6 ) , and a
complete account is being published elsewhere (7).We have studied the energy- dependent reduction of TPN by PNH with submitochondrial particles from both
rat liver and beef heart. Rat liver particles were prepared essentially according to
the method of Kielley and Bronk (8), and beef heart particles by the method of
Low and Vallin (9).
PYRIDINE NUCLEOTIDE TRANSHYDROGENASEII. DIRECT EVIDENCE FOR
AND MECHANISM OF THETRANSHYDROGENASE REACTION*
BY NATHAN 0. KAPLAN, SIDNEY P. COLOWICK, AND ELIZABETH F. NEUFELD
(From the McCollum-Pratt Institute, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
Maryland) J. Biol. Chem. 1952, 195:107-119. http://www.jbc.org/content/195/1/107.citation
Colowick became Carl Cori’s first graduate student and earned his Ph.D. at
Washington University St. Louis in 1942, continuing to work with the Coris (Nobel
Prize jointly) for 10 years. At the age of 21, he published his first paper on the
classical studies of glucose 1-phosphate (2), and a year later he was the sole author on a paper on the synthesis of mannose 1-phosphate and galactose 1-phosphate (3). Both papers were published in the JBC. During his time in the Cori lab,
Colowick was involved in many projects. Along with Herman Kalckar he discovered
myokinase (distinguished from adenylate kinase from liver), which is now known as
adenyl kinase. This discovery proved to be important in understanding transphos-phorylation reactions in yeast and animal cells. Colowick’s interest then turned to
the conversion of glucose to polysaccharides, and he and Earl Sutherland (who
will be featured in an upcoming JBC Classic) published an important paper on the
formation of glycogen from glucose using purified enzymes (4). In 1951, Colowick
and Nathan Kaplan were approached by Kurt Jacoby of Academic Press to do a
series comparable to Methodem der Ferment Forschung. Colowick and Kaplan
planned and edited the first 6 volumes of Methods in Enzymology, launching in 1955
what became a series of well known and useful handbooks. He continued as
Editor of the series until his death in 1985.
In Paper I (l), indirect evidence was presented for the following transhydrogenase
reaction, catalyzed by an enzyme present in extracts of Pseudomonas
fluorescens:
TPNHz + DPN -+ TPN + DPNHz
The evidence was obtained by coupling TPN-specific dehydrogenases with the
transhydrogenase and observing the reduction of large amounts of diphosphopyridine nucleotide (DPN) in the presence of catalytic amounts of triphosphopyridine
nucleotide (TPN).
In this paper, data will be reported showing the direct
interaction between TPNHz and DPN, in thepresence of transhydrogenase alone,
to yield products having the propertiesof TPN and DPNHZ.
Information will be given indicating that the reaction involves
a transfer of electrons (or hydrogen) rather than a phosphate
Experiments dealing with the kinetics and reversibility of the reaction, and with the
nature of the products, suggest that the reaction is a complex one, not fully described
by the above formulation.
Materials and Methods [edited]
The TPN and DPN used in these studies were preparations of approximately 75
percent purity and were prepared from sheep liver by the chromatographic procedure
of Kornberg and Horecker (unpublished). Reduced DPN was prepared enzymatically with alcohol dehydrogenase as described elsewhere (2). Reduced TPN was prepared by treating TPN with hydrosulfite. This treated mixture contained 2 pM of TPNHz per ml.
The preparations of desamino DPN and reduced desamino DPN have been
described previously (2, 3). Phosphogluconate was a barium salt which was kindly
supplied by Dr. B. F. Horecker. Cytochrome c was obtained from the Sigma Chemical Company.
Transhydrogenase preparations with an activity of 250 to 7000 units per mg. were
used in these studies. The DPNase was a purified enzyme, which was obtained
from zinc-deficient Neurospora and had an activity of 5500 units per mg. (4). The
alcohol dehydrogenase was a crystalline preparation isolated from yeast according to the procedure of Racker (5).
Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase from yeast and a 10 per cent pure preparation of the TPN-specific cytochrome c reductase from liver (6) were gifts of Dr. B. F.
Horecker.
DPN was assayed with alcohol and crystalline yeast alcohol dehydrogenase. TPN was determined By the specific phosphogluconic acid dehydrogenase from yeast and also by the specific isocitric dehydrogenase from pig heart. Reduced DPN was
determined by the use of acetaldehyde and the yeast alcohol dehydrogenase.
All of the above assays were based on the measurement of optical density changes
at 340 rnp. TPNHz was determined with the TPN-specific cytochrome c reductase system. The assay of the reaction followed increase in optical density at 550 rnp as a measure of the reduction of the cytochrome c after cytochrome c
reductase was added to initiate the reaction. The changes at 550 rnp are plotted for different concentrations of TPNHz in Fig. 3, a. The method is an extremely sensitive and accurate assay for reduced TPN.
Results
[No Figures or Table shown]
Formation of DPNHz from TPNHz and DPN-Fig. 1, a illustrates the direct reaction between TPNHz and DPN to form DPNHZ. The reaction was carried out by incubating TPNHz with DPN in the presence of the
transhydrogenase, yeast alcohol dehydrogenase, and acetaldehyde. Since the yeast dehydrogenase is specific for DPN,
a decrease in absorption at340 rnp can only be due to the formation of reduced DPN. It can
be seen from the curves in Fig. 1, a that a decrease in optical density occurs only in the
presence of the complete system.
The Pseudomonas enzyme is essential for the formation of DPNH2. It is noteworthy
that, under the conditions of reaction in Fig. 1, a,
approximately 40 per cent of theTPNH, reacted with the DPN.
Fig. 1, a also indicates that magnesium is not required for transhydrogenase activity. The reaction between TPNHz and DPN takes place in the absence ofalcohol
dehydrogenase and acetaldehyde. This can be demonstrated by incubating the
two pyridine nucleotides with the transhydrogenase for 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
minutes
FIG. 1. Evidence for enzymatic reaction of TPNHt with DPN.
Rate offormation of DPNH2.
(b) DPN disappearance and TPN formation.
(c) Identification of desamino DPNHz as product of reaction of TPNHz with desamino DPN. (assaying for reduced DPN by the yeast alcohol dehydrogenase technique.
Table I (Experiment 1) summarizes the results of such experiments in which TPNHz was added with varying amounts of DPN.
In the absence of DPN, no DPNHz was formed. This eliminates the possibility that TPNH 2 is
converted to DPNHz
by removal ofthe monoester phosphate grouping.
The data also show that the extent of the reaction is
dependent on the concentration of DPN.
Even with alarge excess of DPN, only approximately 40 per cent of the TPNHzreacts to form reduced DPN. It is of importance to emphasize that in the above
experiments, which were carried out in phosphate buffer, the extent of the reaction
is the same in the presence or absence of acetaldehyde andalcohol dehydrogenase.
With an excess of DPN and different levels of TPNHZ,
the amount of reduced DPN which is formed is
dependent on the concentration of TPNHz(Table I, Experiment 2).
In all cases, the amount of DPNHz formed is approximately 40 per cent of the added reduced TPN.
Formation of TPN-The reaction between TPNHz and DPN should yield TPN as well as DPNHz.
The formation of TPN is demonstrated in Table 1. in Fig. 1, b. In this experiment,
TPNHz was allowed to react with DPN in the presence of the transhydrogenase
(PS.), and then alcohol and alcohol dehydrogenase were added . This
would result in reduction of the residual DPN, and the sample incubated with the
transhydrogenase contained less DPN. After the completion of the alcohol
dehydrogenase reaction, phosphogluconate and phosphogluconic dehydrogenase (PGAD) were added to reduce the TPN. The addition of this TPN-specific
dehydrogenase results in an
increase inoptical density in the enzymatically treated sample.
This change represents the amount of TPN formed.
It is of interest to point out that, after addition of both dehydrogenases,
the total optical density change is the same in both
Therefore it is evident that
for every mole of DPN disappearinga mole of TPN appears.
Balance of All Components of Reaction–
Table II (Experiment 1) shows that,
if measurements for all components of the reaction are made, one can demonstrate
that there is
a mole for mole disappearance of TPNH, and DPN, and
a stoichiometric appearance of TPN and DPNH2.
The oxidized forms of the nucleotides were assayed as described
the reduced form of TPN was determined by the TPNHz-specific cytochrome c reductase,
the DPNHz by means of yeast alcohol dehydrogenase plus
This stoichiometric balance is true, however,
only when the analyses for the oxidized forms are determined directly on the reaction
When analyses are made after acidification of the incubated reaction mixture,
the values found forDPN and TPN are much lower than those obtained by direct analysis.
This discrepancy in the balance when analyses for the oxidized nucleotides are
carried out in acid is indicated in Table II (Experiment 2). The results, when
compared with the findings in Experiment 1, are quite striking.
Reaction of TPNHz with Desamino DPN–
Desamino DPN
reacts with the transhydrogenase system at the same rate as does DPN (2).
This was of value in establishing the fact that
the transhydrogenase catalyzesa transfer of hydrogen rather than a phosphate transfer reaction.
The reaction between desamino DPN and TPNHz can be written in two ways.
TPN f desamino DPNHz
TPNH, + desamino DPN
DPNH2 + desamino TPN
If the reaction involved an electron transfer,
desamino DPNHz would be
Phosphate transfer would result in the production of reduced
Desamino DPNHz can be distinguished from DPNHz by its
slowerrate of reaction with yeast alcohol dehydrogenase (2, 3).
Fig. 1, c illustrates that, when desamino DPN reacts with TPNH2,
the product of the reaction is desamino DPNHZ.
This is indicated by the slow rate ofoxidation of the product by yeast alcohol
dehydrogenase and acetaldehyde.
From the above evidence phosphate transfer
has been ruled out as a possible mechanism for the transhydrogenase reaction.
Inhibition by TPN–
As mentioned in Paper I and as will be discussed later in this paper,
the transhydrogenase reaction does not appear to be readily reversible.
This is surprising, particularly since only approximately
40 per cent of the TPNHz undergoes reaction with DPN
under the conditions described above. It was therefore thought that
the TPN formed might inhibit further transfer of electrons from TPNH2.
TableIII summarizes data showing the
strong inhibitory effect of TPN on thereaction between TPNHz and DPN.
It is evident from the data that
TPN concentration is a factor in determining the extent of the reaction.
Effect of Removal of TPN on Extent of Reaction–
A purified DPNase from Neurospora has been found
to cleave the nicotinamide riboside linkagesof the oxidized forms of both TPN and DPN
without acting on thereduced forms of both nucleotides (4).
It has been found, however, that
the DPNase hydrolyzes desamino DPN at a very slow rate (3).
In the reaction between TPNHz and desamino DPN, TPN and desamino DPNH:,
TPNis the only component of this reaction attacked by the Neurospora enzyme
at an appreciable rate
It was thought that addition of the DPNase to the TPNHZ-desamino DPN trans-
hydrogenase reaction mixture
would split the TPN formed andpermit the reaction to go to completion.
This, indeed, proved to be the case, as indicated in Table IV, where addition of
the DPNase with desamino DPN results in almost
a stoichiometric formation of desamino DPNHz
and a complete disappearance of TPNH2.
Extent of Reaction in Buffers Other Than Phosphate–
All the reactions described above were carried out in phosphate buffer of pH 7.5.
If the transhydrogenase reaction between TPNHz and DPN is run at the samepH
in tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane buffer (TRIS buffer)
with acetaldehydeand alcohol dehydrogenase present,
the reaction proceeds muchfurther toward completion
than is the case under the same conditions ina phosphate medium (Fig. 2, a).
The importance of phosphate concentration in governing the extent of the reaction
is illustrated in Fig. 2, b.
In the presence of TRIS the transfer reaction
seems to go further toward completion in the presence of acetaldehyde
and alcohol dehydrogenase
than when these two components are absent.
This is not true of the reaction in phosphate,
in which the extent is independent of the alcoholdehydrogenase system.
Removal of one of the products of the reaction (DPNHp) in TRIS thus
appears to permit the reaction to approach completion,whereas
in phosphate this removal is without effect on the finalcourse of the reaction.
The extent of the reaction in TRIS in the absenceof alcohol dehydrogenase
and acetaldehyde is
somewhat greater than when the reaction is run in phosphate.
TPN also inhibits the reaction of TPNHz with DPN in TRIS medium, but the inhibition
is not as marked as when the reaction is carried out in phosphate buffer.
Reversibility of Transhydrogenase Reaction;
Reaction between DPNHz andTPN–
In Paper I, it was mentioned that no reversal of the reaction could be achieved in a system containing alcohol, alcohol dehydrogenase, TPN, and catalytic amounts of
DPN.
When DPNH, and TPN are incubated with the purified transhydrogenase, there is
also
no evidence for reversibility.
This is indicated in Table V which shows that
there is no disappearanceof DPNHz in such a system.
It was thought that removal of the TPNHz, which might be formed in the reaction,
could promote the reversal of the reaction. Hence,
by using the TPNHe-specific cytochrome c reductase, one could
not only accomplishthe removal of any reduced TPN,
but also follow the course of the reaction.
A system containing DPNH2, TPN, the transhydrogenase, the cytochrome c
reductase, and cytochrome c, however, gives
no reduction of the cytochrome
This is true for either TRIS or phosphate buffers.2
Some positive evidence for the reversibility has been obtained by using a system
containing
DPNH2, TPNH2, cytochrome c, and the cytochrome creductase in TRIS buffer.
In this case, there is, of course, reduction of cytochrome c by TPNHZ, but,
when the transhydrogenase is present.,there is
additional reduction over and above that due to the added TPNH2.
This additional reduction suggests that some reversibility of the reaction occurred
under these conditions. Fig. 3, b shows
the necessity of DPNHzfor this additional reduction.
Interaction of DPNHz with Desamino DPN-
If desamino DPN and DPNHz are incubated with the purified Pseudomonas enzyme,
there appears
to be a transfer of electrons to form desamino DPNHz.
This is illustrated in Fig. 4, a, which shows the
decreased rate of oxidation by thealcohol dehydrogenase system
after incubation with the transhydrogenase.
Incubation of desamino DPNHz with DPN results in the formation of DPNH2,
which is detected by the faster rate of oxidation by the alcohol dehydrogenase system
after reaction of the pyridine nucleotides with thetranshydrogenase (Fig. 4, b).
It is evident from the above experiments that
the transhydrogenase catalyzes an exchange of hydrogens between
the adenylic and inosinic pyridine nucleotides.
However, it is difficult to obtain any quantitative information on the rate or extent of
the reaction by the method used, because
desamino DPNHz also reacts with the alcohol dehydrogenase system,
although at a much slower rate than does DPNH2.
DISCUSSION
The results of the balance experiments seem to offer convincing evidence that
the transhydrogenase catalyzes the following reaction.
TPNHz + DPN -+ DPNHz + TPN
Since desamino DPNHz is formed from TPNHz and desamino DPN,
thereaction appears to involve an electron (or hydrogen) transfer
rather thana transfer of the monoester phosphate grouping of TPN.
A number of the findings reported in this paper are not readily understandable in
terms of the above simple formulation of the reaction. It is difficult to understand
the greater extent of the reaction in TRIS than in phosphate when acetaldehyde
and alcohol dehydrogenase are present.
One possibility is that an intermediate may be involved which is more easily converted
to reduced DPN in the TRIS medium. The existence of such an intermediate is also
suggested by the discrepancies noted in balance experiments, in which
analyses of the oxidized nucleotides after acidification showed
much lower values than those found by direct analysis.
These findings suggest that the reaction may involve
a 1 electron ratherthan a 2 electron transfer with
the formation of acid-labile free radicals as intermediates.
The transfer of hydrogens from DPNHz to desamino DPN
to yield desamino DPNHz and DPN and the reversal of this transfer
indicate the unique role of the transhydrogenase
in promoting electron exchange between the pyridine nucleotides.
In this connection, it is of interest that alcohol dehydrogenase and lactic
dehydrogenase cannot duplicate this exchange between the DPN and
the desamino systems.3 If one assumes that desamino DPN behaves
like DPN,
one might predict that the transhydrogenase would catalyze an
exchange of electrons (or hydrogen) 3.
Since alcohol dehydrogenase alone
does not catalyze an exchange of electrons between the adenylic
and inosinic pyridine nucleotides, this rules out the possibility
that the dehydrogenase is converted to a reduced intermediate
during electron between DPNHz and added DPN.
It is hoped to investigate this possibility with isotopically labeled DPN.
Experiments to test the interaction between TPN and desamino TPN are
also now in progress.
It seems likely that the transhydrogenase will prove capable of
catalyzingan exchange between TPN and TPNH2, as well as between DPN and
The observed inhibition by TPN of the reaction between TPNHz and DPN may
therefore
be due to a competition between DPN and TPNfor the TPNH2.
SUMMARY
Direct evidence for the following transhydrogenase reaction. catalyzedby an
enzyme from Pseudomonas fluorescens, is presented.
TPNHz + DPN -+ TPN + DPNHz
Balance experiments have shown that for every mole of TPNHz disappearing
1 mole of TPN appears and that for each mole of DPNHz generated 1 mole of
DPN disappears. The oxidized nucleotides found at the end of the reaction,
however, show anomalous lability toward acid.
The transhydrogenase also promotes the following reaction.
TPNHz + desamino DPN -+ TPN + desamino DPNH,
This rules out the possibility that the transhydrogenase reaction involves a phosphate transfer and indicates that the
enzyme catalyzes a shift of electrons (or hydrogen atoms).
The reaction of TPNHz with DPN in 0.1 M phosphate buffer is strongly
inhibited by TPN; thus
it proceeds only to the extent of about40 per cent or less, even
when DPNHz is removed continuously by meansof acetaldehyde
and alcohol dehydrogenase.
In other buffers, in whichTPN is less inhibitory, the reaction proceeds
much further toward completion under these conditions.
The reaction in phosphate buffer proceedsto completion when TPN
is removed as it is formed.
DPNHz does not react with TPN to form TPNHz and DPN in the presence
of transhydrogenase. Some evidence, however, has been obtained for
the reversibility by using the following system:
DPNHZ, TPNHZ, cytochromec, the TPNHz-specific cytochrome c reductase,
and the transhydrogenase.
Evidence is cited for the following reversible reaction, which is catalyzed
by the transhydrogenase.
DPNHz + desamino DPN fi DPN + desamino DPNHz
The results are discussed with respect to the possibility that the
transhydrogenase reaction may
involve a 1 electron transfer with theformation of free radicals as intermediates.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Coiowick, S. P., Kaplan, N. O., Neufeld, E. F., and Ciotti, M. M., J. Biol. Chem.,196, 95 (1952).
Pullman, 111. E., Colowick, S. P., and Kaplan, N. O., J. Biol. Chem., 194, 593(1952).
Kaplan, N. O., Colowick, S. P., and Ciotti, M. M., J. Biol. Chem., 194, 579 (1952).
Kaplan, N. O., Colowick, S. P., and Nason, A., J. Biol. Chem., 191, 473 (1951).
Racker, E., J. Biol. Chem., 184, 313 (1950).
Horecker, B. F., J. Biol. Chem., 183, 593 (1950).
Section !II.
The Leloir pathway: a mechanistic imperative for three enzymes to change
the stereochemical configuration of a single carbon in galactose.
The biological interconversion of galactose and glucose takes place only by way of
the Leloir pathway and requires the three enzymes galactokinase, galactose-1-P
uridylyltransferase, and UDP-galactose 4-epimerase.
The only biological importance of these enzymes appears to be to
provide for the interconversion of galactosyl and glucosyl groups.
Galactose mutarotase also participates by producing the galactokinase substrate
alpha-D-galactose from its beta-anomer. The galacto/gluco configurational change takes place at the level of the nucleotide sugar by an oxidation/reduction
mechanism in the active site of the epimerase NAD+ complex. The nucleotide portion
of UDP-galactose and UDP-glucose participates in the epimerization process in two ways:
1) by serving as a binding anchor that allows epimerization to take place at glycosyl-C-4 through weak binding of the sugar, and
2) by inducing a conformational change in the epimerase that destabilizes NAD+ and
increases its reactivity toward substrates.
Reversible hydride transfer is thereby facilitated between NAD+ and carbon-4
of the weakly bound sugars.
The structure of the enzyme reveals many details of the binding of NAD+ and
inhibitors at the active site.
The essential roles of the kinase and transferase are to attach the UDP group
to galactose, allowing for its participation in catalysis by the epimerase. The
transferase is a Zn/Fe metalloprotein, in which the metal ions stabilize the
structure rather than participating in catalysis. The structure is interesting
in that
it consists of single beta-sheet with 13 antiparallel strands and 1 parallel strand
connected by 6 helices.
The mechanism of UMP attachment at the active site of the transferase is a double
displacement, with the participation of a covalent UMP-His 166-enzyme intermediate
in the Escherichia coli enzyme. The evolution of this mechanism appears to have
been guided by the principle of economy in the evolution of binding sites.