Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator
Chief, Scientific Communication
Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence
with contributions from JEDS Rosalis, Brazil
and Radislov Rosov, Univ of Virginia, VA, USA
A Brief Curation of Proteomics, Metabolomics, and Metabolism
This article is a continuation of a series of elaborations of the recent and
accelerated scientific discoveries that are enlarging the scope of and
integration of biological and medical knowledge leading to new drug
discoveries. The work that has led us to this point actually has roots
that go back 150 years. The roots go back to studies in the mid-nineteenth century, with the emergence of microbiology, physiology,
pathology, botany, chemistry and physics, and the laying down of a
mechanistic approach divergent from descriptive observation in the
twentieth century. Medicine took on the obligation to renew the method
of training physicians after the Flexner Report (The Flexner Report of
1910 transformed the nature and process of medical education in America
with a resulting elimination of proprietary schools), funded by the Carnegie
Foundation. Johns Hopkins University Medical School became the first to
adopt the model, as did Harvard, Yale, University of Chicago, and others.
The advances in biochemistry, genetics and genomics, were large, as was
structural organic chemistry in the remainder of the centrury. The advances
in applied mathematics and in instrumental analysis opened a new gateway
into the 21st century with the Human Genome Project, the Proteome Library,
Signaling Pathways, and the Metabolomes – human, microbial, and plants.
shall elaborate on how the key processes of life are being elucidated as
these interrelated disciplines converge. I shall not be covering in great
detail the contribution of the genetic code and transcripton because they
have been covered at great length in this series.
Part I. The foundation for the emergence of a revitalized molecular
biology and biochemistry.
In a series of discussions with Jose des Salles Roselino (Brazil) over a
period of months we have come to an important line of reasoning. DNA
to protein link goes from triplet sequence to amino acid sequence. The
realm of genetics. Further, protein conformation, activity and function
requires that environmental and microenvironmental factors should be
considered (Biochemistry). This has been opened in several articles
preceding this.
In the cAMP coupled hormonal response the transfer of conformation
from protein to protein is paramount. For instance, if your scheme goes
beyond cAMP, it will show an effect over a self-assembly (inhibitor
protein and protein kinase). Therefore, sequence alone does not
explain conformation, activity and function of regulatory proteins.
Recall that sequence is primar structure, determined by the translation
of the code, but secondary structure is determined by disulfide bonds.
There is another level of structure, tertiary structure, that is molded by
steric influences of near neighbors and by noncovalent attractions
and repulsions.
A few comments ( contributed by Assoc. Prof. JEDS Roselino) are in
order to stress the importance of self-assembly (Prigogine, R. A
Marcus, conformation energy) in a subject that is the best for this
connection. We have to stress again that in the cAMP
coupled hormonal response the transfer of conformation from
protein to protein is paramount. For instance, in case the
reaction sequence follows beyond the production of the
second messenger, as in the case of cAMP, this second
messenger will remove a self-assembly of inhibitor protein
with the enzyme protein kinase. Therefore, sequence alone
does not explain conformation, activity and function of
regulatory proteins. In this case, if this important mechanism
was not ignored, the work of Stanley Prusiner would most
certainly have been recognized earlier, and “rogue” proteins
would not have been seen as so rogue as some assumed.
For the general idea of importance of self-assembly versus
change in covalent modification of proteins (see R. A Kahn
and A. G Gilman (1984) J. Biol. Chem. 259(10), pp 6235-
6240. In this case, trimeric or dimeric G does not matter.
“Signaling transduction tutorial”.
G proteins in the G protein coupled-receptor proteins are
presented following a unidirectional series of arrows.
This is adequate to convey the idea of information being
transferred from outside the cell towards cell´s interior
(therefore, against the dogma that says all information
moves from DNA to RNA to protein. It is important to
consider the following: The entire process is driven by
a very delicate equilibrium between possible conform-
ational states of the proteins. Empty receptors have very
low affinity for G proteins. On the other hand, hormone
bound receptors have a change in conformation that
allows increasing the affinity for the G-trimer. When
hormone receptors bind to G-trimers two things happen:
- Receptors transfer conformation information to
the G-triplex and - the G-triplex transfers information back to the
complex hormone-receptor.
In the first case , the dissociated G protein exchanges
GDP for GTP and has its affinity for the cyclase increased,
while by the same interaction receptor releases the
hormone which then places the first required step for the
signal. After this first interaction step, on the second and
final transduction system step is represented by an
opposite arrow. When, the G-protein + GTP complex
interacts with the cyclase two things happen:
- It changes the cyclase to an active conformation
starting the production of cAMP as the single
arrow of the scheme. However, the interaction
also causes a backward effect. - It activates the GTPase activity of this subunit
and the breakdown of GTP to GDP moves this
subunit back to the initial trimeric inactive
state of G complex.
This was very well studied when the actions of cholera toxin
required better understanding. Cholera toxin changes the
GTPase subunit by ADP-ribosilation (a covalent and far more
stable change in proteins) producing a permanent conformation
of GTP bound G subunit. This keeps the cyclase in permanent
active conformation because ADP-ribosilation inhibits GTPase
activity required to put an end in the hormonal signal.
The study made while G-proteins were considered a dimer still
holds despite its limited vision of the real complexity of the
transduction system. It was also possible to get this very same
“freezing” in the active state using GTP stable analogues. This
transduction system is one of the best examples of the delicate
mechanisms of conformational interaction of proteins. Further-
more, this system also shows on the opposite side of our
reasoning scheme, how covalent changes are adequate for
more stable changes than those mediated by Van der Wall’s
forces between proteins. Yet, these delicate forces are the
same involved when Sc-Prion transfers its rogue
conformation to c-Prion proteins and other similar events.
The Jacob-Monod Model
A combination of genetic and biochemical experiments in
bacteria led to the initial recognition of
- protein-binding regulatory sequences associated with genes and
- proteins whose binding to a gene’s regulatory sequences
either activate or repress its transcription.
These key components underlie the ability of both prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells to turn genes on and off. The experimental findings lead to a general model of bacterial transcription control.
Gene control serves to allow a single cell to adjust to changes in its
nutritional environment so that its growth and division can be optimized.
Thus, the prime focus of research has been on genes that encode
inducible proteins whose production varies depending on the nutritional
status of the cells. Its most characteristic and biologically far-reaching
purpose in eukaryotes, distinctive from single cell organisms is the
regulation of a genetic program that underlies embryological
development and tissue differentiation.
The principles of transcription have already been described in this
series under the translation of the genetic code into amino acids
that are the building blocks for proteins.
E.coli can use either glucose or other sugars such as the
disaccharide lactose as the sole source of carbon and energy.
When E. coli cells are grown in a glucose-containing medium,
the activity of the enzymes needed to metabolize lactose is
very low. When these cells are switched to a medium
containing lactose but no glucose, the activities of the lactose-metabolizing enzymes increase. Early studies showed that the
increase in the activity of these enzymes resulted from the
synthesis of new enzyme molecules, a phenomenon termed
induction. The enzymes induced in the presence of lactose
are encoded by the lac operon, which includes two genes, Z
and Y, that are required for metabolism of lactose and a third
gene. The lac Y gene encodes lactose permease, which spans the E. coli cell membrane and uses the energy available from
the electrochemical gradient across the membrane to pump
lactose into the cell. The lac Z gene encodes β-galactosidase,
which splits the disaccharide lactose into the monosaccharides
glucose and galactose, which are further metabolized through
the action of enzymes encoded in other operons. The third
gene encodes thiogalactoside transacetylase.
Synthesis of all three enzymes encoded in the lac operon is rapidly
induced when E. coli cells are placed in a medium containing lactose
as the only carbon source and repressed when the cells are switched
to a medium without lactose. Thus all three genes of the lac operon
are coordinately regulated. The lac operon in E. coli provides one
of the earliest and still best-understood examples of gene control.
Much of the pioneering research on the lac operon was conducted by
Francois Jacob, Jacques Monod, and their colleagues in the 1960s.
Some molecules similar in structure to lactose can induce expression
of the lac–operon genes even though they cannot be hydrolyzed by β-galactosidase. Such small molecules (i.e., smaller than proteins) are
called inducers. One of these, isopropyl-β-D-thiogalactoside,
abbreviated IPTG,is particularly useful in genetic studies of the lac
operon, because it can diffuse into cells and, it is not metabolized.
Insight into the mechanisms controlling synthesis of β-galactosidase
and lactose permease came from the study of mutants in which control
of β-galactosidase expression was abnormal and used a colorimetric
assay for β-galactosidase.
When the cells are exposed to chemical mutagens before plating on
X-gal/glucose plates, rare blue colonies appear, but when cells
from these blue colonies are recovered and grown in media containing
glucose, they overexpress all the genes of the lac operon. These cells
are called constitutive mutants because they fail to repress the lac
operon in media lacking lactose and instead continuously express the
enzymes, and the genes were mapped to a region on the E. coli
chromosome. This led to the conclusion that these cells had a defect
in a protein that normally repressed expression of the lac operon in
the absence of lactose, and that it blocks transcription by binding to
a site on the E. coli genome where transcription of the lac operon is
initiated. In addition, it binds to the lac repressor in the lactose
medium and decreases its affinity for the repressor-binding site
on the DNA causing the repressor to unbind the DNA. Thereby,
transcription of the lac operon is initiated, leading to synthesis of
β-galactosidase, lactose permease, and thiogalactoside
transacetylase.
Jacob and Monod model of transcriptional regulation of the lac operon
Next, Jacob and Monod isolated mutants that expressed the lac operon
constitutively even when two copies of the wild-type lacI gene
encoding the lac repressor were present in the same cell, and the
constitutive mutations mapped to one end of the lac operon, as the
model predicted. Further, there are rare cells that carry a mutation
located at the region, promoter, that block initiation of transcription by
RNA polymerase.
lac I+ gene is trans-acting, & encodes a protein, which
binds to a lac operator
They further demonstrated that the two types of mutations lac I– and
lac I+, were cis- and trans-acting, the latter encoding a protein that
binds to the lac operator. The cis-acting Oc mutations prevent
binding of the lac repressor to the operator, and mutations in the
lac promoter are cis-acting, since they alter the binding site for RNA
polymerase. In general, trans-acting genes that regulate expression
of genes on other DNA molecules encode diffusible products. In
most cases these are proteins, but in some cases RNA molecules
can act in trans to regulate gene expression.
According to the Jacob and Monod model of transcriptional control,
transcription of the lac operon, which encodes three inducible
proteins, is repressed by binding of lac repressor protein to the
operator sequence.
- In the presence of lactose or other inducer, this repression is
relieved and the lacoperon is transcribed. - Mutations in the promoter, which binds RNA polymerase, or
the operator are cis-acting; that is, they only affect expression
of genes on the same DNA molecule in which the mutation - Mutations in an operatorsequence that decrease repressor
binding result in constitutive transcription. - Mutations in a promotersequence, which affect the affinity of
RNA polymerase binding, can either decrease (down-mutation)
or increase (up-mutation) transcription.
(Section 10.1Bacterial Gene Control: The Jacob-Monod Model.)
This book is accessible by the search feature.
Comment: This seminal work was done a half century ago. It was a
decade after the Watson-Crick model for DNA. The model is
elaborated for the Eukaryote in the examples that follow.
(The next two articles were called to my attention by R. Bosov at
University of Virginia).
An acetate switch regulates stress erythropoiesis
M Xu, JS Nagati, Ji Xie, J Li, H Walters, Young-Ah Moon, et al.
Nature Medicine 10 Aug 2014(20): 1018–1026.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nm.3587
message: 1- ( -CH3 ) = Ln ( (1/sqrt(1-Acetate^2) –
sqrt oxalate))/ Ln(oxygen) – K(o)
rsb5n@virginia.edu
The hormone erythropoietin (EPO), synthesized in the kidney or liver
of adult mammals, controls erythrocyte production and is regulated by
the stress-responsive transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor-2
(HIF-2). HIF–α acetylation and efficient HIF-2–dependent EPO
induction during hypoxia requires the lysine acetyltransferase CREB-binding protein (CBP) . These processes require acetate-dependent
acetyl CoA synthetase 2 (ACSS2) as follows.Acetate levels rise and
ACSS2 is required for HIF-2α acetylation, CBP–HIF-2α complex
formation, CBP–HIF-2α recruitment to the EPO enhancer and induction
of EPO gene expression in human Hep3B hepatoma cells and in EPO-generating organs of hypoxic or acutely anemic mice. In acutely anemic
mice, acetate supplementation augments stress erythropoiesis in an
ACSS2-dependent manner. Moreover, in acquired and inherited
chronic anemia mouse models, acetate supplementation increases
EPO expression and the resting hematocrit. Thus, a mammalian
stress-responsive acetate switch controls HIF-2 signaling and EPO
induction during pathophysiological states marked by tissue hypoxia.
Figure 1: Acss2 controls HIF-2 signaling in hypoxic cells.
Time course of endogenous HIF-2α acetylation during hypoxia following
immunoprecipitation (IP) of HIF-2α from whole-cell extracts and detection
of acetylated lysines by immunoblotting (IB).
http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v20/n9/carousel/nm.3587-F1.jpg
Figure 2: Acss2 regulates hypoxia-induced renal Epo expression in mice.
http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v20/n9/carousel/nm.3587-F2.jpg
Figure 3: Acute anemia induces Acss2-dependent HIF-2 signaling in mice.
http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v20/n9/carousel/nm.3587-F3.jpg
Figure 4: An acetate switch regulates Cbp–HIF-2 interactions in cells.
(a) HIF-2α acetylation following immunoprecipitation of endogenous
HIF-2α and detection by immunoblotting with antibodies to acetylated
lysine or HIF-2α.
http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v20/n9/carousel/nm.3587-F4.jpg
Figure 5: Acss2 signaling in cells requires intact HIF-2 acetylation.
http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v20/n9/carousel/nm.3587-F5.jpg
Figure 6: Acetate facilitates recovery from anemia.
(a) Serial hematocrits of CD1 wild-type female mice after PHZ treatment, followed
by once daily per os (p.o.) supplementation with water vehicle (Veh; n = 7 mice),
GTA (n = 6 mice), GTB (n = 8 mice) or GTP (n = 7 mice) (single measurem…
http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v20/n9/carousel/nm.3587-F6.jpg
see also-.
1. Bunn, H.F. & Poyton, R.O. Oxygen sensing and molecular adaptation to
hypoxia. Physiol. Rev. 76, 839–885 (1996).
- .Richalet, J.P. Oxygen sensors in the organism: examples of regulation
under altitude hypoxia in mammals. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A Physiol.
118, 9–14 (1997). - .Koury, M.J. Erythropoietin: the story of hypoxia and a finely regulated
hematopoietic hormone. Exp. Hematol. 33, 1263–1270 (2005). - Wang, G.L., Jiang, B.H., Rue, E.A. & Semenza, G.L. Hypoxia-inducible
factor 1 is a basic-helix-loop-helix-PAS heterodimer regulated
by cellular O2 tension. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA92, 5510–5514 (1995). - Chen, R. et al. The acetylase/deacetylase couple CREB-binding
protein/sirtuin 1 controls hypoxia-inducible factor 2 signaling. J. Biol.
Chem. 287, 30800–30811 (2012). - .Papandreou, I., Cairns, R.A., Fontana, L., Lim, A.L. & Denko, N.C.
HIF-1 mediates adaptation to hypoxia by actively down-regulating
mitochondrial oxygen consumption. Cell Metab. 3,187–197 (2006).
14. Kim, J.W., Tchernyshyov, I., Semenza, G.L. & Dang, C.V. HIF-1-
mediated expression of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase: a metabolic
switch required for cellular adaptation to hypoxia. Cell Metab. 3,
177–185 (2006).
16. Fujino, T., Kondo, J., Ishikawa, M., Morikawa, K. & Yamamoto, T.T.
Acetyl-CoA synthetase 2, a mitochondrial matrix enzyme involved in the
oxidation of acetate. J. Biol. Chem. 276,11420–11426 (2001).
17..Luong, A., Hannah, V.C., Brown, M.S. & Goldstein, J.L. Molecular
characterization of human acetyl-CoA synthetase, an enzyme regulated
by sterol regulatory element-binding proteins. J. Biol. Chem. 275,
26458–26466 (2000).
20 .Wellen, K.E. et al. ATP-citrate lyase links cellular metabolism to
histone acetylation. Science324, 1076–1080 (2009).
24. McBrian, M.A. et al. Histone acetylation regulates intracellular pH.
Mol. Cell 49, 310–321(2013).
Asymmetric mRNA localization contributes to fidelity and sensitivity
of spatially localized systems
Robert J Weatheritt, Toby J Gibson & M Madan Babu
Nature Structural & Molecular Biology 21, 833–839 (2014)
http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v21/n9/abs/nsmb.2876.html
Although many proteins are localized after translation, asymmetric
protein distribution is also achieved by translation after mRNA localization.
Why are certain mRNA transported to a distal location and translated
on-site? Here we undertake a systematic, genome-scale study of
asymmetrically distributed protein and mRNA in mammalian cells.
Our findings suggest that asymmetric protein distribution by mRNA
localization enhances interaction fidelity and signaling sensitivity.
Proteins synthesized at distal locations frequently contain intrinsically
disordered segments. These regions are generally rich in assembly-
promoting modules and are often regulated by post-translational
modifications. Such proteins are tightly regulated but display distinct
temporal dynamics upon stimulation with growth factors. Thus, proteins
synthesized on-site may rapidly alter proteome composition and
act as dynamically regulated scaffolds to promote the formation
of reversible cellular assemblies. Our observations are consistent
across multiple mammalian species, cell types and developmental stages,
suggesting that localized translation is a recurring feature of cell
signaling and regulation.
Figure 1: Classification and characterization of TAS and DSS proteins.
(a)The two major mechanisms for localizing proteins to distal sites in the cell.
(b) Data sets used to identify groups of DSS and TAS transcripts, as well as
DSS and TAS proteins in mouse neuroblastoma cells
http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v21/n9/carousel/nsmb.2876-F1.jpg
Figure 2: Structural analysis of DSS proteins reveals an enrichment
in disordered regions.

Distributions of the various structural properties of the DSS and TAS proteins of the mouse neuroblastoma data sets
(a,b) Distributions of the various structural properties of the DSS and TAS
proteins of the mouse neuroblastoma data sets (a), the mouse pseudopodia,
the rat embryonic sensory neuron data set and the adult sensory neuron data set (b).…
http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v21/n9/carousel/nsmb.2876-F2.jpg
Figure 3: Analysis of DSS proteins reveals an enrichment for linear motifs, phase-
transition (i.e., higher-order assembly) promoting segments and PTM sites that act
as molecular switches.
(a,b) Distributions of the various regulatory and structural properties of the DSS
and TAS proteins of the mouse neuroblastoma data sets
http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v21/n9/carousel/nsmb.2876-F3.jpg
Figure 4: Dynamic regulation of DSS transcripts and proteins.
Genome-wide quantitative measurements of gene expression of DSS (n = 289)
and TAS (n = 1,292) proteins in mouse fibroblast cells. DSS transcripts and
proteins have a lower abundance and shorter half-lives
http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v21/n9/carousel/nsmb.2876-F4.jpg
Figure 5: An overview of the potential advantages conferred by distal-site protein
synthesis, inferred from our analysis.

An overview of the potential advantages conferred by distal-site protein synthesis, inferred from our analysis
Turquoise and red filled circle represents off-target and correct interaction partners,
respectively. Wavy lines – a disordered region within a distal site synthesis protein.
http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v21/n9/carousel/nsmb.2876-F5.jpg
The identification of asymmetrically localized proteins and transcripts.
An illustrative explanation of the resolution of the study and the concept of asymmetric
localization of proteins and mRNA. In this example, on the left a neuron is divided into
its cell body and axon terminal, and transcriptome/proteo…
http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v21/n9/carousel/nsmb.2876-SF1.jpg
Graphs and boxplots of functional and structural properties for distal site synthesis
(DSS) proteins (red) and transport after synthesis (TAS) proteins (gray).
See Online Methods for details and legend of Figure 2 for a description of boxplots
and statistical tests.
http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v21/n9/carousel/nsmb.2876-SF2.jpg
See also –
1. Martin, K.C. & Ephrussi, A. mRNA localization: gene expression in the spatial
dimension. Cell136, 719–730 (2009).
- Scott, J.D. & Pawson, T. Cell signaling in space and time: where proteins come
together and when they’re apart. Science 326, 1220–1224 (2009).
4..Holt, C.E. & Bullock, S.L. Subcellular mRNA localization in animal cells
and why it matters.Science 326, 1212–1216 (2009).
- Jung, H., Gkogkas, C.G., Sonenberg, N. & Holt, C.E. Remote control of
gene function by local translation. Cell 157, 26–40 (2014).
Regulation of metabolism by hypoxia-inducible factor 1.
Semenza GL. Author information
Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol. 2011;76:347-53.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1101/sqb.2011.76.010678.
The maintenance of oxygen homeostasis is critical for survival, and the
master regulator of this process in metazoan species is hypoxia-inducible
factor 1 (HIF-1), which
- controls both O(2) delivery and utilization.
Under conditions of reduced O(2) availability,
- HIF-1 activates the transcription of genes, whose protein products
- mediate a switch from oxidative to glycolytic metabolism.
HIF-1 is activated in cancer cells as a result of intratumoral hypoxia
and/or genetic alterations.
In cancer cells, metabolism is reprogrammed to
- favor glycolysis even under aerobic conditions.
Pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) has been implicated in cancer growth and
metabolism, although the mechanism by which it exerts these effects is
unclear. Recent studies indicate that
PKM2 interacts with HIF-1α physically and functionally to
- stimulate the binding of HIF-1 at target genes,
- the recruitment of coactivators,
- histone acetylation, and
- gene transcription.
Interaction with HIF-1α is facilitated by
- hydroxylation of PKM2 at proline-403 and -408 by PHD3.
Knockdown of PHD3
- decreases glucose transporter 1, lactate dehydrogenase A, and
pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 expression; - decreases glucose uptake and lactate production; and
- increases O(2) consumption.
The effect of PKM2/PHD3 is not limited to genes encoding metabolic
enzymes because VEGF is similarly regulated.
These results provide a mechanism by which PKM2
- promotes metabolic reprogramming and
suggest that it plays a broader role in cancer progression than has
previously been appreciated. PMID: 21785006
Cadherins
Cadherins are thought to be the primary mediators of adhesion
between the cells of vertebrate animals, and also function in cell
adhesion in many invertebrates. The expression of numerous cadherins
during development is highly regulated, and the precise pattern of
cadherin expression plays a pivotal role in the morphogenesis of tissues
and organs. The cadherins are also important in the continued maintenance
of tissue structure and integrity. The loss of cadherin expression appears
to be highly correlated with the invasiveness of some types of tumors. Cadherin adhesion is also dependent on the presence of calcium ions
in the extracellular milieu.
The cadherin protein superfamily, defined as proteins containing a
cadherin-like domain, can be divided into several sub-groups. These include
- the classical (type I) cadherins, which mediate adhesion at adherens junctions;
- the highly-related type II cadherins;
- the desmosomal cadherins found in desmosome junctions;
- protocadherins, expressed only in the nervous system; and
- atypical cadherin-like domain containing proteins.
Members of all but the atypical group have been shown to play a role
in intercellular adhesion.
Part II. PKM2 and regulation of glycolysis
PKM2 regulates the Warburg effect and promotes HMGB1
release in sepsis
L Yang, M Xie, M Yang, Y Yu, S Zhu, W Hou, R Kang, …, & D Tang
Nature Communic 14 July 2014; 5(4436)
http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1038/ncomms5436
Increasing evidence suggests the important role of metabolic reprogramming
- in the regulation of the innate inflammatory response,
We provide evidence to support a novel role for the
- pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2)-mediated Warburg effect,
namely aerobic glycolysis,
- in the regulation of high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) release.
- PKM2 interacts with hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF1α) and
- activates the HIF-1α-dependent transcription of enzymes necessary
for aerobic glycolysis in macrophages.
Knockdown of PKM2, HIF1α and glycolysis-related genes
- uniformly decreases lactate production and HMGB1 release.
Similarly, a potential PKM2 inhibitor, shikonin,
- reduces serum lactate and HMGB1 levels, and
- protects mice from lethal endotoxemia and sepsis.
Collectively, these findings shed light on a novel mechanism for
- metabolic control of inflammation by
- regulating HMGB1 release and
highlight the importance of targeting aerobic glycolysis in the treatment
of sepsis and other inflammatory diseases.
- Glycolytic inhibitor 2-D G attenuates HMGB1 release by activated macrophages.
http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2014/140714/ncomms5436/carousel/ncomms5436-f1.jpg - Figure 2: Upregulated PKM2 promotes aerobic glycolysis and HMGB1
release in activated macrophages.
http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2014/140714/ncomms5436/carousel/ncomms5436-f2.jpg - Figure 3: PKM2-mediated HIF1α activation is required for HMGB1
release in activated macrophages.
http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2014/140714/ncomms5436/carousel/ncomms5436-f3.jpg
ERK1/2-dependent phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of
PKM2 promotes the Warburg effect
W Yang, Y Zheng, Y Xia, Ha Ji, X Chen, F Guo, CA Lyssiotis, & Zhimin Lu
Nature Cell Biology 2012 (27 June 2014); 14: 1295–1304
Corrigendum (January, 2013) http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/ncb2629
Pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) is upregulated in multiple cancer types and
contributes to the Warburg. We demonstrate that
- EGFR-activated ERK2 binds directly to PKM2 Ile 429/Leu 431
- through the ERK2 docking groove
- and phosphorylates PKM2 at Ser 37, but
- does not phosphorylate PKM1.
Phosphorylated PKM2 Ser 37
- recruits PIN1 for cis–trans isomerization of PKM2, which
- promotes PKM2 binding to importin α5
- and PKM2 translocates to the nucleus.
Nuclear PKM2 acts as
- a coactivator of β-catenin to
- induce c-Myc expression,
This is followed by
- the upregulation of GLUT1, LDHA and,
- in a positive feedback loop,
- PTB-dependent PKM2 expression.
Replacement of wild-type PKM2 with
- a nuclear translocation-deficient mutant (S37A)
- blocks the EGFR-promoted Warburg effect
and brain tumour development in mice.
In addition, levels of PKM2 Ser 37 phosphorylation
- correlate with EGFR and ERK1/2 activity
in human glioblastoma specimens.
Our findings highlight the importance of
- nuclear functions of PKM2 in the Warburg effect
and tumorigenesis.
- ERK is required for PKM2 nucleus translocation.
http://www.nature.com/ncb/journal/v14/n12/carousel/ncb2629-f1.jpg - ERK2 phosphorylates PKM2 Ser 37.
http://www.nature.com/ncb/journal/v14/n12/carousel/ncb2629-f2.jpg - Figure 3: PKM2 Ser 37 phosphorylation recruits PIN1.
http://www.nature.com/ncb/journal/v14/n12/carousel/ncb2629-f3.jpg
Pyruvate kinase M2 activators promote tetramer formation
and suppress tumorigenesis
D Anastasiou, Y Yu, WJ Israelsen, Jian-Kang Jiang, MB Boxer, B Hong, et al.
Nature Chemical Biology 11 Oct 2012; 8: 839–847
Cancer cells engage in a metabolic program to
- enhance biosynthesis and support cell proliferation.
The regulatory properties of pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2)
- influence altered glucose metabolism in cancer.
The interaction of PKM2 with phosphotyrosine-containing proteins
- inhibits PTM2 enzyme activity and
- increases the availability of glycolytic metabolites
- supporting cell proliferation.
This suggests that high pyruvate kinase activity may suppress
tumor growth.
- expression of PKM1, the pyruvate kinase isoform with high
constitutive activity, or - exposure to published small-molecule PKM2 activators
- inhibits the growth of xenograft tumors.
Structural studies reveal that
- small-molecule activators bind PKM2
- at the subunit interaction interface,
- a site that is distinct from that of the
- endogenous activator fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP).
However, unlike FBP,
- binding of activators to PKM2 promotes
- a constitutively active enzyme state that is resistant to inhibition
- by tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins.
These data support the notion that small-molecule activation of PKM2
can interfere with anabolic metabolism
- PKM1 expression in cancer cells impairs xenograft tumor growth.
http://www.nature.com/nchembio/journal/v8/n10/carousel/nchembio.1060-F1.jpg - TEPP-46 and DASA-58 isoform specificity in vitro and in cells.
(a) Structures of the PKM2 activators TEPP-46 and DASA-58. (b) Pyruvate kinase (PK) activity in purified recombinant human
PKM1 or PKM2 expressed in bacteria in the presence of increasing
concentrations of TEPP-46 or DASA-58. M1, PKM1;…
http://www.nature.com/nchembio/journal/v8/n10/carousel/nchembio.1060-F2.jpg - Activators promote PKM2 tetramer formation and prevent
inhibition by phosphotyrosine signaling.
Sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation profiles of purified recombinant
PKM2 (rPKM2) and the effects of FBP and TEPP-46 on PKM2 subunit stoichiometry.
http://www.nature.com/nchembio/journal/v8/n10/carousel/nchembio.1060-F3.jpg
Figure 5: Metabolic effects of cell treatment with PKM2 activators.
(a) Effects of TEPP-46, DASA-58 (both used at 30 μM) or PKM1
expression on the doubling time of H1299 cells under normoxia
(21% O2) or hypoxia (1% O2). (b) Effects of DASA-58 on lactate
production from glucose. The P value shown was ca…
http://www.nature.com/nchembio/journal/v8/n10/carousel/nchembio.1060-F5.jpg
EGFR has a tumour-promoting role in liver macrophages during
hepatocellular carcinoma formation
H Lanaya, A Natarajan, K Komposch, L Li, N Amberg, …, & Maria Sibilia
Nature Cell Biology 31 Aug 2014 http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/ncb3031
Tumorigenesis has been linked with macrophage-mediated chronic
inflammation and diverse signaling pathways, including the epidermal
growth factor receptor (EGFR) pathway. EGFR is expressed in liver
macrophages in both human HCC and in a mouse HCC model. Mice
lacking EGFR in macrophages show impaired hepatocarcinogenesis,
Mice lacking EGFR in hepatocytes develop HCC owing to increased
hepatocyte damage and compensatory proliferation. EGFR is required
in liver macrophages to transcriptionally induce interleukin-6 following
interleukin-1 stimulation, which triggers hepatocyte proliferation and HCC.
Importantly, the presence of EGFR-positive liver macrophages in HCC
patients is associated with poor survival. This study demonstrates a
- tumour-promoting mechanism for EGFR in non-tumour cells,
- which could lead to more effective precision medicine strategies.
- HCC formation in mice lacking EGFRin hepatocytes or all liver cells.
http://www.nature.com/ncb/journal/vaop/ncurrent/carousel/ncb3031-f1.jpg
2. EGFR expression in Kupffer cells/liver macrophages promotes HCC development.
http://www.nature.com/ncb/journal/vaop/ncurrent/carousel/ncb3031-f2.jpg
Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 activation by aerobic glycolysis implicates
the Warburg effect in carcinogenesis.
Lu H1, Forbes RA, Verma A.
J Biol Chem. 2002 Jun 28;277(26):23111-5. Epub 2002 Apr 9
Cancer cells display high rates of aerobic glycolysis, a phenomenon
known historically as the Warburg effect. Lactate and pyruvate, the end
products of glycolysis, are highly produced by cancer cells even in the
presence of oxygen.
Hypoxia-induced gene expression in cancer cells
- has been linked to malignant transformation.
Here we provide evidence that lactate and pyruvate
- regulate hypoxia-inducible gene expression
- independently of hypoxia
- by stimulating the accumulation of hypoxia-inducible Factor 1alpha
(HIF-1alpha).
In human gliomas and other cancer cell lines,
- the accumulation of HIF-1alpha protein under aerobic conditions
- requires the metabolism of glucose to pyruvate that
- prevents the aerobic degradation of HIF-1alpha protein,
- activates HIF-1 DNA binding activity, and
- enhances the expression of several HIF-1-activated genes
- erythropoietin,
- vascular endothelial growth factor,
- glucose transporter 3, and
- aldolase A.
Our findings support a novel role for pyruvate in metabolic signaling
and suggest a mechanism by which
- high rates of aerobic glycolysis
- can promote the malignant transformation and
- survival of cancer cells.PMID: 11943784
Part IV. Transcription control and innate immunity
c-Myc-induced transcription factor AP4 is required for
host protection mediated by CD8+ T cells
C Chou, AK Pinto, JD Curtis, SP Persaud, M Cella, Chih-Chung Lin, … & T Egawa Nature Immunology 17 Jun 2014; http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/ni.2943
The transcription factor c-Myc is essential for
- the establishment of a metabolically active and proliferative state
- in T cells after priming,
We identified AP4 as the transcription factor
- that was induced by c-Myc and
- sustained activation of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells.
Despite normal priming,
- AP4-deficient CD8+ T cells
- failed to continue transcription of a broad range of
c-Myc-dependent targets.
Mice lacking AP4 specifically in CD8+ T cells showed
- enhanced susceptibility to infection with West Nile virus.
Genome-wide analysis suggested that
- many activation-induced genes encoding molecules
- involved in metabolism were shared targets of
- c-Myc and AP4.
Thus, AP4 maintains c-Myc-initiated cellular activation programs
- in CD8+ T cells to control microbial infection.
- AP4 is regulated post-transcriptionally in CD8+ T cells.
Microarray analysis of transcription factor–encoding genes with a difference
in expression of >1.8-fold in activated CD8+ T cells treated for 12 h with
IL-2 (100 U/ml; + IL-2) relative to their expression in activated CD8+ T cells…
http://www.nature.com/ni/journal/vaop/ncurrent/carousel/ni.2943-F1.jpg
2. AP4 is required for the population expansion of antigen specific
CD8+ T cells following infection with LCMV-Arm.
Expression of CD4, CD8α and KLRG1 (a) and binding of an
H-2Db–gp(33–41) tetramer and expression of CD8α, KLRG1 and
CD62L (b) in splenocytes from wild-type (WT) and Tfap4−/− mice,
assessed by flow cytometry 8 d after infection
http://www.nature.com/ni/journal/vaop/ncurrent/carousel/ni.2943-F2.jpg
3. AP4 is required for the sustained clonal expansion of CD8+ T cells
but not for their initial proliferation.
http://www.nature.com/ni/journal/vaop/ncurrent/carousel/ni.2943-F3.jpg
- AP4 is essential for host protection against infection with WNV, in
a CD8+ T cell–intrinsic manner.
- Survival of Tfap4F/FCre− control mice (Cre−; n = 16) and
- Tfap4F/FCD8-Cre+ mice (CD8-Cre+; n = 22) following infection with WNV.
(b,c) Viral titers in the brain (b) and spleen (c) of Tfap4F/F Cre− and Tfap4F/F
CD8-Cre+ mice on day 9…
http://www.nature.com/ni/journal/vaop/ncurrent/carousel/ni.2943-F4.jpg
AP4 is essential for the sustained expression of genes that are targets of c-Myc.
Normalized signal intensity (NSI) of endogenous transcripts in
Tfap4+/+ and Tfap4−/− OT-I donor T cells adoptively transferred into
host mice and assessed on day 4 after infection of the host with LM-OVA
(top), and that of ERCC controls
http://www.nature.com/ni/journal/vaop/ncurrent/carousel/ni.2943-F6.jpg
Sustained c-Myc expression ‘rescues’ defects of Tfap4−/− CD8+ T cells.
http://www.nature.com/ni/journal/vaop/ncurrent/carousel/ni.2943-F7.jpg
AP4 and c-Myc have distinct biological functions.
http://www.nature.com/ni/journal/vaop/ncurrent/carousel/ni.2943-SF7.jpg
Mucosal memory CD8+ T cells are selected in the periphery
by an MHC class I molecule
Y Huang, Y Park, Y Wang-Zhu, …A Larange, R Arens, & H Cheroutre
Nature Immunology 2 Oct 2011; 12: 1086–1095
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/ni.2106
The presence of immune memory at pathogen-entry sites is a prerequisite
for protection. We show that the non-classical major histocompatibility
complex (MHC) class I molecule
- thymus leukemia antigen (TL),
- induced on dendritic cells interacting with CD8αα on activated CD8αβ+ T cells,
- mediated affinity-based selection of memory precursor cells.
Furthermore, constitutive expression of TL on epithelial cells
- led to continued selection of mature CD8αβ+ memory T cells.
The memory process driven by TL and CD8αα
- was essential for the generation of CD8αβ+ memory T cells in the intestine and
- the accumulation of highly antigen-sensitive CD8αβ+ memory T cells
- that form the first line of defense at the largest entry port for pathogens.
The metabolic checkpoint kinase mTOR is essential for IL-15 signaling during the development and activation of NK cells.
Marçais A, Cherfils-Vicini J, Viant C, Degouve S, Viel S, Fenis A, Rabilloud J,
Mayol K, Tavares A, Bienvenu J, Gangloff YG, Gilson E, Vivier E,Walzer T.
Nat Immunol. 2014 Aug; 15(8):749-757. Epub 2014 Jun 29
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/ni.2936 . PMID: 24973821
Interleukin 15 (IL-15) controls
- both the homeostasis and the peripheral activation of natural killer (NK) cells.
We found that the metabolic checkpoint kinase
- mTOR was activated and boosted bioenergetic metabolism
- after exposure of NK cells to high concentrations of IL-15,
whereas low doses of IL-15 triggered
- only phosphorylation of the transcription factor STAT5.
mTOR
- stimulated the growth and nutrient uptake of NK cells and
- positively fed back on the receptor for IL-15.
This process was essential for
- sustaining NK cell proliferation during development and
- the acquisition of cytolytic potential during inflammation
or viral infection.
The mTORC1 inhibitor rapamycin
- inhibited NK cell cytotoxicity both in mice and humans;
- this probably contributes to the immunosuppressive
activity of this drug in different clinical settings.
- this probably contributes to the immunosuppressive
The Critical Role of IL-15-PI3K-mTOR Pathway in Natural Killer Cell
Effector Functions.
Nandagopal N, Ali AK, Komal AK, Lee SH. Author information
Front Immunol. 2014 Apr 23; 5:187. eCollection 2014.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.3389/fimmu.2014.00187
Natural killer (NK) cells were so named for their uniqueness in killing
certain tumor and virus-infected cells without prior sensitization.
Their functions are modulated in vivo by several soluble immune mediators;
- interleukin-15 (IL-15) being the most potent among them in
enabling NK cell homeostasis, maturation, and activation.
During microbial infections,
- NK cells stimulated with IL-15 display enhanced cytokine responses.
This priming effect has previously been shown with respect to increased
IFN-γ production in NK cells
- upon IL-12 and IL-15/IL-2 co-stimulation.
- we explored if this effect of IL-15 priming
- can be extended to various other cytokines and
- observed enhanced NK cell responses to stimulation
- with IL-4, IL-21, IFN-α, and IL-2 in addition to IL-12.
- we also observed elevated IFN-γ production in primed NK cells
Currently, the fundamental processes required for priming and
- whether these signaling pathways work collaboratively or
independently- for NK cell functions are poorly understood.
We examined IL-15 effects on NK cells in which
- the pathways emanating from IL-15 receptor activation
- were blocked with specific inhibitors
- To identify the key signaling events for NK cell priming,
Our results demonstrate that
the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway is critical for cytokine responses
in IL-15 primed NK cells.
This pathway is also implicated in a broad range of
- IL-15-induced NK cell effector functions such as
- proliferation and cytotoxicity.
Likewise, NK cells from mice
- treated with rapamycin to block the mTOR pathway
- displayed defects in proliferation, and IFN-γ and granzyme B productions
- resulting in elevated viral burdens upon murine cytomegalovirus infection.
Taken together, our data demonstrate
- the requirement of PI3K-mTOR pathway
- for enhanced NK cell functions by IL-15, thereby
- coupling the metabolic sensor mTOR to NK cell anti-viral responses.
KEYWORDS: IL-15; JAK–STAT pathway; mTOR pathway; natural killer cells; signal transduction
Part V. Predicting Therapeutic Targets
New discovery approach accelerates identification of potential cancer treatments
Laura Williams, Univ. of Michigan 09/30/2014
http://www.rdmag.com/news/2014/09/new-discovery-approach-accelerates-identification-potential-cancer-treatments
Researchers at the Univ. of Michigan have described a new approach to
discovering potential cancer treatments that
- requires a fraction of the time needed for more traditional methods.
They used the platform to identify
- a novel antibody that is undergoing further investigation as a potential
treatment for breast, ovarian and other cancers.
In research published online in the Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences, researchers in the laboratory of Stephen Weiss at the U-M Life
Sciences Institute detail an approach
- that replicates the native environment of cancer cells and
- increases the likelihood that drugs effective against the growth of
tumor cells in test tube models - will also stop cancer from growing in humans.
The researchers have used their method
- to identify an antibody that stops breast cancer tumor growth in animal models, and
- they are investigating the antibody as a potential treatment in humans.
“Discovering new targets for cancer therapeutics is a long and tedious undertaking, and
- identifying and developing a potential drug to specifically hit that
target without harming healthy cells is a daunting task,” Weiss said. - “Our approach allows us to identify potential therapeutics
- in a fraction of the time that traditional methods require.”
The researchers began by
- creating a 3-D “matrix” of collagen, a connective tissue molecule very similar to that found
- surrounding breast cancer cells in human patients.
- They then embedded breast cancer cells into the collagen matrix,
- where the cells grew as they would in human tissue.
The investigators then injected the cancer-collagen tissue composites into mice that then
- recognize the human cancer cells as foreign tissue.
- Much in the way that our immune system generates antibodies
to fight infection,
- Much in the way that our immune system generates antibodies
- the mice began to generate thousands of antibodies directed against
the human cancer cells. - These antibodies were then tested for the ability to stop the growth
of the human tumor cells.
“We create an environment in which cells cultured in the laboratory ‘think’
they are growing in the body and then
- rapidly screen large numbers of antibodies to see if any exert
anti-cancer effects,” Weiss said. - “This allows us to select promising antibodies very quickly and then
They discovered a particular antibody, 4C3, which was able to
- almost completely stop the proliferation of the breast cancer cells.
They then identified the molecule on the cancer cells that the antibody targets.
The antibody can be further engineered to generate
- humanized monoclonal antibodies for use in patients
“We still need to do a lot more work to determine how effective 4C3 might be as a
treatment for breast and other cancers, on its own or in conjunction with other
therapies,” Weiss said. “But we have enough data to warrant further pursuit,
and are expanding our efforts to use this discovery platform to find similarly promising antibodies.”
Source: Univ. of Michigan
Larry,
I think you have made a great effort in order to connect basic ideas of metabolic regulation with those of gene expression control “modern” mechanisms.
Yet, I do not think that at this stage it will be clear for all readers. At least, for the great majority of the readers. The most important factor I my opinion, is derived from the fact that modern readers considers that metabolic regulation deals with so called “housekeeping activities” of the cell. Something that is of secondary, tertiary or even less level of relevance.
My idea, that you have mentioned in the text when you write at the beginning, the word biochemistry, in order to resume it, derives from the reading of What is life together with Prof. Leloir . For me and also, for him, biochemistry comprises a set of techniques and also a framework of reasoning about scientific results. As a set of techniques, Schrodinger has considered that it will lead to better understanding of genetics and of physiology as a two legs structure supporting the future progress related to his time (mid-forties). For Leloir, the key was the understanding of chemical reactivity and I agree with him. However, as I was able to talk and discuss it with him in detail, we should also take into account levels of stabilities of macromolecules and above all, regulation of activities and function (this is where) Pasteur effect that I was studying in Leloir´s lab at that time, 1970-72, gets into the general picture.
Regulation for complex living beings , that also have cancer cell as a great topic of research problem can be understood through the understanding of two quite different results when opposition with lack of regulation is taken into account or experimentally elicited. The most clearly line of experiments can follow the Pasteur Effect as the intracellular result best seen when aerobiosis is compared with anaerobiosis as conditions in which maintenance of ATP levels and required metabolic regulation (Energy charge D.E, Atkinson etc) is studied. Another line of experiments is one that takes into account the extracellular result or for instance the homeostatic regulation of blood glucose levels. The blood glucose level is the most conspicuous and related to Pasteur Effect regulatory event that can be studied in the liver taking into account both final results tested or compared regarding its regulation, ATP levels maintenance (intracellular) and blood glucose maintenance (extracellular).
My key idea is to consider that the same factors that elicits fast regulatory responses also elicits the slow energetic expensive regulatory responses. The biologic logic behind this common root is the ATP economy. In case, the regulatory stimulus fades out quickly the fast regulatory responses are good enough to maintain life and the time requiring, energetic costly responses will soon be stopped cutting short the ATP expenditure. In case, the stimulus last for long periods of time the fast responses are replaced by adaptive responses that in general will follow the line of cell differentiation mechanisms with changes in gene expression etc.
The change from fast response mechanisms to long lasting developmentally linked ones is not sharp. Therefore, somehow, cancer cells becomes trapped into a metastable regulatory mechanism that prevents cell differentiation and reinforces those mechanisms linked to its internal regulatory goals. This metastable mechanism takes advantage from the fact that other cells, tissues and organs will take good care of homeostatic mechanisms that provide for their nutritional needs. In the case of my Hepatology work you will see a Piruvate kinase that does not responds to homeostatic signals .