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Outstanding Achievement in Pathology

Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

 

Olympus America Honors Outstanding Pathologists During First Annual “Unsung Heroes” Awards

Melville, Ny—Tracey Corey Handy, M.D., Chief Medical Examiner of Kentucky, and Matthew Zarka, M.D., affiliated with the University of Vermont and the Fletcher Allen Health Center, were recognized as the 1999 winners of the “Unsung Heroes” Awards. The awards, sponsored by Olympus America Inc., a world leading manufacturer of microscopes, in cooperation with the College of American Pathologists (CAP), were presented at a ceremony during the Fall CAP Conference in New Orleans.

The awards are the first in the on-going “Unsung Heroes” program sponsored by Olympus for the purpose of increasing public awareness of the vital and often invisible role pathologists have in saving lives. In addition to their expertise with a microscope, pathologists are the doctors who ensure that clinical laboratory testing is reliable and that diseases are accurately diagnosed. They are on the front lines whenever the public is threatened with disease. Their role in forensic science is crucial in helping prevent people from falling prey to abuse or avoidable illness. As Dan Biondi, Olympus Senior Vice President, points out, “Olympus is committed to supporting the work of the world’s pathologists and to advocating an educated patient population.”

Dr. Tracey Corey Handy is recognized as an “Unsung Hero” for her role in upgrading the well-being of children as Kentucky’s Chief Medical Examiner. Along with several colleagues, Dr. Handy founded the state’s “Living Forensics” team in 1991. Since its inception, the team has consulted on more than 700 cases of suspected child abuse. This effort has led to an increased conviction rate of abuse perpetrators and helps to reduce further cases of child abuse. In addition, Dr. Handy has initiated a program of routine screening for metabolic defects apparent in victims of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS), which has resulted in the correct diagnosis of conditions that would have otherwise been attributed to SIDS. Dr. Handy has also chaired the state’s first child mortality review group that has resulted in the initiation of prevention programs, particularly in the event of accidental child death. A frequent speaker and contributor of her expertise to organizations throughout the country, she also teaches forensic pathology and has been published in more than a dozen peer-reviewed journals and books.

Dr. Matthew Zarka is recognized as an “Unsung Hero” for his efforts in aiding the extremely poor Mexican-Indian population in the remote mountain regions of Oaxaca, Mexico. Over the last two years Dr. Zarka has volunteered his time and services to bring much needed medical care to these impoverished communities. He and his OB/GYN team have been setting up the very first clinics throughout the area, enjoining the coffee companies of Mexico to spread word of the clinics to the local population and to help transport patients to the clinics. After each female patient underwent a gynecological examination, Dr. Zarka stained and read her Pap test. When needed, more extensive evaluations, biopsies, treatment and counsel were provided. Overwhelmingly successful, Dr. Zarka’s outreaching medical mission has grown to include additional professional staff. By volunteering his time and expertise, Dr. Zarka provides the only real access most people of the region have to modern medical care. His contribution has undoubtedly saved lives that might otherwise have been lost.

Stanford University

Benjamin Pinsky, MD, PhD, Assistant Professor of Pathology and Medicine (Infectious Diseases) is the recipient of the 2014 Siemens Healhcare Diagnostics Young Investigator Award.  This award “honors outstanding laboratory research in clinical microbiology or antimicrobial agents and is intended to further the career development of a young clinical scientist and promote awareness of clinical microbiology as a career.”

Stephen J. Galli, MD, Chair of Pathology, Professor of Pathology and Microbiology and Immunology, and the Mary Hewitt Loveless, MD Professor, is the recipient of the 2014 ASIP (American Society of Investigative Pathology) Rouse Whipple Award.  This award is presented to a senior scientist with a distinguished career in research who has advanced the understanding of disease and has continued productivity at the time of this award.

Dr. Raffick Bowen, Clinical Associate Professor and Associate Medical Director of SHC’s Clinical Chemistry and Immunology Laboratory is the recipient of the American Association of Clinical Chemistry’s Outstanding Speaker Award for 2013. This award recognizes his achievement in earning a speaker evaluation rating of 4.5 or higher during a 2013 continuing education activity accredited by AACC. The title of Dr. Bowen’s presentation is “Implementation of Autoverification in a Clinical Chemistry Laboratory: Theory to Practice”

Richard Kempson, MD,

Emeritus Professor of Pathology, is the recipient of the 2014 United States and Canadian Academy of Pathology (USCAP) President’s Award. The USCAP President’s Award is given annually to recognize an individual for outstanding service to the field of pathology.

Dr. Kempson is richly deserving of this award. Dr. Kempson has not only contributed substantially to the surgical pathology literature, particularly in gynecologic and soft tissue pathology but also, with Dr. Ronald Dorfman, he trained a substantial percentage of this and the next generation’s academic and community leaders in surgical pathology.

Dr. Kempson’s affiliation with Stanford University began in 1968 when he and Dr. Ronald Dorfman were recruited to Stanford to develop a program in surgical pathology. In short order, they established an internationally recognized residency and clinical fellowship program which went on to train more than 275 pathologists in the art and science of diagnostic surgical pathology. Dr. Kempson developed a distinctive teaching style that emphasized precise diagnostic criteria, approaching diagnosis with a broad morphologic differential diagnosis, and most importantly, always highlighting the relevance to patient management of the morphologic distinctions being made.

Prior to his recruitment to Stanford, Dr. Kempson was an Assistant Professor of Pathology and Surgical Pathology at Washington University. Dr. Kempson served as an Associate Professor of Pathology at Stanford from 1968 to 1974 and a Professor of Pathology from 1974 to 2001. In addition to his academic duties, he served as Co-Director of Surgical Pathology from 1968 until 2001. He also has served as President of the Association of Directors of Surgical Pathology (1993-1995), the United States and Canadian Academy of Pathology (1996) and the Arthur Purdy Stout Society (1996) and the California Society of Pathologists. The Richard Kempson, MD, Professorship in Surgical Pathology was established by the Department of Pathology in 2002 to honor him and his remarkable contributions to surgical pathology.

University of California, San Diego

A new era in diagnostics has emerged within the concept of Personalized Medicine. Imagine selecting cancer chemotherapy drugs based on knowledge of the precise mutations in a cancer. Can we predict who may have an adverse response to a medication based on that individual’s genetic blueprint? At UCSD, we are dedicated to making these resources available to our patients in the very near future. This is why we recently established the Pathology Center for Personalized Medicine. The goal of the Center is to conduct leading research necessary to form the foundation for advanced personalized medicine diagnostic testing and then to make this testing available in the CALM. For more information on the Center for Personalized Medicine, click here.

The research enterprise in Pathology at UCSD has grown dramatically in the past five years, and we are now amongst the top 15 programs in the country. Basic and translational research laboratories in the UCSD Pathology Department tackle important problems concerning cancer development and progression, angiogenesis, stem cell biology, neurodegenerative diseases, peripheral neuropathy, inflammation, infectious diseases, and wound healing. Our laboratories provide excellent environments for learning cell biology, molecular genetics, biochemistry, and animal physiology. Our faculty includes many active participants in the Biomedical Sciences (BMS) Graduate Program. For more information on this program, click here. We also have excellent opportunities for postdoctoral researchers. Please click here to visit our web page on summarizing the Pathology Department research enterprise. Then visit individual web pages for each of our faculty member to view specific research interests.

The Department of Pathology is home to both an outstanding Comparative Pathology and Medicine Program (for more information, click here) and the UCSD Research Ethics Program. We provide major educational support to the School of Medicine and the Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. For further information on these training opportunities, click here.

The La Jolla/San Diego community is a fertile environment for research and the pharmaceutical industry. The Sanford Burnham Medical Research Institute, the Scripps Research Institute, the Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, and the La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology house exciting scientific programs and provide for numerous scientific collaborations. We also boast a plethora of biotechnology companies, located nearby on the La Jolla mesa.

The overall theme and focus of the Department of Pathology is to elucidate the molecular basis and pathology of human disease.  The faculty is comprised of basic, translational and physician scientists that utilize the latest techniques in genomics, proteomics, cell biology, molecular biology and physiology to develop new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for a wide range of diseases, including cancer, neurological disease, microbial infection, and inflammatory disease.

Steven L. Gonias, M.D., Ph.D.

Our laboratory is interested in identifying and characterizing novel pathways by which proteases and their cell-surface receptors regulate cell physiology. We are particularly interested in the function of proteases in cancer but also have active projects related to peripheral nerve injury, Alzheimer’s disease and cardiovascular biology. One focus involves urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA), a serine protease and plasminogen activator that binds with high affinity to a GPI-anchored receptor called uPAR. This event activates multiple cell-signaling pathways that affect cell migration, survival, and phenotype. We are actively working to elucidate mechanisms by which uPAR-initiated cell-signaling promotes cancer metastasis. We are particularly interested in breast cancer, but also work on prostate cancer and cancers of the central nervous system.

The complex of uPA with its inhibitor, PAI-1, is a ligand for a receptor called LRP-1. LRP-1 also is the receptor for other ligands, including extracellular matrix proteins, growth factors and foreign toxins. Our laboratory elucidated a pathway in which LRP-1 regulates cell-signaling indirectly, by regulating the cell-surface level of uPAR. However, recent studies suggest that LRP-1 also directly regulates cell-signaling by binding adaptor proteins, such as Shc and JIP. By this mechanism, LRP-1 regulates cell survival and gene transcription. Our current re­search is aimed at determining the role of LRP-1 in cancer and peripheral nerve injury, using in vitro and in vivomodel systems. Using proteomics approaches, we also are actively investigating the ability of LRP-1 to model the composition of the plasma membrane.

Our third area of focus concerns the plasma protease inhibitor, alpha2M. Our laboratory has demonstrated that this protein functions as a conformation-dependent carrier of growth factors. Alpha2M may also function in cell-signaling by binding to LRP-1. By site-directed mutagenesis, we have iso­lated and individually modified various functional sites in this multifunc­tional protein.

David Bailey, MD, PhD

David N. Bailey received his Bachelor of Science degree in Chemistry “with high distinction” from Indiana University and his Doctor of Medicine degree from Yale University.  He completed a National Institutes of Health postdoctoral fellowship in Laboratory Medicine and a residency in Clinical Pathology, both at Yale, serving as Chief Resident in his final year.  He is certified in Clinical Pathology and Chemical Pathology by the American Board of Pathology.

Dr. Bailey joined the University of California (UC) San Diego faculty in 1977 and served as Director of the Toxicology Laboratory of UC San Diego Medical Center (1977-2007), Head of the Division of Laboratory Medicine (1983-1989, 1994-1998), Acting Chair (1986-1988) and permanent Chair of the Department of Pathology (1988-2001),  Director of the Pathology Residency Program (1986-1999), Director of Clinical Laboratories of UCSD Medical Center (1982-1999), Interim Vice Chancellor for Health Sciences and Dean of the UC San Diego School of Medicine (1999-2000 and 2006-2007), Deputy Vice Chancellor for Health Sciences (2001-2007), and Dean for Faculty & Student Matters in UC San Diego School of Medicine (2003-2007).  From 2007 to 2009, he was Vice Chancellor for Health Affairs, Dean of the School of Medicine, and Professor of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine at the University of California, Irvine.

Dr. Bailey was recognized by the Institute of Scientific Information as one of the world’s ten most cited authors in forensic sciences (1981-93). He received the Gerald T. Evans Award from the Academy of Clinical Laboratory Physicians and Scientists in 1993 for his leadership and service to the Academy.  Dr. Bailey has served as President of the California Association of Toxicologists (1981-1982), President of the Academy of Clinical Laboratory Physicians and Scientists (1988-89), and Secretary-Treasurer of the Association of Pathology Chairs (1996-99).  He has also served on the Chemical Pathology Test Development and Advisory Committee of the American Board of Pathology; the Editorial Boards of Clinical Chemistry, the Journal of Analytical Toxicology, and the American Journal of Clinical Pathology; the Doris A. Howell Foundation for Women’s Health Research Board of Directors; the Board of Directors of the George G. Glenner Alzheimer’s Family Centers, Inc.; the Board of Directors of the Children’s Hospital of Orange County; the Board of Directors of Children’s Healthcare of California; the Board of Directors of the Rady Children’s Hospital of San Diego; the Board of Directors of the Veterans Medical Research Foundation (San Diego); and the Executive Committee and Governing Board of the California Institute of Telecommunications and Information Technology, among others.

David A. Herold, M.D., Ph.D.

My laboratory research interests are in the area of mass spectrometry application to clinical diagnostics. This includes prostaglandins, trace metal and steroids. Additionally, we has been involved in the development and validation of “classical” clinical chemistry diagnostic tests. The application of the mass spectrometry to determine the validity of endocrine tests, in particular testosterone, has been of particular interest. We have been using GC-MS, LC-MS, and MS-MS techniques for these investigations. At the present time, we are involved with the use of Accelerator Mass Spectrometry for the determination of calcium flux in serum and urine using 41Ca as a marker. The purpose of these studies is to better understand bone remodeling in normal and diseased patients. We have also investigated the use of microfluidics for the application to clinical diagnostics to measure selected proteins in a rapid and accurate manner.

 

David Cheresh, Ph.D.

Tumor growth, invasion, stem cells and drug resistance. Molecular regulation of tumor growth and angiogenesis. Drug development targeting molecular pathways involved in tumor growth metastasis and angiogenesis.

The Cheresh laboratory focuses on the discovery of molecular pathways involved in the progression of cancer. Cheresh’s earlier work identified integrin αυβ3 as a biomarker of tumor angiogenesis and tumor progression, and was involved in the discovery of a drug called cilentigide which targets integrins αυβ3 and αυβ5.

The Cheresh laboratory has identified a series of critical microRNAs that regulate the growth of blood vessels.  These microRNAs control the angiogenic switch that occurs during the earliest stages of tumor growth and neovascularization in the retina.  As such one of these microRNAs may have therapeutic application as it is capable of maintaining blood vessels in the quiescent state.

Cheresh and colleagues have identified integrin αυβ3 as a biomarker of tumor stem cells during intrinsic or acquired resistance of a wide range of tumors including: cancer of the lung, pancreas, breast, and colon.   Cheresh and his lab discovered that αυβ3 expression is both necessary and sufficient to account for tumor stemness and drug resistance based on its ability to drive a molecular pathway regulating these processes.  This has led to the development of new therapeutic strategies to resensitize patients to drugs such as erlotinib and lapatinib that target EGFR.

The Cheresh laboratory has identified RAF kinase as an important target involved in tumor growth and angiogenesis.  They have developed a new drug design strategy to target RAF and other relevant kinases by designing allosteric inhibitors of these targets.  This is based on the use of defined chemical scaffolds to dock into an allosteric pocket on these kinases to render them inactive.  The combined use of in silico and biological screening has yielded drugs with nM anti-tumor activity that produce strong anti-tumor growth in mouse models following once a day oral dosing.   This approach appears to yield drugs that target tumors that are resistant to ATP mimetic inhibitors of RAF, Kit or PDGFR

John Lowe

Senior Director, Pathology

I joined Genentech in 2008 as Senior Director of Pathology, after having spent more than 18 years as an HHMI Investigator at the University of Michigan and then 3 years as Chair of Pathology at Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine. The role of Senior Director of Pathology in Research at Genentech offered attractive opportunities to do research in an outstanding, disease-focused scientific environment, while also helping to lead the scientific and research support activities of the Pathology department. These latter efforts help Genentech continue to make a major positive difference to the health and well being of a large number of patients afflicted with cancer, autoimmune syndromes, neurodegenerative diseases and other illnesses for which therapies are unsatisfactory or nonexistent.

An exceptional team of pathologists, laboratory managers, scientific associates and administrative staff in the department collaborate with me in these efforts. Additional outstanding pathologists, scientists, and managers continue to be recruited to assist us in ensuring that the department performs at the highest level. Our task is made more straightforward by the environment at Genentech, which is characterized by exceptionally bright, motivated and collaborative colleagues at every level, spectacular facilities, and workplace philosophies that are conducive to the highest levels of achievement.

Postdoctoral Mentor

The opportunity to mentor postdoctoral fellows at Genentech has been a stimulating and gratifying experience for me. This derives in part from the freedom afforded by the program to pursue research directions that are deemed to be important and interesting, even if these have no immediate therapeutic relevance. The special mentoring experience also derives from extraordinary breadth and quality of the core laboratories at Genentech, and the spectacular intellectual environment. Together, these circumstances provide an unparalleled opportunity for postdoctoral fellows, and their mentors, to engage in biomedical discovery of the highest caliber.

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Biomarkers and risk factors for cardiovascular events, endothelial dysfunction, and thromboembolic complications

Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

 

 

Acute Coronary Syndrome

Predictive Cardiovascular and Circulation Biomarkers

Biomarkers are chemistry analytes measured in plasma, serum or whole blood that potentially identify injury or risk for injury.  They may be measured in the laboratory or at the bedside (point of care technology).  They may be measured as an enzyme (CK isoenzyme MB), a protein (troponins I & T), or as a micro RNA (miRNA).  In the last decade the discovery and use of cardiac biomarkers has moved toward very small quantities, even 100 times below the picogram range using Quanterix Simoa, compared with an enzyme immunoassay.

The time of sampling was based on time to appearance from time of damage, and the release of the biomarker is a stochastic process. The earliest studies of CK-MB appearance, peak height, and disappearance was by Burton Sobel and associates related to measuring the extent of damage, and determined that reperfusion had an effect.

There has been a nonlinear introduction of new biomarkers in that period, with an explosion of methods discovery and large studies to validate them in concert with clinical trials. The improvement of interventional methods, imaging methods, and the unraveling of patient characteristics associated with emerging cardiovascular disease is both cause for alarm (technology costs) and for raised expectations for both prevention, risk reduction, and treatment. What is strikingly missing is the kind of data analyses on the population database that could alleviate the burden of physician overload. It is an urgent requirement for the EHR, and it needs to be put in place to facilitate patient care.

 

Biomarkers: Diagnosis and Management, Present and Future

Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
Biomarkers of Cardiovascular Disease : Molecular Basis and Practical Considerations.
RS Vasan .
Circulation. 2006;113:2335-2362. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.104.482570
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/10/biomarkers-diagnosis-and-management/

sCD40L indicates soluble CD40 ligand; Fbg, fibrinogen; FFA, free fatty acid; ICAM, intercellular adhesion molecule; IL, interleukin; IMA, ischemia modified albumin; MMP, matrix metalloproteinases; MPO, myeloperoxidase; Myg, myoglobin; NT-proBNP, N-terminal proBNP; Ox-LDL, oxidized low-density lipoprotein; PAI-1, plasminogen activator inhibitor; PAPP-A, pregnancy-associated plasma protein-A; PlGF, placental growth factor; TF, tissue factor; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; TNI, troponin I; TNT, troponin T; VCAM, vascular cell adhesion molecule; and VWF, von Willebrand factor.

 

Accurate Identification and Treatment of Emergent Cardiac Events  

Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/15/accurate-identification-and-treatment-of-emergent-cardiac-events/

The main issue that we have a consensus agreement that PLAQUE RUPTURE is not the only basis for a cardiac ischemic event. The introduction of  high sensitivity troponin tests has made it no less difficult after throwing out the receiver-operator characteristic curve (ROC) and assuming that any amount of cardiac troponin released from the heart is pathognomonic of an acute ischemic event.  This has resulted in a consensus agreement that

  • ctn measurement at a coefficient of variant (CV) measurement in excess of 2 Std dev of the upper limit of normal is a “red flag” signaling AMI? or other cardiomyopathic disorder

This is the catch.  The ROC curve established AMI in ctn(s) that were accurate for NSTEMI – (and probably not needed with STEMI or new Q-wave, not previously seen) –

  1. ST-depression
  2. T-wave inversion
  3. in the presence of other findings
  • suspicious for AMI

Wouldn’t it be nice if it was like seeing a robin on your lawn after a harsh winter?  Life isn’t like that.  When acute illness hits the patient may well present with ambiguous findings.   We are accustomed to relying on

  • clinical history
  • family history
  • co-morbidities, eg., diabetes, obesity, limited activity?, diet?
  • stroke and/or peripheral vascular disease
  • hypertension and/or renal vascular disease
  • aortic atherosclerosis or valvular heart disease

these are evidence, and they make up syndromic classes

  • Electrocardiogram – 12 lead EKG (as above)
  • Laboratory tests
  • isoenzyme MB of creatine kinase (CK)… which declines after 12-18 hours
  • isoenzyme-1 of LD if the time of appearance is > day-1 after initial symptoms (no longer used)
  1. cardiac troponin cTnI or cTnT
  • genome testing
  • advanced analysis of EKG

This may result in more consults for cardiologists, but it lays the ground for better evaluation of the patient, in the long run.

Perspectives on the Value of Biomarkers in Acute Cardiac Care and Implications for Strategic Management
Antoine Kossaify, … STAR-P Consortium
Biomarker Insights 2013:8 115–126.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.4137/BMI.S12703

In addition to the conventional use of natriuretic peptides, cardiac troponin, and C-reactive protein, other biomarkers are outlined in variable critical conditions that may be related to acute cardiac illness. These include ST2 and chromogranin A in acute dyspnea and acute heart failure, matrix metalloproteinase in acute chest pain, heart-type fatty acid binding protein in acute coronary syndrome, CD40 ligand and interleukin-6 in acute myocardial infarction, blood ammonia and lactate in cardiac arrest, as well as tumor necrosis factor-alpha in atrial fibrillation. Endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress and inflammation are involved in the physiopathology of most cardiac diseases, whether acute or chronic. In summary, natriuretic peptides, cardiac troponin, C-reactive protein are currently the most relevant biomarkers in acute cardiac care.

 Inverse Association between Cardiac Troponin-I and Soluble Receptor for Advanced Glycation End Products in Patients with Non-ST-Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction

ED. McNair, CR. Wells, A.M. Qureshi, C Pearce, G Caspar-Bell, and K Prasad
Int J Angiol 2011;20:49–54
http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0031-1272552

Interaction of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) with the receptor for advanced AGEs (RAGE) results in activation of nuclear factor kappa-B, release of cytokines, expression of adhesion molecules, and induction of oxidative stress. Oxygen radicals are involved in plaque rupture contributing to thromboembolism, resulting in acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Thromboembolism and the direct effect of oxygen radicals on myocardial cells cause cardiac damage that results in the release of cardiac troponin-I (cTnI) and other biochemical markers. The soluble RAGE (sRAGE) compete with RAGE for binding with AGE, thus functioning as a decoy and exerting a cytoprotective effect. Low levels of serum sRAGE would allow unopposed serum AGE availability for binding with RAGE, resulting in the generation of oxygen radicals and proinflammatory molecules that have deleterious consequences and promote myocardial damage. sRAGE may stabilize atherosclerotic plaques. It is hypothesized that low levels of sRAGE are associated with high levels of serum cTnI in patients with ACS.
The levels of cTnI were higher in NSTEMI patients (2.180.33 mg/mL) as compared with control subjects (0.0120.001 mg/mL). Serum sRAGE levels were negatively correlated with the levels of cTnI. In conclusion, the data suggest that low levels of serum sRAGE are associated with high serum levels of cTnI and that there is a negative correlation between sRAGE and cTnI.

Correlation of soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products (sRAGE) with cardiac troponin-I

Correlation of soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products (sRAGE) with cardiac troponin-I

 

Figure 1 Serum levels of soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products (sRAGE) in control subjects and in patients with non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI). Results are expressed as meanstandard error. *p<0.05, control versus NSTEMI.

 

Serum levels of soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products

Serum levels of soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products

Figure 3 Correlation of soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products (sRAGE) with cardiac troponin-I (cTnI) in patients with non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction.

 

Heart Failure Complicating Non–ST-Segment Elevation Acute Coronary Syndrome

MC Bahit, RD. Lopes, RM. Clare, et al.
JACC: HtFail 2013; 1(3):223–9 .
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jchf.2013.02.007

This study sought to describe the occurrence and timing of heart failure (HF), associated clinical factors, and 30-day outcomes in patients with non–ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes (NSTE-ACS). Of 46,519 NSTE-ACS patients, 4,910 (10.6%) had HF at presentation. Of the 41,609 with no HF at presentation, 1,194 (2.9%) developed HF during hospitalization. A total of 40,415 (86.9%) had no HF at any time. Patients presenting with or developing HF during hospitalization were older, more often female, and had a higher risk of death at 30 days than patients without HF (adjusted odds ratio [OR]: 1.74; 95% confidence interval: 1.35 to 2.26). Older age, higher presenting heart rate, diabetes, prior myocardial infarction (MI), and enrolling MI were significantly associated with HF during hospitalization.

Other risk factors

Additive influence of genetic predisposition and conventional risk factors in the incidence of coronary heart disease: a population-based study in Greece
N Yiannakouris, M Katsoulis, A Trichopoulou, JM Ordovas, DTrichopoulos
BMJ Open 2014;4:e004387.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1136/bmjopen-2013-004387

Genetic predisposition to CHD, operationalised through a multilocus GRS, and ConvRFs have essentially additive effects on CHD risk.

PTX3, A Prototypical Long Pentraxin, Is an Early Indicator of Acute Myocardial Infarction

G Peri, M Introna, D Corradi, G Iacuitti, S Signorini, et al.
Circulation. 2000;102:636-641
http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/102/6/636
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1161/01.CIR.102.6.636

PTX3 is a long pentraxin whose expression is induced by cytokines in endothelial cells, mononuclear phagocytes, and myocardium. PTX3 is present in the intact myocardium, increases in the blood of patients with AMI, and disappears from damaged myocytes. We suggest that PTX3 is an early indicator of myocyte irreversible injury in ischemic cardiomyopathy.

Early release of glycogen phosphorylase inpatients with unstable angina and transient ST-T alterations

J Mair, B Puschendorf, J Smidt, P Lechleitner, F Dienstl, et al.
BrHeartJ 1994;72:125-127.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7917682

Glycogen phosphorylase BB (molecular weight 96000 kDa as a monomer) is the predominant isotype in human myocardium where it occurs alongside the MM subtype. The release of glycogen phosphorylase from injured myocardium may reflect the burst in glycogenolysis initiated during acute myocardial ischaemia. This is supported by a rapid increase in serum concentrations of glycogen phosphorylase BB in patients with acute myocardial infarction before concentrations of creatine kinase, creatine kinase MB, myoglobin, and cardiac troponin T increase. Unstable angina, however, ranges from no myocardial cell damage to non-Q wave myocardial infarction.
All variables except for creatine kinase and creatine kinase MB activities were significantly higher on admission in patients with unstable angina and transient ST-T alterations than in patients without. However, glycogen phosphorylase BB concentration was the only marker that was significantly (p = 0-0001) increased above its discriminator value in most patients.

Endothelium and Vascular

Endothelial Dysfunction: An Early Cardiovascular Risk Marker in Asymptomatic Obese Individuals with Prediabetes
AK. Gupta, E Ravussin, DL. Johannsen, AJ. Stull, WT. Cefalu and WD. Johnson
Br J Med Med Res 2012; 2(3): 413-423.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22905340

Adults with desirable weight [n=12] and overweight [n=8] state, had normal fasting plasma glucose [Mean(SD)]: FPG [91.1(4.5), 94.8(5.8) mg/dL], insulin [INS, 2.3(4.4), 3.1(4.8) μU/ml], insulin sensitivity by homeostasis model assessment [HOMA-IR, 0.62(1.2), 0.80(1.2)] and desirable resting clinic blood pressure [SBP/DBP, 118(12)/74(5), 118(13)/76(8) mmHg]. Obese adults [n=22] had prediabetes [FPG, 106.5(3.5) mg/dL], hyperinsulinemia [INS 18.0(5.2) μU/ml], insulin resistance [HOMA-IR 4.59(2.3)], prehypertension [PreHTN; SBP/DBP 127(13)/81(7) mmHg] and endothelial dysfunction [ED; reduced RHI 1.7(0.3) vs. 2.4(0.3); all p<0.05]. Age-adjusted RHI correlated with BMI [r=-0.53; p<0.001]; however, BMI-adjusted RHI was not correlated with age [r=-0.01; p=0.89].

Association of digital vascular function with cardiovascular risk factors: a population study.
T Kuznetsova, E Van Vlierberghe, J Knez, G Szczesny, L Thijs, et al.
BMJ Open 2014; 4:e004399.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1136/bmjopen-2013-004399

Our study is the first to implement the new photoplethysmography (PPG) technique to measure digital pulse amplitude hyperemic in a sample of a general population. The correlates of hyperaemic response were as expected and constitute an internal validation of the PPG technique in assessment of digital vascular function.

Thrombotic/Embolic Events

Risk marker associations with venous thrombotic events: a cross-sectional analysis 
BA Golomb, VT Chan, JO Denenberg, S Koperski,  & MH Criqui.
BMJ Open 2014;4:e003208.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1136/bmjopen-2013-003208

To examine the interrelations among, and risk marker associations for, superficial and deep venous events—superficial venous thrombosis (SVT), deep venous thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE). Significant correlates on multivariable analysis were, for SVT: female sex, ethnicity (African-American=protective), lower educational attainment, immobility and family history of varicose veins. For DVT and DVE, significant correlates included: heavy smoking, immobility and family history of DVEs (borderline for DVE). For PE, significant predictors included immobility and, in contrast to DVT, blood pressure (BP, systolic or diastolic). In women, estrogen use duration for hormone replacement therapy, in all and among estrogen users, predicted PE and DVE, respectively.

Endothelium and hemorheology
T Gori, S Dragoni, G Di Stolfo and S Forconi
Ann Ist Super Sanità 2007 | Vol. 43, No. 2: 124-129
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22951621

The mechanisms underlying the regulation of its function are extremely complex, and are principally determined by physical forces imposed on the endothelium by the flowing blood. In the present paper, we describe the interactions between the rheological properties of blood and the vascular endothelium.The role of shear stress, viscosity, cell-cell interactions, as well as the molecular mechanisms that are important for the transduction of these signals are discussed both in physiology and in pathology, with a particular attention to the role of reactive oxygen species. In the final conclusions, we propose an hypothesis regarding the implications of changes in blood viscosity, and particularly on the significance of secondary hyperviscosity syndromes..

Fig. 1 | Endothelial “function” (i.e.,the production of protective autacoids by the vascular endothelium) and “dysfunction” (i.e., the involvement of the endothelium in vascular pathology). EDHF: En d o t h e l i um-De r i v e d Hyperpolarizing Factor; LDL:Low-Density Lipoprotein

Fig. 2 | Endothelial production of nitric oxide (NO) is stimulated by oscillatory shear stress, transmitted by the endothelial surface layer to the endothelial cells. NO: Nitric Oxide; NOS: Nitrous Oxide Systems; ESL: Endothelial Surface Layer

 

 

 

 

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A Future for Plasma Metabolomics in Cardiovascular Disease Assessment

Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

 

 

Plasma metabolomics reveals a potential panel of biomarkers for early diagnosis
in acute coronary syndrome  

CM. Laborde, L Mourino-Alvarez, M Posada-Ayala,
G Alvarez-Llamas, MG Serranillos-Reus, et al.
Metabolomics – manuscript draft

In this study, analyses of peripheral plasma from Non-ST Segment Elevation
Acute Coronary Syndrome patients and healthy controls by gas chromatography-
mass spectrometry permitted the identification of 15 metabolites with statistical
differences (p<0.05) between experimental groups.
In our study, 6 amino acids were found decreased in NSTEACS patients when
compared with healthy control group suggesting either a decrease in anabolic
activity of these metabolites or an increase in the catabolic pathways. Of both
possibilities, the increased catabolism of the amino acids can be explained
considering simultaneously the capacity of glycogenic and ketogenic amino
acids along with the gradual hypoxic condition to which cardiac muscle cells
have been exposed.

Additionally, validation by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and liquid
chromatography-mass spectrometry permitted us to identify a potential panel
of biomarkers formed by 5-OH tryptophan, 2-OH-butyric acid and 3-OH-butyric
acid. Oxidative stress conditions dramatically increase the rate of hepatic
synthesis of glutathione. It is synthesized from the amino acids cysteine, glutamic
acid and glycine. Under these conditions of metabolic stress, the supply of cysteine
for glutathione synthesis become limiting and homocysteine is used to form
cystathionine, which is cleaved to cysteine and 2-OH-butyric acid. Thus elevated
plasma levels of 2-OH-butyric acid can be a good biomarker of cellular oxidative
stress for the early diagnosis of ACS.  Another altered metabolite of similar
structure was 3-OH-butyric acid, a ketone body together with the acetoacetate,
and acetone. Elevated levels of ketone bodies in blood and urine mainly occur
in diabetic ketoacidosis. Type 1 diabetes mellitus (DMI) patients have decreased
levels of insulin in the blood that prevent glucose enter cells so these cells use
the catabolism of fats as energy source that produce ketones as final products.
This panel of biomarkers reflects the oxidative stress and the hypoxic state that
disrupts the myocardial cells and consequently constitutes a metabolomic
signature that could be used for early diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome.
We hypothesize that the hypoxia situation comes to “mimic” the physiological
situation that occurs in DMI. In this case, the low energy yield of glucose
metabolism “forces” these cells to use fat as energy source (through catabolism
independent of aerobic/anaerobic conditions) occurring ketones as final
products. In our experiment, the 3-OH-butyric acid was strongly elevated in
NSTEACS patients.

 

Current Methods Used in the Protein Carbonyl Assay
Nicoleta Carmen Purdel, Denisa Margina and Mihaela Ilie.
Ann Res & Rev in Biol 2014; 4(12): 2015-2026.
http://www.sciencedomain.org/download.php?f=Purdel4122013ARRB8763-1

The attack of reactive oxygen species on proteins and theformation of
protein carbonyls were investigated only in the recent years. Taking into
account that protein carbonyls may play an important role in the early
diagnosis of pathologies associated with reactive oxygen species
overproduction, a robust and reliable method to quantify the protein
carbonyls in complex biological samples is also required. Oxidative
stress represents the aggression produced at the molecular level by
the imbalance between pro-oxidant and antioxidant agents, in favor of
pro-oxidants, with severe functional consequences in all organs and
tissues. An overproduction of ROS results in oxidative damages
especially to proteins (the main target of ROS), as well as in lipids,or
DNA. Glycation and oxidative stress are closely linked, and both
phenomena are referred to as ‘‘glycoxidation’’. All steps of glycoxidation
generate oxygen-free radical production, some of them being common
with lipidic peroxidation pathways.
The initial glycation reaction is followed by a cascade of chemical
reactions resulting in the formation of intermediate products (Schiff base,
Amadori and Maillard products) and finally to a variety of derivatives
named advanced glycation end products (AGEs). In hyperglycemic
environments and in natural aging, AGEs are generated in increased
concentrations; their levels can be evaluated in plasma due to the fact
that they are fluorescent compounds. Specific biomarkers of oxidative
stress are currently investigated in order to evaluate the oxidative status
of a biological system and/or its regenerative power. Generaly, malondi-
aldehyde, 4-hydroxy-nonenal (known together as thiobarbituric acid
reactive substances – TBARS), 2-propenal and F2-isoprostanes are
investigated as markers of lipid peroxidation, while the measurement
of protein thiols, as well as S-glutathionylated protein are assessed
as markers of oxidative damage of proteins. In most cases, the
oxidative damage of the DNA has 8-hydroxy-2l-deoxyguanosine
(8-OHdG) as a marker.  The oxidative degradation of proteins plays an
important role in the early diagnosis of pathologies associated with
ROS overproduction. Oxidative modification of the protein structure
may take a variety of forms, including the nitration of tyrosine residues,
carbonylation, oxidation of methionine, or thiol groups, etc.

The carbonylation of protein represents the introduction of carbonyl
groups (aldehyde or ketone) in the protein structure, through several
mechanisms: by direct oxidation of the residues of lysine, arginine,
proline and threonine residues from the protein chain, by interaction
with lipid peroxidation products with aldehyde groups (such as 4-
hydroxy-2-nonenal, malondialdehyde, 2-propenal), or by the
interaction with the compounds with the carbonyl groups resulting
from the degradation of the lipid or glycoxidation. All of these
molecular changes occur under oxidative stress conditions.
There is a pattern of carbonylation, meaning that only certain
proteins can undergo this process and protein structure determines
the preferential sites of carbonylation. The most investigated
carbonyl derivates are represented by gamma-glutamic
semialdehyde (GGS) generated from the degradation of arginine
residue and α-aminoadipic semialdehyde (AAS) derived from lysine.

A number of studies have shown that the generation of protein
carbonyl groups is associated with normal cellular phenomena like
apoptosis, and cell differentiation and is dependent on age, species
and habits (eg. smoking) or severe conditions’ exposure (as
starvation or stress). The formation and accumulation of protein
carbonyls is increased in various human diseases, including –
diabetes and cardiovascular disease.

Recently, Nystrom [7] suggested that the carbonylation process
is associated with the physiological and not to the chronological
age of the organism and the carbonylation may be one of the causes
of aging and cell senescence; therefore it can be used as the marker
of these processes. Jha and Rizvi, [15] proposed the quantification of
protein carbonyls in the erythrocyte membrane as a biomarker of aging

PanelomiX: A threshold-based algorithm to create panels of
biomarkers

X Robin, N Turck, A Hainard, N Tiberti, F Lisacek. 
T r a n s l a t i o n a l  P r o t e o m i c s   2 0 1 3; 1: 57–64.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trprot.2013.04.003

The computational toolbox we present here – PanelomiX – uses
the iterative combination of biomarkers and thresholds (ICBT) method.
This method combines biomarkers andclinical scores by selecting
thresholds that provide optimal classification performance. Tospeed
up the calculation for a large number of biomarkers, PanelomiX selects
a subset ofthresholds and parameters based on the random forest method.
The panels’ robustness and performance are analysed by cross-validation
(CV) and receiver operating characteristic(ROC) analysis.

Using 8 biomarkers, we compared this method against classic
combination procedures inthe determination of outcome for 113 patients
with an aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. The panel classified the
patients better than the best single biomarker (< 0.005) and compared
favourably with other off-the-shelf classification methods.

In conclusion, the PanelomiX toolbox combines biomarkers and evaluates
the performance of panels to classify patients better than single markers
or other classifiers. The ICBT algorithm proved to be an efficient classifier,
the results of which can easily be interpreted. 

Multiparametric diagnostics of cardiomyopathies by microRNA
signatures.
CS. Siegismund, M Rohde, U Kühl,  D  Lassner.
Microchim Acta 2014 Mar.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1007/s00604-014-1249-y

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) represent a new group of stable biomarkers
that are detectable both in tissue and body fluids. Such miRNAs
may serve as cardiological biomarkers to characterize inflammatory
processes and to differentiate various forms of infection. The predictive
power of single miRNAs for diagnosis of complex diseases may be further
increased if several distinctly deregulated candidates are combined to
form a specific miRNA signature. Diagnostic systems that generate
disease related miRNA profiles are based on microarrays, bead-based
oligo sorbent assays, or on assays based on real-time polymerase
chain reactions and placed on microfluidic cards or nanowell plates.
Multiparametric diagnostic systems that can measure differentially
expressed miRNAs may become the diagnostic tool of the future due
to their predictive value with respect to clinical course, therapeutic
decisions, and therapy monitoring.

Nutritional lipidomics: Molecular metabolism, analytics, and
diagnostics
JT. Smilowitz, AM. Zivkovic, Yu-Jui Y Wan, SM. Watkins, et al.
Mol. Nutr. Food Res2013, 00, 1–17.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1002/mnfr.201200808

The term lipidomics is quite new, first appearing in 2001. Its definition
is still being debated, from “the comprehensive analysis of all lipid
components in a biological sample” to “the full characterization of
lipid molecular species and their biological roles with respect to the
genes that encode proteins that regulate lipid metabolism”. In principle,
lipidomics is a field taking advantage of the innovations in the separation
sciences and MS together with bioinformatics to characterize the lipid
compositions of biological samples (biofluids, cells, tissues, organisms)
compositionally and quantitatively.

Biochemical pathways of lipid metabolism remain incomplete and the
tools to map lipid compositional data to pathways are still being assembled.
Biology itself is dauntingly complex and simply separating biological
structures remains a key challenge to lipidomics. Nonetheless, the
strategy of combining tandem analytical methods to perform the sensitive,
high-throughput, quantitative, and comprehensive analysis of lipid
metabolites of very large numbers of molecules is poised to drive
the field forward rapidly. Among the next steps for nutrition to understand
the changes in structures, compositions, and function of lipid biomolecules
in response to diet is to describe their distribution within discrete functional
compartments lipoproteins. Additionally, lipidomics must tackle the task
of assigning the functions of lipids as signaling molecules, nutrient sensors,
and intermediates of metabolic pathways.

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Larry H Bernstein, MD, Curator

Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence

 

Natriuretic Peptides (BNP and Amino-terminal proBNP)

Author: Larry Bernstein, M.D.,
(see Reviewers/Authors page)
Revised: 12 December 2010, last major update December 2010
Copyright: (c) 2003-2010, PathologyOutlines.com, Inc.
http://dx.doi.org:/PathologyOutlines.com/cardiac

General
=========================================================================

  • Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP), now known as B-type natriuretic peptide (also BNP),
    is a 32 amino acid polypeptide secreted by the cardiac ventricles in response to
    excessive stretching of cardiomyocytes (Wikipedia)
  • BNP was originally identified in extracts of porcine brain, although in humans
    it is produced mainly in the cardiac ventricles
  • BNP is co-secreted with a 76 amino acid N-terminal fragment (NT-proBNP),
    which is biologically inactive Indications

=========================================================================

  • Evaluation of dyspneic patient with suspected congestive heart failure,
    regardless of renal function (J Am Coll Cardiol 2006;47:91)
  • B-type natriuretic peptide levels are higher in patients with congestive heart
    failure than in dyspnea from other causes (J Am Coll Cardiol 2002;39:202,
    N Engl J Med 2004;350:647)
  • NT-proBNP measurement is a valuable addition to standard clinical
    assessment for the identification and exclusion of acute CHF in the
    emergency department setting (Am J Cardiol 2005;95:9480)

Clinical features
=========================================================================

  • Reduces misdiagnosis of congestive heart failure, which occurs
    50% to 75% of the time
  • NT-proBNP is superior to BNP for predicting mortality and morbidity for heart
    failure (Clin Chem 2006;52:1528), and coexisting renal disease and heart failure
    (Clin Chem 2007;53:1511)

Reference ranges
=========================================================================

  • BNP levels below 100 pg/mL indicate no heart failure

Limitations
=========================================================================

  • Determination of endogenous BNP with the AxSYM assay using frozen
    plasma samples may not be valid after 1 day, but NT-proBNP as
    measured by the Elecsys assay may be stored at -20 degrees C for
    at least four months without a relevant loss of the immunoreactive
    analyte (Clin Chem Lab Med 2004;42:942)

Additional references
=========================================================================

  • Clin Chem 2007;53:1928, Am J Kidney Dis 2005;46:610,
    Hypertension 2005;46:118, Hypertension 2006;47:874,
    Eur J Heart Fail 2004;6:269

Natriuretic peptides for risk stratification of patients with acute
coronary
 syndromes  
M Galvani,  D Ferrini, F Ottani. Eur J Heart Fail 2004;  6: 327–333.
http://eurjhf.oxfordjournals.org

Both BNP and NT-proBNP possess several characteristics of the ideal biomarker,
showing independent and incremental prognostic value above traditional clinical,
electrocardiographic, and biochemical (particularly troponin) risk indicators. Specifically,
in ACS patients, BNP and NT-proBNP have powerful prognostic value both in patients
without a history of previous heart failure or without clinical or instrumental signs of
left ventricular dysfunction on admission or during hospital stay.

Our results show that the prognostic value of natriuretic peptides is similar:
(1) both at short- and long-term;
(2) when natriuretic peptides are measured at first patient contact or during hospital stay;
(3) for BNP or NT-proBNP; and
(4) in patients with ST elevation myocardial infarction or no ST elevation ACS.

 

Steady-State Levels of Troponin and Brain Natriuretic Peptide for Prediction
of Long-Term
 Outcome after Acute Heart Failure with or without Stage 3 to 4
Chronic Kidney Disease

Y Endo, S Kohsaka, T Nagai, K Koide, M Takahashi, et al.
Br J Med Med Res 2012; 2(4): 490-500.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.9734/BJMMR/2012/1384

The population was predominantly male (69.3%), and the mean age was 66.6±15.3 years.
Patients with higher BNP levels or detectable TnT had a worse prognosis (BNP45.0% vs.
18.8%, p<0.001; TnT 43.8% vs. 25.1%, p=0.002, respectively). The primary event rate
was additively worse among patients with both increased BNP levels and detectable TnT
compared to those with increased levels of BNP or detectable TnT alone (log-rank p<0.001).
A similar trend was observed in the subgroup of patients with CKD stage III–V (n=172).

The Effect of Correction of Mild Anemia in Severe, Resistant Congestive
Heart Failure
 Using Subcutaneous Erythropoietin and Intravenous Iron:
A Randomized Controlled Study

DS. Silverberg, D Wexler, D Sheps, M Blum, G Keren, et al.  JACC 2001; 37(7).
PII S0735-1097(01)01248-7  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11401110

When anemia in CHF is treated with EPO and IV iron, a marked improvement in
cardiac and patient function is seen, associated with less hospitalization and renal
impairment and less need for diuretics. (J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;37:1775– 80)

 

 

 

Hemoglobin on NT proBNP

Hemoglobin on NT proBNP

 

 

 

 

What is the best approximation of reference normal for NT-proBNP?
Clinical levels for enhanced assessment
 of NT-proBNP (CLEAN) 

Larry H. Bernstein1*, Michael Y. Zions1,4, Mohammed E. Alam1,5, Salman A. Haq1,
John F. Heitner1, Stuart Zarich2, Bette Seamonds3 and Stanley Berger3
1New York Methodist Hospital, Brooklyn, NY; 2Bridgeport Hospital, Bridgeport, CT;
3Mercy Catholic Medical Center, Darby, Phila, PA;  4Touro College, &  5Medgar
Evers College, Brooklyn, NY
Journal of Medical Laboratory and Diagnosis 04/2011; 2:16-21.
http://www.academicjournals.org/jmld

The natriuretic peptides, B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) and NT-proBNP that
have emerged as tools for diagnosing congestive heart failure (CHF) are affected
by age and renal insufficiency (RI).  NTproBNP is used in rejecting CHF and as a
marker of risk for patients with acute coronary syndromes. This observational study
was undertaken to evaluate the reference value for interpreting NT-proBNP
concentrations. The hypothesis is that increasing concentrations of NT-proBNP
are associated with the effects of multiple co-morbidities, not merely CHF,
resulting in altered volume status or myocardial filling pressures.

NT-proBNP was measured in a population with normal trans-thoracic echocardiograms
(TTE) and free of anemia or renal impairment. Exclusion conditions were the following
co-morbidities:

  • anemia as defined by WHO,
  • atrial fibrillation (AF),
  • elevated troponin T exceeding 0.070 mg/dl,
  • systolic or diastolic blood pressure exceeding 140 and 90 respectively,
  • ejection fraction less than 45%,
  • left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH),
  • left ventricular wall relaxation impairment, and
  • renal insufficiency (RI) defined by creatinine clearance < 60ml/min using
    the MDRD formula .

Study participants were seen in acute care for symptoms of shortness of breath
suspicious for CHF requiring evaluation with cardiac NTproBNP assay. The median
NT-proBNP for patients under 50 years is 60.5 pg/ml with an upper limit of 462 pg/ml,
and for patients over 50 years the median was 272.8 pg/ml with an upper limit of
998.2 pg/ml.
We suggest that NT-proBNP levels can be more accurately interpreted only after
removal of the major co-morbidities that affect an increase in this  peptide in serum.
The PRIDE study guidelines should be applied until presence or absence of
comorbidities is diagnosed. With no comorbidities, the reference range for normal
over 50 years of age remains steady at ~1000 pg/ml. The effect shown in previous
papers likely is due to increasing concurrent comorbidity with age.

NT-proBNP profile of combined population taken from 3 sites and donors.

Age    Under 50 years 50-69 years 70 and over
NT-proBNP

Mean   
95% CI of Mean
Median   
95% CI of median
2.5-97.5 percentile   
25-75 percentile
209
35.9
29.8-43.3
27.6
24.8-33.6
5.0-1364
14.9-55.8
126
182.4
132.1-251.9
142.3
92.3-219.0
10.8-11604
42.1-565
82
611.7
425.2-880.1
564.2
419.7-1007.7
28.8-14242
210.2-2062

 

We observe the following changes with respect to NTproBNP and age:

(i) Sharp increase in NT-proBNP at over age 50

(ii) Increase in NT-proBNP at 7% per decade over 50

(iii) Decrease in eGFR at 4% per decade over 50

(iv) Slope of NT-proBNP increase with age is related to proportion of patients with
eGFR less than 90

(v) NT-proBNP increase can be delayed or accelerated based on disease
comorbidities

NT-proBNP sensitivity and specificity with RI prevalence

NT-proBNP sensitivity and specificity with RI prevalence

Figure 1. Plot of NT-proBNP sensitivity and specificity with RI prevalence.
GFRe scale: 0, > 120; 1, 90- 119; 2, 60-89; 3, 40-59; 4, 15-39; 5, under 15 ml/min.

NKF staging by GFRe interval and NT-proBNP (CHF removed).

NKF staging by GFRe interval and NT-proBNP (CHF removed).

 

Figure 2  plots the mean and 95% CI of NTproBNP (CHF removed) by the National Kidney Foundation
staging for eGFR interval (eGFR scale: 0, > 120; 1, 90 to 119;2, 60 to 89; 3, 40 to 59; 4, 15 to 39; 5,
under 15 ml/min). We created a new variable to minimize the effects of age and eGFR variability by
correcting these large effects in the whole sample population.

Adjustment of the NT-proBNP for eGFR and for age over 50 differences. We have
carried out a normalization to adjust for both eGFR and for age over 50:

(i) Take Log of NT-proBNP and multiply by 1000

(ii) Divide the result by eGFR (using MDRD9 or Cockroft Gault10)

(iii) Compare results for age under 50, 50-70, and over 70 years

(iv) Adjust to age under 50 years by multiplying by 0.66 and 0.56.

The equation does not require weight because the results are reported normalized
to 1.73 m2 body surface area, which is an accepted average adult surface area.

 

fn.log-NT-proBNP vs age

fn.log-NT-proBNP vs age

Figure 3.  Plot of 1000*log (NT-proBNP)/GFR vs age at  eGFR over 90  and 60 ml/min

scatterplot and regression line with centroid and confidence interval for fn.logNTproBNP vs age

scatterplot and regression line with centroid and confidence interval for fn.logNTproBNP vs age

Figure 4. Superimposed scatterplot and regression line with centroid and
confidence interval for 1000*log(NT-proBNP)/eGFR vs age (anemia removed)
at eGFR over 40 and 90 ml/min. (Black: eGFR > 90, Blue:  eGFR > 40)  

 

Ref Range NTpro NKLogNTpro

Ref Range NTpro NKLogNTpro

 

Reference range for NT-proBNP before and after adjusting

 

Amino-Terminal Pro-Brain Natriuretic Peptide, Renal Function, and
Outcomes in Acute Heart Failure
RRJ. van Kimmenade,  JL. Januzzi, JR,  AL. Baggish, et al. JACC 2006; 48(8).: 1621-7.

We sought to study the individual and integrative role of amino-terminal pro-brain natriuretic
peptide (NT-proBNP) and parameters of renal function for prognosis in heart failure. The
combination of NT-proBNP with measures of renal function better predicts short-term outcome
in acute heart failure than either parameter alone. Among heart failure patients, the objective
parameter of NT-proBNP seems more useful to delineate the “cardiorenal syndrome” than the
previous criteria of a clinical diagnosis of heart failure.

 

NT-proBNP testing for diagnosis and short-term prognosis in acute destabilized
heart failure: an international pooled analysis of 1256 patients The International
Collaborative of NT-proBNP Study
Januzzi, R van Kimmenade, J Lainchbury, A Bayes-Genis, J Ordonez-Llanos, et al.
Eur Heart J 2006; 27, 330–337. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1093/eurheartj/ehi631

Differences in NT-proBNP levels among 1256 patients with and without acute HF and the relationship
between NT-proBNPlevels and HF symptomswere examined.Optimal cut-points for diagnosis and
prognosis were identified and verified using bootstrapping and multi-variable logistic regression techniques.

Seven hundred and twenty subjects (57.3%) had acute HF, whose median NT-proBNP was considerably
higher than those without (4639 vs. 108 pg/mL, P < 0.001), and levels of NT-proBNP correlated with HF
symptom severity (P < 0.008). An optimal strategy to identify acute HF was to use age-related cut-points
of 450, 900, and 1800 pg/mL for ages < 50, 50–75, and  > 75, which yielded 90% sensitivity and 84% specificity
for acute HF. An age-independent cut-point of 300 pg/mL had 98% negative predictive value to exclude acute
HF. Among those with acute HF, a presenting NT-proBNP concentration > 5180 pg/mL was strongly predictive
of death by 76 days [odds ratio = 5.2, 95% confidence interval (CI) =2.2 – 8.1, P < 0.001].

Effect of B-type natriuretic peptide-guided treatment of chronic heart failure on total mortality
and hospitalization: an individual patient meta-analysis
RW. Troughton, CM. Frampton, HP Brunner-La Rocca, M Pfisterer, LW.M. Eurlings, et al.
Eur Heart J Mar 2014; 35, 1559–1567.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1093/eurheartj/ehu090

We sought to perform an individual patient data meta-analysis to evaluate the effect of NP-guided treatment
of heart failure on all-cause mortality.  The survival benefit from NP-guided therapy was seen in younger (< 75
years) patients [0.62 (0.45–0.85); P = 0.004] but not older (≥75 years) patients [0.98 (0.75–1.27); P = 0.96].
Hospitalization due to heart failure [0.80 (0.67–0.94); P = 0.009] or cardiovascular disease [0.82 (0.67–0.99);
P = 0.048] was significantly lower in NP-guided patients with no heterogeneity between studies and no interaction
with age or LVEF.

 

Diagnostic and prognostic evaluation of left ventricular systolic heart failure by plasma N-terminal
pro-brain natriuretic peptide concentrations in a large sample of the general population

BA Groenning, I Raymond, PR Hildebrandt, JC Nilsson, M Baumann, F Pedersen.
Heart 2004; 90:297–303.  http://dx.doi.org:/10.1136/hrt.2003.026021

Value of NT-proBNP in evaluating patients with symptoms of heart failure and impaired left ventricular (LV) systolic
function; prognostic value of NT-proBNP for mortality and hospital admissions. In 38 (5.6%) participants LV ejection
fraction (LVEF) was ( 40%. NT-proBNP identified patients with symptoms of heart failure and LVEF ( 40% with a
sensitivity of 0.92, a specificity of 0.86, AUC of 0.94.  NT-proBNP was the strongest independent predictor of mortality
(hazard ratio (HR) = 5.70, p , 0.0001), hospital admissions for heart failure (HR = 13.83, p , 0.0001), and other cardiac
admissions (HR = 3.69, p , 0.0001). Mortality (26 v 6, p = 0.0003), heart failure admissions (18 v 2, p = 0.0002), and
admissions for other cardiac causes (44 v 13, p , 0.0001) were significantly higher in patients with NTproBNP above the
study median (32.5 pmol/l).

 

Testing for BNP and NT-proBNP in the Diagnosis and Prognosis of Heart Failure
Evidence Report/Technology Assessment – Number 142. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.
Prepared by: McMaster University Evidence-based Practice Center, Hamilton, ON, Canada
C Balion, PL. Santaguida, S Hill, A Worster, M McQueen, et al.
http://archive.ahrq.gov/downloads/pub/evidence/pdf/bnp/bnp.pdf

Question 1: What are the determinants of both BNP and NT-proBNP?
Question 2a: What are the clinical performance characteristics of both BNP and NTproBNP
measurement in patients with symptoms suggestive of HF or with known HF?
Question 2b: Does measurement of BNP or NT-proBNP add independent diagnostic information
to the traditional diagnostic measures of HF in patients with suggestive HF?
Question 3a: Do BNP or NT-proBNP levels predict cardiac events in populations at risk of CAD,
with diagnosed CAD and HF?
Question 3b: What are the screening performance characteristics of BNP or NT-proBNP in
general asymptomatic populations?
Question 4: Can BNP or NT-proBNP measurement be used to monitor response to therapy?        

Diagnosis: In all settings both BNP and NT-proBNP show good diagnostic properties as a rule out test for HF.
Prognosis: BNP and NT-proBNP are consistent independent predictors of mortality and other cardiac composite
endpoints for populations with risk of CAD, diagnosed CAD, and diagnosed HF. There is insufficient evidence to
determine the value of B-type natriuretic peptides for screening of HF.
Monitoring Treatment: There is insufficient evidence to demonstrate that BNP and NT-proBNP levels
show change in response to therapies to manage stable chronic HF patients.

Guide-IT Trial

Biomarker-Guided HF Therapy: Is It Cost-Effective
www.medscape.org/viewarticle/764686_transcript

Jan 29, 2013 – Uploaded by DCLRI
Michael Felker, MD, MHS
Associate Professor in the Division of Cardiology
Duke University Medical Center
www.youtube.com/watch?v=AW0480EE2kw

GUIDE-IT will last five years and involve approximately 45 trial sites in the United States. The first group of
patients will be enrolled by the end of 2012.

The trial tests NT-proBNP guided therapy with a COMPANION diagnostic biomarker used to optimize already
available and effective therapies for heart failure. It may identify  patients who will benefit from intensified therapy,
and  who would not have been known using only signs and symptoms of heart failure as it is currently the practice.
The NT-proBNP biomarker would enable doctors to create personalized treatment plans for patients to substantially
reduce mortality and morbidity

 Risk stratification in acute heart failure: Rationale and design of the
STRATIFY and DECIDE studies 

SP. Collins, CJ. Lindsell, CA. Jenkins, FE. Harrell, et al.
Am Heart J 2012;164:825-34.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ahj.2012.07.033

Two studies (STRATIFY and DECIDE) have been funded by the National Heart Lung and Blood Institute with
the goal of developing prediction rules to facilitate early decision making in AHF. Using prospectively gathered
evaluation and treatment data from the acute setting (STRATIFY) and early inpatient stay (DECIDE), rules will
be generated to predict risk for death and serious complications.
A rigorous analysis plan has been developed to construct the prediction rules that will maximally extract both the
statistical and clinical properties of every data element. Upon completion of this study we will subsequently externally
test the prediction rules in a heterogeneous patient cohort.

N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide and the prediction of primary cardiovascular
events: results from 15-year follow-up of WOSCOPS

P Welsh, O Doolin, P Willeit, C Packard, P Macfarlane, S Cobbe, et al.
Eur Heart J Aug  2012.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1093/eurheartj/ehs239

To test whether N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) was independently associated with, and
improved the prediction of, cardiovascular disease (CVD) in a primary prevention cohort. N-terminal pro-B-type
natriuretic peptide predicts CVD events in men without clinical evidence of CHD, angina, or history of stroke,
and appears related more strongly to the risk for fatal events.
NT-proBNP was associated with an increased risk of all CVD [HR: 1.17 (95% CI: 1.11–1.23) per standard deviation
increase in log NT-proBNP] after adjustment for classical and clinical cardiovascular risk factors plus C-reactive protein.
N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide was more strongly related to the rsk of fatal [HR: 1.34 (95% CI: 1.19–1.52)]
than non-fatal CVD [HR: 1.17 (95% CI: 1.10–1.24)] (P = 0.022). The addition of NT-proBNP to traditional risk factors
improved the C-index (+0.013; P = 0.001). The continuous net reclassification index improved with the addition of NT-
proBNP by 19.8% (95% CI: 13.6–25.9%) compared with 9.8% (95% CI: 4.2–15.6%) with the addition of C-reactive protein.

 

Utility of B-Natriuretic Peptide in Detecting Diastolic Dysfunction: Comparison With
Doppler Velocity Recordings
E Lubien, A DeMaria, P Krishnaswamy, P Clopton, J Koon…A Maisel.
http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/105/5/595
Circulation. 2002;105:595-601
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1161/hc0502.103010

Although Doppler echocardiography has been used to identify abnormal left ventricular (LV) diastolic filling dynamics,
inherent limitations suggest the need for additional measures of diastolic dysfunction. Because data suggest that B-natriuretic
peptide (BNP) partially reflects ventricular pressure, we hypothesized that BNP levels could predict diastolic abnormalities
in patients with normal systolic function. A rapid assay for BNP can reliably detect the presence of diastolic abnormalities
on echocardiography. In  patients with normal systolic function, elevated BNP levels and diastolic filling abnormalities might
help to reinforce the diagnosis diastolic dysfunction

Association of common variants in NPPA and NPPB with circulating natriuretic
peptides and blood pressure.
C Newton-Cheh, MG Larson, RS Vasan, D Levy, KD Bloch, et al.
Nat Genet. 2009 Mar; 41(3): 348–353.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/ng.328

We examined the association of common variants at the NPPA-NPPB locus with circulating concentrations of the
natriuretic peptides, which have blood pressure–lowering properties. In 29,717 individuals, the alleles of rs5068
and rs198358 that showed association with increased circulating natriuretic peptide concentrations were also found
to be associated with lower systolic (P = 2 ×10−6 and 6 × 10−5, respectively) and diastolic blood pressure (P = 1 × 10−6
and 5 × 10−5), as well as reduced odds of hypertension (OR = 0.85, 95% CI = 0.79–0.92, P = 4 × 10−5; OR = 0.90, 95%
CI = 0.85–0.95, P = 2 × 10−4, respectively).

2013 ACC/AHA Guideline on the Assessment of Cardiovascular Risk
DC. Goff, Jr, DM. Lloyd-Jones, G Bennett, S Coady, RB. D’Agostino, Sr, et al.
Circulation. 2013;  http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2013/11/11/01.cir.0000437741.48606.98.citation
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1161/01.cir.0000437741.48606.98

The ACC and AHA have collaborated with the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) and stakeholder
and professional organizations to develop clinical practice guidelines for assessment of CV risk, lifestyle modifications
to reduce CV risk, and management of blood cholesterol, overweight and obesity in adults.
Although the Task Force led the final development of these prevention guidelines, they differ from other ACC/AHA
guidelines. First, as opposed to an extensive compendium of clinical information, these documents are significantly
more limited in scope and focus on selected CQs in each topic, based on the highest quality evidence available.
Recommendations were derived from randomized trials, meta-analyses, and observational studies evaluated for quality,
and were not formulated when sufficient evidence was not available. Second, the text accompanying each recommendation
is succinct, summarizing the evidence for each question. Third, the format of the recommendations differs from other
ACC/AHA guidelines. Each recommendation has been mapped from the NHLBI grading format to the ACC/AHA Class
of Recommendation/Level of Evidence (COR/LOE) construct (Table 1) and is expressed in both formats.

 

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Introduction to e-Series A: Cardiovascular Diseases, Volume Four Part 2: Regenerative Medicine

Introduction to e-Series A: Cardiovascular Diseases, Volume Four Part 2: Regenerative Medicine

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

and

Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

This document is entirely devoted to medical and surgical therapies that have made huge strides in

  • simplification of interventional procedures,
  • reduced complexity, resulting in procedures previously requiring surgery are now done, circumstances permitting, by medical intervention.

This revolution in cardiovascular interventional therapy is regenerative medicine.  It is regenerative because it is largely driven by

  • the introduction into the impaired vasculature of an induced pleuripotent cell, called a stem cell, although
  • the level of differentiation may not be a most primitive cell line.

There is also a very closely aligned development in cell biology that extends beyond and including vascular regeneration that is called synthetic biology.  These developments have occurred at an accelerated rate in the last 15 years. The methods of interventional cardiology were already well developed in the mid 1980s.  This was at the peak of cardiothoracic bypass surgery.

Research on the endothelial cell,

  • endothelial cell proliferation,
  • shear flow in small arteries, especially at branch points, and
  • endothelial-platelet interactions

led to insights about plaque formation and vessel thrombosis.

Much was learned in biomechanics about the shear flow stresses on the luminal surface of the vasculature, and there was also

  • the concomitant discovery of nitric oxide,
  • oxidative stress, and
  • the isoenzymes of nitric oxide synthase (eNOS, iNOS, and nNOS).

It became a fundamental tenet of vascular biology that

  • atherogenesis is a maladjustment to oxidative stress not only through genetic, but also
  • non-genetic nutritional factors that could be related to the balance of omega (ω)-3 and omega (ω)-6 fatty acids,
  • a pro-inflammatory state that elicits inflammatory cytokines, such as, interleukin-6 (IL6) and c-reactive protein(CRP),
  • insulin resistance with excess carbohydrate associated with type 2 diabetes and beta (β) cell stress,
  • excess trans- and saturated fats, and perhaps
  • the now plausible colonic microbial population of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT).

There is also an association of abdominal adiposity,

  • including the visceral peritoneum, with both T2DM and with arteriosclerotic vessel disease,
  • which is presenting at a young age, and has ties to
  • the effects of an adipokine, adiponectin.

Much important work has already been discussed in the domain of cardiac catheterization and research done to

  • prevent atheroembolization.and beyond that,
  • research done to implant an endothelial growth matrix.

Even then, dramatic work had already been done on

  • the platelet structure and metabolism, and
  • this has transformed our knowledge of platelet biology.

The coagulation process has been discussed in detailed in a previous document.  The result was the development of a

  • new class of platelet aggregation inhibitors designed to block the activation of protein on the platelet surface that
  • is critical in the coagulation cascade.

In addition, the term long used to describe atherosclerosis, atheroma notwithstanding, is “hardening of the arteries”.  This is particularly notable with respect to mid-size arteries and arterioles that feed the heart and kidneys. Whether it is preceded by or develops concurrently with chronic renal insufficiency and lowered glomerular filtration rate is perhaps arguable.  However, there is now a body of evidence that points to

  • a change in the vascular muscularis and vessel stiffness, in addition to the endothelial features already mentioned.

This has provided a basis for

  • targeted pharmaceutical intervention, and
  • reduction in salt intake.

So we have a  group of metabolic disorders, which may alone or in combination,

  • lead to and be associated with the long term effects of cardiovascular disease, including
  • congestive heart failure.

This has been classically broken down into forward and backward failure,

  • depending on decrease outflow through the aorta (ejection fraction), or
  • decreased venous return through the vena cava,

which involves increased pulmonary vascular resistance and decreased return into the left atrium.

This also has ties to several causes, which may be cardiac or vascular. This document, as the previous, has four pats.  They are broadly:

  1. Stem Cells in Cardiovascular Diseases
  2. Regenerative Cell and Molecular Biology
  3. Therapeutics Levels In Molecular Cardiology
  4. Research Proposals for Endogenous Augmentation of circulating Endothelial Progenitor Cells (cEPCs)

As in the previous section, we start with the biology of the stem cell and the degeneration in cardiovascular diseases, then proceed to regeneration, then therapeutics, and finally – proposals for augmenting therapy with circulating endogenous endothelial progenitor cells (cEPCs).

 

context

stem cells

 

theme

regeneration

 

 

 

 

theme

Therapeutics

 

theme

augmentation

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Key pathways involving NO

Key pathways involving NO

 

 

 

 

stem cell lin28

stem cellLlin28

1479-5876-10-175-1-l  translational research with feedback loops

Tranlational Research -Lab to Bedside

 

 

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Summary of Genomics and Medicine: Role in Cardiovascular Diseases

Summary of Genomics and Medicine: Role in Cardiovascular Diseases

Author: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

The articles within Chapters and Subchapters you have just read have been organized into four interconnected parts.
  1. Genomics and Medicine
  2. Epigenetics – Modifyable Factors Causing CVD
  3. Determinants of CVD – Genetics, Heredity and Genomics Discoveries
  4. Individualized Medicine Guided by Genetics and Genomics Discoveries
The first part established the
  • rapidly evolving science of genomics
  • aided by analytical and computational tools for the identification of nucleotide substitutions, or combinations of them
that have a significant association with the development of
  • cardiovascular diseases,
  • hypercoagulable state,
  • atherosclerosis,
  • microvascular disease,
  • endothelial disruption, and
  • type-2DM, to name a few.
These may well be associated with increased risk for stroke and/or peripheral vascular disease in some cases,
  • essentially because the involvement of the circulation is systemic in nature.

Part 1

establishes an important connection between RNA and disease expression.  This development has led to
  • the necessity of a patient-centric approach to patient-care.
When I entered medical school, it was eight years after Watson and Crick proposed the double helix.  It was also
  • the height of a series of discoveries elucidating key metabolic pathways.
In the period since then there have been treatments for some of the important well established metabolic diseases of
  • carbohydrate,
  • protein, and
  • lipid metabolism,
such as –  glycogen storage disease, and some are immense challenges, such as
  • Tay Sachs, or
  • Transthyretin-Associated amyloidosis.
But we have crossed a line delineating classical Mendelian genetics to
  • multifactorial non-linear traits of great complexity and
involving combinatorial program analyses to resolve.
The Human Genome Project was completed in 2001, and it has opened the floodgates of genomic discovery.  This resulted in the identification of
genomic alterations in
  • cardiovascular disease,
  • cancer,
  • microbial,
  • plant,
  • prion, and
  • metabolic diseases.
This has also led to
  • the identification of genomic targets
  • that are either involved in transcription or
  • are involved with cellular control mechanisms for targeted pharmaceutical development.
In addition, there is great pressure on the science of laboratory analytics to
  • codevelop with new drugs,
  • biomarkers that are indicators of toxicity or
  • of drug effectiveness.
I have not mentioned the dark matter of the genome. It has been substantially reduced, and has been termed dark because
  • this portion of the genome is not identified in transcription of proteins.
However, it has become a lightning rod to ongoing genomic investigation because of
  • an essential role in the regulation of nuclear and cytoplasmic activities.
Changes in the three dimensional structure of these genes due to
  • changes in Van der Waal forces and internucleotide distances lead to
  • conformational changes that could have an effect on cell activity.

Part 2

is an exploration of epigenetics in cardiovascular diseases.  Epigenetics is
  • the post-genomic modification of genetic expression
  • by the substitution of nucleotides or by the attachment of carbohydrate residues, or
  • by alterations in the hydrophobic forces between sequences that weaken or strengthen their expression.
This could operate in a manner similar to the conformational changes just described.  These changes
  • may be modifiable, and they
  • may be highly influenced by environmental factors, such as
    1. smoking and environmental toxins,
    2. diet,
    3. physical activity, and
    4. neutraceuticals.
While neutraceuticals is a black box industry that evolved from
  • the extraction of ancient herbal remedies of agricultural derivation
    (which could be extended to digitalis and Foxglove; or to coumadin; and to penecillin, and to other drugs that are not neutraceuticals).

The best examples are the importance of

  • n-3 fatty acids, and
  • fiber
  • dietary sulfur (in the source of methionine), folic acid, vitamin B12
  • arginine combined with citrulline to drive eNOS
  • and of iodine, which can’t be understated.
In addition, meat consumption involves the intake of fat that contains

  • the proinflammatory n-6 fatty acid.

The importance of the ratio of n-3/n-6 fatty acids in diet is not seriously discussed when

  • we look at the association of fat intake and disease etiology.
Part 2 then leads into signaling pathways and proteomics. The signaling pathways are
  • critical to understanding the inflammatory process, just as
  • dietary factors tie in with a balance that is maintained by dietary intake,
    • possibly gut bacteria utilization of delivered substrate, and
    • proinflammatory factors in disaease.
These are being explored by microfluidic proteomic and metabolomic technologies that were inconceivable a half century ago.
This portion extended into the diagnosis of cardiovascular disease, and
  • elucidated the relationship between platelet-endothelial interaction in the formation of vascular plaque.
It explored protein, proteomic, and genomic markers
  1. for identifying and classifying types of disease pathobiology, and
  2. for following treatment measures.

Part 3

connected with genetics and genomic discoveries in cardiovascular diseases.

Part 4

is the tie between life style habits and disease etiology, going forward with
  • the pursuit of cardiovascular disease prevention.
The presentation of walking and running, and of bariatric surgery (type 2DM) are fine examples.
It further discussed gene therapy and congenital heart disease.  But the most interesting presentations are
  • in the pharmacogenomics for cardiovascular diseases, with
    1. volyage-gated calcium-channels, and
    2. ApoE in the statin response.

This volume is a splendid example representative of the entire collection on cardiovascular diseases.

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Introduction to Genomics and Epigenomics Roles in Cardiovascular Diseases

Introduction to Genomics and Epigenomics Roles in Cardiovascular Diseases

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

This introduction is to a thorough evaluation of a rich source of research literature on the genomic influences, which may have variable strength in the biological causation of atherosclerosis, microvascular disease, plaque formation, not necessarily having expressing, except in a multivariable context that includes the environment, dietary factors, level of emotional stress, sleep habits, and the daily activities of living for affected individuals.  The potential of genomics is carried in the DNA, copied to RNA, and this is most well studied in the micro RNAs (miRNA).  The miRNA has been explored for the appearance in the circulation of specific miRNAs that might be associated with myocyte or endothelial cell injury, and they are also being used as targets for therapeutics by the creation of silencing RNAs (siRNA).  The extent to which there is evidence of success in these studies is limited, but is being translated from animal studies to human disease.  There is also a long history of the measurement of  circulating enzymes and isoenzymes (alanine amino transferase, creatine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase, not to leave out the adenylate kinase species specific to myocardium), and more recently the release of troponins I and T, and the so far still not fully explored ischemia modified albumin, or of miRNAs for the diagnosis of myocardial infarction.

There is also a significant disagreement about the value of measuring high sensitivity C reactive protein (hs-CRP), which has always been a marker for systemic inflammatory disease, in both chronic rheumatic and infectious diseases having a broad range, so that procalcitonin has appeared to be better for that situation, and for early diagnosis of sepsis. The hs-CRP has been too easily ignored because of

1. the ubiquitous elevations in the population
2. the expressed concerns that one might not be inclined to treat a mild elevation without other risk factors, such as, LDL cholesterolemia, low HDL, absent diabetes or obesity.  Nevertheless, hs-CRP raises an reasonable argument for preventive measures, and perhaps the use of a statin.

There has been a substantial amount of work on the relationship of obesity to both type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and to coronary vascular disease and stroke.  Here we bring in the relationship of the vascular endothelium, adipose tissue secretion of adiponectin, and platelet activation.  A whole generation of antiplatelet drugs addresses the mechanism of platelet activation, adhession, and interaction with endothelium.   Very interesting work has appeared on RESISTIN, that could bear some fruit in the treatment of both obesity and T2DM.

It is important to keep in mind that epigenomic gene rearrangements or substitutions occur throughout life, and they may have an expression late in life.  Some of the known epigenetic events occur with some frequency, but the associations are extremely difficult to pin down, as well as the strength of the association.  In a population that is not diverse, epigenetic changes are passed on in the population in the period of childbearing age.  The establishment of an epigenetic change is diluted in a diverse population.  There have been a number of studies with different findings of association between cardiovascular disease and genetic mutations in the Han and also in the Uyger Chinese populations, which are distinctly different populations that is not part of this discussion.

This should be sufficient to elicit broad appeal in reading this volume on cardiovascular diseases, and perhaps the entire series.  Below is a diagram of this volume in the series.

PART 1 – Genomics and Medicine
Introduction to Genomics and Medicine (Vol 3)
Genomics and Medicine: The Physician’s View
Ribozymes and RNA Machines
Genomics and Medicine: Genomics to CVD Diagnoses
Establishing a Patient-Centric View of Genomic Data
VIDEO:  Implementing Biomarker Programs ­ P Ridker PART 2 – Epigenetics – Modifiable
Factors Causing CVD
Diseases Etiology
   Environmental Contributors
Implicated as Causing CVD
   Diet: Solids and Fluid Intake
and Nutraceuticals
   Physical Activity and
Prevention of CVD
   Psychological Stress and
Mental Health: Risk for CVD
   Correlation between
Cancer and CVD
PART 3  Determinants of CVD – Genetics, Heredity and Genomics Discoveries
Introduction
    Why cancer cells contain abnormal numbers of chromosomes (Aneuploidy)
     Functional Characterization of CV Genomics: Disease Case Studies @ 2013 ASHG
     Leading DIAGNOSES of CVD covered in Circulation: CV Genetics, 3/2010 – 3/2013
     Commentary on Biomarkers for Genetics and Genomics of CVD
PART 4 Individualized Medicine Guided by Genetics and Genomics Discoveries
    Preventive Medicine: Cardiovascular Diseases
    Walking and Running: Similar Risk Reductions for Hypertension, Hypercholesterolemia,
DM, and possibly CAD
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/04/walking-and-running-similar-risk-reductions-for-hypertension-hypercholesterolemia-dm-and-possibly-cad/
    Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes: Is Bariatric Surgery the Solution?
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/23/prevention-of-type-2-diabetes-is-bariatric-surgery-the-solution/
Gene-Therapy for CVD
Congenital Heart Disease/Defects
   Medical Etiologies: EBM – LEADING DIAGNOSES, Risks Pharmacogenomics for Cardio-
vascular Diseases
   Signaling Pathways     Response to Rosuvastatin in
Patients With Acute Myocardial Infarction:
Hepatic Metabolism and Transporter Gene
Variants Effect
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/
01/02/response-to-rosuvastatin-in-patients-
with-acute-myocardial-infarction-hepatic-
metabolism-and-transporter-gene-variants-effect/
   Proteomics and Metabolomics      Voltage-Gated Calcium Channel and Pharmaco-
genetic Association with Adverse Cardiovascular
Outcomes: Hypertension Treatment with Verapamil
SR (CCB) vs Atenolol (BB) or Trandolapril (ACE)
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/01/02/
voltage-gated-calcium-channel-and-pharmacogenetic-
association-with-adverse-cardiovascular-outcomes-
hypertension-treatment-with-verapamil-sr-ccb-vs-
atenolol-bb-or-trandolapril-ace/
      SNPs in apoE are found to influence statin response
significantly. Less frequent variants in
PCSK9 and smaller effect sizes in SNPs in HMGCR
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/01/02/snps-in-apoe-are-found-to-influence-statin-response-significantly-less-frequent-variants-in-pcsk9-and-smaller-effect-sizes-in-snps-in-hmgcr/

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Diagnostic Value of Cardiac Biomarkers

Diagnostic Value of Cardiac Biomarkers

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP 

These presentations covered several views of the utilization of cardiac markers that have evolved for over 60 years.  The first stage was the introduction of enzymatic assays and isoenzyme measurements to distinguish acute hepatitis and acute myocardial infarction, which included lactate dehydrogenase (LD isoenzymes 1, 2) at a time that late presentation of the patient in the emergency rooms were not uncommon, with the creatine kinase isoenzyme MB declining or disappeared from the circulation.  The world health organization (WHO) standard definition then was the presence of two of three:

1. Typical or atypical precordial pressure in the chest, usually with radiation to the left arm

2. Electrocardiographic changes of Q-wave, not previously seen, definitive; ST- elevation of acute myocardial injury with repolarization;
T-wave inversion.

3. The release into the circulation of myocardial derived enzymes –
creatine kinase – MB (which was adapted to measure infarct size), LD-1,
both of which were replaced with troponins T and I, which are part of the actomyosin contractile apparatus.

The research on infarct size elicited a major research goal for early diagnosis and reduction of infarct size, first with fibrinolysis of a ruptured plaque, and this proceeded into the full development of a rapidly evolving interventional cardiology as well as cardiothoracic surgery, in both cases, aimed at removal of plaque or replacement of vessel.  Surgery became more imperative for multivessel disease, even if only one vessel was severely affected.

So we have clinical history, physical examination, and emerging biomarkers playing a large role for more than half a century.  However, the role of biomarkers broadened.  Patients were treated with antiplatelet agents, and a hypercoagulable state coexisted with myocardial ischemic injury.  This made the management of the patient reliant on long term followup for Warfarin with the international normalized ratio (INR) for a standardized prothrombin time (PT), and reversal of the PT required transfusion with thawed fresh frozen plasma (FFP).  The partial thromboplastin test (PPT) was necessary in hospitalization to monitor the heparin effect.

Thus, we have identified the use of traditional cardiac biomarkers for:

1. Diagnosis
2. Therapeutic monitoring

The story is only the beginning.  Many patients who were atypical in presentation, or had cardiovascular ischemia without plaque rupture were problematic.  This led to a concerted effort to redesign the troponin assays for high sensitivity with the concern that the circulation should normally be free of a leaked structural marker of myocardial damage. But of course, there can be a slow leak or a decreased rate of removal of such protein from the circulation, and the best example of this would be the patient with significant renal insufficiency, as TnT is clear only through the kidney, and TNI is clear both by the kidney and by vascular endothelium.  The introduction of the high sensitivity assay has been met with considerable confusion, and highlights the complexity of diagnosis in heart disease.  Another test that is used for the diagnosis of heart failure is in the class of natriuretic peptides (BNP, pro NT-BNP, and ANP), the last of which has been under development.

While there is an exponential increase in the improvement of cardiac devices and discovery of pharmaceutical targets, the laboratory support for clinical management is not mature.  There are miRNAs that may prove valuable, matrix metalloprotein(s), and potential endothelial and blood cell surface markers, they require

1. codevelopment with new medications
2. standardization across the IVD industry
3. proficiency testing applied to all laboratories that provide testing
4. the measurement  on multitest automated analyzers with high capability in proteomic measurement  (MS, time of flight, MS-MS)

nejmra1216063_f1   Atherosclerotic Plaques Associated with Various Presentations               nejmra1216063_f2     Inflammatory Pathways Predisposing Coronary Arteries to Rupture and Thrombosis.        atherosclerosis progression

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Curation, HealthCare System in the US, and Calcium Signaling Effects on Cardiac Contraction, Heart Failure, and Atrial Fibrillation, and the Relationship of Calcium Release at the Myoneural Junction to Beta Adrenergic Release

Curation, HealthCare System in the US, and Calcium Signaling Effects on Cardiac Contraction, Heart Failure, and Atrial Fibrillation, and the Relationship of Calcium Release at the Myoneural Junction to Beta Adrenergic Release

Curator and e-book Contributor: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
Curator and BioMedicine e-Series Editor-in-Chief: Aviva Lev Ari, PhD, RN

and 

Content Consultant to Six-Volume e-SERIES A: Cardiovascular Diseases: Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC

This portion summarises what we have covered and is now familiar to the reader.  There are three related topics, and an extension of this embraces other volumes and chapters before and after this reading.  This approach to the document has advantages over the multiple authored textbooks that are and have been pervasive as a result of the traditional publication technology.  It has been stated by the founder of ScoopIt, that amount of time involved is considerably less than required for the original publications used, but the organization and construction is a separate creative process.  In these curations we amassed on average five articles in one curation, to which, two or three curators contributed their views.  There were surprises, and there were unfulfilled answers along the way.  The greatest problem that is being envisioned is the building a vision that bridges and unmasks the hidden “dark matter” between the now declared “OMICS”, to get a more real perspective on what is conjecture and what is actionable.  This is in some respects unavoidable because the genome is an alphabet that is matched to the mino acid sequences of proteins, which themselves are three dimensional drivers of sequences of metabolic reactions that can be altered by the accumulation of substrates in critical placements, and in addition, the proteome has functional proteins whose activity is a regulatory function and not easily identified.  In the end, we have to have a practical conception, recognizing the breadth of evolutionary change, and make sense of what we have, while searching for more.

We introduced the content as follows:

1. We introduce the concept of curation in the digital context, and it’s application to medicine and related scientific discovery.

Topics were chosen were used to illustrate this process in the form of a pattern, which is mostly curation, but is significantly creative, as it emerges in the context of this e-book.

  • Alternative solutions in Treatment of Heart Failure (HF), medical devices, biomarkers and agent efficacy is handled all in one chapter.
  • PCI for valves vs Open heart Valve replacement
  • PDA and Complications of Surgery — only curation could create the picture of this unique combination of debate, as exemplified of Endarterectomy (CEA) vs Stenting the Carotid Artery (CAS), ischemic leg, renal artery stenosis.

2. The etiology, or causes, of cardiovascular diseases consist of mechanistic explanations for dysfunction relating to the heart or vascular system. Every one of a long list of abnormalities has a path that explains the deviation from normal. With the completion of the analysis of the human genome, in principle all of the genetic basis for function and dysfunction are delineated. While all genes are identified, and the genes code for all the gene products that constitute body functions, there remains more unknown than known.

3. Human genome, and in combination with improved imaging methods, genomics offers great promise in changing the course of disease and aging.

4. If we tie together Part 1 and Part 2, there is ample room for considering clinical outcomes based on individual and organizational factors for best performance. This can really only be realized with considerable improvement in information infrastructure, which has miles to go.

Curation

Curation is an active filtering of the web’s  and peer reviewed literature found by such means – immense amount of relevant and irrelevant content. As a result content may be disruptive. However, in doing good curation, one does more than simply assign value by presentation of creative work in any category. Great curators comment and share experience across content, authors and themes.
Great curators may see patterns others don’t, or may challenge or debate complex and apparently conflicting points of view.  Answers to specifically focused questions comes from the hard work of many in laboratory settings creatively establishing answers to definitive questions, each a part of the larger knowledge-base of reference. There are those rare “Einstein’s” who imagine a whole universe, unlike the three blindmen of the Sufi tale.  One held the tail, the other the trunk, the other the ear, and they all said this is an elephant!
In my reading, I learn that the optimal ratio of curation to creation may be as high as 90% curation to 10% creation. Creating content is expensive. Curation, by comparison, is much less expensive.  The same source says “Scoop.it is my content marketing testing “sandbox”. In sharing, he says that comments provide the framework for what and how content is shared.

Healthcare and Affordable Care Act

We enter year 2014 with the Affordable Care Act off to a slow start because of the implementation of the internet signup requiring a major repair, which is, unfortunately, as expected for such as complex job across the US, and with many states unwilling to participate.  But several states – California, Connecticut, and Kentucky – had very effective state designed signups, separate from the federal system.  There has been a very large rush and an extension to sign up. There are many features that we can take note of:

1. The healthcare system needed changes because we have the most costly system, are endowed with advanced technology, and we have inexcusable outcomes in several domains of care, including, infant mortality, and prenatal care – but not in cardiology.

2. These changes that are notable are:

  • The disparities in outcome are magnified by a large disparity in highest to lowest income bracket.
  • This is also reflected in educational status, and which plays out in childhood school lunches, and is also affected by larger class size and cutbacks in school programs.
  • This is not  helped by a large paralysis in the two party political system and the three legs of government unable to deal with work and distraction.
  • Unemployment is high, and the banking and home construction, home buying, and rental are in realignment, but interest rates are problematic.

3.  The  medical care system is affected by the issues above, but the complexity is not to be discounted.

  •  The medical schools are unable at this time to provide the influx of new physicians needed, so we depend on a major influx of physicians from other countries
  • The technology for laboratories, proteomic and genomic as well as applied medical research is rejuvenating the practice in cardiology more rapidly than any other field.
  • In fields that are imaging related the life cycle of instruments is shorter than the actual lifetime use of the instruments, which introduces a shortening of ROI.
  • Hospitals are consolidating into large consortia in order to maintain a more viable system for referral of specialty cases, and also is centralizing all terms of business related to billing.
  • There is reduction in independent physician practices that are being incorporated into the hospital enterprise with Part B billing under the Physician Organization – as in Partners in Greater Boston, with the exception of “concierge” medical practices.
  • There is consolidation of specialty laboratory services within state, with only the most specialized testing going out of state (Quest, LabCorp, etc.)
  • Medicaid is expanded substantially under the new ACA.
  • The federal government as provider of services is reducing the number of contractors for – medical devices, diabetes self-testing, etc.
  • The current rearrangements seeks to provide a balance between capital expenses and fixed labor costs that it can control, reduce variable costs (reagents, pharmaceutical), and to take in more patients with less delay and better performance – defined by outside agencies.

Cardiology, Genomics, and calcium ion signaling and ion-channels in cardiomyocyte function in health and disease – including heart failure, rhythm abnormalities, and the myoneural release of neurotransmitter at the vesicle junction.

This portion is outlined as follows:

2.1 Human Genome: Congenital Etiological Sources of Cardiovascular Disease

2.2 The Role of Calcium in Health and Disease

2.3 Vasculature and Myocardium: Diagnosing the Conditions of Disease

Genomics & Genetics of Cardiovascular Disease Diagnoses

actin cytoskeleton

wall stress, ventricular workload, contractile reserve

Genetic Base of Atherosclerosis and Loss of Arterial Elasticity with Aging

calcium and actin skeleton, signaling, cell motility

hypertension & vascular compliance

Genetics of Conduction Disease

Ca+ stimulated exostosis: calmodulin & PKC (neurotransmitter)

complications & MVR

disruption of Ca2+ homeostasis cardiac & vascular smooth muscle

synaptotagmin as Ca2+ sensor & vesicles

atherosclerosis & ion channels


It is increasingly clear that there are mutations that underlie many human diseases, and this is true of the cardiovascular system.  The mutations are mistakes in the insertion of a purine nucleotide, which may or may not have any consequence.  This is why the associations that are being discovered in research require careful validation, and even require demonstration in “models” before pursuing the design of pharmacological “target therapy”.  The genomics in cardiovascular disease involves very serious congenital disorders that are asserted early in life, but the effects of and development of atherosclerosis involving large and medium size arteries has a slow progression and is not dominated by genomic expression.  This is characterized by loss of arterial elasticity. In addition there is the development of heart failure, which involves the cardiomyocyte specifically.  The emergence of regenerative medical interventions, based on pleuripotent inducible stem cell therapy is developing rapidly as an intervention in this sector.

Finally, it is incumbent on me to call attention to the huge contribution that research on calcium (Ca2+) signaling has made toward the understanding of cardiac contraction and to the maintenance of the heart rhythm.  The heart is a syncytium, different than skeletal and smooth muscle, and the innervation is by the vagus nerve, which has terminal endings at vesicles which discharge at the myocyte junction.  The heart specifically has calmodulin kinase CaMK II, and it has been established that calmodulin is involved in the calcium spark that triggers contraction.  That is only part of the story.  Ion transport occurs into or out of the cell, the latter termed exostosis.  Exostosis involves CaMK II and pyruvate kinase (PKC), and they have independent roles.  This also involves K+-Na+-ATPase.  The cytoskeleton is also discussed, but the role of aquaporin in water transport appears elsewhere, as the transport of water between cells.  When we consider the Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium, which precedes the current work by a century, we recall that there is an essential balance between extracellular Na+ + Ca2+ and the intracellular K+ + Mg2+, and this has been superceded by an incompletely defined relationship between ions that are cytoplasmic and those that are mitochondrial.  The glass is half full!

 

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A Software Agent for Diagnosis of ACUTE MI

Authors: Isaac E. Mayzlin, Ph.D.1, David Mayzlin1,Larry H. Bernstein, M.D.2

1MayNet, Carlsbad, CA, 2Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, BridgeportHospital, Bridgeport, CT.

Agent-based  decision  support  systems  are  designed  to  provide  medical  staff  with  information  needed  for making critical decisions. We describe a Software Agent for evaluating multiple tests based on a large data base  especially  efficient  when  time  for  making  the  decision  is  critical  for  successful  treatment  of  serious conditions, such as stroke or acute myocardial infarction (AMI).

Goldman and others (1) developed a screening algorithm based on characteristics of the chest pain, EKG changes, and key clinical findings to separate high-risk from low-risk patients at the time they present using clinical features without using a serum marker. The Goldman algorithm was not widely used because of a 7 percent misclassification error, mostly false positives.       Nonetheless, A third of emergency room visits by patients presenting with symptoms of rule out AMI are not associated with chest pain. A related issue is the finding that a significant number of patients who are at high risk have to be identified using a cardiac marker. The use of cardiac isoenzymes has been to classify patients meeting the high risk criteria, many of whom are not subsequently found to have AMI.

Software Agent for Diagnosis based on the Knowledge incorporated in the Trained Artificial Neural Network and Data Clustering

This Software Agent is based on the combination of clustering by Euclidean distances in multi-dimensional space and non-linear  discrimination  fulfilled  by  the  Artificial  Neural  Network  (ANN)  trained  on  clusters’  averages.         Our  studies indicate that at an optimum clustering  distance the number of classes is minimized with efficient training on the ANN, retaining accuracy of classification by the ANN at 97%. The studies   conducted involve training and testing on separate clinical data sets.  We perform clustering using the geometrical (Euclidean) distance between two points in n-dimensional space,  formed  by  n  variables,  including  both  input  and  output  variables.  Since  this  distance  assumes  compatibility  of different variables, the values of all input variables are linearly transformed (scaled) to the range from 0 to 1.

The ANN technique for readers accustomed to classical statistics can be viewed as an extension of multivariate regression analyses with such new features as non-linearity and ability to process categorical data. Categorical (not continuous) variables represent two or more levels, groups, or classes of correspondent features, and in our case this concept is used to signify patient condition, for example existence or not of AMI.

Process  description. We  implemented  the  proposed  algorithm  for  diagnosis  of  AMI.  All  the  calculations  were performed on the authors’ unique Software Agent Maynet. First, using the automatic random extraction procedure, the initial data set (139 patients) was partitioned into two sets — training and testing.  This randomization also determined the size of these sets (96 and 43, respectively) since the program was instructed to assign approximately 70 % of data to the training set.

The main process consists of three successive steps:

(1)        clustering performed on training data set,

(2)        neural network’s training on clusters from previous step, and

(3)        classifier’s accuracy evaluation on testing data.

The classifier in this research will be the ANN, created on step 2, with output in the range [0,1], that provides binary result (1 – AMI, 0 – not AMI), using decision point 0.5.

In this paper we used the data of two previous studies (2,3) with three patients, potential outliers, removed (n = 139). The data contains three input variables, CK-MB, LD-1, LD-1/total LD, and one output variable, diagnoses, coded as 1 (for AMI) or 0 (non-AMI).

Table  1.  Effect  of  selection  of  maximum  distance  on  the  number  of  classes  formed  and  on  the accuracy of recognition by ANN

Clustering Distance Factor F(D = F * R) Number ofClasses Number of Nodes in The Hidden Layers Number of Misrecognized Patterns inThe TestingSet of 43 Percent ofMisrecognized
10.90.8

0.7

241413

5

1,  02,  03,  0

1,  0

2,  0

3,  0

3,  2

3,  2

121

1

2

1

1

1

2.34.62.3

2.3

4.6

2.3

2.3

2.3

Abbreviations: creatine kinase MB isoenzyme: CK-MB; lactate dehydrogenase isoenzyme-1: LD1; LD1/total LD ratio: %LD1; acute myocardial infarction: AMI; artificial neural network: ANN

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