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Autoimmune Disease: Single Gene eliminates the Immune protein ISG15 resulting in inability to resolve Inflammation and fight Infections – Discovery @Rockefeller University

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

 

SOURCE

http://newswire.rockefeller.edu/2014/10/12/single-gene-links-susceptibility-to-rare-infections-with-predisposition-to-autoimmune-disease-2/?elq=757e904af03a4eb0933fa5390a55a98a&elqCampaignId=14

 

Single gene links susceptibility to rare infections with predisposition to autoimmune disease

The mutations were familiar, but the patients’ conditions seemed baffling at first. A team lead by Rockefeller University researchers had linked variations in an immune gene to rare bacterial infections. Shortly afterward, Chinese scientists told them of three children in that country with mutated versions of the same gene. However, the Chinese children had no history of the severe bacterial infections. Instead, they had seizures and unusual calcium deposits deep in their brains.

This discrepancy led to the discovery of an immune protein with paradoxical roles: It both aids and tamps down aspects of an immune system response, according to research conducted in Jean-Laurent Casanova’s St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases at Rockefeller in collaboration with scientists in China and elsewhere. The team’s report was published today (October 12) in Nature.

141012_casanova_ISG15

“It has turned out that mutations in a single gene eliminate the immune protein ISG15, giving rise to two different problems: an inability to resolve harmful inflammation, which can lead to autoimmune disease, and susceptibility to infections caused by the tuberculosis bacterium and its cousins,” Casanova says. “By identifying the source of this genetic disorder, we have taken a first step toward finding treatments for those facing the autoimmune disease and severe TB-related infections it may produce.”

When under attack, the immune system releases signaling proteins known as interferons, which further activate the body’s defenses. In previous research, Dusan Bogunovic, a former postdoc in the lab now an Assistant Professor at the Department of Microbiology at Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, linked a lack of ISG15 to an unusual vulnerability to infections by mycobacteria, a group of common bacteria that include the TB bug. He and colleagues found three children, one from Turkey, two from Iran, who became severely ill after receiving the anti-tuberculosis BCG vaccine. Normally, ISG15 protects against infection by mycobacteria by prompting the release of type 2 interferon, but all three children had two copies of a defective form of the ISG15 gene, and became infected by a TB-related component of the vaccine.

After this discovery, ISG15’s story continued to unfold. Bogunovic and his colleagues reported this link, and then scientists in China reached out saying they had also seen loss-of-function mutations in three patients, all from a single family. But none of these three had had unexplained mycobacterial infections, such as those caused by the vaccine.

“We asked, why were they patients?” Bogunovic recalls. “Our Chinese colleagues said these kids had seizures; in fact, one child had died from them. When we looked into their BCG vaccination history, we found these children, who were born at home in a remote village, never received their shots, so they never became sick. Next we looked back at our first set of patients. None of them had ever had seizures, but we performed brain scans that found abnormal calcium deposits in a deep part of the brain involved in controlling movement — just like the deposits in brains of the Chinese children.”

The researchers recognized the calcium deposits as a feature of a group of autoinflammatory diseases, including the neurodevelopmental disorder Aicardi-Goutieres syndrome. These are thought to occur when type 1 interferon, which normally helps fight viral infections, runs amok, triggering harmful and unnecessary inflammation, leading to disease. When Bogunovic and his colleagues then looked for evidence something similar was happening to the six patients, they found unusually high expression of genes stimulated by type 1 interferon.

Using cells from the patients, the researchers found that when they restored the ISG15 gene, the cells became able to resolve the inflammation. Further experiments performed in collaboration with Sandra Pellegrini at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, France, revealed the mechanics that linked a lack of ISG15 with an increase in type 1 interferon signaling: Under normal conditions, ISG15 prevents the degradation of another protein, USP18, which is responsible for turning down the dial on type 1 interferon. With no ISG15, and as a result, little USP18, interferon becomes too active.

The six children all showed elevated levels of autoantibodies, immune proteins that mistakenly attack the body itself, suggesting that in time they will likely develop autoimmune disease. “However, with this knowledge, we hope they can monitor and properly treat this condition, just as they know now to avoid the BCG vaccine and other possible sources of mycobacterial infection,” Bogunovic says. “Ultimately, ISG15 deficits may be included in genetic screening tests for infants to make early detection widely available. No treatments exist for many autoimmune disorders, but our work advances our understanding of them, and, as a result, the prospects for finding cures.”

141012_casanova_nature Nature online: Oct. 12, 2014
Human intracellular ISG15 prevents interferon-α/β over-amplification and auto-inflammation

Xianqin Zhang, Dusan Bogunovic, Béatrice Payelle-Brogard, Véronique Francois-Newton, Scott D. Speer, Chao Yuan, Stefano Volpi, Zhi Li, Ozden Sanal, Davood Mansouri, Ilhan Tezcan, Gillian I. Rice, Chunyuan Chen, Nahal Mansouri, Seyed Alireza Mahdaviani, Yuval Itan, Bertrand Boisson, Satoshi Okada, Lu Zeng, Xing Wang, Hui Jiang, Wenqiang Liu, Tiantian Han, Delin Liu, Tao Ma, Bo Wang, Mugen Liu, Jing-Yu Liu, Qing K. Wang, Dilek Yalnizoglu, Lilliana Radoshevich, Gilles Uzé, Philippe Gros, Flore Rozenberg, Shen-Ying Zhang, Emmanuelle Jouanguy, Jacinta Bustamante, Adolfo García-Sastre, Laurent Abel, Pierre Lebon, Luigi D. Notarangelo, Yanick J. Crow, Stéphanie Boisson-Dupuis, Jean-Laurent Casanova & Sandra Pellegrini
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Venous Thromboembolism (VTE): Blood Clots in Leg and Lungs – No. 3 Cardiovascular Killer Globally – Is Leading Cause of Premature Death and Disability in Hospitals

 

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

 

New Scientific Review Confirms Blood Clots in Leg and Lungs (VTE) – No. 3 Cardiovascular Killer Globally – Is Leading Cause of Premature Death and Disability in Hospitals

World Thrombosis Day launches to bring awareness to largely preventable disease as comprehensive science review and public survey reveal large gap in public’s knowledge

CHAPEL HILL, N.C., Oct. 9, 2014 /PRNewswire-USNewswire/ — While the world’s top two cardiovascular killers – heart attack and stroke – are global health priorities, the No. 3 killer, venous thromboembolism (VTE) or blood clots in the leg and lungs, has remained largely unaddressed and under-recognized by the public, according to the most comprehensive scientific review of the global burden of VTE ever undertaken and a global public survey. To address this disconnect, the International Society of Thrombosis and Haemostasis (ISTH) is leading a global effort together with more than 175 health/medical and patient organizations around the world to launch World Thrombosis Day (WTD), focused initially on increasing public and health professionals’ awareness of potentially deadly blood clots in the leg and lungs, the risk factors, symptoms and the importance of prevention.

http://photos.prnewswire.com/prnvar/20141006/150462

“The lack of attention over decades to this largely preventable disease amounts to an unrecognized crisis that we must start addressing immediately,” said Gary Raskob, Ph.D., corresponding author of the scientific review, dean of the College of Public Health, University of Oklahoma Health Center and chairman of the WTD Steering Committee. “It is clear from our review that VTE is a major contributor to global disease burden. We must work together to increase awareness at all levels – personal, health care systems and providers, and ultimately policy makers – and to do a better job of prevention.”

SCIENTIFIC REVIEW HIGHLIGHTS

Published in the Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis (JTH)[*] and four other leading thrombosis journals simultaneously worldwide, highlights from the review include:

—  VTE is a major contributor to the global disease burden across high-,
middle- and low-income regions, with overall incidence ranging from 0.75
to 2.7 cases per 1,000 people.
—  VTE should be given higher priority in global disease surveillance and
should be included in the World Health Organization (WHO) and World
Bank’s Global Burden of Disease, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD
Study). The 2010 GBD Study documents the major impact of arterial
thrombosis (blood clots in the arteries), the underlying cause of heart
attacks and stroke, but does not include VTE as a specific cause of
death and disability.
—  VTE was the leading cause of premature death and disability among the
causes of hospital-associated adverse events evaluated by the WHO
patient safety program.[**]
—  VTE prevention must be a global health priority, specifically the
systematic and consistent use of proven, evidence-based preventive
measures against VTE. This should be a priority for health-care
providers and health systems as VTE is largely preventable.
Simultaneously, the public must be made aware of the disease and how to
prevent it – and they must be encouraged to be proactive about talking
about it with their health care providers.
GLOBAL PUBLIC SURVEY HIGHLIGHTS

A survey conducted this summer among men and women in nine countries, conducted on behalf of ISTH by the global research firm Ipsos, found:

—  Among adults, an average of only about 50 percent were aware of, or had
ever heard of the term pulmonary embolism and 44 percent were aware of
or had heard the term deep vein thrombosis.
—  Only an average 1/4 of respondents were aware that hospital stays,
surgery and cancer were the major risk factors for VTE.
—  Only 28 percent of respondents said they would know what a blood clot in
the leg would feel like. However, 35 percent of those individuals
misidentified the signs of a blood clot. Only 19 percent said that they
know what a blood clot in the lungs – a pulmonary embolism – would feel
like.
—  The majority of respondents were not aware that most blood clots can be
prevented; 55 percent of individuals either were not aware that they can
often be prevented or expressed no opinion about this question.
“Too few people know about blood clots in the leg and lungs and their life-threatening consequences – and too many people are dying a preventable death,” said Raskob. “It is critical for people to: (1) Know the risk factors; (2) Be proactive – talk to your doctor about your risk and ask about preventing blood clots, especially if you are admitted to a hospital or are having surgery; and, (3) Know the symptoms and signs of a deep-vein thrombosis and of a pulmonary embolism and seek medical attention promptly if you experience them.”

NEW PUBLIC EDUCATION RESOURCE

As part of the inaugural WTD launch, the ISTH has launched WorldThrombosisDay.org, a central informational resource to help the public understand the two types of blood clots that comprise VTE – those in the leg, called deep vein thrombosis (DVT), and those in the lungs, called pulmonary embolism (PE) – including an at-a-glance infographic and specific information about risk factors, signs/symptoms and key questions to ask health care providers, to FAQs, key terms to know, two public awareness videos and personal stories from patients and their families. The site also features resources and patient handouts for health professionals to help foster more dialogue between health care providers and the public.

[*] ISTH Steering Committee for World Thrombosis (2014). Thrombosis:  A major contributor to global disease burden. J Thromb Haemost 2014; DOI: 10.1111/jth.12698; 12: 1580-1590.

[**] Jha AK, Larizgoitia I, Audera-Lopez C, Prasopa-Plaizier N, Waters H, Bates DW. The global burden of unsafe medical care: analytic modelling of observational studies.  BMJ Qual Saf 2013; 22: 809-15.

Logo – http://photos.prnewswire.com/prnh/20141006/150462

SOURCE  International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis

Photo:http://photos.prnewswire.com/prnh/20141006/150462
http://photoarchive.ap.org/
International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis

CONTACT: Ms. Berry Brady, WTD GLOBAL, Media Relations, +1 703 609 6643, berry_brady@yahoo.com, or Ms. Louise Bannon, ISTH, Director of Marketing and Membership, +1 336 430 8309, louise_bannon@isth.org

Web Site: http://www.isth.org

 

SOURCES

From: “PR Newswire for Journalists” <push_services@prnewswire.com>
Sent: Friday, October 10, 2014 4:58 PM
To: info@newmedinc.com
Subject: New Scientific Review Confirms Blood Clots in Leg and Lungs (VTE) – No. 3 Cardiovascular Killer Globally – Is Leading Cause of Premature Death and Disability in Hospitals

From: info <info@newmedinc.com>

Reply-To: <info@newmedinc.com> Date: Fri, 10 Oct 2014 17:01:40 -0700

To: “Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN” <avivalev-ari@alum.berkeley.edu>

Subject: New Scientific Review Confirms Blood Clots in Leg and Lungs (VTE) – No. 3 Cardiovascular Killer Globally – Is Leading Cause of Premature Death and Disability in Hospitals

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Mechanisms of Drug Resistance

Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence, CSO

 

Mechanisms of Drug Resistance

This discussion is a continuing discussion of matters of metabolomics and the
essential role of genomic or epigenetic mechanisms to guide the development of
proteomic driven effectors of resistance to drug therapy.
We start with the elucidation of efflux pumps in bacteria, and we conclude with
consideration of cancer cells.

Part 1. Antimicrobial Resistance

Antimicrobial resistance is the ability of microbes, such as bacteria, viruses,
parasites, or
fungi, to grow in the presence of a chemical (drug) that would normally kill it
or limit its growth.

difference between non-resistant bacteria and drug resistant bacteria

difference between non-resistant bacteria and drug resistant bacteria

http://www.niaid.nih.gov/SiteCollectionImages/topics/antimicrobialresistance/1whatIs
DrugResistance.gif

Non-resistant bacteria multiply, and upon drug treatment, the bacteria die. Drug
resistant bacteria multiply as well, but upon drug treatment, the bacteria continue
to spread.

Many infectious diseases are increasingly difficult to treat because of antimicrobial-resistant organisms, including HIV infection, staphylococcal infection, tuberculosis,
influenza, gonorrhea, candida infection, and malaria.

Between 5 and 10 percent of all hospital patients develop an infection. About 90,000
of these patients die each year as a result of their infection, up from 13,300 patient
deaths in 1992.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (April 2011), antibiotic
resistance in the United States costs an estimated $20 billion a year in excess health
care costs. In addition, a cost of $35 million in other societal costs and more than 8
million additional days that people spend in the hospital. This is because people
infected with antimicrobial-resistant organisms are more likely to have longer hospital stays and may require more complicated treatment.

Diagnostic tests designed to determine which microbe is causing infection and to
which antimicrobials the microbe might be resistant take a few days or weeks to give
results because of a requirement for the microbe to grow for it to be identified.

Part 2. Antibiotic Tolerance   
Reported By Jef Akst | June 25, 2014

Optimization of lag time underlies antibiotic tolerance in evolved bacterial
populations

O. Fridma et al.    Nature, 2014 
http://dx.doi.org://10.1038/nature13469

Populations of Escherichia coli grown in the lab develop tolerance when exposed to
repeated treatments with the antibiotic ampicillin. The bacteria evolved to stay in a
dormant “lag” phase for just longer than three-, five-, or eight-hour-long treatment
courses. Antibiotic tolerance, which allows bacteria to survive even high levels of
antibiotics by remaining dormant. Tolerance may lead to an inaccurate assumption
that an unsuccessful antibiotic treatment failed as a result of resistance, in which
the microbe has evolved to grow in the presence of the drug. Resistance is very well
known; but the issue of tolerance is much less known,” according to Tom Coenye of
the Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Microbiology (LPM) at Gent University in Belgium,
who was not involved in the research.  This is a new phenomenon, extended lag,
where mutants have a longer lag time, and that extended lag allows them to survive
an attack by antibiotics.

To gain a better understanding of how bacterial populations might evolve to tolerate
antibiotic exposure, Nathalie Q. Balaban, a microbiologist and physicist at The Hebrew
University of Jerusalem in Israel and her colleagues exposed cultures of E. coli to high
concentrations of ampicillin for three, five, or eight hours, then washed the drug away
and suspended the bacteria in fresh media to be grown overnight. The next day, the
team repeated these treatments. In 10 cycles we could see that tolerance had evolved,
” Balaban said. Indeed, while the ampicillin treatments killed more than 99.9 percent of
the E. coli, by day 10, bacterial survival had increased 100-fold.

Moreover, the bacteria were also tolerant to norfloxacin, an antibiotic with a different mechanism of action than ampicillin but also ineffective during the dormant stage,
further supporting the idea that the E. coli populations had evolved to tolerate certain
durations of antibiotic exposure. “This is characteristic of tolerance,” said Balaban.
“The bacteria that have evolved tolerance under ampicillin are also more tolerant to
this completely different class of antibiotics.” Resistance, on the other hand, is usually
class-specific, she noted.

The researchers identified three genes that seemed to play a functional role in antibiotic
tolerance. While the exact mechanism of how mutations in these genes may have
lengthened the bacteria’s lag time is not yet known, two of the genes are part of pathways
that were previously implicated in bacterial persistence, including an antitoxin in a
common toxin-antitoxin module
 that may help regulate that bacteria’s growth.

Part 3. Multidrug Resistance Perspective

Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in salmonella: efflux pumps, genetics,
quorum sensing and biofilm formation.

Perspectives in Drug Discovery and Design 02/2011; 8:114-123.
Martins M, McCusker, Amaral, Fanning S

Multidrug resistance (MDR) to antibiotics presents a serious therapeutic problem
in the treatment of bacterial infections. The importance of this mechanism of resistance
in clinical settings is reflected in the increasing number of reports of multidrug resistant
isolates. In Salmonella enterica, the most common etiological agent of food borne
salmonellosis worldwide, MDR is becoming a major concern.

In Salmonella the main mechanisms of antibiotic resistance are mutations in target
genes (such as DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV) and the over-expression of efflux pumps. However, other mechanisms such as

  1. changes in the cell envelope;
  2. down regulation of membrane porins;
  3. increased lipopolysaccharide (LPS) component of the outer cell membrane;
  4. quorum sensing and
  5. biofilm formation

can also contribute to the resistance seen in this microorganism. To overcome
this problem new therapeutic approaches are urgently needed.

In the case of efflux-mediated multidrug resistant isolates, one of the treatment
options could be

  • the use of efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs)
  • in combination with the antibiotics to which the bacteria is resistant.

By blocking the efflux pumps

  • resistance is partly or wholly reversed,
  • allowing antibiotics showing no activity against the MDR strains
  • to be used to treat these infections.

Compounds that show potential as an EPI are therefore of interest, as well as new
strategies to target the efflux systems. Quorum sensing (QS) and biofilm formation
are systems also known to be involved in antibiotic resistance. Consequently,
compounds that

  • can disrupt or inhibit these bacterial “communication systems” will be of use in
    the treatment of these infections.

Part 5. Effux pumps and S. Aureus

Multidrug Efflux Pumps in Staphylococcus aureus: an Update

SS Costa, M Viveiros, L Amaral and I Couto
1Grupo de Micobactérias, Unidade de Microbiologia Médica, Instituto de Higiene e
Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (IHMT, UNL), 2Centro de Recursos
Microbiológicos (CREM), UNL, Portugal,3COST ACTION BM0701 (ATENS), Brussels,
Belgium
The Open Microbiology Journal 2013;(Suppl 1-M5): 59-71

The emergence of infections caused by multi- or pan-resistant bacteria in the hospital
or in the community settings is an increasing health concern. Albeit there is no single
resistance mechanism behind multi-resistance, multidrug efflux pumps,

  • proteins that cells use to detoxify from noxious compounds,

seem to play a key role in the emergence of these multidrug resistant (MDR) bacteria.
During the last decades, experimental data has established their contribution to low
level resistance to antimicrobials in bacteria and their

  • potential role in the appearance of MDR phenotypes, by the extrusion of multiple,
    unrelated compounds.

Recent studies suggest that

  • efflux pumps may be used by the cell as a first-line defense mechanism,

avoiding the drug to reach lethal concentrations, until a stable, more efficient alteration
occurs, that allows survival in the presence of that agent.

In this paper we review the current knowledge on

  • MDR efflux pumps and their
  • intricate regulatory network in Staphylococcus aureus,

a major pathogen, responsible from mild to life-threatening infections. Particular emphasis will be given to the potential role that

  • aureus MDR efflux pumps,
  • either chromosomal or plasmid-encoded, have
  • on resistance towards different antimicrobial agents and
  • on the selection of drug – resistant strains.

We will also discuss the many questions that still remain on the role of each specific
efflux pump and the need to establish appropriate methodological approaches to
address all these questions.

        Table 1. Multidrug Efflux Pumps Described for Staphylococcus aureus

Efflux Pump  Family Regulator(s) Substrate Specificity  References 
Chromosomally-encoded Efflux Systems 
NorA MFS MgrA,
NorG(?)
Hydrophilic fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin,
norfloxacin) QACs (tetraphenylphosphonium,
benzalkonium chloride) Dyes (e.g. ethidium
bromide, rhodamine)
[16,18,19]
NorB MFS MgrA,
NorG
Fluoroquinolones (e.g. hydrophilic: ciprofloxacin,
norfloxacin and hydrophobic: moxifloxacin,
sparfloxacin) Tetracycline QACs (e.g.
tetraphenylphosphonium, cetrimide) Dyes (e.g. ethidium bromide)
[31]
NorC MFS MgrA(?),
NorG
Fluoroquinolones (e.g. hydrophilic: ciprofloxacin
and hydrophobic: moxifloxacin) Dyes
(e.g. rhodamine)
[35,36]
MepA MATE MepR Fluoroquinolones (e.g. hydrophilic: ciprofloxacin,
norfloxacin and hydrophobic: moxifloxacin,
sparfloxacin) Glycylcyclines (e.g. tigecycline) QACs (e.g. tetraphenylphosphonium, cetrimide, benzalkonium chloride) Dyes
(e.g. ethidium bromide)
[37,38]
MdeA MFS n.i. Hydrophilic fluoroquinolones (e.g. ciprofloxacin,
norfloxacin) Virginiamycin, novobiocin, mupirocin,
fusidic acid QACs (e.g. tetraphenylphosphonium,
benzalkonium chloride, dequalinium) Dyes (e.g. ethidium bromide)
[39,40]
SepA n.d. n.i. QACs (e.g. benzalkonium chloride) Biguanidines
(e.g. chlorhexidine) Dyes (e.g. acriflavine)
[41]
SdrM MFS n.i. Hydrophilic fluoroquinolones (e.g. norfloxacin) Dyes (e.g. ethidium bromide, acriflavine) [42]
LmrS MFS n.i. Oxazolidinone (linezolid) Phenicols
(e.g. choramphenicol, florfenicol) Trimethoprim, erythromycin, kanamycin,
fusidic acid QACs (e.g. tetrapheny-
lphosphonium) Detergents (e.g. sodium
docecyl sulphate) Dyes (e.g. ethidium
bromide)
[43]
Plasmid-encoded Efflux Systems

QacA MFS QacR QACs (e.g. tetraphenylphosphonium,
benzalkonium chloride, dequalinium)
Biguanidines (e.g. chlorhexidine)
Diamidines (e.g. pentamidine) Dyes
(e.g. ethidium bromide,
rhodamine, acriflavine)
[45,49]
QacB MFS QacR QACs (e.g. tetraphenylphosphonium,
benzalkonium chloride)Dyes (e.g. ethidium bromide, rhodamine,
acriflavine)
[53]
Smr SMR n.i. QACs (e.g. benzalkonium chloride,
cetrimide) Dyes (e.g. ethidium bromide)
[58,61]
QacG SMR n.i. QACs (e.g. benzalkonium chloride,
cetyltrymethylammonium) Dyes
(e.g. ethidium bromide)
[67]
QacH SMR n.i. QACs (e.g. benzalkonium chloride,
cetyltrymethylammonium) Dyes
(e.g. ethidium bromide)
[68]
QacJ SMR n.i. QACs (e.g. benzalkonium chloride,
cetyltrymethylammonium) Dyes
(e.g. ethidium bromide)
[69]

a n.d.: The family of transporters to which SepA belongs is not elucidated to date.
b n.i.: The transporter has no regulator identified to date.
QACs: quaternary ammonium compounds

Identification of the plasmid-encoded qacA efflux pump gene
in meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
strain HPV107, a representative of the MRSA Iberian clone

S.S. Costaa,b, E. Ntokouc, A. Martinsa,d, M. Viveirosa,e, S. Pournarasc,
I. Coutoa,b, L. Amarala,d,e,∗
a Unidade de Micobactérias, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical,
Universidade Nova de Lisboa (IHMT, UNL), b Centro de Recursos Microbiológicos,
Universidade Nova de Lisboa (CREM, UNL), d Unidade de Parasitologia e
Microbiologia Médica (UPMM), Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade
Nova de Lisboa (IHMT, UNL), Lisbon, Portugal; e COST ACTION BM0701 (ATENS)
c Department of Microbiology, Medical School, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece;
Int J Antimicrobial Agents  2010; 36: 557–561
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/ijantimicag

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a major nosocomial
bacterium for which prevention and control measures consist mainly of

  • the application of biocides with antiseptic and disinfectant activity.

In this study, we demonstrated the presence of

  • the plasmid-located efflux pump gene qacA in MRSA strain HPV107,

a clinical isolate representative of the MRSA Iberian clone. The existence
of efflux activity in strain HPV107 due to the QacA pump was found and

  • this QacA efflux activity was linked with a phenotype of
  • reduced susceptibility towards several biocide compounds.

No association could be made with antibiotic resistance. This work
emphasises the potential of QacA pump activity in

  • the maintenance and dissemination of important MRSA strains in
    the hospital setting and, increasingly, in the community.

Efflux-mediated response of Staphylococcus aureus exposed to
ethidium bromide

I Couto1,2, S S Costa1, M Viveiros1, M Martins1,3 and L Amaral1,3*
1Unidade de Micobacterias, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical,
Universidade Nova de Lisboa (UNL), 2Centro de Recursos Microbiolo´gicos (CREM), Faculdade de Cieˆncias e Tecnologia, UNL,3UPMM,
Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, UNL, Portugal
J Antimicrob Chemother  (2008) 62, 504–513
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1093/jac/dkn217

By adapting an antibiotic-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus strain to
increasing concentrations of ethidium bromide, a known substrate
of efflux pumps (EPs), and

  • by phenotypically and genotypically analysing the resulting progeny,
  • we characterized the molecular mechanisms of S. aureus
    adaptation to ethidium bromide.

ATCC 25923 was grown in increasing concentrations of ethidium bromide.
The MICs of representatives of eight classes of antibiotics, eight biocides
and two dyes against ATCC 25923 and its ethidium bromide-resistant progeny
ATCC 25923EtBr were determined

  • with or without six efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs).

Efflux activity in the presence/absence of EPIs was evaluated by realtime
fluorometry. The presence and expression of eight EP genes were assayed
by PCR and quantitative RT–PCR (qRT–PCR), respectively. Mutations in
grlA, gyrA and norA promoter regions were screened by DNA sequencing.

Compared with its parental strain, ATCC 25923EtBr was

  • 32-fold more resistant to ethidium bromide and
  • also more resistant to biocides and hydrophilic fluoroquinolones.
  • Resistance to these could be reduced by the EPIs chlorpromazine,
    thioridazine and reserpine.

Increased efflux of ethidium bromide by ATCC 25923EtBr could be
inhibited by the same EPIs. qRT–PCR showed that

  • norA was 35-fold over-expressed in ATCC 25923EtBr,

whereas the remaining EP genes showed no significant increase in their

expression. Sequencing of the norA promoter region revealed

  • a 70 bp deletion in ATCC 25923EtBr.

Exposure of S. aureus to quaternary compounds such as ethidium bromide
results in decreased susceptibility of the organism to a wide variety of
compounds, including quinolones and biocides

  • through an efflux-mediated response, which
  • for strain ATCC 25923 is mainly NorA-mediated.

This altered expression may result from alterations in the norA
promoter region
.

Ethnic consumption of plant leaf extracts and appraisal of
their nutraceutical efficacy against multidrug resistant
staphylococcus aureus

Kaushik S1, 2*, Tomar Rs1, Shrivastav V1, Shrivastav A2 And Jain Sk3
Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Madhya Pradesh,
Gwalior (M.P.);  2: College of Life Sciences, Cancer Hospital and
Research Institute, Gwalior (M.P.); 3: Department of Microbiology,
Vikram University, Ujjain (M.P.), INDIA
IJBPAS, Feb, 2014, 3(2): 204-209

Nutraceuticals are natural bioactive chemical compounds that have
health promoting, disease preventing or medicinal properties.
Emergence of Multi Drug Resistant Staphylococci is increasing at
alarming rates and diseases caused by these strains leave patients
against multiple resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

The test bacteria were isolated and characterized by standard and
NCCLS recommended microbiological techniques. A total of eighteen
plant extracts were analysed for their antimicrobial activity. The
selection of medicinal plants was based on their traditional uses in
India. However most of these plants were not previously screened.
Antibacterial activity of these components was performed by standard
Kirby Bauer Disk Diffusion method approved by NCCLS and the
inhibitory effect was analysed by calculating Zone of inhibition.

Among the eighteen plant extracts analysed we found highest
activity in the effect of chemotherapy and as promising bio control agents

  • Guava,
  • Mango,
  • Jamun and
  • Pomengrate plant extracts,

while most of the other plants were either showing very moderate/
least activity against test bacteria. Our recent experiment indicated
that phytochemicals extracted with methanol can be utilized as
nutraceutical to lower the side.

Part 6. Efflux pumps and gram-negative organisms

Efflux Pumps that Bestow Multi-Drug Resistance of Pathogenic Gram-
negative 
Bacteria 

Amaral L1,2*, Spengler G2, Martins A2,3 and Molnar J2
1Travel Medicine of the Centre for Malaria and Other Tropical Diseases (CMDT),
Institute of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Lisbon, Portugal 2Department of
Medical Microbiology and Immunobiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of
Szeged, Szeged, Hungary 3Unit of Parasitology and Medical Microbiology
(UPMM), Institute of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Lisbon, Portugal
Amaral et al., Biochem Pharmacol 2013; 2:3
http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2167-0501.1000119

The efflux pump

The efflux pump

Efflux pumps are integral plasma membrane protein systems that recognize and bind
noxious compounds present in the cytoplasm (toxic products produced by metabolism;
compounds that have penetrated the cell), or periplasm of the bacterial cell and extrude
it into the environment in which the bacterium resides [1].

The efflux pump machinery gives the cell additional protection to the one provided by

  • the constituents of its cell wall (example: lipopolysaccharides), and
  • provides an initial protection to noxious agents present in its
    natural environment that have penetrated into the cell (example: bile
    salts in the colon) [1].

The efflux pump machinery is divided into five superfamily classes;

  • the major facilitator (MF),
  • the ATP-binding cassette (ABC),
  • the resistance-nodulation-division (RND),
  • the small multi-drug resistance (SMR) and
  • the multi-drug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE).

With respect to Gram-negative bacteria, although they all play
important roles in the protection of the bacterium from noxious
agents present in the environment, the

  • main efflux pump of the Gram negative bacterium is a
    member of the RND superfamily, and
  • because multi-drug resistance of clinical isolates have
    been associated with the over-expression of this pump,

it has received a great deal of attention [2].

The first in vitro response of bacteria to a given noxious agent,
such as an antibiotic, is to over-express its main efflux pump [2].
If the bacterium is serially exposed in vitro to increasing
concentrations of that compound, it responds by increasing
the effective number of its main efflux pump, as well as others
that provide redundant protection [2].

However, if that “adapted” bacterium is now maintained at a
constant level of a noxious agent, the level of efflux pump
activity increases up to a maximum, followed by a gradual
return of efflux pump activity to its basal level. Concomitant
to this process, an accumulation of mutations of essential
proteins located in the plasma membrane (example penicillin
binding proteins), mutations 30 S component of the ribosome
and gyrase take place [3]. These events suggest that when
the organism is faced with an environment that contains a
constant toxic level of a compound, and the cost for
maintaining an energy consuming system, such as that
needed for the energy dependent efflux pump, is too
great a price to pay.

Therefore, in order to survive in this unchanging environment,
other mechanisms are activated. For example, activation of a
mutator master gene is thought to be an important step at this
level, which results in the mutation of genes that code for
essential proteins, reversing the over-expression of efflux-
pumps, but still conferring the bacterial resistant to the
environmental pressure via other mechanism(s), yet
to be understood [4,5].

During therapy, the level of resistance increases many fold
higher than that of the initial infecting strain. Hence, clinical
isolates from treated patients often show much higher levels
of antibiotic resistance than that of their wild type counterpart
(sometimes it can even present a 1000 fold increase) [6].
At this stage, resistance is usually related to the presence
of mutations, which reduces the survival of the resistant
bacteria,

  • once it is transferred to a noxious agent-free environment

that contains the competing wild type counterpart [3,4].

Depending upon when during therapy a clinical strain is isolated,
its resistance to two or more antibiotic classes (multi-drug
resistance (MDR)), may be due entirely to over-expressed
efflux pumps; to a mixture of over-expressed efflux pumps
and increasing accumulation of mutations; and only to mutations [3,4].

The degree of resistance can readily be determined with
methods that employ compounds known for their modulation
of efflux pump activity, such as

  • phenothiazines [7] or phenyl-arginine-betanaphthylamide
    (PAβN),
  • the latter which competes with the antibiotic as
    substrate of the efflux pump [8].

If in presence of such compounds,

  • the MDR bacterium is rendered fully susceptible
    to the antibiotic(s) to which it was initially resistant,
  • resistance is most likely due to its overexpressed
    efflux pump systems.
  • Contributions made by accumulated mutations
    render the organism less and less affected by the EPI.

This type of information is of great value to clinicians faced
with long-term therapy of a bacterial infection that
progresses to an MDR phenotype. It should be understood
that although the Gram-negative bacterium has essentially
one main efflux pump, such as

  • the AcrAB (Escherichia coli) or
  • the MexAB (Pseudomonas aeruginosa),

the deletion of the main efflux pump results in the over-
expression of one or more other RND efflux pumps,
such as is the case for deletion of the AcrAB, followed by

  • the over-expression of the AcrEF pump [2].

Redundancy of as many as nine RND efflux pumps [2],
provides additional protection to the organism.

The pumps belonging to the RND family form

  • a tripartite complex together with
  • the periplasmic proteins belonging to the
    membrane fusion-protein (MFP) family and
  • the outer membrane channels.

RND transporters consist of

  • a transporter protein that recognises and
    binds the noxious agent
    in the cytoplasm or periplasm and
  • transports it to the contiguous channel (TolC),
  • ending at the surface of the outer membrane.

The transporter is attached to the plasma membrane
by two or three fusion proteins, which are believed to assist the

  • extrusion of the substrate by peristaltic actions [9].

Although the actual structure of RND efflux pumps
in the cell envelop is not completely understood,

  • the structure of the transporter, TolC and fusion
    proteins are well established for major Gram-negative
    bacteria [10].

The PMF energy dependent efflux pump most likely needs the
passage of hydronium ions through its internal cavity,

  • for the release of the substrate that is
  • in turn ejected into the TolC channel via the
  • peristaltic action of the fusion proteins [11].

A low pH,

  • the concentration of hydronium ions at the surface of the cell
  • results in a pH difference of 2 or 3 pH units compared
    to that of the milieu,

the surface concentration of hydronium ions

  • provides the force for the mobility of hydronium ions
  • through porins leading to the acidification of the periplasm,
  • providing the low pH needed by the transporter
  • for the release of the substrate.

At high pH, these hydronium ions come from

  • hydrolysis of ATP by ATP synthase, and
  • are passed into the transporter, thereby
  • reducing its internal pH, so that
  • the release of the substrates can take place [11,12].

EPIs, such as the phenothiazines chlorpromazine or thioridazine,

  • exert their inhibition at pH above 6, and
  • are thought to affect hydrolysis of ATP
  • denying the efflux pump transporter hydronium ions needed

for release of the bound substrate [11,12].

The search for EPIs that are clinically useful continues, although

with respect to thioridazine, this old neuroleptic has been shown

  • to inhibit efflux pumps of pathogenic mycobacteria [13], and
  • has been successfully used to treat extensively drug resistant
    tuberculosis infections [14].

The regulation of the main efflux pump of Escherichia coli may
take place via   distinct pathways. The induced synthesis of the
transporter component of the AcrAB efflux pump, when the
organism is exposed in vitro to a noxious agent,

  1. involves the activation of the stress gene soxS,
  2. followed by the activation of the local regulator marA,
  3. then by the activation of the transporter gene acrB [8].

In the case of Salmonella spp. two component resistance
mechanisms, such as the PmrA/PmrB system, directly
activate the master efflux pump regulator ram A gene [15].
The activation of the PmrA/PmrB system takes place
readily when Salmonella spp. is phagocytosed due to
the acidic nature of the phagolysosome [15], as follows:

  1. PmrB is a sensor that self-phosphorylates, and
  2. then transfers the phosphate to PmrA.
  3. PmrA activates a nine gene operon, which
  4. codes for Lipid A introduced into the nascent
    lipopolysaccharide layer of the outer membrane.
  5. The increased presence of Lipid A renders the
    phagocytosed bacterium practically immune to
    everything, including the hydrolases of the
    phagolysososome [15].

Although some EPIs are in clinical trials, none have yet to
reach the marketplace,    mainly due to their common
toxicity against healthy mammalian cells, affecting
intrinsic mammalian efflux pumps, as for example
those of the blood brain barrier. Lastly, it should be
noted that compounds that inhibit the efflux pump
of bacteria also have the capacity to promote the
removal of plasmids that carry antibiotic resistant
genes [16,17].

  1. Nikaido H, Pages JM (2012) Broad-specificity efflux
    pumps and their role in multidrug resistance of Gram-
    negative bacteria. FEMSMicrobiol Rev 36: 340-363.
  2. Viveiros M, Jesus A, Brito M, Leandro C, Martins M,
    et al. (2005) Inducement and reversal of tetracycline
    resistance in Escherichia coli K-12 and expression of
    proton gradient-dependent multidrug efflux pump
    genes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 49: 3578-3582.
  3. Martins A, Couto I, Aagaard L, Martins M, Viveiros M
    (2007) Prolonged exposure of methicillin-resistant
    Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) COL strain to
    increasing concentrations of oxacillin results in a
    multidrug-resistant phenotype. Int J Antimicrob
    Agent 29: 302-305.
  4. Martins A, Spengler G, Molnar J, Amaral L (2012)
    Sequential responses of bacteria to noxious agents
    (antibiotics) leading to accumulation of mutations
    and permanent resistance. Biochem Pharmacol J
    Open Access 1: 7.

Inhibitors of efflux pumps of Gram-negative
bacteria inhibit Quorum Sensing

Leonard Amaral, Joseph Molnar
1 Grupo de Micobacterias, Unidade de Microbacterilogia,
Centro de Malaria e Doenças Tropicais (CMDT), Instituto de
Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa,
Lisbon, Portugal; 2 Cost Action BM0701 (ATENS) of the
European Commission/European Science Foundation;
3 Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunobiology,
University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
Open Journal of Pharmacology, 2012, 2-2

Quorum Sensing (QS) systems of bacteria consist of

  • a producer of the QS signal and the responder.

The generation of a QS signal provides the means by which
a population can behave in a concerted manner such as

  • swarming, swimming and secretion of biofilm, etc.

Because concerted bahaviour bestows protection to the bacterial
species, and hence factors involved in the severity of an infection
such as virulence are products of QS systems, compounds that
inhibit the QS system have significant clinical relevance. Recent
evidence suggests that

  • the secretion of QS signals takes place via
  • the efflux pump system of the producer of the signal.

Interestingly, compounds such as phenothiazines and
trifluoromethyl ketones (TFs)

  • that inhibit proton motive force (PMF) activities such
    as swarming and swimming also
  • inhibit the PMF dependent efflux pump systems of
    bacteria and their QS   systems.

This review discusses the relationship between the efflux
pump, the QS system and the compounds that affect both.
Lastly, suggestions are made regarding classes of compounds
that have been shown

  • to inhibit PMF dependent efflux pumps and the need
  • to evaluate them for QS inhibitory properties.

Keywords: Quorum Sensing, QS signal, acylated hydroxyl
lactone (AHL), efflux pumps, Proton Motive Force (PMF),
inhibitors of efflux pumps, inhibitors of QS systems,
phenothiazines, Trifluormethyl Ketones (TFs), plants
sources for QS inhibitors

Efflux pumps of bacteria provide protection from noxious
agents that are present in the environment in which they
exist. Noxious agents may be naturally occurring compounds
present in environments outside and within the human.

Because over-expressed efflux pumps render antibiotic
therapy problematic, an intense search for agents that
inhibit specific efflux pumps of specific bacteria has
been conducted during the past decade [9].

Communication between bacteria of the same strain
or species and between species contributes to their
survival [11-13]. Communication involves the secretion
of signals that invoke a specific response from the responder
[11-13]. This  communication process is termed Quorum
sensing (QS). When it takes place between strains of the
same species,

  • communication is directed towards the reduction
    of population growth and
  • reducing the possibility of exceeding the nutritional
    support of the environment

Other signals may involve a population response that involves

  • the secretion of bioactive molecules that inhibit the
    replication of a competing population species [14-16]
    or even kill [biocidins) [17-21] or
  • promote a swarming effect that recruits members
    of the same species to migrate  to a specific location [22-24]
    similar to swarming by insects subsequent to signals
    indicating site of food [example bees).
  • biofilm, encase the bacteria at distances from each other
    [25-29] and within the matrix of this biofilm are
    channels used for further communication [30].

Biofilms are produced in the wild, at sites such as surfaces
of rocks which maintain the bacterial population in situ [31]
and are also produced at sites of the human colonized by
infecting bacteria [32, 33].

Agents that inhibit the QS response of the infecting bacterium
are obviously important and hence, the search for such agents
that inhibit the QS system and biofilm formation has been in
effect for the past two decades [11-13].

There is a relationship between efflux pumps (EP), QS and
biofilm (BF) secretion which has come to the forefront only
recently [13]. Control of this relationship is critical for
successful therapy of MDR bacterial infections which have
become rather commonplace. It is the intent of this review
to identify agents which may serve to interfere with the
complex system of EP-QS-BF interaction.

Proton motive force (PMF) dependent transporters obtain
their energy for function from the proton motive force. The
proton motive force is the result of cellular metabolism which
yields protons that are not used for coupling with molecular
oxygen and which are exported to the surface of the cell [43-45]
where they are distributed and bound to components of
the protective lipopolysaccharide layer that covers the cell
and constitutes a part of the outer cell wall of Gram-negative
[46] and the cell wall of Gram positive bacteria [47].

The larger the concentration of protons (hydronium ions)
on the surface of the cell with respect to their lower
concentration on the medial side of the cytoplasmic
membrane creates an electrochemical gradient that
is termed the proton motive force (PMF) [48].

Because hydronium ions cannot penetrate the cell wall
or the membrane, they may re-enter the cell only
through channels such as porins in general [49, 50].
The movement of these hydromium ions from the
surface of the cell to the periplasm or cytoplasm is
predicated upon systems that use the PMF as source
of energy-namely the resistance nodulation division
(RND) family of transporters.

E. coli has a multiplicity of efflux pumps that may
exceed 30 in number [51]. However, the main
efflux pump of this organism is the AcrAB-TolC
efflux pump [52, 53] which when deleted, its
function is replaced by the AcrEF-TolC efflux
pump [51]. Both efflux pumps are members
of the resistance nodulation division family of
transporters [51] and consist of three proteins:

  1. The transporter AcrB coded by the gene acrB and
    is intimately attached to the  plasma membrane;
  2. Two fusion proteins AcrA coded by the gene acrA
    that flank the AcrB transporter and are thought
    to assist the movement of a substrate through
    the AcrB transporter [35]; and,
  3. TolC which is also part of other tri-unit efflux pumps
    of the organism [35], is contiguous with the AcrB
    transporter and provides a conduit for the extrusion
    of the substrate [38].

Although the means for the recognition of the substrate to
be extruded appears to involve a pocket within the transporter,
it appears to be

  • defined by a phenyalanine residue [54].

Nevertheless, studies employing fluorochromes recognised by
the AcrB transporter indicate that the binding and release of
the substrate are pH dependent [55].

  • At low pH the dissociation of the substrate is high and
  • at high pH it is very slow.

In a physiological environment of ca. pH 7, if the dissociation
of the substrate is slow or not at all, then the effectiveness of
the pump to extrude a noxious agent would be nullified.
However, since the pump functions at this pH, conditions that
result in the dissociation of the substrate needed for continuous
pump action must involve a

  • decrease of the pH of the internal cavity of the pump
    to which the substrate is bound.

It has been postulated that the lowering of the pH takes place
by the generation of hydronium ions from metabolism [6] which

  • pass from the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane
    through the transporter.

At lower pH, there is no need for the generation of metabolically
derived  hydronium ions since these ions can be

  • diverted by the PMF from the surface of the cell
    to the periplasm via porins.

Whether hydronium ions are to be generated from the
hydrolysis of ATP at high pH or used for the synthesis
of ATP at low pH is a special

  • function of ATP synthase [56-58].

Model of the AcrAB-TolC efflux pump of a Gram-
negative bacterium

AcrAB-TolC efflux pump of a Gram-negative bacterium

AcrAB-TolC efflux pump of a Gram-negative bacterium

Hypothesis. At near neutral pH, Hydronium ions from hydrolysis of ATP
by ATP synthase pass through the AcrB

transporter, reduce the pH to a point that causes the release of the
substrate. When the hydronium ions reach the surface of the cell they
are distributed over that surface and bind to lipopolysaccharides
and basic amino acids. When there is a need for hydronium ions for
activity of the efflux pump and the pH is lower than neutral, and
the hydrolysis of ATP is not favoured, hydronium ions from the
surface of cell via the PMF mobilize through the Aqua porins
and reach the transporter where they are pushed through
the transporter by the peristaltic action caused by the fusion
proteins. Substrates bound to the transporter dissociate
when the pH is reduced by the flow of hydronium ions and
are carried out by the flow of water.

Inhibitors of bacterial efflux pumps
Inhibitors of the QS of bacteria

Because phenothiazines inhibit many energy dependent systems
of bacteria such as motility [89, 90, 95], and these phenothiazines
also inhibit efflux pumps of bacteria [6, 7, 9, 41, 51, 73, 74, 76-83],
there seems to be a correlation between an active efflux pump
system and a functional QS system. That this assumption is correct,
recent evidence has been provided showing that the efflux pumps of
the AHL responding environmental Chromobacterium violaceum
(CV026) bacterium and that of E. coli are inhibited by the phenothiazine
thioridazine (TZ) [12]. Because TZ is known to inhibit genes that
regulate and code for efflux pumps of bacteria [41, 119, 120], it is
possible that the inhibition of the responding CV0126 bacterium to
AHLs [12] involves the inhibition of genes that code and regulate
the efflux pump of the responder which is assumed to recognise the
AHL signal as an noxious agent and hence would extrude it to the
environment [12]. The inhibition of an efflux pump should manifest
itself as an inhibitor of the QS component responsible for biofilm
formation.

Since the discovery of berberine a powerful inhibitor of bacterial
efflux pumps [159], plants have become sources of inhibitors of
efflux pumps [160-164]. Given that efflux pumps and the  QS of
bacteria have an intimate relationship as described in this review,
attention has been focused on plants for potential sources of inhibitors
of efflux pumps and QS systems. Essential oils from Columbian
plants have yielded a large number of compounds that inhibit the
QS system of responding bacteria such as

  1. limonene-carvone , the
  2. citral (geranial-neral) (isolated from Lippia alba),
  3. α-pinene (from Ocotea sp.),
  4. β-pinene (from Swinglea glutinosa),
  5. cineol (from Elettaria cardamomun),
  6. α-zingiberene (from Zingiber officinale) and
  7.  pulegone (from Minthostachys mollis) [165].

Several other essential oils, in particular were shown to present
promising inhibitory properties for the short chain AHL quorum
sensing (QS) system in Escherichia coli containing the biosensor

  •  plasmid pJBA132, in  particular Lippia alba.

Citral was the only  essential oil that presented some activity for
the long chain AHL QS system in Pseudomonas putida containing

  •  the plasmid pRK-C12 [165].

The essence of this review is to correlate the relationship of the
efflux pump system to the QS system of bacteria via the use of
compounds that inhibit both systems. Simply put, inhibitors of
the efflux pump system also, when studied, inhibit the QS system
as well. Because the PMF dependent efflux pump system of Gram-
negatives that is overexpressed is responsible for the multi-drug
phenotype of the bacterium, compounds that affect the PMF of
the bacterium are candidates that will inhibit the activity of the
pump. Consequently, this inhibition will inhibit the secretion of
biofilm, and because biofilm is a deterrent to the action of antibiotics,
compounds that affect the efflux pump system are promising
candidates for clinical evaluation.

Limiting and controlling carbapenem-resistant
Klebsiella pneumonia

L Saidel-Odes, A Borer.
1Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology Unit, 2Infectious
Diseases Institute, Soroka University Medical Center and the
Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev,
Beer-Sheva, Israel
Infection and Drug Resistance 2014:7 9–14

Carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP)

  • is resistant to almost all antimicrobial agents,
  • is associated with substantial morbidity and mortality, and
  • poses a serious threat to public health.

The ongoing worldwide spread of this pathogen emphasizes the
need for immediate intervention. This article reviews the global
spread and risk factors for CRKP colonization/infection, and
provides an overview of the strategy to combat CRKP dissemination

Outbreaks of CRKP that have occurred around the world have
been associated with the plasmid-encoded carbapenemase
K. pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC),

  • a carbapenem-hydrolyzing β-lactamase.19

CRKP isolates are resistant to almost all available antimicrobials
and are susceptible

  • only to polymyxins and tigecycline;
  • a minority to the few remaining aminoglycosides,
    though resistance to these agents is increasingly reported.20,21

Several investigators have evaluated predictors for CRKP colonization.
The following summarizes various studies.

  1. In a multivariate analysis, prior use of macrolides and
    any antibiotic exposure $14 days remained the only
    independent factors associated with CRKP bacteremia
  2. Nosocomial isolation of CRKP was strongly favored by the
    selection pressure of carbapenem. In this study, prior
    treatment with fluoroquinolones was associated with
    decreased risk for the emergence of CRKP.
  3. Previous use of carbapenem and cephalosporin
  4. Nursing home residency before hospital admission, bedridden
    status, and previous antibiotic therapy
  5. exposure to fluoroquinolones
  6. the recipient of antibiotics
  7. intensive care unit (ICU) stay, and
  8. Poor functional status,
  9. Independent predictors of subsequent carbapenem-
    resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) infection were
  • admission to the ICU,
  • having a central venous  catheter,
  • receipt of antibiotics, and
  • diabetes mellitus

Schwaber et al and the Israeli CRE Working Group enforced the
Israel Ministry of Health guidelines mandating physical separation
of hospitalized carriers of CRE and dedicated staffing and appointed
a professional task force charged with containment.19 The monthly
incidence of nosocomial CRE was reduced from 55.5 to 11.7 cases
per 100,000 patient days within 15 months.

Part 7.  Tuberculosis

The Mechanism by which the Phenothiazine Thioridazine
Contributes to Cure Problematic Drug-Resistant Forms
of Pulmonary Tuberculosis: Recent Patents for “New Use”

L Amaral1*, A Martins2,3, G Spengler2, A Hunyadi4 and J Molnar2
Recent Patents on Anti-Infective Drug Discovery 2013; 8(3):000-000

At this moment, over half million patients suffer from multi-drug
resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) according to the data from the WHO.
A large majority is terminally ill with essentially incurable pulmonary
tuberculosis. This herein mini-review provides the experimental and
observational evidence that a specific phenothiazine,

  • thioridazine,

will contribute to cure any form of drug-resistant tuberculosis. This
antipsychotic agent is no longer under patent  protection for its
initial use. The reader is informed on the recent developments

  • in patenting this compound for “new use” with a special
  • emphasis on the aspects of drug-resistance.

Given that economic motivation can stimulate the use of this drug
as an antitubercular agent, future prospects are also discussed.

Thioridazine is not the only phenothiazine that has been recommended
for therapy of pulmonary tuberculosis. In general, many phenothiazines
have been implicated for antitubercular activity [62, 80-86]. Among
these are

  • trifluoperazine [87-94],
  • methdilazine [95, 96],
  • promazine [97, 98],
  • promethazine [97, 98],
  • fluphenazin [99],
  • propiomazine [100], and
  • the methylene blue related toluidine blue [101].

There are phenothiazine compounds derived from the parental
methylene blue for therapy of pathologies unrelated to tuberculosis
that also possess

  •  antitubercular [44, 48] and/or antimalarial properties [44].

Moreover, derivatives made from any of the phenothiazines that
have in vitro activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis are also
active [61, 67, 102, 103], suggesting ample opportunities for
patenting of new analogs developed from known, active phenothiazines
with even less side effects than those of TZ, as recently suggested by
Musuka and co-authors [104]. It is important to mention, that the
commercially available phenothiazines such as for example

  •  trifluoperazine, methdilazine, promazine, promethazine,
    fluphenazin and propiomazine

are beyond patent protection as initially intended. Nevertheless,
these compounds have been patented as adjuvants for the treatment
of MDR cancer (patent expired in 2011 [105]; and, right afterwards,
a new patent has been filed with a priority date of 28th March, 2012,
claiming combination therapy of cancer with a chemotherapeutic
agent and a dopamine receptor antagonist against Cancer stem cells (CSC).

Taking into account that intrinsic MDR is considered as one of the key
properties of CSCs [107], the subject to be covered is indeed related.
According to the MDR, XDR and TDR Mycobacterium tuberculosis,
subjects of this herein paper, the initial step for actually reaching those
in need has been made: a patent has been published in December, 2007,
for the use of TZ and its derivatives for reversing anti-microbial drug
resistance [108]. We must note, however, that, despite the six years
passed since, we were unable to find any related clinical trials, which
would certainly be of outmost importance and urgency in order to
proceed towards an effective therapy of highly resistant mycobacterial
infections.

Mechanism Of Action Of Tz: Why It Cures Multi-Drug,
Extensively Drug Resistant And Probably Totally Drug
Resistant Tuberculosis

Over-expressed efflux pumps of Mycobacterium tuberculosis render
the organism multi-drug resistant [13]. Special attention has been
given to those coded by the

  • mmpL7, p55, efpA, mmr, Rv1258c and Rv2459 genes [109].

The activity of these efflux pumps can be suppressed by

  • concentrations of TZ that have no effect on the viability of
    Mycobacterium tuberculosis
  • rendering the organism susceptible to the antibiotic to
    which it was initially resistant
  • as a consequence of the over-expression of its
    efflux pumps [109].

TZ has also been shown to inhibit the activity of the main

  • efflux pumps of bacteria belonging to other species.

TZ has strong inhibitory activity against the genes that code for
essential proteins of M. tuberculosis [122-124].  Consequently, we
may conclude that the in vitro activity of TZ involves

  • the inhibition of the efflux pumps of M. tuberculosis and that
  • the in vitro exposure of this organism to TZ renders the organism
  • susceptible to antibiotics to which it was initially resistant
  • as a consequence of over-expressed efflux pumps [21].

Phenothiazines such as CPZ, TZ, trifluoperazine, etc., also inhibit

  • the binding of calcium to calcium binding proteins such as

calmodulin in eukaryotes [125], and

  • interfere with other proteins involved in
  • the regulation of cellular activity [126].

They inhibit the transport of calcium and potassium systems

  • in eukaryotic cells [127-129] as well as in
  • mycobacteria [89, 130] and
  • E. coli [113].

In fact, in the latter case, calcium was shown essential to

  • the continuous activity of the thioridiazine sensitive
    efflux system [113].

The killing activity of the human macrophage as well as that
of the neutrophil

  • is dependent upon the retention of calcium and potassium
  • within the phagolysosome of the cell [131].

Considering this, several alternative choices are available for
patenting under “new use”, which would allow a “fresh start”
for the compound to be developed. However, the needed
experimental proof that these phenothiazine agents have
activity at the pulmonary macrophage of the alveolar unit
(the site where the causative organism of pulmonary tuberculosis
resides) is still absent.

Targeting the Human Macrophage with Combinations
of Drugs and Inhibitors of Ca2+ and K+ Transport to
Enhance the Killing of Intracellular Multi-Drug Resistant
M. tuberculosis (MDR-TB) – a Novel, Patentable Approach
to Limit the Emergence of XDR-TB

Marta Martins
UCD Centre for Food Safety, School of Agriculture, Food Science and
Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
& Unit of Mycobacteriology and UPMM; Instituto de Higiene e Medicina
Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (IHMT/UNL),  Lisbon, Portugal
Recent Patents on Anti-Infective Drug Discovery, 2011, 6, 000-000

The emergence of resistance in Tuberculosis has become a serious
problem for the control of this disease. For that reason, new therapeutic
strategies that can be implemented in the clinical setting are urgently
needed. The design of new compounds active against mycobacteria
must take into account that Tuberculosis is mainly an intracellular
infection of the alveolar macrophage and therefore must maintain
activity within the host cells.

An alternative therapeutic approach will be described in this review,
focusing on the activation of the phagocytic cell and the subsequent
killing of the internalized bacteria. This approach explores the combined
use of antibiotics and phenothiazines, or Ca2+ and K+ flux inhibitors,
in the infected macrophage.

Targeting the infected macrophage and not the internalized bacteria
could overcome the problem of bacterial multi-drug resistance. This
will potentially eliminate the appearance of new multi-drug resistant
tuberculosis (MDR-TB) cases and subsequently prevent the emergence
of extensively-drug resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB).

Patents resulting from this novel and innovative approach could be
extremely valuable if they can be implemented in the clinical setting.
Other patents will also be discussed such as the treatment of TB
using immunomodulator compounds (for example: betaglycans).

Role of Phenothiazines and Structurally Similar
Compounds of Plant Origin in the Fight against
Infections by Drug Resistant Bacteria


SG. Dastidar 1, JE. Kristiansen 2, J Molnar 3 and L Amaral
Antibiotics 2013; 2: 58-71;
http://dx.doi.org:/10.3390/antibiotics2010058

Phenothiazines have their primary effects on the plasma membranes
of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Among the components of the
prokaryotic plasma membrane affected are

  • efflux pumps,
  • their energy sources
  • and energy providing enzymes, such as ATPase,
  • and genes that regulate and code for the permeability
    aspect of a bacterium.

The response of multidrug and extensively drug resistant
tuberculosis to phenothiazines shows an alternative therapy for the
treatment of these dreaded diseases, which are claiming more and
more lives every year throughout the world.

Many phenothiazines have shown

  • synergistic activity with several antibiotics thereby
  • lowering the doses of antibiotics administered to patients
    suffering from specific bacterial infections.

Trimeprazine is synergistic with trimethoprim. Flupenthixol (Fp)
has been found to be synergistic with penicillin and chlorpromazine
(CPZ); in addition, some antibiotics are also synergistic. Along with
the antibacterial action described in this review,

  • many phenothiazines possess plasmid curing activities, which
  • render the bacterial carrier of the plasmid sensitive to antibiotics.

Thus, simultaneous applications of a phenothiazine like TZ would not
only act as an additional antibacterial agent but also would help

  • to eliminate drug resistant plasmid from
    the infectious bacterial cells.

Part 8.  Cancer Cytotherapy

Synthesis and Structure-Activity Relationships of Novel
Dioxolanes as MDR Modulators in Cancer

A Martins 1,2,†,*, J Csábi 3,†, A Balázs 4, DKitka 1, L Amaral 5,
J Molnár 1, A Simon 6, G Tóth 6 and A Hunyadi 3,
Molecules 2013, 18, 15255-15275;
http://dx.doi.org:/10.3390/molecules181215255

Ecdysteroids, molting hormones of insects, can exert several mild,
non-hormonal bioactivities in mammals, including humans. In a
previous study, we have found a significant effect of certain derivatives

  • on the ABCB1 transporter mediated multi-drug resistance of a
  • transfected murine leukemia cell line.

In this paper, we present a structure-activity relationship study
focused on

  • the apolar dioxolane derivatives of 20-hydroxyecdysone.

Semi-synthesis and bioactivity of a total of 32 ecdysteroids, including
20 new compounds, is presented, supplemented with their

  • complete 1H- and 13C-NMR signal assignment

As published before [9], the 20,22-diol moiety of 20E is more reactive
than the 2,3-diol, probably due to the free rotation of the 20,22-bond
of 20E that allows the 20,22-dioxolane ring to form with less strain.

This allowed us to selectively obtain the 20,22-mono-dioxolane
derivatives 2–14, or, depending on the amount of reagent and the
reaction time, the 2,3;20,22-bis-homo-dioxolanes 17 and 21–25.

By utilizing the 20,22-monodioxolane ecdysteroids, another aldehyde
or ketone could be coupled to position 2,3, resulting in several bis-hetero-
dioxolane derivatives 26–33. For this, however, gradually decreasing
reactivity with the increase of the size of the reagent was a limiting factor:

  • larger aldehydes or ketones (mainly those containing a
    substituted aromatic ring) could not be coupled at the 2,3-position.
  • The 2,3-monodioxolane derivatives also appeared to be present as
    minor side-products of the reactions, and as a consequence of their
    low amount, only one such compound (compound 15) was isolated and studied.

To selectively obtain this kind of a compound (16) in a more reasonable
yield, another, three-step approach was successfully applied:

  • after protecting the 20,22-diol with phenylboronic acid, the
    2,3-acetonide could be prepared, and
  • removal of the 20,22 protecting group afforded the desired
    2,3-monoacetonide in a one-pot procedure.

In the case of the reactions with aldehydes or asymmetric ketones,
the new C-28 and C-29 central atoms of the dioxolane rings are
stereogenic centers and thus two possible diastereomers can be
formed at both diols. Their configuration was elucidated by two-
dimensional ROESY or selective one-dimensional ROESY experiments,
e.g., in the doubly substituted

  • dioxolane derivative 22 (R1 = R4 = n-Bu, R2 = R3 = H)
  • the unambiguous differentiation of the 1H and 13C signals of
    the two n-butyl groups was achieved in the following way
    (see Figure 2).

Assignment of the H-C(28) atoms (δ = 4.93/105.9 ppm) was supported by

  • the H-2/C-28 and H-3/C-28 HMBC correlations, and
  • that of H-C(29) (δ = 4.91/105.6 ppm) by the H-22/C-29
    cross peak, respectively.

The selective ROESY experiment irradiating at 4.93 ppm showed

  • contacts with the Hα-2 and Hα-3 atoms proving the
    α position of the R2 = H atom.

The ROESY response obtained irradiating H = R3 signal (δ = 4.91)
on H-22 (δ = 3.64 ppm) revealed their

  • cis arrangement and the R configuration around C-29.

The unambiguous assignments of the signals

  • of the two n-butyl groups R1 and R4 were achieved by
  • selective TOCSY experiments (irradiation at
  • δ = 4.93 and 4.91, respectively).

Figure 2

Stereostructure of 22. Red-ROESY proximitries. Blue- 1H. Black-1 001

Stereostructure of 22. Red-ROESY proximitries. Blue- 1H. Black-1 001

Stereostructure of 22. Red arrows indicate the detected ROESY
steric proximities, the blue numbers give the characteristic 1H,
and the black numbers the 13C chemical shifts.

 

Related Material

Identification of Efflux Pump-mediated Multidrug-resistant
Bacteria by the Ethidium Bromide-agar Cartwheel Method

M Martins, M Viveiros, I Couto, SS. Costa, T Pacheco, S Fanning,
Jean-Marie Pagès, and L Amaral
in vivo 2011; 25: 171-178  

Index for efflux activity of the MDR strains. The capacity to efflux EtBr
of each bacterial strain was ranked relative to the reference strain
according to the following formula:

 

Index for efflux activity of the MDR strains

Index for efflux activity of the MDR strains

A Simple Method for Assessment of MDR Bacteria for
Over-Expressed Efflux Pumps

M Martinsa,b*, MP. McCuskera,b, M Viveirosa,c, I Coutoc,d,
S Fanninga,b, Jean-Marie Pagès b,e, L Amaral,b,
The Open Microbiol J 2013; 7: 1-5  1874-2858/13 Bentham

Flowchart followed to test bacterial strains using the EtBr-agar
Cartwheel method.

Flowchart followed to test bacterial strains using the EtBr-agar Cartwheel method.

Flowchart followed to test bacterial strains using the EtBr-agar Cartwheel method.

EtBr-agar cartwheel method applied to different bacterial species

EtBr-agar cartwheel method applied to different bacterial species

EtBr-agar cartwheel method applied to different bacterial species

The effect of selected EPIs on the resistance of the induced and
MDR Gram-positive bacteria.

TET
Enterococcus EFC
ATCC29212
HSEFM-D
1.5
>2.5
w/o
EPI
+
TZ
+
CPZ
+
RES
4
16
4
4
4
4
4
8
(4×) (4×) (2×)
                                MCEtBr NOR  (mg/l) MIC NOR (mg/l)
HSEFM-E >2.5 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125

EPI: Efflux pump inhibitor; w/o: without; TZ: thioridazine; CPZ:
chlorpromazine; PAN: phenyl arginine β-naphthylamide. Values
in bold-type correspond to a decrease of 4-fold or higher on
the MIC values in comparison to those in the absence of inhibitor.
Values in parenthesis indicate the MIC decrease relative to that
of the original culture. The concentration of each EPI used is
defined in the Materials and Methods section.

Macrocyclic diterpenes resensitizing multidrug
resistant phenotypes 

MA. Reis a, A Paterna a, RJ. Ferreira a, H Lage b,
Maria-José U. Ferreira a,⇑
a Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade
de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
b Charité Campus Mitte, Institute of Pathology, Berlin, Germany
Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

Herein, collateral sensitivity effect was exploited as a strategy to
select effective compounds to overcome multidrug resistance in
cancer. Thus, eleven macrocyclic diterpenes, namely jolkinol D (1),
isolated from Euphorbia piscatoria, and its derivatives (2–11) were
evaluated for their activity on three different Human cancer entities:

  • gastric (EPG85-257), pancreatic (EPP85-181) and colon (HT-29)

each with a variant selected for resistance to mitoxantrone

  1. EPG85-257RN;
  2. EPP85-181RN;
  3. HT-29RN and
  • one to daunorubicin (EPG85-257RD; EPP85-181RD; HT-29RD).

Jolkinol D (1) and most of its derivatives (2–11) exhibited significant
collateral sensitivity effect towards the cell lines

  • EPG85-257RN (associated with P-glycoprotein overexpression) and
  • HT-29RD (altered topoisomerase II expression).

The benzoyl derivative, jolkinoate L (8) demonstrated ability to

  • target different cellular contexts with
  • concomitant high antiproliferative activity.

These compounds were previously assessed as
P-glycoprotein modulators,

  • at non-cytotoxic doses, on MDR1-mouse lymphoma cells.

A regression analysis between

  1. the antiproliferative activity presented herein and
  2. the previously assessed P-glycoprotein modulatory effect

showed a strong relation between the compounds that presented

  • both high P-glycoprotein modulation and cytotoxicity.

Molecular Docking Characterizes Substrate-Binding Sites
and Efflux Modulation Mechanisms within P
Glycoprotein.

Ferreira,† Maria-José U. Ferreira,† and DJVA dos Santos*,†,‡
†Research Institute for Medicines and Pharmaceutical Sciences
(iMed.UL), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
‡REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Faculty of
Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
J. Chem. Inf. Model. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1021/ci400195v

P-Glycoprotein (Pgp) is one of the best characterized ABC
transporters
, often involved

  • in the multidrug-resistance phenotype
  • overexpressed by several cancer cell lines.

Experimental studies contributed to important knowledge concerning
substrate polyspecificity, efflux mechanism, and drug binding sites.
This information is, however, scattered through different perspectives,
not existing a unifying model for the knowledge available for this transporter.
Using a previously refined structure of murine Pgp,

  • three putative drug-binding sites were hereby characterized
  • by means of molecular docking.

The modulator site (M-site) is characterized by

  • cross interactions between both Pgp halves

herein defined for the first time, having an important role in

  • impairing conformational changes leading to substrate efflux.

Two other binding sites, located next to the inner leaflet of the lipid bilayer,

  • were identified as the substrate binding H and R sites
  • by matching docking and experimental results.

A new classification model

  • with the ability to discriminate substrates from modulators

is also proposed, integrating a vast number of theoretical and experimental data.

conformational changes leading to substrate efflux

conformational changes leading to substrate efflux

conformational changes leading to substrate efflux

http://pubs.acs.org/appl/literatum/publisher/achs/journals/content/jcisd8/
2013/jcisd8.2013.53.issue-7/ci400195v/production/pdfimages_v02/normal.img-000.jpg

 

 

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Metformin, Thyroid-Pituitary Axis, Diabetes Mellitus, and Metabolism

Metformin, Thyroid-Pituitary Axis, Diabetes Mellitus, and Metabolism

Larry H, Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator
and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/9/27/2014/Metformin,_thyroid-pituitary_ axis,_diabetes_mellitus,_and_metabolism

The following article is a review of the central relationship between the action of
metformin as a diabetic medication and its relationship to AMPK, the important and
essential regulator of glucose and lipid metabolism under normal activity, stress, with
its effects on skeletal muscle, the liver, the action of T3 and more.

We start with a case study and a publication in the J Can Med Assoc.  Then we shall look
into key literature on these metabolic relationships.

Part I.  Metformin , Diabetes Mellitus, and Thyroid Function

Hypothyroidism, Insulin resistance and Metformin
May 30, 2012   By Janie Bowthorpe
The following was written by a UK hypothyroid patient’s mother –
Sarah Wilson.

My daughter’s epilepsy is triggered by unstable blood sugars. And since taking
Metformin to control her blood sugar, she has significantly reduced the number of
seizures. I have been doing research and read numerous academic medical journals,
which got me thinking about natural thyroid hormone and Hypothyroidism. My hunch
was that when patients develop hypothyroid symptoms, they are actually becoming
insulin resistant (IR). There are many symptoms in common between women with
polycystic ovaries and hypothyroidism–the hair loss, the weight gain, etc.
(http://insulinhub.hubpages.com/hub/PCOS-and-Hypothyroidism).

A hypothyroid person’s body behaves as if it’s going into starvation mode and so, to
preserve resources and prolong life, the metabolism changes. If hypothyroid is prolonged
or pronounced, then perhaps, chemical preservation mode becomes permanent even
with the reintroduction of thyroid hormones. To get back to normal, they need
a “jump-start” reinitiate a higher rate of metabolism. The kick start is initiated through
AMPK, which is known as the “master metabolic regulating enzyme.”
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMP-activated protein kinase).

Guess what? This is exactly what happens to Diabetes patients when Metformin is
introduced. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metformin
Suggested articles: http://www.springerlink.com/content/r81606gl3r603167/  and
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2265.2011.04029.x/pdf

Note the following comments/partial statements:
“Hypothyroidism is characterized by decreased insulin responsiveness”;
“the pivotal regulatory role of T3 in major metabolic pathways”.

The community knows that T3/NTH (natural thyroid hormone [Armour]) makes
hypothyroid patients feel better – but the medical establishment is averse to T3/NTH
(treating subclinical hypoT (T3/T4 euthyroid) with natural dessicated thyroid (NDT).
The medical establishment might find an alternative view about impaired metabolism
more if shown real proof that the old NDT **was/is** having the right result –i.e., the
T3 is jump-starting the metabolism by re-activating
 AMPK.

If NDT also can be used for hypothyroidism without the surmised “dangers” of NTH,
then they should consider it. [The reality in the choice is actually recombinant TH
(Synthroid)]. Metformin is cheap, stable and has very few serious side effects. I use the
car engine metaphor, and refer to glucose as our petrol, AMPK as the spark plug and
both T3 and Metformin as the ignition switches. Sometimes if you have flat batteries in
the car, it doesn’t matter how much you turn the ignition switch or pump the petrol
pedal, all it does is flatten the battery and flood the engine.

Dr. Skinner in the UK has been treating “pre-hypothyroidism” the way that some
doctors treat “pre-diabetes”. Those hypothyroid patients who get treated early
might not have had their AMPK pathways altered and the T4-T3 conversion still works.
There seems to be no reason why thyroid hormone replacement therapy shouldn’t
logically be given to ward off a greater problem down the line.

It’s my belief that there is clear and abundant academic evidence that the AMPK/
Metformin research should branch out to also look at thyroid disease.

Point – direct T3 is kicking the closed -down metabolic process back into life,
just like Metformin does for insulin resistance.
http://www.hotthyroidology.com/editorial_79.html
There is serotonin resistance! http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17250776

Metformin Linked to Risk of Low Levels of Thyroid Hormone

CMAJ (Canadian Medical Association Journal) 09/22/2014

Metformin, the drug commonly for treating type 2 diabetes,

  • is linked to an increased risk of low thyroid-stimulating hormone
    (TSH) levels
  • in patients with underactive thyroids (hypothyroidism),

according to a study in CMAJ (Canadian Medical Association Journal).

Metformin is used to lower blood glucose levels

  • by reducing glucose production in the liver.

previous studies have raised concerns that

  • metformin may lower thyroid-stimulating hormone levels.

Study characteristics:

  1. Retrospective  long-term
  2. 74 300 patient who received metformin and sulfonylurea
  3. 25-year study period.
  4. 5689 had treated hypothyroidism
  5. 59 937 had normal thyroid function.

Metformin and low levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone in
patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus

Jean-Pascal Fournier,  Hui Yin, Oriana Hoi Yun Yu, Laurent Azoulay  +
Centre for Clinical Epidemiology (Fournier, Yin, Yu, Azoulay), Lady Davis Institute,
Jewish General Hospital; Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational
Health (Fournier), McGill University; Division of Endocrinology (Yu), Jewish General
Hospital; Department of Oncology (Azoulay), McGill University, Montréal, Que., Cananda

CMAJ Sep 22, 2014,   http://dx.doi.org:/10.1503/cmaj.140688

Background:

  • metformin may lower thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels.

Objective:

  • determine whether the use of metformin monotherapy, when compared with
    sulfonylurea monotherapy,
  • is associated with an increased risk of low TSH levels(< 0.4 mIU/L)
  • in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Methods:

  • Used the Clinical Practice Research Datalink,
  • identified patients who began receiving metformin or sulfonylurea monotherapy
    between Jan. 1, 1988, and Dec. 31, 2012.
  • 2 subcohorts of patients with treated hypothyroidism or euthyroidism,

followed them until Mar. 31, 2013.

  • Used Cox proportional hazards models to evaluate the association of low TSH
    levels with metformin monotherapy, compared with sulfonylurea monotherapy,
    in each subcohort.

Results:

  • 5689 patients with treated hypothyroidism and 59 937 euthyroid patients were
    included in the subcohorts.

For patients with treated hypothyroidism:

  1. 495 events of low TSH levels were observed (incidence rate 0.1197/person-years).
  2. 322 events of low TSH levels were observed (incidence rate 0.0045/person-years)
    in the euthyroid group.
  • metformin monotherapy was associated with a 55% increased risk of low TSH
    levels 
    in patients with treated hypothyroidism (incidence rate 0.0795/person-years
    vs.0.1252/ person-years, adjusted hazard ratio [HR] 1.55, 95% confidence
    interval [CI] 1.09– 1.20), compared with sulfonylurea monotherapy,
  • the highest risk in the 90–180 days after initiation (adjusted HR 2.30, 95% CI
    1.00–5.29).
  • No association was observed in euthyroid patients (adjusted HR 0.97, 95% CI 0.69–1.36).

Interpretation: The clinical consequences of this needs further investigation.

 

Crude and adjusted hazard ratios for suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone
levels (< 0.1 mIU/L) associated with the use metformin monotherapy, compared
with sulfonylurea monotherapy, in patients with treated hypothyroidism or
euthyroidism and type 2 diabetes
Variable No. events
suppressed
TSH levels
Person-years of
exposure
Incidence rate,
per 1000 person-years (95% CI)
Crude
HR
Adjusted HR*(95% CI)
Patients with treated hypothyroidism, = 5689
Sulfonylure,
= 762
18 503 35.8
(21.2–56.6)
1.00 1.00
(reference)
Metformin,
= 4927
130 3 633 35.8
(29.9–42.5)
1.05 0.99
(0.57–1.72)
Euthyroid patients, = 59 937
Sulfonylurea,
= 7980
12 8 576 1.4
(0.7–2.4)
1.00 1.00
(reference)
Metformin,
= 51 957
75 63 047 1.2
(0.9–1.5)
0.85 1.03
(0.52–2.03)

 

Part II. Metabolic Underpinning 
(Source: Wikipedia, AMPK and thyroid)

5′ AMP-activated protein kinase or AMPK or 5′ adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase
is an enzyme that plays a role in cellular energy homeostasis.
It consists of three proteins (subunits) that

  1. together make a functional enzyme, conserved from yeast to humans.
  2. It is expressed in a number of tissues, including the liver, brain, and skeletal
    muscle.
  3. The net effect of AMPK activation is stimulation of
    1. hepatic fatty acid oxidation and ketogenesis,
    2. inhibition of cholesterol synthesis,
    3. lipogenesis, and triglyceride synthesis,
    4. inhibition of adipocyte lipolysis and lipogenesis,
    5. stimulation of skeletal muscle fatty acid oxidation and muscle
      glucose uptake, and
    6. modulation of insulin secretion by pancreatic beta-cells.

The heterotrimeric protein AMPK is formed by α, β, and γ subunits. Each of these three
subunits takes on a specific role in both the stability and activity of AMPK.

  • the γ subunit includes four particular Cystathionine beta synthase (CBS) domains
    giving AMPK its ability to sensitively detect shifts in the AMP:ATP ratio.
  • The four CBS domains create two binding sites for AMP commonly referred to as
    Bateman domains. Binding of one AMP to a Bateman domain cooperatively
    increases the binding affinity of the second AMP to the other Bateman domain.
  • As AMP binds both Bateman domains the γ subunit undergoes a conformational
    change which exposes the catalytic domain found on the α subunit.
  • It is in this catalytic domain where AMPK becomes activated when
    phosphorylation takes place at threonine-172by an upstream AMPK kinase
    (AMPKK). The α, β, and γ subunits can also be found in different isoforms.

AMPK acts as a metabolic master switch regulating several intracellular systems

  1. the cellular uptake of glucose,
  2. the β-oxidation of fatty acids and
  3. the biogenesis of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) and
  4. mitochondria

The energy-sensing capability of AMPK can be attributed to

  • its ability to detect and react to fluctuations in the AMP:ATP ratio that take
    place during rest and exercise (muscle stimulation).

During muscle stimulation,

  • AMP increases while ATP decreases, which changes AMPK into a good substrate
    for activation.
  • AMPK activity increases while the muscle cell experiences metabolic stress
    brought about by an extreme cellular demand for ATP.
  • Upon activation, AMPK increases cellular energy levels by
    • inhibiting anabolic energy consuming pathways (fatty acid synthesis,
      protein synthesis, etc.) and
    • stimulating energy producing, catabolic pathways (fatty acid oxidation,
      glucose transport, etc.).

A recent JBC paper on mice at Johns Hopkins has shown that when the activity of brain
AMPK was pharmacologically inhibited,

  • the mice ate less and lost weight.

When AMPK activity was pharmacologically raised (AICAR see below)

  • the mice ate more and gained weight.

Research in Britain has shown that the appetite-stimulating hormone ghrelin also
affects AMPK levels.

The antidiabetic drug metformin (Glucophage) acts by stimulating AMPK, leading to

  1. reduced glucose production in the liver and
  2. reduced insulin resistance in the muscle.

(Metformin usually causes weight loss and reduced appetite, not weight gain and
increased appetite, ..opposite of expected from the Johns Hopkins mouse study results.)

Triggering the activation of AMPK can be carried out provided two conditions are met.

First, the γ subunit of AMPK

  • must undergo a conformational change so as to
  • expose the active site(Thr-172) on the α subunit.

The conformational change of the γ subunit of AMPK can be accomplished

  • under increased concentrations of AMP.

Increased concentrations of AMP will

  • give rise to the conformational change on the γ subunit of AMPK
  • as two AMP bind the two Bateman domains located on that subunit.
  • It is this conformational change brought about by increased concentrations
    of  AMP that exposes the active site (Thr-172) on the α subunit.

This critical role of AMP is further substantiated in experiments that demonstrate

  • AMPK activation via an AMP analogue 5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide
    ribotide (ZMP) which is derived fromthe familiar
  • 5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside (AICAR)

AMPK is a good substrate for activation via an upstream kinase complex, AMPKK
AMPKK is a complex of three proteins,

  1. STE-related adaptor (STRAD),
  2. mouse protein 25 (MO25), and
  3. LKB1 (a serine/threonine kinase).

The second condition that must be met is

  • the phosphorylation/activation of AMPK on its activating loop at
    Thr-172of the α subunit
  • brought about by an upstream kinase (AMPKK).

The complex formed between LKB1 (STK 11), mouse protein 25 (MO25), and the
pseudokinase STE-related adaptor protein (STRAD) has been identified as

  • the major upstream kinase responsible for phosphorylation of AMPK
    on its activating loop at Thr-172

Although AMPK must be phosphorylated by the LKB1/MO25/STRAD complex,

  • it can also be regulated by allosteric modulators which
  • directly increase general AMPK activity and
  • modify AMPK to make it a better substrate for AMPKK
  • and a worse substrate for phosphatases.

It has recently been found that 3-phosphoglycerate (glycolysis intermediate)

  • acts to further pronounce AMPK activation via AMPKK

Muscle contraction is the main method carried out by the body that can provide
the conditions mentioned above needed for AMPK activation

  • As muscles contract, ATP is hydrolyzed, forming ADP.
  • ADP then helps to replenish cellular ATP by donating a phosphate group to
    another ADP,

    • forming an ATP and an AMP.
  • As more AMP is produced during muscle contraction,
    • the AMP:ATP ratio dramatically increases,
  • leading to the allosteric activation of AMPK

For over a decade it has been known that calmodulin-dependent protein kinase
kinase-beta (CaMKKbeta) can phosphorylate and thereby activate AMPK,

  • but it was not the main AMPKK in liver.

CaMKK inhibitors had no effect on 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-beta-4-
ribofuranoside (AICAR) phosphorylation and activation of AMPK.

  • AICAR is taken into the celland converted to ZMP,
  • an AMP analogthat has been shown to activate AMPK.

Recent LKB1 knockout studies have shown that without LKB1,

  • electrical and AICAR stimulation of muscleresults in very little
    phosphorylation of AMPK and of ACC, providing evidence that
  • LKB1-STRAD-MO25 is the major AMPKK in muscle.

Two particular adipokines, adiponectin and leptin, have even been demonstrated
to regulate AMPK. A main functions of leptin in skeletal muscle is

  • the upregulation of fatty acid oxidation.

Leptin works by way of the AMPK signaling pathway, and adiponectin also
stimulates the oxidation of fatty acids via the AMPK pathway, and

  • Adiponectin also stimulates the uptake of glucose in skeletal muscle.

An increase in enzymes which specialize in glucose uptake in cells such as GLUT4
and hexokinase II are thought to be mediated in part by AMPK when it is activated.
Increases in AMPK activity are brought about by increases in the AMP:ATP ratio
during single bouts of exercise and long-term training.

One of the key pathways in AMPK’s regulation of fatty acid oxidation is the

  • phosphorylation and inactivation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase.
  1. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) converts acetyl-CoA (ACA) to malonyl-CoA
    (MCA), an inhibitor of carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT-1).
  2. CPT-1 transports fatty acids into the mitochondria for oxidation.
  3. Inactivation of ACC results in increased fatty acid transport and oxidation.
  4. the AMPK induced ACC inactivation  and reduced conversion to MCA
    may occur as a result of malonyl-CoA decarboxylase (MCD)
  5. MCD as an antagonist to ACC, decarboxylatesmalonyl-CoA to acetyl-CoA
    (reversal of ACC conversion of ACA to MCA)
  6. This resultsin decreased malonyl-CoA and increased CPT-1 and fatty acid oxidation.

AMPK also plays an important role in lipid metabolism in the liver. It has long been
known that hepatic ACC has been regulated in the liver.

  1. It phosphorylates and inactivates 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGCR)
  2. acetyl-CoA(ACA) is converted to mevalonic acid (MVA) by ACC
    with inhibition of CPT-1
  3. HMGR converts 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA, which is made from MVA
  4. which then travels down several more metabolic steps to become cholesterol.

Insulin facilitates the uptake of glucose into cells via increased expression and
translocation of glucose transporter GLUT-4. In addition, glucose is phosphorylated
by hexokinase wheni iot enters the cell. The phosphorylated form keeps glucose from
leaving the cell,

  • The decreasedthe concentration of glucose molecules creates a gradient for more
    glucose to be transported into the cell.
AMPK and thyroid hormone regulate some similar processes. Knowing these similarities,
Winder and Hardie et al. designed an experiment to see if AMPK was influenced by thyroid
hormone. They found that all of the subunits of AMPK were increased in skeletal muscle,
especially in the soleus and red quadriceps, with thyroid hormone treatment. There was
also an increase in phospho-ACC, a marker of AMPK activity.
  •  Winder WW, Hardie DG (July 1999). “AMP-activated protein kinase,
    a metabolic master switch: possible roles in type 2 diabetes”. J. Physiol. 277
    (1 Pt 1): E1–10. PMID 10409121.
  • Winder WW, Hardie DG (February 1996). “Inactivation of acetyl-CoA
    carboxylase and activation of AMP-activated protein kinase in muscle
    during exercise”. J. Physiol. 270 (2 Pt 1): E299–304. PMID 8779952.
  • Hutber CA, Hardie DG, Winder WW (February 1997). “Electrical stimulation
    inactivates muscle acetyl-CoA carboxylase and increases AMP-activated
    protein kinase”. Am. J. Physiol. 272 (2 Pt 1): E262–6. PMID 9124333
  • Durante PE, Mustard KJ, Park SH, Winder WW, Hardie DG (July 2002).
    “Effects of endurance training on activity and expression of AMP-activated
    protein kinase isoforms in rat muscles”. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol.
    Metab. 283 (1): E178–86. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00404.2001. PMID 12067859
  • Corton JM, Gillespie JG, Hardie DG (April 1994). “Role of the AMP-activated
    protein kinase in the cellular stress response”. Curr. Biol. 4 (4):
    315–24. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(00)00070-1. PMID 7922340
  • Winder WW (September 2001). “Energy-sensing and signaling by
    AMP-activated protein kinase in skeletal muscle”. J. Appl. Physiol. 91 (3):
    1017–28. PMID 11509493
  • Suter M, Riek U, Tuerk R, Schlattner U, Wallimann T, Neumann D (October
    2006). “Dissecting the role of 5′-AMP for allosteric stimulation, activation,
    and deactivation of AMP-activated protein kinase”.  J. Biol. Chem.
    281 (43): 32207–6. doi:10.1074/jbc.M606357200. PMID 16943194

 

Part III. Pituitary-thyroid axis and diabetes mellitus
The Interface Between Thyroid and Diabetes Mellitus

Leonidas H. Duntas, Jacques Orgiazzi, Georg Brabant   Clin Endocrinol. 2011;75(1):1-9.
Interaction of Metformin and Thyroid Function

Metformin acts primarily by

  • suppressing hepatic gluconeogenesis via activation of AMPK
  • It has the opposite effects on hypothalamic AMPK,
    • inhibiting activity of the enzyme.
  • the metformin effects on hypothalamic AMPK activity will
    • counteractT3 effects at the hypothalamic level.
  • AMPK therefore represents a direct target for dual regulation
    • in the hypothalamic partitioning of energy homeostasis.
  • metformin crossesthe blood–brain barrier and
    • levels in the pituitary gland are substantially increased.
  • It convincinglysuppresses TSH

A recent study recruiting 66 patients with benign thyroid nodules furthermore
demonstrated that metformin significantly decreases nodule size in patients with
insulin resistance.[76] The effect of metformin, which was produced over a
6-month treatment period, parallelled a fall in TSH concentrations and achieved a
shrinkage amounting to 30% of the initial nodule size when metformin was
administered alone and up to 55% when it was added to ongoing LT4 treatment.

These studies reveal a

  • suppressive effect of metformin on TSH secretion patterns in
    hypothyroid patients, an effect that is apparently
  • independent of T4 treatment and does not alter the TH profile.
  • A rebound of TSH secretion occurs at about 3 months following metformin
    withdrawal.

It appears that recommendations for more frequent testing, on an annual to
biannual basis, seems justified in higher risk groups like patients over 50 or 55,
particularly with suggestive symptoms, raised antibody titres or dylipidaemia.
We thus would support the suggestion of an initial TSH and TPO antibody testing
which, as discussed, will help to predict the development of hypothyroidism in
patients with diabetes.

Hypothalamic AMPK and fatty acid metabolism mediate thyroid
regulation of energy 
balance
M López,  L Varela,  MJ Vázquez,  S Rodríguez-Cuenca, CR González, …, & Vidal-Puig
Nature Medicine  29 Aug 2010; 16: 1001–1008 http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nm.2207

Thyroid hormones have widespread cellular effects; however it is unclear whether
their effects on the central nervous system (CNS) contribute to global energy balance.
Here we demonstrate that either

  • whole-body hyperthyroidism or central administration of triiodothyronine
    (T3) decreases

    • the activity of hypothalamic AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK),
    • increases sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity and
    • upregulates thermogenic markers in brown adipose tissue (BAT).

Inhibition of the lipogenic pathway in the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus
(VMH) prevents CNS-mediated activation of BAT by thyroid hormone and reverses
the weight loss associated with hyperthyroidism. Similarly, inhibition of thyroid
hormone receptors in the VMH reverses the weight loss associated with hyperthyroidism.

This regulatory mechanism depends on AMPK inactivation, as genetic inhibition of this
enzyme in the VMH of euthyroid rats induces feeding-independent weight loss and
increases expression of thermogenic markers in BAT. These effects are reversed by
pharmacological blockade of the SNS. Thus, thyroid hormone–induced modulation
of AMPK activity and lipid metabolism in the hypothalamus is a major regulator of
whole-body energy homeostasis.

Metabolic Basis for Thyroid Hormone Liver Preconditioning:
Upregulation of AMP-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling
  
LA Videla,1 V Fernández, P Cornejo, and R Vargas
1Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences,
Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, 2Faculty of Medicine, Diego Portales University,
Santiago, Chile
Academic Editors: H. M. Abu-Soud and D. Benke
The Scientific World Journal 2012; 2012, ID 475675, 10 pp
http://dx.doi.org/10.1100/2012/475675

The liver is a major organ responsible for most functions of cellular metabolism and

  • a mediator between dietary and endogenous sources of energy for extrahepatic tissues.
  • In this context, adenosine-monophosphate- (AMP-) activated protein kinase (AMPK)
    constitutes an intrahepatic energy sensor
  • regulating physiological energy dynamics by limiting anabolism and stimulating
    catabolism, thus increasing ATP availability.
  • This is achieved by mechanisms involving direct allosteric activation and
    reversible phosphorylation of AMPK, in response to signals such as

    • energy status,
    • serum insulin/glucagon ratio,
    • nutritional stresses,
    • pharmacological and natural compounds, and
    • oxidative stress status.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) lead to cellular AMPK activation and

  • downstream signaling under several experimental conditions.

Thyroid hormone (L-3,3′,5-triiodothyronine, T3) administration, a condition
that enhances liver ROS generation,

  • triggers the redox upregulation of cytoprotective proteins
    • affording preconditioning against ischemia-reperfusion (IR) liver injury.

Data discussed in this work suggest that T3-induced liver activation of AMPK

  • may be of importance in the promotion of metabolic processes
  • favouring energy supply for the induction and operation of preconditioning
    mechanisms.

These include

  1. antioxidant,
  2. antiapoptotic, and
  3. anti-inflammatory mechanisms,
  4. repair or resynthesis of altered biomolecules,
  5. induction of the homeostatic acute-phase response, and
  6. stimulation of liver cell proliferation,

which are required to cope with the damaging processes set in by IR.

The liver functions as a mediator between dietary and endogenous sources
of energy and extrahepatic organs that continuously require energy, mainly
the brain and erythrocytes, under cycling conditions between fed and fasted states.

In the fed state, where insulin action predominates, digestion-derived glucose is
converted to pyruvate via glycolysis, which is oxidized to produce energy, whereas
fatty acid oxidation is suppressed. Excess glucose can be either stored as hepatic
glycogen or channelled into de novo lipogenesis.

In the fasted state, considerable liver fuel metabolism changes occur due to decreased
serum insulin/glucagon ratio, with higher glucose production as a consequence of
stimulated glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis (from alanine, lactate, and glycerol).

Major enhancement in fatty acid oxidation also occurs to provide energy for liver
processes and ketogenesis to supply metabolic fuels for extrahepatic tissues. For these
reasons, the liver is considered as the metabolic processing organ of the body, and
alterations in liver functioning affect whole-body metabolism and energy homeostasis.

In this context, adenosine-monophosphate- (AMP-) activated protein kinase (AMPK)
is the downstream component of a protein kinase cascade acting as an

  • intracellular energy sensor regulating physiological energy dynamics by
  • limiting anabolic pathways, to prevent excessive adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
    utilization, and
  • by stimulating catabolic processes, to increase ATP production.

Thus, the understanding of the mechanisms by which liver AMPK coordinates hepatic
energy metabolism represents a crucial point of convergence of regulatory signals
monitoring systemic and cellular energy status

Liver AMPK: Structure and Regulation

AMPK, a serine/threonine kinase, is a heterotrimeric complex comprising

  1. a catalytic subunit α and
  2. two regulatory subunits β and γ .

The α subunit has a threonine residue (Thr172) within the activation loop of the kinase
domain, with the C-terminal region being required for association with β and γ subunits.
The β subunit associates with α and γ by means of its C-terminal region , whereas

  • the γ subunit has four cystathionine β-synthase (CBS) motifs, which
  • bind AMP or ATP in a competitive manner.

75675.fig.001 (not shown)

Figure 1: Regulation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) by
(A) direct allosteric activation and
(B) reversible phosphorylation and downstream responses maintaining
intracellular energy balance.

Regulation of liver AMPK activity involves both direct allosteric activation and
reversible phosphorylation. AMPK is allosterically activated by AMP through

  • binding to the regulatory subunit-γ, which induces a conformational change in
    the kinase domain of subunit α that protects AMPK from dephosphorylation
    of Thr172, probably by protein phosphatase-2C.

Activation of AMPK requires phosphorylation of Thr172 in its α subunit, which can be
attained by either

(i) tumor suppressor LKB1 kinase following enhancement in the AMP/ATP ratio, a
kinase that plays a crucial role in AMPK-dependent control of liver glucose and
lipid metabolism;

(ii) Ca2+-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase-β (CaMKKβ) that
phosphorylates AMPK in an AMP-independent, Ca2+-dependent manner;

(iii) transforming growth-factor-β-activated kinase-1 (TAK1), an important
kinase in hepatic Toll-like receptor 4 signaling in response to lipopolysaccharide.

Among these kinases, the relevance of CaMKKβ and TAK1 in liver AMPK activation
remains to be established in metabolic stress conditions. Both allosteric and
phosphorylation mechanisms are able to elicit

  • over 1000-fold increase in AMPK activity, thus allowing
  • the liver to respond to small changes in energy status in a highly sensitive fashion.

In addition to rapid AMPK regulation through allosterism and reversible phosphorylation

  • long-term effects of AMPK activation induce changes in hepatic gene expression.

This was demonstrated for

(i) the transcription factor carbohydrate-response element-binding protein (ChREBP),

  • whose Ser568 phosphorylation by activated AMPK
  • blocks its DNA binding capacity and glucose-induced gene transcription
  • under hyperlipidemic conditions;(ii) liver sterol regulatory element-binding
    protein-1c (SREBP-1c), whose mRNA and protein expression and those of
    its target gene for fatty acid synthase (FAS)
  • are reduced by metformin-induced AMPK activation,
  • decreasing lipogenesis and increasing fatty acid oxidation due to
    malonyl-CoA depletion;

(iii) transcriptional coactivator transducer of regulated CREB activity-2 (TORC2),
a crucial component of the hepatic gluconeogenic program, was reported
to be phosphorylated by activated AMPK.

This modification leads to subsequent cytoplasmatic sequestration of TORC2 and
inhibition of gluconeogenic gene expression, a mechanism underlying

  • the plasma glucose-lowering effects of adiponectin and metformin
  • through AMPK activation by upstream LKB1.

Activation of AMPK in the liver is a key regulatory mechanism controlling glucose
and lipid metabolism,

  1. inhibiting anabolic processes, and
  2. enhancing catabolic pathways in response to different signals, including
    1. energy status,
    2. serum insulin/glucagon ratio,
    3. nutritional stresses,
    4. pharmacological and natural compounds, and
    5. oxidative stress status

Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and AMPK Activation

The high energy demands required to cope with all the metabolic functions
of the liver are met by

  • fatty acid oxidation under conditions of both normal blood glucose levels and
    hypoglycemia, whereas
  • glucose oxidation is favoured in hyperglycemic states, with consequent
    generation of ROS.

Under normal conditions, ROS occur at relatively low levels due to their fast processing
by antioxidant mechanisms, whereas at acute or prolonged high ROS levels, severe
oxidation of biomolecules and dysregulation of signal transduction and gene expression
is achieved, with consequent cell death through necrotic and/or apoptotic-signaling
pathways.

Thyroid Hormone (L-3,3′,5-Triiodothyronine, T3), Metabolic Regulation,
and ROS Production

T3 is important for the normal function of most mammalian tissues, with major actions
on O2 consumption and metabolic rate, thus

  • determining enhancement in fuel consumption for oxidation processes
  • and ATP repletion.

T3 acts predominantly through nuclear receptors (TR) α and β, forming

  • functional complexes with retinoic X receptor that
  • bind to thyroid hormone response elements (TRE) to activate gene expression.

T3 calorigenesis is primarily due to the

  • induction of enzymes related to mitochondrial electron transport and ATP
    synthesis, catabolism, and
  • some anabolic processes via upregulation of genomic mechanisms.

The net result of T3 action is the enhancement in the rate of O2 consumption of target
tissues such as liver, which may be effected by secondary processes induced by T3

(i) energy expenditure due to higher active cation transport,

(ii) energy loss due to futile cycles coupled to increase in catabolic and anabolic pathways, and

(iii) O2 equivalents used in hepatic ROS generation both in hepatocytes and Kupffer cells

In addition, T3-induced higher rates of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation are
likely to induce higher levels of ATP, which are partially balanced by intrinsic uncoupling
afforded by induction of uncoupling proteins by T3. In agreement with this view, the
cytosolic ATP/ADP ratio is decreased in hyperthyroid tissues, due to simultaneous
stimulation of ATP synthesis and consumption.

Regulation of fatty acid oxidation is mainly attained by carnitine palmitoyltransferase Iα (CPT-Iα),

  • catalyzing the transport of fatty acids from cytosol to mitochondria for β-oxidation,
    and acyl-CoA oxidase (ACO),
  • catalyzing the first rate-limiting reaction of peroxisomal β-oxidation, enzymes that are
    induced by both T3 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPAR-α).

Furthermore, PPAR-α-mediated upregulation of CPT-Iα mRNA is enhanced by PPAR-γ
coactivator 1α (PGC-1α), which in turn

  • augments T3 induction of CPT-Iα expression.

Interestingly, PGC-1α is induced by

  1. T3,
  2. AMPK activation, and
  3. ROS,

thus establishing potential links between

  • T3 action, ROS generation, and AMPK activation

with the onset of mitochondrial biogenesis and fatty acid β-oxidation.

Liver ROS generation leads to activation of the transcription factors

  1. nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB),
  2. activating protein 1 (AP-1), and
  3. signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3)

at the Kupffer cell level, with upregulation of cytokine expression (TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6),
which upon interaction with specific receptors in hepatocytes trigger the expression of

  1. cytoprotective proteins (Figure 3(A)).

These responses and the promotion of hepatocyte and Kupffer-cell proliferation
represent hormetic effects reestablishing

  1. redox homeostasis,
  2. promoting cell survival, and
  3. protecting the liver against ischemia-reperfusion injury.

T3 liver preconditioning also involves the activation of the

  1. Nrf2-Keap1 defense pathway
  • upregulating antioxidant proteins,
  • phase-2 detoxifying enzymes, and
  • multidrug resistance proteins, members of the ATP binding cassette (ABC)
    superfamily of transporters (Figure 3(B))

In agreement with T3-induced liver preconditioning, T3 or L-thyroxin afford
preconditioning against IR injury in the heart, in association with

  • activation of protein kinase C and
  • attenuation of p38 and
  • c-Jun-N-terminal kinase activation ,

and in the kidney, in association with

  • heme oxygenase-1 upregulation.

475675.fig.002

http://www.hindawi.com/journals/tswj/2012/floats/475675/thumbnails/475675.fig.002_th.jpg

Figure 2: Calorigenic response of thyroid hormone (T3) and its relationship with O2
consumption, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and antioxidant depletion in the liver.
Abbreviations: CYP2E1, cytochrome P450 isoform 2E1; GSH, reduced glutathione; QO2, rate
of O2 consumption; SOD, superoxide dismutase.

475675.fig.003

genomic signaling in T3 calorigenesis and ROS production 475675.fig.003

genomic signaling in T3 calorigenesis and ROS production 475675.fig.003

http://www.hindawi.com/journals/tswj/2012/floats/475675/thumbnails/475675.fig.003_th.jpg

Figure 3: Genomic signaling mechanisms in T3 calorigenesis and liver reactive oxygen
species (ROS) production leading to
(A) upregulation of cytokine expression in Kupffer cells and hepatocyte activation of genes
conferring cytoprotection,
(B) Nrf2 activation controling expression of antioxidant and detoxication proteins, and
(C) activation of the AMPK cascade regulating metabolic functions.Abbreviations: AP-1, activating protein 1; ARE, antioxidant responsive element; CaMKKβ,
Ca2+-calmodulin-dependent kinase kinase-β; CBP, CREB binding protein; CRC, chromatin
remodelling complex; EH, epoxide hydrolase; HO-1, hemoxygenase-1; GC-Ligase,
glutamate cysteine ligase; GPx, glutathione peroxidase; G-S-T, glutathione-S-transferase;
HAT, histone acetyltransferase; HMT, histone arginine methyltransferase; IL1,
interleukin 1; iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; LKB1, tumor suppressor LKB1 kinase;
MnSOD, manganese superoxide dismutase; MRPs, multidrug resistance proteins; NF-κB,
nuclear factor-κB; NQO1, NADPH-quinone oxidoreductase-1; NRF-1, nuclear respiratory
factor-1; Nrf2, nuclear receptor-E2-related factor 2; PCAF, p300/CBP-associated
factor; RXR, retinoic acid receptor; PGC-1, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ
coactivator-1; QO2, rate of O2 consumption; STAT3, signal transducer and activator
of transcription 3; TAK1, transforming-growth-factor-β-activated kinase-1; TNF-α, tumor
necrosis factor-α; TR, T 3 receptor; TRAP, T3-receptor-associated protein; TRE,  T3 responsive element; UCP, uncoupling proteins; (—), reported mechanisms;
(- - - -), proposed mechanisms.

 

T3 is a key metabolic regulator coordinating short-term and long-term energy needs,
with major actions on liver metabolism. These include promotion of

(i) gluconeogenesis and hepatic glucose production, and

(ii) fatty acid oxidation coupled to enhanced adipose tissue lipolysis, with

  • higher fatty acid flux to the liver and
  • consequent ROS production (Figure 2) and
  • redox upregulation of cytoprotective proteins

affording liver preconditioning (Figure 3).

Thyroid Hormone and AMPK Activation: Skeletal Muscle and Heart

In skeletal muscle, T3 increases the levels of numerous proteins involved in

  1. glucose uptake (GLUT4),
  2. glycolysis (enolase, pyruvate kinase, triose phosphate isomerase),
  3. fatty acid oxidation (carnitine palmitoyl transferase-1, mitochondrial thioesterase I),
    and uncoupling protein-3,

effects that are achieved through enhanced transcription of TRE-containing genes

Skeletal muscle AMPK activation is characterized by

(i) being a rapid and transient response,

(ii) upstream activation by Ca2+-induced mobilization and CaMKKβ activation,

(iii) upstream upregulation of LKB1 expression, which requires association with STRAD
and MO25 for optimal phosphorylation/activation of AMPK, and

(iv) stimulation of mitochondrial fatty acid β-oxidation.

T3-induced muscle AMPK activation was found to trigger two major downstream

signaling pathways, namely,

(i) peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) mRNA
expression and phosphorylation, a transcriptional regulator for genes related to

  • mitochondrial biogenesis,
  • fatty acid oxidation, and
  • gluconeogenesis and

(ii) cyclic AMP response element binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation, which

  • in turn induces PGC-1α expression in liver tissue, thus
  • reinforcing mechanism (i).

These data indicate that AMPK phosphorylation of PGC-1α initiates many of the
important gene regulatory functions of AMPK in skeletal muscle.

In heart, hyperthyroidism increased glycolysis and sarcolemmal GLUT4 levels by the
combined effects of AMPK activation and insulin stimulation, with concomitant increase
in fatty acid oxidation proportional to enhanced cardiac mass and contractile function.

Thyroid Hormone, AMPK Activation, and Liver Preconditioning

Recent studies by our group revealed that administration of a single dose of 0.1 mg T3/kg
to rats activates liver AMPK (Figure 4; unpublished work).

  1. enhancement in phosphorylated AMPK/nonphosphorylated AMPK ratios in T3-
    treated rats over control values thatis significant in the time period of 1 to 48
    hours after hormone treatment
  2. Administration of a substantially higher dose (0.4 mg T3/kg) resulted in
    decreased liver AMPK activation at 4 h to return to control values at 6 h
    after treatment

Activation of liver AMPK by T3 may be of relevance in terms of

  • promotion of fatty acid oxidation for ATP supply,
  • supporting hepatoprotection against IR injury (Figure 3(C)).

This proposal is based on the high energy demands underlying effective liver
preconditioning for full operation of hepatic

  • antioxidant, antiapoptotic, and anti-inflammatory mechanisms,
  • oxidized biomolecules repair or resynthesis,
  • induction of the homeostatic acute-phase response, and
  • promotion of hepatocyte and Kupffer cell proliferation,

mechanisms that are needed to cope with the damaging processes set in by IR.
T3 liver preconditioning , in addition to that afforded by

  • n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids given alone or
  • combined with T3 at lower dosages, or
  • by iron supplementation,

constitutes protective strategies against hepatic IR injury.

Studies on the molecular mechanisms underlying T3-induced liver AMPK
activation (Figure 4) are currently under assessment in our laboratory.

References

Fernández and L. A. Videla, “Kupffer cell-dependent signaling in thyroid hormone
calorigenesis: possible applications for liver preconditioning,” Current Signal
Transduction Therapy 2009; 4(2): 144–151.

Viollet, B. Guigas, J. Leclerc et al., “AMP-activated protein kinase in the regulation
of  hepatic energy metabolism: from physiology to therapeutic perspectives,” Acta
Physiologica 2009; 196(1): 81–98.

Carling, “The AMP-activated protein kinase cascade – A unifying system
for energy control,” Trends in Biochemical Sciences, 2004;. 29(1): 18–24.

E. Kemp, D. Stapleton, D. J. Campbell et al., “AMP-activated protein kinase,
super 
metabolic regulator,” Biochemical Society Transactions 2003; 31(1):
162–168
.

G. Hardie, “AMP-activated protein kinase-an energy sensor that
regulates all ;aspects of cell function,” Genes and Development,
2011; 25(18): 1895–1908.

Woods, P. C. F. Cheung, F. C. Smith et al., “Characterization of AMP-activated
protein kinase βandγ subunits Assembly of the heterotrimeric complex in vitro,”
Journal of Biological Chemistry 1996;271(17): 10282–10290.

Xiao, R. Heath, P. Saiu et al., “Structural basis for AMP binding to mammalian AMP-
activated protein kinase,” Nature 2007; 449(7161): 496–500.

more…

Impact of Metformin and compound C on NIS expression and iodine uptake in vitro and in vivo: a role for CRE in AMPK modulation of thyroid function.
Abdulrahman RM1, Boon MRSips HCGuigas BRensen PCSmit JWHovens GC.
Author information 
Thyroid. 2014 Jan;24(1):78-87.  Epub 2013 Sep 25.  PMID: 23819433
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1089/thy.2013.0041.

Although adenosine monophosphate activated protein kinase (AMPK) plays a crucial role
in energy metabolism, a direct effect of AMPK modulation on thyroid function has only
recently been reported, and much of its function in the thyroid is currently unknown.

The aim of this study was

  1. to investigate the mechanism of AMPK modulation in iodide uptake.
  2. to investigate the potential of the AMPK inhibitor compound C as an enhancer of
    iodide uptake by thyrocytes.

Metformin reduced NIS promoter activity (0.6-fold of control), whereas compound C
stimulated its activity (3.4-fold) after 4 days. This largely coincides with

  • CRE activation (0.6- and 3.0-fold).

These experiments show that AMPK exerts its effects on iodide uptake, at least partly,
through the CRE element in the NIS promoter. Furthermore, we have used AMPK-alpha1
knockout mice to determine the long-term effects of AMPK inhibition without chemical compounds.
These mice have a less active thyroid, as shown by reduced colloid volume and reduced
responsiveness to thyrotropin.

NIS expression and iodine uptake in thyrocytes

  • can be modulated by metformin and compound C.

These compounds exert their effect by

  • modulation of AMPK, which, in turn, regulates
  • the activation of the CRE element in the NIS promoter.

Overall, this suggests that AMPK modulating compounds may be useful for the
enhancement of iodide uptake by thyrocytes, which could be useful for the
treatment of thyroid cancer patients with radioactive iodine.

AMPK: Master Metabolic Regulator

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@ themedicalbiochemistrypage.org

AMPK-activating drugs metformin or phenformin might provide protection against cancer 1741-7007-11-36-5

AMPK-activating drugs metformin or phenformin might provide protection against cancer 1741-7007-11-36-5

 

AMPK and AMPK-related kinase (ARK) family 1741-7007-11-36-4

AMPK and AMPK-related kinase (ARK) family 1741-7007-11-36-4

 

central role of AMPK in the regulation of metabolism

 

 

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) was first discovered as an activity that

AMPK induces a cascade of events within cells in response to the ever changing energy
charge of the cell. The role of AMPK in regulating cellular energy charge places this
enzyme at a central control point in maintaining energy homeostasis.

More recent evidence has shown that AMPK activity can also be regulated by physiological stimuli, independent of the energy charge of the cell, including hormones and nutrients.

 

Once activated, AMPK-mediated phosphorylation events

These events are rapidly initiated and are referred to as

  • short-term regulatory processes.

The activation of AMPK also exerts

  • long-term effects at the level of both gene expression and protein synthesis.

Other important activities attributable to AMPK are

  1. regulation of insulin synthesis and
  2. secretion in pancreatic islet β-cells and
  3. modulation of hypothalamic functions involved in the regulation of satiety.

How these latter two functions impact obesity and diabetes will be discussed below.

Regulation of AMPK

In the presence of AMP the activity of AMPK is increased approximately 5-fold.
However, more importantly is the role of AMP in regulating the level of phosphorylation
of AMPK. An increased AMP to ATP ratio leads to a conformational change in the γ-subunit
leading to increased phosphorylation and decreased dephosphorylation of AMPK.

The phosphorylation of AMPK results in activation by at least 100-fold. AMPK is
phosphorylated by at least three different upstream AMPK kinases (AMPKKs).
Phosphorylation of AMPK occurs in the α subunit at threonine 172 (T172) which

  • lies in the activation loop.

One kinase activator of AMPK is

  • Ca2+-calmodulin-dependent kinase kinase β (CaMKKβ)
  • which phosphorylates and activates AMPK in response to increased calcium.

The distribution of CaMKKβ expression is primarily in the brain with detectable levels
also found in the testes, thymus, and T cells. As described for the Ca2+-mediated
regulation of glycogen metabolism,

  • increased release of intracellular stores of Ca2+ create a subsequent demand for
    ATP.

Activation of AMPK in response to Ca fluxes

  • provides a mechanism for cells to anticipate the increased demand for ATP.

Evidence has also demonstrated that the serine-threonine kinase, LKB1 (also called
serine-threonine kinase 11, STK11) which is encoded by the Peutz-Jeghers syndrome
tumor suppressor gene, is required for activation of AMPK in response to stress.

The active LKB1 kinase is actually a complex of three proteins:

  1. LKB1,
  2. Ste20-related adaptor (STRAD) and
  3. mouse protein 25 (MO25).

Thus, the enzyme complex is often referred to as LKB1-STRAD-MO25. Phosphorylation
of AMPK by LKB1 also occurs on T172. Unlike the limited distribution of CaMKKβ,

  • LKB1 is widely expressed, thus making it the primary AMPK-regulating kinase.

Loss of LKB1 activity in adult mouse liver leads to

  • near complete loss of AMPK activity and
  • is associated with hyperglycemia.

The hyperglycemia is, in part, due to an increase in the transcription of gluconeogenic
genes. Of particular significance is the increased expression of

  • the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ) coactivator 1α
    (PGC-1α), which drives gluconeogenesis.
  • Reduction in PGC-1α activity results in normalized blood glucose levels in
    LKB1-deficient mice.

The third AMPK phosphorylating kinase is transforming growth factor-β-activated
kinase 1 (TAK1). However, the normal physiological conditions under which TAK1
phosphorylates AMPK are currently unclear.

The effects of AMP are two-fold:

  1. a direct allosteric activation and making AMPK a poorer substrate for
    dephosphorylation.

Because AMP affects both
the rate of AMPK phoshorylation in the positive direction and
dephosphorylation in the negative direction,

the cascade is ultrasensitive. This means that

  1. a very small rise in AMP levels can induce a dramatic increase in the activity of
    AMPK.

The activity of adenylate kinase, catalyzing the reaction shown below, ensures that

  • AMPK is highly sensitive to small changes in the intracellular [ATP]/[ADP] ratio.

2 ADP ——> ATP + AMP

Negative allosteric regulation of AMPK also occurs and this effect is exerted by
phosphocreatine. As indicated above, the β subunits of AMPK have a glycogen-binding domain, GBD. In muscle, a high glycogen content

  • represses AMPK activity and
  • this is likely the result of interaction between the GBD and glycogen,
  • the GBD of AMPK allows association of the enzyme with the regulation of glycogen metabolism
  • by placing AMPK in close proximity to one of its substrates glycogen synthase.

AMPK has also been shown to be activated by receptors that are coupled to

  • phospholipase C-β (PLC-β) and by
  • hormones secreted by adipose tissue (termed adipokines) such as leptinand adiponectin (discussed below).

Targets of AMPK

The signaling cascades initiated by the activation of AMPK exert effects on

  • glucose and lipid metabolism,
  • gene expression and
  • protein synthesis.

These effects are most important for regulating metabolic events in the liver, skeletal
muscle, heart, adipose tissue, and pancreas.

Demonstration of the central role of AMPK in the regulation of metabolism in response
to events such as nutrient- or exercise-induced stress. Several of the known physiologic
targets for AMPK are included as well as several pathways whose flux is affected by
AMPK activation. Arrows indicate positive effects of AMPK, whereas, T-lines indicate
the resultant inhibitory effects of AMPK action.

The uptake, by skeletal muscle, accounts for >70% of the glucose removal from the
serum in humans. Therefore, it should be obvious that this event is extremely important
for overall glucose homeostasis, keeping in mind, of course, that glucose uptake by
cardiac muscle and adipocytes cannot be excluded from consideration. An important fact
related to skeletal muscle glucose uptake is that this process is markedly impaired in
individuals with type 2 diabetes.

The uptake of glucose increases dramatically in response to stress (such as ischemia) and
exercise and is stimulated by insulin-induced recruitment of glucose transporters
to the plasma membrane, primarily GLUT4. Insulin-independent recruitment of glucose
transporters also occurs in skeletal muscle in response to contraction (exercise).

The activation of AMPK plays an important, albeit not an exclusive, role in the induction of
GLUT4 recruitment to the plasma membrane. The ability of AMPK to stimulate
GLUT4 translocation to the plasma membrane in skeletal muscle is by a different mechanism
than that stimulated by insulin and insulin and AMPK effects are additive.

Under ischemic/hypoxic conditions in the heart the activation of AMPK leads to the
phosphorylation and activation of the kinase activity of phosphofructokinase-2, PFK-2
(6-phosphofructo-2-kinase). The product of the action of PFK-2 (fructose-2,6-bisphosphate,
F2,6BP) is one of the most potent regulators of the rate of flux through
glycolysis and gluconeogenesis.

In liver the PKA-mediated phosphorylation of PFK-2 results in conversion of the
enzyme from a kinase that generates F2,6BP to a phosphatase that removes the
2-phosphate thus reducing the levels of the potent allosteric activator of the glycolytic
enzyme 6-phosphfructo-1-kinase, PFK-1 and the potent allosteric inhibitor
of the gluconeogenic enzyme fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (F1,-6BPase).

It is important to note that like many enzymes, there are multiple isoforms of PFK-2
(at least 4) and neither the liver or the skeletal muscle isoforms contain the AMPK
phosphorylation sites found in the cardiac and inducible (iPFK2) isoforms of PFK-2.

Inducible PFK-2 is expressed in the monocyte/macrophage lineage in response to pro-
inflammatory stimuli. The ability to activate the kinase activity by phosphorylation of
PFK-2 in cardiac tissue and macrophages in response to ischemic conditions allows these
cells to continue to have a source of ATP via anaerobic glycolysis. This phenomenon is
recognized as the Pasteur effect: an increased rate of glycolysis in response to hypoxia.

Of pathological significance is the fact that the inducible form of PFK-2 is commonly
expressed in many tumor cells and this may allow AMPK to play an important role in
protecting tumor cells from hypoxic stress. Indeed, techniques for depleting AMPK in
tumor cells have shown that these cells become sensitized to nutritional stress upon loss
of AMPK activity.

Whereas, stress and exercise are powerful inducers of AMPK activity in skeletal muscle,
additional regulators of its activity have been identified.

Insulin-sensitizing drugs of the thiazolidinedione family (activators of PPAR-γ, see
below) as well as the hypoglycemia drug metformin exert a portion of their effects
through regulation of the activity of AMPK.

As indicated above, the activity of the AMPK activating kinase, LKB1, is critical for
regulating gluconeogenic flux and consequent glucose homeostasis. The action of
metformin in reducing blood glucose levels

  • requires the activity of LKB1 in the liver for this function.

Also, several adipokines (hormones secreted by adipocytes) either stimulate or inhibit
AMPK activation:

  1. leptin and adiponectin have been shown to stimulate AMPK activation, whereas,
  2. resistininhibits AMPK activation.

Cardiac effects exerted by activation of AMPK also include

AMPK-mediated phosphorylation of eNOS leads to increased activity and consequent
NO production and provides a link between metabolic stresses and cardiac function.

In platelets, insulin action leads to an increase in eNOS activity that is

  • due to its phosphorylation by AMPK.

Activation of NO production in platelets leads to

  • a decrease in thrombin-induced aggregation, thereby,
  • limiting the pro-coagulant effects of platelet activation.

The response of platelets to insulin function clearly indicates why disruption in insulin
action is a major contributing factor in the development of the metabolic syndrome

Activation of AMPK leads to a reduction in the level of SREBP

  • a transcription factor &regulator of the expression of numerous
    lipogenic enzymes

Another transcription factor reduced in response to AMPK activation is

  • hepatocyte nuclear factor 4α, HNF4α
    • a member of the steroid/thyroid hormone superfamily.
    • HNF4α is known to regulate the expression of several liver and
      pancreatic β-cell genes such as GLUT2, L-PK and preproinsulin.
  • Of clinical significance is that mutations in HNF4α are responsible for
    • maturity-onset diabetes of the young, MODY-1.

Recent evidence indicates that the gene for the carbohydrate-response-element-
binding protein (ChREBP) is a target for AMPK-mediated transcriptional regulation
in the liver. ChREBP is rapidly being recognized as a master regulator of lipid
metabolism in liver, in particular in response to glucose uptake.

The target of the thiazolidinedione (TZD) class of drugs used to treat type 2 diabetes is
the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γPPARγ which

  • itself may be a target for the action of AMPK.

The transcription co-activator, p300, is phosphorylated by AMPK

  • which inhibits interaction of p300 with not only PPARγ but also
  • the retinoic acid receptor, retinoid X receptor, and
  • thyroid hormone receptor.

PPARγ is primarily expressed in adipose tissue and thus it was difficult to reconcile how
a drug that was apparently acting only in adipose tissue could lead to improved insulin
sensitivity of other tissues. The answer to this question came when it was discovered that the TZDs stimulated the expression and release of the adipocyte hormone (adipokine),
adiponectin. Adiponectin stimulates glucose uptake and fatty acid oxidation in skeletal
muscle. In addition, adiponectin stimulates fatty acid oxidation in liver while inhibiting
expression of gluconeogenic enzymes in this tissue.

These responses to adiponectin are exerted via activation of AMPK. Another
transcription factor target of AMPK is the forkhead protein, FKHR (now referred to as
FoxO1). FoxO1 is involved in the activation of glucose-6-phosphatase expression and,
therefore, loss of FoxO1 activity in response to AMPK activation will lead to reduced
hepatic output of glucose.

This concludes a very complicated perspective that ties together the thyroid hormone
activity, the hypophysis, diabetes mellitus, and AMPK tegulation of metabolism in the
liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, and heart.  I also note at this time that there
nongenetic points to be made here:

  1. The tissue specificity of isoenzymes
  2. The modulatory role of AMP:ATP ratio in phosphorylation/dephosphorylation
    effects on metabolism tied to AMPK
  3. The tie in of stress or ROS with fast reactions to protect harm to tissues
  4. The relationship of cytokine activation and release to the above metabolic events
  5. The relationship of effective and commonly used diabetes medications to AMPK
    mediated processes
  6. The preceding presentation is notable for the importance of proteomic and
    metabolomic invetigations in elucidation common chronic and nongenetic diseases

 

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Biomarkers and risk factors for cardiovascular events, endothelial dysfunction, and thromboembolic complications

Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

 

 

Acute Coronary Syndrome

Predictive Cardiovascular and Circulation Biomarkers

Biomarkers are chemistry analytes measured in plasma, serum or whole blood that potentially identify injury or risk for injury.  They may be measured in the laboratory or at the bedside (point of care technology).  They may be measured as an enzyme (CK isoenzyme MB), a protein (troponins I & T), or as a micro RNA (miRNA).  In the last decade the discovery and use of cardiac biomarkers has moved toward very small quantities, even 100 times below the picogram range using Quanterix Simoa, compared with an enzyme immunoassay.

The time of sampling was based on time to appearance from time of damage, and the release of the biomarker is a stochastic process. The earliest studies of CK-MB appearance, peak height, and disappearance was by Burton Sobel and associates related to measuring the extent of damage, and determined that reperfusion had an effect.

There has been a nonlinear introduction of new biomarkers in that period, with an explosion of methods discovery and large studies to validate them in concert with clinical trials. The improvement of interventional methods, imaging methods, and the unraveling of patient characteristics associated with emerging cardiovascular disease is both cause for alarm (technology costs) and for raised expectations for both prevention, risk reduction, and treatment. What is strikingly missing is the kind of data analyses on the population database that could alleviate the burden of physician overload. It is an urgent requirement for the EHR, and it needs to be put in place to facilitate patient care.

 

Biomarkers: Diagnosis and Management, Present and Future

Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
Biomarkers of Cardiovascular Disease : Molecular Basis and Practical Considerations.
RS Vasan .
Circulation. 2006;113:2335-2362. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.104.482570
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/10/biomarkers-diagnosis-and-management/

sCD40L indicates soluble CD40 ligand; Fbg, fibrinogen; FFA, free fatty acid; ICAM, intercellular adhesion molecule; IL, interleukin; IMA, ischemia modified albumin; MMP, matrix metalloproteinases; MPO, myeloperoxidase; Myg, myoglobin; NT-proBNP, N-terminal proBNP; Ox-LDL, oxidized low-density lipoprotein; PAI-1, plasminogen activator inhibitor; PAPP-A, pregnancy-associated plasma protein-A; PlGF, placental growth factor; TF, tissue factor; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; TNI, troponin I; TNT, troponin T; VCAM, vascular cell adhesion molecule; and VWF, von Willebrand factor.

 

Accurate Identification and Treatment of Emergent Cardiac Events  

Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/15/accurate-identification-and-treatment-of-emergent-cardiac-events/

The main issue that we have a consensus agreement that PLAQUE RUPTURE is not the only basis for a cardiac ischemic event. The introduction of  high sensitivity troponin tests has made it no less difficult after throwing out the receiver-operator characteristic curve (ROC) and assuming that any amount of cardiac troponin released from the heart is pathognomonic of an acute ischemic event.  This has resulted in a consensus agreement that

  • ctn measurement at a coefficient of variant (CV) measurement in excess of 2 Std dev of the upper limit of normal is a “red flag” signaling AMI? or other cardiomyopathic disorder

This is the catch.  The ROC curve established AMI in ctn(s) that were accurate for NSTEMI – (and probably not needed with STEMI or new Q-wave, not previously seen) –

  1. ST-depression
  2. T-wave inversion
  3. in the presence of other findings
  • suspicious for AMI

Wouldn’t it be nice if it was like seeing a robin on your lawn after a harsh winter?  Life isn’t like that.  When acute illness hits the patient may well present with ambiguous findings.   We are accustomed to relying on

  • clinical history
  • family history
  • co-morbidities, eg., diabetes, obesity, limited activity?, diet?
  • stroke and/or peripheral vascular disease
  • hypertension and/or renal vascular disease
  • aortic atherosclerosis or valvular heart disease

these are evidence, and they make up syndromic classes

  • Electrocardiogram – 12 lead EKG (as above)
  • Laboratory tests
  • isoenzyme MB of creatine kinase (CK)… which declines after 12-18 hours
  • isoenzyme-1 of LD if the time of appearance is > day-1 after initial symptoms (no longer used)
  1. cardiac troponin cTnI or cTnT
  • genome testing
  • advanced analysis of EKG

This may result in more consults for cardiologists, but it lays the ground for better evaluation of the patient, in the long run.

Perspectives on the Value of Biomarkers in Acute Cardiac Care and Implications for Strategic Management
Antoine Kossaify, … STAR-P Consortium
Biomarker Insights 2013:8 115–126.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.4137/BMI.S12703

In addition to the conventional use of natriuretic peptides, cardiac troponin, and C-reactive protein, other biomarkers are outlined in variable critical conditions that may be related to acute cardiac illness. These include ST2 and chromogranin A in acute dyspnea and acute heart failure, matrix metalloproteinase in acute chest pain, heart-type fatty acid binding protein in acute coronary syndrome, CD40 ligand and interleukin-6 in acute myocardial infarction, blood ammonia and lactate in cardiac arrest, as well as tumor necrosis factor-alpha in atrial fibrillation. Endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress and inflammation are involved in the physiopathology of most cardiac diseases, whether acute or chronic. In summary, natriuretic peptides, cardiac troponin, C-reactive protein are currently the most relevant biomarkers in acute cardiac care.

 Inverse Association between Cardiac Troponin-I and Soluble Receptor for Advanced Glycation End Products in Patients with Non-ST-Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction

ED. McNair, CR. Wells, A.M. Qureshi, C Pearce, G Caspar-Bell, and K Prasad
Int J Angiol 2011;20:49–54
http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0031-1272552

Interaction of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) with the receptor for advanced AGEs (RAGE) results in activation of nuclear factor kappa-B, release of cytokines, expression of adhesion molecules, and induction of oxidative stress. Oxygen radicals are involved in plaque rupture contributing to thromboembolism, resulting in acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Thromboembolism and the direct effect of oxygen radicals on myocardial cells cause cardiac damage that results in the release of cardiac troponin-I (cTnI) and other biochemical markers. The soluble RAGE (sRAGE) compete with RAGE for binding with AGE, thus functioning as a decoy and exerting a cytoprotective effect. Low levels of serum sRAGE would allow unopposed serum AGE availability for binding with RAGE, resulting in the generation of oxygen radicals and proinflammatory molecules that have deleterious consequences and promote myocardial damage. sRAGE may stabilize atherosclerotic plaques. It is hypothesized that low levels of sRAGE are associated with high levels of serum cTnI in patients with ACS.
The levels of cTnI were higher in NSTEMI patients (2.180.33 mg/mL) as compared with control subjects (0.0120.001 mg/mL). Serum sRAGE levels were negatively correlated with the levels of cTnI. In conclusion, the data suggest that low levels of serum sRAGE are associated with high serum levels of cTnI and that there is a negative correlation between sRAGE and cTnI.

Correlation of soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products (sRAGE) with cardiac troponin-I

Correlation of soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products (sRAGE) with cardiac troponin-I

 

Figure 1 Serum levels of soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products (sRAGE) in control subjects and in patients with non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI). Results are expressed as meanstandard error. *p<0.05, control versus NSTEMI.

 

Serum levels of soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products

Serum levels of soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products

Figure 3 Correlation of soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products (sRAGE) with cardiac troponin-I (cTnI) in patients with non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction.

 

Heart Failure Complicating Non–ST-Segment Elevation Acute Coronary Syndrome

MC Bahit, RD. Lopes, RM. Clare, et al.
JACC: HtFail 2013; 1(3):223–9 .
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jchf.2013.02.007

This study sought to describe the occurrence and timing of heart failure (HF), associated clinical factors, and 30-day outcomes in patients with non–ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes (NSTE-ACS). Of 46,519 NSTE-ACS patients, 4,910 (10.6%) had HF at presentation. Of the 41,609 with no HF at presentation, 1,194 (2.9%) developed HF during hospitalization. A total of 40,415 (86.9%) had no HF at any time. Patients presenting with or developing HF during hospitalization were older, more often female, and had a higher risk of death at 30 days than patients without HF (adjusted odds ratio [OR]: 1.74; 95% confidence interval: 1.35 to 2.26). Older age, higher presenting heart rate, diabetes, prior myocardial infarction (MI), and enrolling MI were significantly associated with HF during hospitalization.

Other risk factors

Additive influence of genetic predisposition and conventional risk factors in the incidence of coronary heart disease: a population-based study in Greece
N Yiannakouris, M Katsoulis, A Trichopoulou, JM Ordovas, DTrichopoulos
BMJ Open 2014;4:e004387.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1136/bmjopen-2013-004387

Genetic predisposition to CHD, operationalised through a multilocus GRS, and ConvRFs have essentially additive effects on CHD risk.

PTX3, A Prototypical Long Pentraxin, Is an Early Indicator of Acute Myocardial Infarction

G Peri, M Introna, D Corradi, G Iacuitti, S Signorini, et al.
Circulation. 2000;102:636-641
http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/102/6/636
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1161/01.CIR.102.6.636

PTX3 is a long pentraxin whose expression is induced by cytokines in endothelial cells, mononuclear phagocytes, and myocardium. PTX3 is present in the intact myocardium, increases in the blood of patients with AMI, and disappears from damaged myocytes. We suggest that PTX3 is an early indicator of myocyte irreversible injury in ischemic cardiomyopathy.

Early release of glycogen phosphorylase inpatients with unstable angina and transient ST-T alterations

J Mair, B Puschendorf, J Smidt, P Lechleitner, F Dienstl, et al.
BrHeartJ 1994;72:125-127.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7917682

Glycogen phosphorylase BB (molecular weight 96000 kDa as a monomer) is the predominant isotype in human myocardium where it occurs alongside the MM subtype. The release of glycogen phosphorylase from injured myocardium may reflect the burst in glycogenolysis initiated during acute myocardial ischaemia. This is supported by a rapid increase in serum concentrations of glycogen phosphorylase BB in patients with acute myocardial infarction before concentrations of creatine kinase, creatine kinase MB, myoglobin, and cardiac troponin T increase. Unstable angina, however, ranges from no myocardial cell damage to non-Q wave myocardial infarction.
All variables except for creatine kinase and creatine kinase MB activities were significantly higher on admission in patients with unstable angina and transient ST-T alterations than in patients without. However, glycogen phosphorylase BB concentration was the only marker that was significantly (p = 0-0001) increased above its discriminator value in most patients.

Endothelium and Vascular

Endothelial Dysfunction: An Early Cardiovascular Risk Marker in Asymptomatic Obese Individuals with Prediabetes
AK. Gupta, E Ravussin, DL. Johannsen, AJ. Stull, WT. Cefalu and WD. Johnson
Br J Med Med Res 2012; 2(3): 413-423.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22905340

Adults with desirable weight [n=12] and overweight [n=8] state, had normal fasting plasma glucose [Mean(SD)]: FPG [91.1(4.5), 94.8(5.8) mg/dL], insulin [INS, 2.3(4.4), 3.1(4.8) μU/ml], insulin sensitivity by homeostasis model assessment [HOMA-IR, 0.62(1.2), 0.80(1.2)] and desirable resting clinic blood pressure [SBP/DBP, 118(12)/74(5), 118(13)/76(8) mmHg]. Obese adults [n=22] had prediabetes [FPG, 106.5(3.5) mg/dL], hyperinsulinemia [INS 18.0(5.2) μU/ml], insulin resistance [HOMA-IR 4.59(2.3)], prehypertension [PreHTN; SBP/DBP 127(13)/81(7) mmHg] and endothelial dysfunction [ED; reduced RHI 1.7(0.3) vs. 2.4(0.3); all p<0.05]. Age-adjusted RHI correlated with BMI [r=-0.53; p<0.001]; however, BMI-adjusted RHI was not correlated with age [r=-0.01; p=0.89].

Association of digital vascular function with cardiovascular risk factors: a population study.
T Kuznetsova, E Van Vlierberghe, J Knez, G Szczesny, L Thijs, et al.
BMJ Open 2014; 4:e004399.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1136/bmjopen-2013-004399

Our study is the first to implement the new photoplethysmography (PPG) technique to measure digital pulse amplitude hyperemic in a sample of a general population. The correlates of hyperaemic response were as expected and constitute an internal validation of the PPG technique in assessment of digital vascular function.

Thrombotic/Embolic Events

Risk marker associations with venous thrombotic events: a cross-sectional analysis 
BA Golomb, VT Chan, JO Denenberg, S Koperski,  & MH Criqui.
BMJ Open 2014;4:e003208.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1136/bmjopen-2013-003208

To examine the interrelations among, and risk marker associations for, superficial and deep venous events—superficial venous thrombosis (SVT), deep venous thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE). Significant correlates on multivariable analysis were, for SVT: female sex, ethnicity (African-American=protective), lower educational attainment, immobility and family history of varicose veins. For DVT and DVE, significant correlates included: heavy smoking, immobility and family history of DVEs (borderline for DVE). For PE, significant predictors included immobility and, in contrast to DVT, blood pressure (BP, systolic or diastolic). In women, estrogen use duration for hormone replacement therapy, in all and among estrogen users, predicted PE and DVE, respectively.

Endothelium and hemorheology
T Gori, S Dragoni, G Di Stolfo and S Forconi
Ann Ist Super Sanità 2007 | Vol. 43, No. 2: 124-129
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22951621

The mechanisms underlying the regulation of its function are extremely complex, and are principally determined by physical forces imposed on the endothelium by the flowing blood. In the present paper, we describe the interactions between the rheological properties of blood and the vascular endothelium.The role of shear stress, viscosity, cell-cell interactions, as well as the molecular mechanisms that are important for the transduction of these signals are discussed both in physiology and in pathology, with a particular attention to the role of reactive oxygen species. In the final conclusions, we propose an hypothesis regarding the implications of changes in blood viscosity, and particularly on the significance of secondary hyperviscosity syndromes..

Fig. 1 | Endothelial “function” (i.e.,the production of protective autacoids by the vascular endothelium) and “dysfunction” (i.e., the involvement of the endothelium in vascular pathology). EDHF: En d o t h e l i um-De r i v e d Hyperpolarizing Factor; LDL:Low-Density Lipoprotein

Fig. 2 | Endothelial production of nitric oxide (NO) is stimulated by oscillatory shear stress, transmitted by the endothelial surface layer to the endothelial cells. NO: Nitric Oxide; NOS: Nitrous Oxide Systems; ESL: Endothelial Surface Layer

 

 

 

 

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Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

Leaders in Pharmaceutical Innovation

High sensitivity c-Reactive Protein

High sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP)
Author: Larry Bernstein, M.D.,  (see Reviewers/Authors page)
Revised: 12 December 2010, last major update December 2010
Copyright: (c) 2003-2010, PathologyOutlines.com, Inc.

http://dx.doi.org:/PathologyOutlines.com/cardiac

General
=========================================================================

  • hsCRP is an enhanced sensitivity C-reactive protein (CRP) immunoassay with a lowered measurement cutoff

Methodology
=========================================================================

  • Laser nephelometry

Indications
=========================================================================

  • In the JUPITER trial of apparently healthy persons without hyperlipidemia but with elevated
    high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels, rosuvastatin significantly reduced the incidence of major
    cardiovascular events ( N Engl J Med 2008;359:2195)
  • This effect is thought to be due to the effect of statins on inflammation, which is detected by hsCRP
  • hsCRP assessment for cardiovascular disease in asymptomatic individuals seems to be most useful for
    those classified as intermediate risk on the basis of traditional risk factors (e.g. an NCEP-ATP III global
    risk score between 5% and 20%), and who do not already warrant chronic treatment with aspirin and a statin

Limitations
=========================================================================

  • Most useful for patients with intermediate risk for cardiovascular disease (Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes
    2008;1:92, Ann Intern Med 2009;151:483)
  • For low risk patients, if their risk increases 3x (e.g. from 1% to 3%), their absolute cardiovascular risk
    is still low, so the hsCRP test has no practical value
  • High risk patients are candidates for chronic aspirin and lipid-lowering therapy regardless of their hsCRP test results
  • However, a recent study concludes that risk based statin treatment without hs-CRP testing is more cost-effective
    than hs-CRP screening, assuming that statins have good long-term safety and provide benefits among low-risk
    people with normal hs-CRP (Circulation 2010;122:1478)

Reference ranges
=========================================================================

  • Low risk: under 1 mg/L
  • Intermediate risk: 1-3 mg/L
  • High risk: > 3 mg/L

Additional references
=========================================================================

  • Wikipedia, Circulation 2006;113:2335, N Engl J Med 2001;344:1959

How to use C-reactive protein in acute coronary care
LM. Biasucci,W Koenig, J Mair, C Mueller, M Plebani, B Lindahl, N Rifai, P Venge, C Hamm, et al.
Eur Heart J  Nov 2013;  http://dx.doi.org:/10.1093/eurheartj/eht435

In patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI), C-reactive protein increases within 4–6 h of symptoms,
peaks 2–4 days later, and returns to baseline after 7–10 days. Because of evidence that atherosclerosis
is an inflammatory disease, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein can be used as a biomarker of risk
in primary prevention
and in patients with known cardiovascular disease.
The upper reference limit is method-dependent but usually 8 mg/L for standard assays. The distribution of high-
sensitivity C-reactive protein concentrations is skewed in both genders with a 50th percentile of 1.5 mg/L (excluding
women on hormone replacement therapy).  C-reactive protein concentrations are increased by smoking, obesity, and
hormone replacement therapy and reduced by exercise, moderate alcohol drinking, and statin use. Correction for these
factors is essential in reference range studies.
C-reactive protein assays are not standardized. We recommend the use of third-generation high-sensitivity C-reactive
protein assays that combine features of standard and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein assays. Required assay precision
should be < 10% in the range of 3 and 10 mg/L.

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Plant-based Nutrition, Neutraceuticals and Alternative Medicine: Article Compilation the Journal PharmaceuticalIntelligence.com

Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

 

  1. Green tea polyphenols alleviate early BBB damage
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/31/green-tea-polyphenols-alleviate-early-bbb-damage-during/
  2. What do you know about Plants and Neutraceuticals?

Author and Curator, Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/30/what-do-you-know-about-plants-and-neutraceuticals/

  1. The Final Considerations of the Role of Platelets and Platelet Endothelial Reactions in Atherosclerosis and Novel Treatments

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/10/15/the-final-considerations-of-the-role-of-platelets-and-platelet-endothelial-reactions-in-atherosclerosis-and-novel-treatments/

  1. Endothelial Function and Cardiovascular Disease

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/25/endothelial-function-and-cardiovascular-disease/

  1. NO Nutritional remedies for hypertension and atherosclerosis. It’s 12 am: do you know where your electrons are?

Author and Reporter: Meg Baker, Ph.D., Registered Patent Agent

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/07/no-nutritional-remedies-for-hypertension-and-atherosclerosis-its-12-am-do-you-know-where-your-electrons-are/

  1. Cocoa and Heart Health

Reporter: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/17/cocoa-and-heart-health/

  1. Metabolomics: its applications in food and nutrition research

Reporter and Curator: Dr. Sudipta Saha, Ph.D.

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/12/metabolomics-its-applications-in-food-and-nutrition-research/

  1. Japanese knotweed extract (Polygonum cuspidatum) Resveratrol 98%

Reporter: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP   Stanford Lee, Shanghai Natural Bio-engineering Co., Ltd
Key products: resveratrol, curcumin,artemisinin,artemether,artesunate,dihydroartemisinin,Lumefantrine,etc
https://www.linkedin.com/today/post/article/20140805055958-283555965-japanese-knotweed-extract-polygonum-cuspidatum-resveratrol-98?/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/20/japanese-knotweed-extract-polygonum-cuspidatum-resveratrol-98/

  1. Antimicrobial resistance
    Reporter: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP   
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/18/antimicrobial-resistance/
  2. Macrocycles in new drug discovery
    Reporter: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP     Jamie MallinsonIan Collins
    Future Medicinal Chemistry, Jul 2012, Vol. 4, No. 11, Pages 1409-1438.

Natural product macrocycles and their synthetic derivatives

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/16/macrocycles-in-new-drug-discovery/

  1. Lipid Metabolism

ALA and LA, LCPUFAs (EPA, DHA, and AA), eicosanoids, delta-3-desaturase, prostaglandins, leukotrienes

Ginseng fights fatigue in cancer patients, Mayo Clinic-led study finds http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/15/lipid-metabolism/

  1. Ginseng fights fatigue in cancer patients, Mayo Clinic-led study finds

Reporter: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/10/ginseng-fights-fatigue-in-cancer-patients-mayo-clinic-led-study-finds/

  1. Scientists develop new cancer-killing compound from salad plant / 1,200 times more specific in killing certain kinds of cancer cells than currently available drugs
    Reporter: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/17/scientists-develop-new-cancer-killing-compound-from-salad-plant-1200-times-more-specific-in-killing-certain-kinds-of-cancer-cells-than-currently-available-drugs/
  2. Protein heals wounds, boosts immunity and protects from cancer – Lactoferrin
    Reporter: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/17/protein-heals-wounds-boosts-immunity-and-protects-from-cancer-lactoferrin/
  3. Inula helenium ( elecampane ) 100% Effective against MRSA in vitro, 200 Strains
    Reporter: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/15/inula-helenium-elecampane-100-effective-against-mrsa-in-vitro-200-strains/
  4. Thymoquinone, an extract of nigella sativa seed oil, blocked pancreatic cancer cell growth and killed the cells by enhancing the process of programmed cell death.
    Reporter: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/15/thymoquinone-an-extract-of-nigella-sativa-seed-oil-blocked-pancreatic-cancer-cell-growth-and-killed-the-cells-by-enhancing-the-process-of-programmed-cell-death/
  5. Cinnamon is lethal weapon against E. coli O157:H7
    Reporter: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/15/cinnamon-is-lethal-weapon-against-e-coli-o157h7/
  6. Garlic compound fights source of food-borne illness better than antibiotics (100 times more effective than two popular antibiotics )

Reporter: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/15/garlic-compound-fights-source-of-food-borne-illness-better-than-antibiotics-100-times-more-effective-than-two-popular-antibiotics/

  1. Reference Genes in the Human Gut Microbiome: The BGI Catalogue

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/14/reference-genes-in-the-human-gut-microbiome-the-bgi-catalogue/

  1. Study suggests consuming whey protein before meals could help improve blood glucose control in people with diabetes
    Reporter: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/12/study-suggests-consuming-whey-protein-before-meals-could-help-improve-blood-glucose-control-in-people-with-diabetes/
  2. Omega-3 fatty acids, depleting the source, and protein insufficiency in renal disease
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/06/omega-3-fatty-acids-depleting-the-source-and-protein-insufficiency-in-renal-disease/
  3. Health benefit of anthocyanins from apples and berries noted for men
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/06/health-benefit-of-anthocyanins-from-apples-and-berries-noted-for-men/
  4. Carrots Cut Men’s Prostate Cancer Risk by 50%
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/03/carrots-cut-mens-prostate-cancer-risk-by-50/
  5. A Recipe To Make Cannabis Oil For A Chemotherapy Alternative
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/02/a-recipe-to-make-cannabis-oil-for-a-chemotherapy-alternative/
  6. Plant flavonoid found to reduce inflammatory response in the brain: luteolin
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/29/plant-flavonoid-found-to-reduce-inflammatory-response-in-the-brain-luteolin/
  7. Omega-3 fatty acids protect eyes against retinopathy, study finds
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/28/omega-3-fatty-acids-protect-eyes-against-retinopathy-study-finds/
  8. Scientists identify new pathogenic and protective microbes associated with severe diarrhea
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/28/scientists-identify-new-pathogenic-and-protective-microbes-associated-with-severe-diarrhea/
  9. 2,000-year-old herb regulates autoimmunity and inflammation / Chang Shan, from a type of hydrangea that grows in Tibet and Nepal
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/27/2000-year-old-herb-regulates-autoimmunity-and-inflammation-chang-shan-from-a-type-of-hydrangea-that-grows-in-tibet-and-nepal/
  10. Turmeric-based drug effective on Alzheimer flies
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/27/turmeric-based-drug-effective-on-alzheimer-flies/
  11. Plant flavonoid luteolin blocks cell signaling pathways in colon cancer cells
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/26/plant-flavonoid-luteolin-blocks-cell-signaling-pathways-in-colon-cancer-cells/
  12. Study Finds Shu Gan Liang Xue Herbal Formula Has Breast Cancer Anti Tumor Effect
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/25/study-finds-shu-gan-liang-xue-herbal-formula-has-breast-cancer-anti-tumor-effect/
  13. HMPC Q&A Documents on Herbal Medicinal Products published
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/25/hmpc-qa-documents-on-herbal-medicinal-products-published/
  14. Garden Cress Extract Kills 97% of Breast Cancer Cells in Vitro
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/21/garden-cress-extract-kills-97-of-breast-cancer-cells-in-vitro/
  15. Moringa Oleifera Kills 97% of Pancreatic Cancer Cells in Vitro
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/21/moringa-oleifera-kills-97-of-pancreatic-cancer-cells-in-vitro/

16. The Discovery and Properties of Avemar – Fermented Wheat Germ Extract: Carcinogenesis Suppressor
Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/09/the-discovery-and-properties-of-avemar-fermented-wheat-germ-extract-carcinogenesis-suppressor-2/

 


 

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Proteomics, Metabolomics, Signaling Pathways, and Cell Regulation: a Compilation of Articles in the Journal http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com

Compilation of References by Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence in the Journal http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com about
Proteomics, Metabolomics, Signaling Pathways, and Cell Regulation

Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Proteomics

  1. The Human Proteome Map Completed

Reporter and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/28/the-human-proteome-map-completed/

  1. Proteomics – The Pathway to Understanding and Decision-making in Medicine

Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/24/proteomics-the-pathway-to-
understanding-and-decision-making-in-medicine/

3. Advances in Separations Technology for the “OMICs” and Clarification of Therapeutic Targets

Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/22/advances-in-separations-technology-for-the-omics-and-clarification-         of-therapeutic-targets/

  1. Expanding the Genetic Alphabet and Linking the Genome to the Metabolome

Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/24/expanding-the-genetic-alphabet-and-linking-the-genome-to-the-                metabolome/

5. Genomics, Proteomics and standards

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/06/genomics-proteomics-and-standards/

6. Proteins and cellular adaptation to stress

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/08/proteins-and-cellular-adaptation-to-stress/

 

Metabolomics

  1. Extracellular evaluation of intracellular flux in yeast cells

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/25/extracellular-evaluation-of-intracellular-flux-in-yeast-cells/

  1. Metabolomic analysis of two leukemia cell lines. I.

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/23/metabolomic-analysis-of-two-leukemia-cell-lines-_i/

  1. Metabolomic analysis of two leukemia cell lines. II.

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/24/metabolomic-analysis-of-two-leukemia-cell-lines-ii/

  1. Metabolomics, Metabonomics and Functional Nutrition: the next step in nutritional metabolism and biotherapeutics

Reviewer and Curator, Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/22/metabolomics-metabonomics-and-functional-nutrition-the-next-step-          in-nutritional-metabolism-and-biotherapeutics/

  1. Buffering of genetic modules involved in tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolism provides homeomeostatic regulation

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/27/buffering-of-genetic-modules-involved-in-tricarboxylic-acid-cycle-              metabolism-provides-homeomeostatic-regulation/

Metabolic Pathways

  1. Pentose Shunt, Electron Transfer, Galactose, more Lipids in brief

Reviewer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/21/pentose-shunt-electron-transfer-galactose-more-lipids-in-brief/

  1. Mitochondria: More than just the “powerhouse of the cell”

Ritu Saxena, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/07/09/mitochondria-more-than-just-the-powerhouse-of-the-cell/

  1. Mitochondrial fission and fusion: potential therapeutic targets?

Ritu saxena

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/31/mitochondrial-fission-and-fusion-potential-therapeutic-target/

4.  Mitochondrial mutation analysis might be “1-step” away

Ritu Saxena

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/14/mitochondrial-mutation-analysis-might-be-1-step-away/

  1. Selected References to Signaling and Metabolic Pathways in PharmaceuticalIntelligence.com

Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/14/selected-references-to-signaling-and-metabolic-pathways-in-                     leaders-in-pharmaceutical-intelligence/

  1. Metabolic drivers in aggressive brain tumors

Prabodh Kandal, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/11/metabolic-drivers-in-aggressive-brain-tumors/

  1. Metabolite Identification Combining Genetic and Metabolic Information: Genetic association links unknown metabolites to functionally related genes

Writer and Curator, Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/22/metabolite-identification-combining-genetic-and-metabolic-                        information-genetic-association-links-unknown-metabolites-to-functionally-related-genes/

  1. Mitochondria: Origin from oxygen free environment, role in aerobic glycolysis, metabolic adaptation

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, author and curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/26/mitochondria-origin-from-oxygen-free-environment-role-in-aerobic-            glycolysis-metabolic-adaptation/

  1. Therapeutic Targets for Diabetes and Related Metabolic Disorders

Reporter, Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/20/therapeutic-targets-for-diabetes-and-related-metabolic-disorders/

10.  Buffering of genetic modules involved in tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolism provides homeomeostatic regulation

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/27/buffering-of-genetic-modules-involved-in-tricarboxylic-acid-cycle-              metabolism-provides-homeomeostatic-regulation/

11. The multi-step transfer of phosphate bond and hydrogen exchange energy

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator:

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/19/the-multi-step-transfer-of-phosphate-bond-and-hydrogen-                          exchange-energy/

12. Studies of Respiration Lead to Acetyl CoA

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/18/studies-of-respiration-lead-to-acetyl-coa/

13. Lipid Metabolism

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/15/lipid-metabolism/

14. Carbohydrate Metabolism

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/13/carbohydrate-metabolism/

15. Update on mitochondrial function, respiration, and associated disorders

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/08/update-on-mitochondrial-function-respiration-and-associated-                   disorders/

16. Prologue to Cancer – e-book Volume One – Where are we in this journey?

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/04/13/prologue-to-cancer-ebook-4-where-are-we-in-this-journey/

17. Introduction – The Evolution of Cancer Therapy and Cancer Research: How We Got Here?

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/04/04/introduction-the-evolution-of-cancer-therapy-and-cancer-research-          how-we-got-here/

18. Inhibition of the Cardiomyocyte-Specific Kinase TNNI3K

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/01/inhibition-of-the-cardiomyocyte-specific-kinase-tnni3k/

19. The Binding of Oligonucleotides in DNA and 3-D Lattice Structures

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/15/the-binding-of-oligonucleotides-in-dna-and-3-d-lattice-structures/

20. Mitochondrial Metabolism and Cardiac Function

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/14/mitochondrial-metabolism-and-cardiac-function/

21. How Methionine Imbalance with Sulfur-Insufficiency Leads to Hyperhomocysteinemia

Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/04/sulfur-deficiency-leads_to_hyperhomocysteinemia/

22. AMPK Is a Negative Regulator of the Warburg Effect and Suppresses Tumor Growth In Vivo

Author and Curator: Stephen J. Williams, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/12/ampk-is-a-negative-regulator-of-the-warburg-effect-and-suppresses-         tumor-growth-in-vivo/

23. A Second Look at the Transthyretin Nutrition Inflammatory Conundrum

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/03/a-second-look-at-the-transthyretin-nutrition-inflammatory-                         conundrum/

24. Mitochondrial Damage and Repair under Oxidative Stress

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/mitochondrial-damage-and-repair-under-oxidative-stress/

25. Nitric Oxide and Immune Responses: Part 2

Author and Curator: Aviral Vatsa, PhD, MBBS

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/nitric-oxide-and-immune-responses-part-2/

26. Overview of Posttranslational Modification (PTM)

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/29/overview-of-posttranslational-modification-ptm/

27. Malnutrition in India, high newborn death rate and stunting of children age under five years

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/15/malnutrition-in-india-high-newborn-death-rate-and-stunting-of-                   children-age-under-five-years/

28. Update on mitochondrial function, respiration, and associated disorders

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/08/update-on-mitochondrial-function-respiration-and-associated-                  disorders/

29. Omega-3 fatty acids, depleting the source, and protein insufficiency in renal disease

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/06/omega-3-fatty-acids-depleting-the-source-and-protein-insufficiency-         in-renal-disease/

30. Introduction to e-Series A: Cardiovascular Diseases, Volume Four Part 2: Regenerative Medicine

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, writer, and Aviva Lev- Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/04/27/larryhbernintroduction_to_cardiovascular_diseases-                                  translational_medicine-part_2/

31. Epilogue: Envisioning New Insights in Cancer Translational Biology
Series C: e-Books on Cancer & Oncology

Author & Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Series C Content Consultant

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/03/29/epilogue-envisioning-new-insights/

32. Ca2+-Stimulated Exocytosis:  The Role of Calmodulin and Protein Kinase C in Ca2+ Regulation of Hormone                         and Neurotransmitter

Writer and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and
Curator and Content Editor: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/23/calmodulin-and-protein-kinase-c-drive-the-ca2-regulation-of-                    hormone-and-neurotransmitter-release-that-triggers-ca2-stimulated-exocy

33. Cardiac Contractility & Myocardial Performance: Therapeutic Implications of Ryanopathy (Calcium Release-                           related Contractile Dysfunction) and Catecholamine Responses

Author, and Content Consultant to e-SERIES A: Cardiovascular Diseases: Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC
Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
and Article Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/28/cardiac-contractility-myocardium-performance-ventricular-arrhythmias-      and-non-ischemic-heart-failure-therapeutic-implications-for-cardiomyocyte-ryanopathy-calcium-release-related-                    contractile/

34. Role of Calcium, the Actin Skeleton, and Lipid Structures in Signaling and Cell Motility

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP Author: Stephen Williams, PhD, and Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/26/role-of-calcium-the-actin-skeleton-and-lipid-structures-in-signaling-and-cell-motility/

35. Identification of Biomarkers that are Related to the Actin Cytoskeleton

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/10/identification-of-biomarkers-that-are-related-to-the-actin-                           cytoskeleton/

36. Advanced Topics in Sepsis and the Cardiovascular System at its End Stage

Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/18/advanced-topics-in-Sepsis-and-the-Cardiovascular-System-at-its-              End-Stage/

37. The Delicate Connection: IDO (Indolamine 2, 3 dehydrogenase) and Cancer Immunology

Demet Sag, PhD, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/04/the-delicate-connection-ido-indolamine-2-3-dehydrogenase-and-               immunology/

38. IDO for Commitment of a Life Time: The Origins and Mechanisms of IDO, indolamine 2, 3-dioxygenase

Demet Sag, PhD, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/04/ido-for-commitment-of-a-life-time-the-origins-and-mechanisms-of-             ido-indolamine-2-3-dioxygenase/

39. Confined Indolamine 2, 3 dioxygenase (IDO) Controls the Homeostasis of Immune Responses for Good and Bad

Curator: Demet Sag, PhD, CRA, GCP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/31/confined-indolamine-2-3-dehydrogenase-controls-the-hemostasis-           of-immune-responses-for-good-and-bad/

40. Signaling Pathway that Makes Young Neurons Connect was discovered @ Scripps Research Institute

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/06/26/signaling-pathway-that-makes-young-neurons-connect-was-                     discovered-scripps-research-institute/

41. Naked Mole Rats Cancer-Free

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/06/20/naked-mole-rats-cancer-free/

42. Late Onset of Alzheimer’s Disease and One-carbon Metabolism

Reporter and Curator: Dr. Sudipta Saha, Ph.D.

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/06/alzheimers-disease-and-one-carbon-metabolism/

43. Problems of vegetarianism

Reporter and Curator: Dr. Sudipta Saha, Ph.D.

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/22/problems-of-vegetarianism/

44.  Amyloidosis with Cardiomyopathy

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/31/amyloidosis-with-cardiomyopathy/

45. Liver endoplasmic reticulum stress and hepatosteatosis

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/10/liver-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-hepatosteatosis/

46. The Molecular Biology of Renal Disorders: Nitric Oxide – Part III

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/the-molecular-biology-of-renal-disorders/

47. Nitric Oxide Function in Coagulation – Part II

Curator and Author: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/nitric-oxide-function-in-coagulation/

48. Nitric Oxide, Platelets, Endothelium and Hemostasis

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/08/nitric-oxide-platelets-endothelium-and-hemostasis/

49. Interaction of Nitric Oxide and Prostacyclin in Vascular Endothelium

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/14/interaction-of-nitric-oxide-and-prostacyclin-in-vascular-endothelium/

50. Nitric Oxide and Immune Responses: Part 1

Curator and Author:  Aviral Vatsa PhD, MBBS

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/18/nitric-oxide-and-immune-responses-part-1/

51. Nitric Oxide and Immune Responses: Part 2

Curator and Author:  Aviral Vatsa PhD, MBBS

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/nitric-oxide-and-immune-responses-part-2/

52. Mitochondrial Damage and Repair under Oxidative Stress

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/mitochondrial-damage-and-repair-under-oxidative-stress/

53. Is the Warburg Effect the cause or the effect of cancer: A 21st Century View?

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/17/is-the-warburg-effect-the-cause-or-the-effect-of-cancer-a-21st-                 century-view/

54. Ubiquinin-Proteosome pathway, autophagy, the mitochondrion, proteolysis and cell apoptosis

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/30/ubiquinin-proteosome-pathway-autophagy-the-mitochondrion-                  proteolysis-and-cell-apoptosis/

55. Ubiquitin-Proteosome pathway, Autophagy, the Mitochondrion, Proteolysis and Cell Apoptosis: Part III

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/02/14/ubiquinin-proteosome-pathway-autophagy-the-mitochondrion-                   proteolysis-and-cell-apoptosis-reconsidered/

56. Nitric Oxide and iNOS have Key Roles in Kidney Diseases – Part II

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/nitric-oxide-and-inos-have-key-roles-in-kidney-diseases/

57. New Insights on Nitric Oxide donors – Part IV

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/new-insights-on-no-donors/

58. Crucial role of Nitric Oxide in Cancer

Curator and Author: Ritu Saxena, Ph.D.

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/16/crucial-role-of-nitric-oxide-in-cancer/

59. Nitric Oxide has a ubiquitous role in the regulation of glycolysis -with a concomitant influence on mitochondrial function

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/16/nitric-oxide-has-a-ubiquitous-role-in-the-regulation-of-glycolysis-with-         a-concomitant-influence-on-mitochondrial-function/

60. Targeting Mitochondrial-bound Hexokinase for Cancer Therapy

Curator and Author: Ziv Raviv, PhD, RN 04/06/2013

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/06/targeting-mitochondrial-bound-hexokinase-for-cancer-therapy/

61. Biochemistry of the Coagulation Cascade and Platelet Aggregation – Part I

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/biochemistry-of-the-coagulation-cascade-and-platelet-aggregation/

Genomics, Transcriptomics, and Epigenetics

  1. What is the meaning of so many RNAs?

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/06/what-is-the-meaning-of-so-many-rnas/

  1. RNA and the transcription the genetic code

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Writer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/02/rna-and-the-transcription-of-the-genetic-code/

  1. A Primer on DNA and DNA Replication

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/29/a_primer_on_dna_and_dna_replication/

4. Synthesizing Synthetic Biology: PLOS Collections

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/17/synthesizing-synthetic-biology-plos-collections/

5. Pathology Emergence in the 21st Century

Author and Curator: Larry Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/03/pathology-emergence-in-the-21st-century/

6. RNA and the transcription the genetic code

Writer and Curator, Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/02/rna-and-the-transcription-of-the-genetic-code/

7. A Great University engaged in Drug Discovery: University of Pittsburgh

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/15/a-great-university-engaged-in-drug-discovery/

8. microRNA called miRNA-142 involved in the process by which the immature cells in the bone  marrow give                              rise to all the types of blood cells, including immune cells and the oxygen-bearing red blood cells

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/24/microrna-called-mir-142-involved-in-the-process-by-which-the-                   immature-cells-in-the-bone-marrow-give-rise-to-all-the-types-of-blood-cells-including-immune-cells-and-the-oxygen-             bearing-red-blood-cells/

9. Genes, proteomes, and their interaction

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Writer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/28/genes-proteomes-and-their-interaction/

10. Regulation of somatic stem cell Function

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Writer and Curator    Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/29/regulation-of-somatic-stem-cell-function/

11. Scientists discover that pluripotency factor NANOG is also active in adult organisms

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/10/scientists-discover-that-pluripotency-factor-nanog-is-also-active-in-           adult-organisms/

12. Bzzz! Are fruitflies like us?

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/07/bzzz-are-fruitflies-like-us/

13. Long Non-coding RNAs Can Encode Proteins After All

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/29/long-non-coding-rnas-can-encode-proteins-after-all/

14. Michael Snyder @Stanford University sequenced the lymphoblastoid transcriptomes and developed an
allele-specific full-length transcriptome

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/014/06/23/michael-snyder-stanford-university-sequenced-the-lymphoblastoid-            transcriptomes-and-developed-an-allele-specific-full-length-transcriptome/

15. Commentary on Biomarkers for Genetics and Genomics of Cardiovascular Disease: Views by Larry H                                     Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/16/commentary-on-biomarkers-for-genetics-and-genomics-of-                        cardiovascular-disease-views-by-larry-h-bernstein-md-fcap/

16. Observations on Finding the Genetic Links in Common Disease: Whole Genomic Sequencing Studies

Author an curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/18/observations-on-finding-the-genetic-links/

17. Silencing Cancers with Synthetic siRNAs

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/09/silencing-cancers-with-synthetic-sirnas/

18. Cardiometabolic Syndrome and the Genetics of Hypertension: The Neuroendocrine Transcriptome Control Points

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/12/cardiometabolic-syndrome-and-the-genetics-of-hypertension-the-neuroendocrine-transcriptome-control-points/

19. Developments in the Genomics and Proteomics of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Treatment Targets

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/08/developments-in-the-genomics-and-proteomics-of-type-2-diabetes-           mellitus-and-treatment-targets/

20. Loss of normal growth regulation

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/06/loss-of-normal-growth-regulation/

21. CT Angiography & TrueVision™ Metabolomics (Genomic Phenotyping) for new Therapeutic Targets to Atherosclerosis

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/15/ct-angiography-truevision-metabolomics-genomic-phenotyping-for-           new-therapeutic-targets-to-atherosclerosis/

22.  CRACKING THE CODE OF HUMAN LIFE: The Birth of BioInformatics & Computational Genomics

Genomics Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/30/cracking-the-code-of-human-life-the-birth-of-bioinformatics-                      computational-genomics/

23. Big Data in Genomic Medicine

Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/17/big-data-in-genomic-medicine/

24. From Genomics of Microorganisms to Translational Medicine

Author and Curator: Demet Sag, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/03/20/without-the-past-no-future-but-learn-and-move-genomics-of-                      microorganisms-to-translational-medicine/

25. Summary of Genomics and Medicine: Role in Cardiovascular Diseases

Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/01/06/summary-of-genomics-and-medicine-role-in-cardiovascular-diseases/

 26. Genomic Promise for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Dementias, Autism Spectrum, Schizophrenia, and Serious                      Depression

Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/02/19/genomic-promise-for-neurodegenerative-diseases-dementias-autism-        spectrum-schizophrenia-and-serious-depression/

 27.  BRCA1 a tumour suppressor in breast and ovarian cancer – functions in transcription, ubiquitination and DNA repair

Sudipta Saha, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/04/brca1-a-tumour-suppressor-in-breast-and-ovarian-cancer-functions-         in-transcription-ubiquitination-and-dna-repair/

28. Personalized medicine gearing up to tackle cancer

Ritu Saxena, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/07/personalized-medicine-gearing-up-to-tackle-cancer/

29. Differentiation Therapy – Epigenetics Tackles Solid Tumors

Stephen J Williams, PhD

      http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/03/differentiation-therapy-epigenetics-tackles-solid-tumors/

30. Mechanism involved in Breast Cancer Cell Growth: Function in Early Detection & Treatment

     Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/17/mechanism-involved-in-breast-cancer-cell-growth-function-in-early-          detection-treatment/

31. The Molecular pathology of Breast Cancer Progression

Tilde Barliya, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/10/the-molecular-pathology-of-breast-cancer-progression

32. Gastric Cancer: Whole-genome reconstruction and mutational signatures

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/24/gastric-cancer-whole-genome-reconstruction-and-mutational-                   signatures-2/

33. Paradigm Shift in Human Genomics – Predictive Biomarkers and Personalized Medicine –                                                       Part 1 (pharmaceuticalintelligence.com)

Aviva  Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalntelligence.com/2013/01/13/paradigm-shift-in-human-genomics-predictive-biomarkers-and-personalized-medicine-part-1/

34. LEADERS in Genome Sequencing of Genetic Mutations for Therapeutic Drug Selection in Cancer                                         Personalized Treatment: Part 2

A Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/13/leaders-in-genome-sequencing-of-genetic-mutations-for-therapeutic-       drug-selection-in-cancer-personalized-treatment-part-2/

35. Personalized Medicine: An Institute Profile – Coriell Institute for Medical Research: Part 3

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/13/personalized-medicine-an-institute-profile-coriell-institute-for-medical-        research-part-3/

36. Harnessing Personalized Medicine for Cancer Management, Prospects of Prevention and Cure: Opinions of                           Cancer Scientific Leaders @http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/13/7000/Harnessing_Personalized_Medicine_for_ Cancer_Management-      Prospects_of_Prevention_and_Cure/

37.  GSK for Personalized Medicine using Cancer Drugs needs Alacris systems biology model to determine the in silico
effect of the inhibitor in its “virtual clinical trial”

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/14/gsk-for-personalized-medicine-using-cancer-drugs-needs-alacris-             systems-biology-model-to-determine-the-in-silico-effect-of-the-inhibitor-in-its-virtual-clinical-trial/

38. Personalized medicine-based cure for cancer might not be far away

Ritu Saxena, PhD

  http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/20/personalized-medicine-based-cure-for-cancer-might-not-be-far-away/

39. Human Variome Project: encyclopedic catalog of sequence variants indexed to the human genome sequence

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/24/human-variome-project-encyclopedic-catalog-of-sequence-variants-         indexed-to-the-human-genome-sequence/

40. Inspiration From Dr. Maureen Cronin’s Achievements in Applying Genomic Sequencing to Cancer Diagnostics

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/10/inspiration-from-dr-maureen-cronins-achievements-in-applying-                genomic-sequencing-to-cancer-diagnostics/

41. The “Cancer establishments” examined by James Watson, co-discoverer of DNA w/Crick, 4/1953

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/09/the-cancer-establishments-examined-by-james-watson-co-discover-         of-dna-wcrick-41953/

42. What can we expect of tumor therapeutic response?

Author and curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/05/what-can-we-expect-of-tumor-therapeutic-response/

43. Directions for genomics in personalized medicine

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/27/directions-for-genomics-in-personalized-medicine/

44. How mobile elements in “Junk” DNA promote cancer. Part 1: Transposon-mediated tumorigenesis.

Stephen J Williams, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/31/how-mobile-elements-in-junk-dna-prote-cancer-part1-transposon-            mediated-tumorigenesis/

45. mRNA interference with cancer expression

Author and Curator, Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

 http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/26/mrna-interference-with-cancer-expression/

46. Expanding the Genetic Alphabet and linking the genome to the metabolome

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/24/expanding-the-genetic-alphabet-and-linking-the-genome-to-the-               metabolome/

47. Breast Cancer, drug resistance, and biopharmaceutical targets

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/18/breast-cancer-drug-resistance-and-biopharmaceutical-targets/

48.  Breast Cancer: Genomic profiling to predict Survival: Combination of Histopathology and Gene Expression                            Analysis

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/24/breast-cancer-genomic-profiling-to-predict-survival-combination-of-           histopathology-and-gene-expression-analysis

49. Gastric Cancer: Whole-genome reconstruction and mutational signatures

Aviva  Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/24/gastric-cancer-whole-genome-reconstruction-and-mutational-                   signatures-2/

50. Genomic Analysis: FLUIDIGM Technology in the Life Science and Agricultural Biotechnology

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/22/genomic-analysis-fluidigm-technology-in-the-life-science-and-                   agricultural-biotechnology/

51. 2013 Genomics: The Era Beyond the Sequencing Human Genome: Francis Collins, Craig Venter, Eric Lander, et al.

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013_Genomics

52. Paradigm Shift in Human Genomics – Predictive Biomarkers and Personalized Medicine – Part 1

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/Paradigm Shift in Human Genomics_/

Signaling Pathways

  1. Proteins and cellular adaptation to stress

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/08/proteins-and-cellular-adaptation-to-stress/

  1. A Synthesis of the Beauty and Complexity of How We View Cancer:
    Cancer Volume One – Summary

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/03/26/a-synthesis-of-the-beauty-and-complexity-of-how-we-view-cancer/

  1. Recurrent somatic mutations in chromatin-remodeling and ubiquitin ligase complex genes in
    serous endometrial tumors

Sudipta Saha, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/19/recurrent-somatic-mutations-in-chromatin-remodeling-ad-ubiquitin-           ligase-complex-genes-in-serous-endometrial-tumors/

4.  Prostate Cancer Cells: Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors Induce Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition

Stephen J Williams, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/30/histone-deacetylase-inhibitors-induce-epithelial-to-mesenchymal-              transition-in-prostate-cancer-cells/

5. Ubiquinin-Proteosome pathway, autophagy, the mitochondrion, proteolysis and cell apoptosis

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/30/ubiquinin-proteosome-pathway-autophagy-the-mitochondrion-                   proteolysis-and-cell-apoptosis/

6. Signaling and Signaling Pathways

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/12/signaling-and-signaling-pathways/

7.  Leptin signaling in mediating the cardiac hypertrophy associated with obesity

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/03/leptin-signaling-in-mediating-the-cardiac-hypertrophy-associated-            with-obesity/

  1. Sensors and Signaling in Oxidative Stress

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/01/sensors-and-signaling-in-oxidative-stress/

  1. The Final Considerations of the Role of Platelets and Platelet Endothelial Reactions in Atherosclerosis and Novel
    Treatments

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/10/15/the-final-considerations-of-the-role-of-platelets-and-platelet-                      endothelial-reactions-in-atherosclerosis-and-novel-treatments

10.   Platelets in Translational Research – Part 1

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/10/07/platelets-in-translational-research-1/

11.  Disruption of Calcium Homeostasis: Cardiomyocytes and Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells: The Cardiac and
Cardiovascular Calcium Signaling Mechanism

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author, and Content Consultant to e-SERIES A:
Cardiovascular Diseases: Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC and Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/09/12/disruption-of-calcium-homeostasis-cardiomyocytes-and-vascular-             smooth-muscle-cells-the-cardiac-and-cardiovascular-calcium-signaling-mechanism/

12. The Centrality of Ca(2+) Signaling and Cytoskeleton Involving Calmodulin Kinases and
Ryanodine Receptors in Cardiac Failure, Arterial Smooth Muscle, Post-ischemic Arrhythmia,
Similarities and Differences, and Pharmaceutical Targets

     Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author, and Content Consultant to
e-SERIES A: Cardiovascular Diseases: Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC and
Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/09/08/the-centrality-of-ca2-signaling-and-cytoskeleton-involving-calmodulin-       kinases-and-ryanodine-receptors-in-cardiac-failure-arterial-smooth-muscle-post-ischemic-arrhythmia-similarities-and-           differen/

13.  Nitric Oxide Signalling Pathways

Aviral Vatsa, PhD, MBBS

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/22/nitric-oxide-signalling-pathways/

14. Immune activation, immunity, antibacterial activity

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/06/immune-activation-immunity-antibacterial-activity/

15.  Regulation of somatic stem cell Function

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Writer and Curator    Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/29/regulation-of-somatic-stem-cell-function/

16. Scientists discover that pluripotency factor NANOG is also active in adult organisms

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/10/scientists-discover-that-pluripotency-factor-nanog-is-also-active-in-adult-organisms/

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Compilation of References in Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence about proteomics, metabolomics, signaling pathways, and cell regulation

Compilation of References in Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence about
proteomics, metabolomics, signaling pathways, and cell regulation

Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

 

Proteomics

  1. The Human Proteome Map Completed
    Reporter and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/28/the-human-proteome-map-completed/
  1. Proteomics – The Pathway to Understanding and Decision-making in Medicine
    Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/24/proteomics-the-pathway-to-understanding-and-decision-making-in-medicine/
  1. Advances in Separations Technology for the “OMICs” and Clarification of Therapeutic Targets
    Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/22/advances-in-separations-technology-for-the-omics-and-clarification-of-therapeutic-targets/
  1. Expanding the Genetic Alphabet and Linking the Genome to the Metabolome
    Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/24/expanding-the-genetic-alphabet-and-linking-the-genome-to-the-metabolome/
  1. Synthesizing Synthetic Biology: PLOS Collections
    Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/17/synthesizing-synthetic-biology-plos-collections/

 

Metabolomics

  1. Extracellular evaluation of intracellular flux in yeast cells
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/25/extracellular-evaluation-of-intracellular-flux-in-yeast-cells/ 
  2. Metabolomic analysis of two leukemia cell lines. I.
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/23/metabolomic-analysis-of-two-leukemia-cell-lines-_i/ 
  3. Metabolomic analysis of two leukemia cell lines. II.
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/24/metabolomic-analysis-of-two-leukemia-cell-lines-ii/ 
  4. Metabolomics, Metabonomics and Functional Nutrition: the next step in nutritional metabolism and biotherapeutics
    Reviewer and Curator, Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/22/metabolomics-metabonomics-and-functional-nutrition-the-next-step-in-nutritional-metabolism-and-biotherapeutics/ 
  5. Buffering of genetic modules involved in tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolism provides homeomeostatic regulation
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/27/buffering-of-genetic-modules-involved-in-tricarboxylic-acid-cycle-metabolism-provides-homeomeostatic-regulation/

 

Metabolic Pathways

  1. Pentose Shunt, Electron Transfer, Galactose, more Lipids in brief
    Reviewer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/21/pentose-shunt-electron-transfer-galactose-more-lipids-in-brief/
  2. Mitochondria: More than just the “powerhouse of the cell”
    Reviewer and Curator: Ritu Saxena
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/07/09/mitochondria-more-than-just-the-powerhouse-of-the-cell/
  3. Mitochondrial fission and fusion: potential therapeutic targets?
    Reviewer and Curator: Ritu saxena
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/31/mitochondrial-fission-and-fusion-potential-therapeutic-target/ 
  4. Mitochondrial mutation analysis might be “1-step” away
    Reviewer and Curator: Ritu Saxena
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/14/mitochondrial-mutation-analysis-might-be-1-step-away/
  5. Selected References to Signaling and Metabolic Pathways in PharmaceuticalIntelligence.com
    Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/14/selected-references-to-signaling-and-metabolic-pathways-in-leaders-in-pharmaceutical-intelligence/
  6. Metabolic drivers in aggressive brain tumors
    Prabodh Kandal, PhD
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/11/metabolic-drivers-in-aggressive-brain-tumors/ 
  7. Metabolite Identification Combining Genetic and Metabolic Information: Genetic association links unknown metabolites to functionally related genes
    Author and Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/22/metabolite-identification-combining-genetic-and-metabolic-information-genetic-association-links-unknown-metabolites-to-functionally-related-genes/
  8. Mitochondria: Origin from oxygen free environment, role in aerobic glycolysis, metabolic adaptation
    Author and curator:Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/26/mitochondria-origin-from-oxygen-free-environment-role-in-aerobic-glycolysis-metabolic-adaptation/
  9. Therapeutic Targets for Diabetes and Related Metabolic Disorders
    Reporter, Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/20/therapeutic-targets-for-diabetes-and-related-metabolic-disorders/
  10. Buffering of genetic modules involved in tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolism provides homeomeostatic regulation
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/27/buffering-of-genetic-modules-involved-in-tricarboxylic-acid-cycle-metabolism-provides-homeomeostatic-regulation/
  11. The multi-step transfer of phosphate bond and hydrogen exchange energy
    Curator:Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP,
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/19/the-multi-step-transfer-of-phosphate-bond-and-hydrogen-exchange-energy/
  12. Studies of Respiration Lead to Acetyl CoA
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/18/studies-of-respiration-lead-to-acetyl-coa/
  13. Lipid Metabolism
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/15/lipid-metabolism/
  14. Carbohydrate Metabolism
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/13/carbohydrate-metabolism/
  15. Prologue to Cancer – e-book Volume One – Where are we in this journey?
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/04/13/prologue-to-cancer-ebook-4-where-are-we-in-this-journey/
  16. Introduction – The Evolution of Cancer Therapy and Cancer Research: How We Got Here?
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/04/04/introduction-the-evolution-of-cancer-therapy-and-cancer-research-how-we-got-here/
  17. Inhibition of the Cardiomyocyte-Specific Kinase TNNI3K
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/01/inhibition-of-the-cardiomyocyte-specific-kinase-tnni3k/
  18. The Binding of Oligonucleotides in DNA and 3-D Lattice Structures
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/15/the-binding-of-oligonucleotides-in-dna-and-3-d-lattice-structures/
  19. Mitochondrial Metabolism and Cardiac Function
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/14/mitochondrial-metabolism-and-cardiac-function/
  20. How Methionine Imbalance with Sulfur-Insufficiency Leads to Hyperhomocysteinemia
    Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/04/sulfur-deficiency-leads_to_hyperhomocysteinemia/
  21. AMPK Is a Negative Regulator of the Warburg Effect and Suppresses Tumor Growth In Vivo
    Author and Curator: SJ. Williams
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/12/ampk-is-a-negative-regulator-of-the-warburg-effect-and-suppresses-tumor-growth-in-vivo/
  22. A Second Look at the Transthyretin Nutrition Inflammatory Conundrum
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/03/a-second-look-at-the-transthyretin-nutrition-inflammatory-conundrum/
  23. Overview of Posttranslational Modification (PTM)
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/29/overview-of-posttranslational-modification-ptm/
  24. Malnutrition in India, high newborn death rate and stunting of children age under five years
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/15/malnutrition-in-india-high-newborn-death-rate-and-stunting-of-children-age-under-five-years/
  25. Update on mitochondrial function, respiration, and associated disorders
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/08/update-on-mitochondrial-function-respiration-and-associated-disorders/
  26. Omega-3 fatty acids, depleting the source, and protein insufficiency in renal disease
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/06/omega-3-fatty-acids-depleting-the-source-and-protein-insufficiency-in-renal-disease/ 
  27. Late Onset of Alzheimer’s Disease and One-carbon Metabolism
    Reporter and Curator: Dr. Sudipta Saha, Ph.D.
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/06/alzheimers-disease-and-one-carbon-metabolism/
  28. Problems of vegetarianism
    Reporter and Curator: Dr. Sudipta Saha, Ph.D.
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/22/problems-of-vegetarianism/

 

Signaling Pathways

  1. Introduction to e-Series A: Cardiovascular Diseases, Volume Four Part 2: Regenerative Medicine
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, writer, and Aviva Lev- Ari, PhD, RN  http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/04/27/larryhbernintroduction_to_cardiovascular_diseases-translational_medicine-part_2/
  2. Epilogue: Envisioning New Insights in Cancer Translational Biology
    Series C: e-Books on Cancer & Oncology
    Author & Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Series C Content Consultant
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/03/29/epilogue-envisioning-new-insights/
  3. Ca2+-Stimulated Exocytosis:  The Role of Calmodulin and Protein Kinase C in Ca2+ Regulation of Hormone and Neurotransmitter  Writer and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Curator and Content Editor: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/23/calmodulin-and-protein-kinase-c-drive-the-ca2-regulation-of-hormone-and-neurotransmitter-release-that-triggers-ca2-stimulated-exocy
  4. Cardiac Contractility & Myocardial Performance: Therapeutic Implications of Ryanopathy (Calcium Release-related Contractile Dysfunction) and Catecholamine Responses
    Author, and Content Consultant to e-SERIES A: Cardiovascular Diseases: Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC
    Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Article Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/28/cardiac-contractility-myocardium-performance-ventricular-arrhythmias-and-non-ischemic-heart-failure-therapeutic-implications-for-cardiomyocyte-ryanopathy-calcium-release-related-contractile/
  5. Role of Calcium, the Actin Skeleton, and Lipid Structures in Signaling and Cell Motility
    Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP Author: Stephen Williams, PhD, and Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/26/role-of-calcium-the-actin-skeleton-and-lipid-structures-in-signaling-and-cell-motility/
  6. Identification of Biomarkers that are Related to the Actin Cytoskeleton
    Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/10/identification-of-biomarkers-that-are-related-to-the-actin-cytoskeleton/
  7. Advanced Topics in Sepsis and the Cardiovascular System at its End Stage
    Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/18/advanced-topics-in-Sepsis-and-the-Cardiovascular-System-at-its-End-Stage/
  8. The Delicate Connection: IDO (Indolamine 2, 3 dehydrogenase) and Cancer Immunology
    Demet Sag, PhD, Author and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/04/the-delicate-connection-ido-indolamine-2-3-dehydrogenase-and-immunology/
  9. IDO for Commitment of a Life Time: The Origins and Mechanisms of IDO, indolamine 2, 3-dioxygenase
    Demet Sag, PhD, Author and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/04/ido-for-commitment-of-a-life-time-the-origins-and-mechanisms-of-ido-indolamine-2-3-dioxygenase/
  10. Confined Indolamine 2, 3 dioxygenase (IDO) Controls the Homeostasis of Immune Responses for Good and Bad
    Author and Curator: Demet Sag, PhD, CRA, GCP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/31/confined-indolamine-2-3-dehydrogenase-controls-the-hemostasis-of-immune-responses-for-good-and-bad/
  11. Signaling Pathway that Makes Young Neurons Connect was discovered @ Scripps Research Institute
    Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/06/26/signaling-pathway-that-makes-young-neurons-connect-was-discovered-scripps-research-institute/
  12. Naked Mole Rats Cancer-Free
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/06/20/naked-mole-rats-cancer-free/
  13. Amyloidosis with Cardiomyopathy
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/31/amyloidosis-with-cardiomyopathy/
  14. Liver endoplasmic reticulum stress and hepatosteatosis
    Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/10/liver-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-hepatosteatosis/
  15. The Molecular Biology of Renal Disorders: Nitric Oxide – Part III
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/the-molecular-biology-of-renal-disorders/
  16. Nitric Oxide Function in Coagulation – Part II
    Curator and Author: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/nitric-oxide-function-in-coagulation/
  17. Nitric Oxide, Platelets, Endothelium and Hemostasis
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/08/nitric-oxide-platelets-endothelium-and-hemostasis/
  18. Interaction of Nitric Oxide and Prostacyclin in Vascular Endothelium
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/14/interaction-of-nitric-oxide-and-prostacyclin-in-vascular-endothelium/
  19. Nitric Oxide and Immune Responses: Part 1
    Curator and Author:  Aviral Vatsa PhD, MBBS
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/18/nitric-oxide-and-immune-responses-part-1/
  20. Nitric Oxide and Immune Responses: Part 2
    Curator and Author:  Aviral Vatsa PhD, MBBS
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/nitric-oxide-and-immune-responses-part-2/
  21. Nitric Oxide and iNOS have Key Roles in Kidney Diseases – Part II
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/nitric-oxide-and-inos-have-key-roles-in-kidney-diseases/
  22. New Insights on Nitric Oxide donors – Part IV
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/new-insights-on-no-donors/
  23. Crucial role of Nitric Oxide in Cancer
    Curator and Author: Ritu Saxena, Ph.D.
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/16/crucial-role-of-nitric-oxide-in-cancer/
  24. Nitric Oxide has a ubiquitous role in the regulation of glycolysis -with a concomitant influence on mitochondrial function
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/16/nitric-oxide-has-a-ubiquitous-role-in-the-regulation-of-glycolysis-with-a-concomitant-influence-on-mitochondrial-function/
  25. Nitric Oxide and Immune Responses: Part 2
    Author and Curator: Aviral Vatsa, PhD, MBBS
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/nitric-oxide-and-immune-responses-part-2/
  26. Mitochondrial Damage and Repair under Oxidative Stress
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/mitochondrial-damage-and-repair-under-oxidative-stress/
  27. Is the Warburg Effect the cause or the effect of cancer: A 21st Century View?
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/17/is-the-warburg-effect-the-cause-or-the-effect-of-cancer-a-21st-century-view/
  28. Targeting Mitochondrial-bound Hexokinase for Cancer Therapy
    Curator and Author: Ziv Raviv, PhD, RN 04/06/2013
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/06/targeting-mitochondrial-bound-hexokinase-for-cancer-therapy/
  29. Ubiquinin-Proteosome pathway, autophagy, the mitochondrion, proteolysis and cell apoptosis
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/30/ubiquinin-proteosome-pathway-autophagy-the-mitochondrion-proteolysis-and-cell-apoptosis/
  30. Ubiquitin-Proteosome pathway, Autophagy, the Mitochondrion, Proteolysis and Cell Apoptosis: Part III
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/02/14/ubiquinin-proteosome-pathway-autophagy-the-mitochondrion-proteolysis-and-cell-apoptosis-reconsidered/
  31. Biochemistry of the Coagulation Cascade and Platelet Aggregation – Part I
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/biochemistry-of-the-coagulation-cascade-and-platelet-aggregation/

 

Genomics, Transcriptomics, and Epigenetics

  1. What is the meaning of so many RNAs?
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/06/what-is-the-meaning-of-so-many-rnas/
  2. RNA and the transcription the genetic code
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Writer and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/02/rna-and-the-transcription-of-the-genetic-code/
  3. A Primer on DNA and DNA Replication
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/29/a_primer_on_dna_and_dna_replication/
  4. Pathology Emergence in the 21st Century
    Author and Curator: Larry Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/03/pathology-emergence-in-the-21st-century/
  5. RNA and the transcription the genetic code
    Writer and Curator, Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/02/rna-and-the-transcription-of-the-genetic-code/
  6. Commentary on Biomarkers for Genetics and Genomics of Cardiovascular Disease: Views by Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/16/commentary-on-biomarkers-for-genetics-and-genomics-of-cardiovascular-disease-views-by-larry-h-bernstein-md-fcap/
  7. Observations on Finding the Genetic Links in Common Disease: Whole Genomic Sequencing Studies
    Author an Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/18/observations-on-finding-the-genetic-links/
  8. Silencing Cancers with Synthetic siRNAs
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/09/silencing-cancers-with-synthetic-sirnas/
  9. Cardiometabolic Syndrome and the Genetics of Hypertension: The Neuroendocrine Transcriptome Control Points
    Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/12/cardiometabolic-syndrome-and-the-genetics-of-hypertension-the-neuroendocrine-transcriptome-control-points/
  10. Developments in the Genomics and Proteomics of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Treatment Targets
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/08/developments-in-the-genomics-and-proteomics-of-type-2-diabetes-mellitus-and-treatment-targets/
  11. CT Angiography & TrueVision™ Metabolomics (Genomic Phenotyping) for new Therapeutic Targets to Atherosclerosis
    Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/15/ct-angiography-truevision-metabolomics-genomic-phenotyping-for-new-therapeutic-targets-to-atherosclerosis/
  12. CRACKING THE CODE OF HUMAN LIFE: The Birth of BioInformatics & Computational Genomics
    Genomics Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/30/cracking-the-code-of-human-life-the-birth-of-bioinformatics-computational-genomics/
  13. Big Data in Genomic Medicine
    Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/17/big-data-in-genomic-medicine/
  14.  From Genomics of Microorganisms to Translational Medicine
    Author and Curator: Demet Sag, PhD
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/03/20/without-the-past-no-future-but-learn-and-move-genomics-of-microorganisms-to-translational-medicine/
  15.  Summary of Genomics and Medicine: Role in Cardiovascular Diseases
    Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/01/06/summary-of-genomics-and-medicine-role-in-cardiovascular-diseases/

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Cell Research News – What’s to Follow?

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter

Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/26/larryhbern/Cell_Research_News_-_What’s_to_Follow?

 

Stem Cell Research ‘Holy Grail’ Uncovered, Thanks to Zebrafish

By Estel Grace Masangkay

With help from the zebrafish, a team of Australian researchers has uncovered how
hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) renew themselves.

HSCs refers to stem cells present in the blood and bone marrow that are used 
for  the replenishment of the body’s supply of blood and immune cells – 

  • in transplants for leukemia and myeloma.
  • Stem cells have the potential to transform into vital cells

    including muscle, bone, and blood vessels.

Understanding how HSCs form and renew themselves has potential application in the
treatment of

  • spinal cord injuries
  • degenerative disorders
  • diabetes.

Professor Peter Currie, of the Australian Regen Med Institute at Victoria’s Monash
University, led a research team to discover a crucial part of HSC’s development. Using 
a high-resolution microscopy, Prof. Curie’s team 

  • caught zebrafish embyonic SCs on film as they formed. 
  • the researchers were studying muscle mutations in the aquatic animal.

“Zebrafish make ESCs in exactly the same way as humans do, but their embryos and
larvae develop free living, but the larvae are both free swimming and transparent, so one could see every cell in the body forming, including ESCs,” explained Prof. Currie.

The researchers noticed in films that a

  •  ‘buddy cell’ came along to help the ESCs form.

Called endotome cells, 

  • they aided pre-ESCs to turn into ESCs.  

Prof. Currie said that endotome cells act as helper cells for pre-ESCs , 

  • helping them progress to become fully fledged stem cells.

The team not only

  • identified some of the cells and signals 
  • required for ESC formation, but also 
  • pinpointed the genes required 
  • for endotome formation in the first place.

The next step for the researchers is to 

  • locate the signals present in the endotome cells 
  • that trigger ESC formation in the embryo. 

This may provide clues for developing

  • specific blood cells on demand for blood-related disorders. 

Professor Currie also pointed out the discovery’s potential for 

  • correcting genetic defects in the cell and 
  • transplanting them back in the body to treat disorders.

The team’s work was published in the international journal Nature.

 

Jell-O Like Biomaterial Could Hold Key to Cancer Cell Destruction

by Estel Grace Masangkay

Scientists from Penn State University reported that a biomaterial made of tiny 
molecules was able to attract and destroy cancer cells.

Professor Yong Wang and bioengineering faculty at Penn State, built the 
tissue-like biomaterial to accomplish what chemotherapy could not –

  • kill every cancer cell without leaving
  • the possibility of a recurrence.

Prof. Wang and team built polymers 

  • from tiny molecules called monomers. They
  • then wove the polymers into 3D networks 

called hydrogels. Hydrogel is soft and flexible, 
like Jell-O, and it contains a lot of water, and

  • can be safely put into the body, unlike 

other implants that the body often tries 

  • to get rid of through the immune response.

“We want to make sure the materials we are using are compatible in the body.”

The researchers 

  • attached aptamers to the hydrogels, 
  • which release bio-chemical signal-only molecules 
  • that draw in cancer cells. 

Once attracted, the cancer cells are entrapped in the Jell-O-like substance. 

What happens next is 

  • an oligonucleotide binds to the protein-binding site of the aptamer 
  • and triggers the release of anticancer drugs at the proper time.

“Once we trap the cancer cells, we can deliver anticancer drugs 

  • to that specific location to kill them. 

This technique would help avoid the need for systemic medications that kill not only cancer cells, but normal cells as well. Systemic chemotherapy drugs

  • make patients devastatingly sick and possibly 
  • leave behind cancer cells to wreak havoc another day

If our new technique has any side effects at all, it would be only local side 
effects and not whole-body systemic side effects,” explained Prof. Wang.

The initial results of the research were published by Prof. Wang in the 
Journal of the American Chemical Society in 2012. Prof. Wang also shared 
the latest results of his work at the Society for Biomaterials Meeting &
 Exposition in April this year.

 

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