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Posts Tagged ‘Metabolomics’

Proteomics, Metabolomics, Signaling Pathways, and Cell Regulation: a Compilation of Articles in the Journal http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com

Compilation of References by Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence in the Journal http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com about
Proteomics, Metabolomics, Signaling Pathways, and Cell Regulation

Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Proteomics

  1. The Human Proteome Map Completed

Reporter and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/28/the-human-proteome-map-completed/

  1. Proteomics – The Pathway to Understanding and Decision-making in Medicine

Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/24/proteomics-the-pathway-to-
understanding-and-decision-making-in-medicine/

3. Advances in Separations Technology for the “OMICs” and Clarification of Therapeutic Targets

Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/22/advances-in-separations-technology-for-the-omics-and-clarification-         of-therapeutic-targets/

  1. Expanding the Genetic Alphabet and Linking the Genome to the Metabolome

Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/24/expanding-the-genetic-alphabet-and-linking-the-genome-to-the-                metabolome/

5. Genomics, Proteomics and standards

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/06/genomics-proteomics-and-standards/

6. Proteins and cellular adaptation to stress

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/08/proteins-and-cellular-adaptation-to-stress/

 

Metabolomics

  1. Extracellular evaluation of intracellular flux in yeast cells

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/25/extracellular-evaluation-of-intracellular-flux-in-yeast-cells/

  1. Metabolomic analysis of two leukemia cell lines. I.

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/23/metabolomic-analysis-of-two-leukemia-cell-lines-_i/

  1. Metabolomic analysis of two leukemia cell lines. II.

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/24/metabolomic-analysis-of-two-leukemia-cell-lines-ii/

  1. Metabolomics, Metabonomics and Functional Nutrition: the next step in nutritional metabolism and biotherapeutics

Reviewer and Curator, Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/22/metabolomics-metabonomics-and-functional-nutrition-the-next-step-          in-nutritional-metabolism-and-biotherapeutics/

  1. Buffering of genetic modules involved in tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolism provides homeomeostatic regulation

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/27/buffering-of-genetic-modules-involved-in-tricarboxylic-acid-cycle-              metabolism-provides-homeomeostatic-regulation/

Metabolic Pathways

  1. Pentose Shunt, Electron Transfer, Galactose, more Lipids in brief

Reviewer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/21/pentose-shunt-electron-transfer-galactose-more-lipids-in-brief/

  1. Mitochondria: More than just the “powerhouse of the cell”

Ritu Saxena, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/07/09/mitochondria-more-than-just-the-powerhouse-of-the-cell/

  1. Mitochondrial fission and fusion: potential therapeutic targets?

Ritu saxena

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/31/mitochondrial-fission-and-fusion-potential-therapeutic-target/

4.  Mitochondrial mutation analysis might be “1-step” away

Ritu Saxena

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/14/mitochondrial-mutation-analysis-might-be-1-step-away/

  1. Selected References to Signaling and Metabolic Pathways in PharmaceuticalIntelligence.com

Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/14/selected-references-to-signaling-and-metabolic-pathways-in-                     leaders-in-pharmaceutical-intelligence/

  1. Metabolic drivers in aggressive brain tumors

Prabodh Kandal, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/11/metabolic-drivers-in-aggressive-brain-tumors/

  1. Metabolite Identification Combining Genetic and Metabolic Information: Genetic association links unknown metabolites to functionally related genes

Writer and Curator, Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/22/metabolite-identification-combining-genetic-and-metabolic-                        information-genetic-association-links-unknown-metabolites-to-functionally-related-genes/

  1. Mitochondria: Origin from oxygen free environment, role in aerobic glycolysis, metabolic adaptation

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, author and curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/26/mitochondria-origin-from-oxygen-free-environment-role-in-aerobic-            glycolysis-metabolic-adaptation/

  1. Therapeutic Targets for Diabetes and Related Metabolic Disorders

Reporter, Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/20/therapeutic-targets-for-diabetes-and-related-metabolic-disorders/

10.  Buffering of genetic modules involved in tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolism provides homeomeostatic regulation

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/27/buffering-of-genetic-modules-involved-in-tricarboxylic-acid-cycle-              metabolism-provides-homeomeostatic-regulation/

11. The multi-step transfer of phosphate bond and hydrogen exchange energy

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator:

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/19/the-multi-step-transfer-of-phosphate-bond-and-hydrogen-                          exchange-energy/

12. Studies of Respiration Lead to Acetyl CoA

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/18/studies-of-respiration-lead-to-acetyl-coa/

13. Lipid Metabolism

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/15/lipid-metabolism/

14. Carbohydrate Metabolism

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/13/carbohydrate-metabolism/

15. Update on mitochondrial function, respiration, and associated disorders

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/08/update-on-mitochondrial-function-respiration-and-associated-                   disorders/

16. Prologue to Cancer – e-book Volume One – Where are we in this journey?

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/04/13/prologue-to-cancer-ebook-4-where-are-we-in-this-journey/

17. Introduction – The Evolution of Cancer Therapy and Cancer Research: How We Got Here?

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/04/04/introduction-the-evolution-of-cancer-therapy-and-cancer-research-          how-we-got-here/

18. Inhibition of the Cardiomyocyte-Specific Kinase TNNI3K

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/01/inhibition-of-the-cardiomyocyte-specific-kinase-tnni3k/

19. The Binding of Oligonucleotides in DNA and 3-D Lattice Structures

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/15/the-binding-of-oligonucleotides-in-dna-and-3-d-lattice-structures/

20. Mitochondrial Metabolism and Cardiac Function

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/14/mitochondrial-metabolism-and-cardiac-function/

21. How Methionine Imbalance with Sulfur-Insufficiency Leads to Hyperhomocysteinemia

Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/04/sulfur-deficiency-leads_to_hyperhomocysteinemia/

22. AMPK Is a Negative Regulator of the Warburg Effect and Suppresses Tumor Growth In Vivo

Author and Curator: Stephen J. Williams, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/12/ampk-is-a-negative-regulator-of-the-warburg-effect-and-suppresses-         tumor-growth-in-vivo/

23. A Second Look at the Transthyretin Nutrition Inflammatory Conundrum

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/03/a-second-look-at-the-transthyretin-nutrition-inflammatory-                         conundrum/

24. Mitochondrial Damage and Repair under Oxidative Stress

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/mitochondrial-damage-and-repair-under-oxidative-stress/

25. Nitric Oxide and Immune Responses: Part 2

Author and Curator: Aviral Vatsa, PhD, MBBS

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/nitric-oxide-and-immune-responses-part-2/

26. Overview of Posttranslational Modification (PTM)

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/29/overview-of-posttranslational-modification-ptm/

27. Malnutrition in India, high newborn death rate and stunting of children age under five years

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/15/malnutrition-in-india-high-newborn-death-rate-and-stunting-of-                   children-age-under-five-years/

28. Update on mitochondrial function, respiration, and associated disorders

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/08/update-on-mitochondrial-function-respiration-and-associated-                  disorders/

29. Omega-3 fatty acids, depleting the source, and protein insufficiency in renal disease

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/06/omega-3-fatty-acids-depleting-the-source-and-protein-insufficiency-         in-renal-disease/

30. Introduction to e-Series A: Cardiovascular Diseases, Volume Four Part 2: Regenerative Medicine

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, writer, and Aviva Lev- Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/04/27/larryhbernintroduction_to_cardiovascular_diseases-                                  translational_medicine-part_2/

31. Epilogue: Envisioning New Insights in Cancer Translational Biology
Series C: e-Books on Cancer & Oncology

Author & Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Series C Content Consultant

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/03/29/epilogue-envisioning-new-insights/

32. Ca2+-Stimulated Exocytosis:  The Role of Calmodulin and Protein Kinase C in Ca2+ Regulation of Hormone                         and Neurotransmitter

Writer and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and
Curator and Content Editor: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/23/calmodulin-and-protein-kinase-c-drive-the-ca2-regulation-of-                    hormone-and-neurotransmitter-release-that-triggers-ca2-stimulated-exocy

33. Cardiac Contractility & Myocardial Performance: Therapeutic Implications of Ryanopathy (Calcium Release-                           related Contractile Dysfunction) and Catecholamine Responses

Author, and Content Consultant to e-SERIES A: Cardiovascular Diseases: Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC
Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
and Article Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/28/cardiac-contractility-myocardium-performance-ventricular-arrhythmias-      and-non-ischemic-heart-failure-therapeutic-implications-for-cardiomyocyte-ryanopathy-calcium-release-related-                    contractile/

34. Role of Calcium, the Actin Skeleton, and Lipid Structures in Signaling and Cell Motility

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP Author: Stephen Williams, PhD, and Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/26/role-of-calcium-the-actin-skeleton-and-lipid-structures-in-signaling-and-cell-motility/

35. Identification of Biomarkers that are Related to the Actin Cytoskeleton

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/10/identification-of-biomarkers-that-are-related-to-the-actin-                           cytoskeleton/

36. Advanced Topics in Sepsis and the Cardiovascular System at its End Stage

Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/18/advanced-topics-in-Sepsis-and-the-Cardiovascular-System-at-its-              End-Stage/

37. The Delicate Connection: IDO (Indolamine 2, 3 dehydrogenase) and Cancer Immunology

Demet Sag, PhD, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/04/the-delicate-connection-ido-indolamine-2-3-dehydrogenase-and-               immunology/

38. IDO for Commitment of a Life Time: The Origins and Mechanisms of IDO, indolamine 2, 3-dioxygenase

Demet Sag, PhD, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/04/ido-for-commitment-of-a-life-time-the-origins-and-mechanisms-of-             ido-indolamine-2-3-dioxygenase/

39. Confined Indolamine 2, 3 dioxygenase (IDO) Controls the Homeostasis of Immune Responses for Good and Bad

Curator: Demet Sag, PhD, CRA, GCP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/31/confined-indolamine-2-3-dehydrogenase-controls-the-hemostasis-           of-immune-responses-for-good-and-bad/

40. Signaling Pathway that Makes Young Neurons Connect was discovered @ Scripps Research Institute

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/06/26/signaling-pathway-that-makes-young-neurons-connect-was-                     discovered-scripps-research-institute/

41. Naked Mole Rats Cancer-Free

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/06/20/naked-mole-rats-cancer-free/

42. Late Onset of Alzheimer’s Disease and One-carbon Metabolism

Reporter and Curator: Dr. Sudipta Saha, Ph.D.

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/06/alzheimers-disease-and-one-carbon-metabolism/

43. Problems of vegetarianism

Reporter and Curator: Dr. Sudipta Saha, Ph.D.

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/22/problems-of-vegetarianism/

44.  Amyloidosis with Cardiomyopathy

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/31/amyloidosis-with-cardiomyopathy/

45. Liver endoplasmic reticulum stress and hepatosteatosis

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/10/liver-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-hepatosteatosis/

46. The Molecular Biology of Renal Disorders: Nitric Oxide – Part III

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/the-molecular-biology-of-renal-disorders/

47. Nitric Oxide Function in Coagulation – Part II

Curator and Author: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/nitric-oxide-function-in-coagulation/

48. Nitric Oxide, Platelets, Endothelium and Hemostasis

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/08/nitric-oxide-platelets-endothelium-and-hemostasis/

49. Interaction of Nitric Oxide and Prostacyclin in Vascular Endothelium

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/14/interaction-of-nitric-oxide-and-prostacyclin-in-vascular-endothelium/

50. Nitric Oxide and Immune Responses: Part 1

Curator and Author:  Aviral Vatsa PhD, MBBS

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/18/nitric-oxide-and-immune-responses-part-1/

51. Nitric Oxide and Immune Responses: Part 2

Curator and Author:  Aviral Vatsa PhD, MBBS

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/nitric-oxide-and-immune-responses-part-2/

52. Mitochondrial Damage and Repair under Oxidative Stress

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/mitochondrial-damage-and-repair-under-oxidative-stress/

53. Is the Warburg Effect the cause or the effect of cancer: A 21st Century View?

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/17/is-the-warburg-effect-the-cause-or-the-effect-of-cancer-a-21st-                 century-view/

54. Ubiquinin-Proteosome pathway, autophagy, the mitochondrion, proteolysis and cell apoptosis

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/30/ubiquinin-proteosome-pathway-autophagy-the-mitochondrion-                  proteolysis-and-cell-apoptosis/

55. Ubiquitin-Proteosome pathway, Autophagy, the Mitochondrion, Proteolysis and Cell Apoptosis: Part III

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/02/14/ubiquinin-proteosome-pathway-autophagy-the-mitochondrion-                   proteolysis-and-cell-apoptosis-reconsidered/

56. Nitric Oxide and iNOS have Key Roles in Kidney Diseases – Part II

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/nitric-oxide-and-inos-have-key-roles-in-kidney-diseases/

57. New Insights on Nitric Oxide donors – Part IV

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/new-insights-on-no-donors/

58. Crucial role of Nitric Oxide in Cancer

Curator and Author: Ritu Saxena, Ph.D.

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/16/crucial-role-of-nitric-oxide-in-cancer/

59. Nitric Oxide has a ubiquitous role in the regulation of glycolysis -with a concomitant influence on mitochondrial function

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/16/nitric-oxide-has-a-ubiquitous-role-in-the-regulation-of-glycolysis-with-         a-concomitant-influence-on-mitochondrial-function/

60. Targeting Mitochondrial-bound Hexokinase for Cancer Therapy

Curator and Author: Ziv Raviv, PhD, RN 04/06/2013

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/06/targeting-mitochondrial-bound-hexokinase-for-cancer-therapy/

61. Biochemistry of the Coagulation Cascade and Platelet Aggregation – Part I

Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/biochemistry-of-the-coagulation-cascade-and-platelet-aggregation/

Genomics, Transcriptomics, and Epigenetics

  1. What is the meaning of so many RNAs?

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/06/what-is-the-meaning-of-so-many-rnas/

  1. RNA and the transcription the genetic code

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Writer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/02/rna-and-the-transcription-of-the-genetic-code/

  1. A Primer on DNA and DNA Replication

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/29/a_primer_on_dna_and_dna_replication/

4. Synthesizing Synthetic Biology: PLOS Collections

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/17/synthesizing-synthetic-biology-plos-collections/

5. Pathology Emergence in the 21st Century

Author and Curator: Larry Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/03/pathology-emergence-in-the-21st-century/

6. RNA and the transcription the genetic code

Writer and Curator, Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/02/rna-and-the-transcription-of-the-genetic-code/

7. A Great University engaged in Drug Discovery: University of Pittsburgh

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/15/a-great-university-engaged-in-drug-discovery/

8. microRNA called miRNA-142 involved in the process by which the immature cells in the bone  marrow give                              rise to all the types of blood cells, including immune cells and the oxygen-bearing red blood cells

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/24/microrna-called-mir-142-involved-in-the-process-by-which-the-                   immature-cells-in-the-bone-marrow-give-rise-to-all-the-types-of-blood-cells-including-immune-cells-and-the-oxygen-             bearing-red-blood-cells/

9. Genes, proteomes, and their interaction

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Writer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/28/genes-proteomes-and-their-interaction/

10. Regulation of somatic stem cell Function

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Writer and Curator    Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/29/regulation-of-somatic-stem-cell-function/

11. Scientists discover that pluripotency factor NANOG is also active in adult organisms

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/10/scientists-discover-that-pluripotency-factor-nanog-is-also-active-in-           adult-organisms/

12. Bzzz! Are fruitflies like us?

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/07/bzzz-are-fruitflies-like-us/

13. Long Non-coding RNAs Can Encode Proteins After All

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/29/long-non-coding-rnas-can-encode-proteins-after-all/

14. Michael Snyder @Stanford University sequenced the lymphoblastoid transcriptomes and developed an
allele-specific full-length transcriptome

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN, Author and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/014/06/23/michael-snyder-stanford-university-sequenced-the-lymphoblastoid-            transcriptomes-and-developed-an-allele-specific-full-length-transcriptome/

15. Commentary on Biomarkers for Genetics and Genomics of Cardiovascular Disease: Views by Larry H                                     Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/16/commentary-on-biomarkers-for-genetics-and-genomics-of-                        cardiovascular-disease-views-by-larry-h-bernstein-md-fcap/

16. Observations on Finding the Genetic Links in Common Disease: Whole Genomic Sequencing Studies

Author an curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/18/observations-on-finding-the-genetic-links/

17. Silencing Cancers with Synthetic siRNAs

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/09/silencing-cancers-with-synthetic-sirnas/

18. Cardiometabolic Syndrome and the Genetics of Hypertension: The Neuroendocrine Transcriptome Control Points

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/12/cardiometabolic-syndrome-and-the-genetics-of-hypertension-the-neuroendocrine-transcriptome-control-points/

19. Developments in the Genomics and Proteomics of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Treatment Targets

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/08/developments-in-the-genomics-and-proteomics-of-type-2-diabetes-           mellitus-and-treatment-targets/

20. Loss of normal growth regulation

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/06/loss-of-normal-growth-regulation/

21. CT Angiography & TrueVision™ Metabolomics (Genomic Phenotyping) for new Therapeutic Targets to Atherosclerosis

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/15/ct-angiography-truevision-metabolomics-genomic-phenotyping-for-           new-therapeutic-targets-to-atherosclerosis/

22.  CRACKING THE CODE OF HUMAN LIFE: The Birth of BioInformatics & Computational Genomics

Genomics Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/30/cracking-the-code-of-human-life-the-birth-of-bioinformatics-                      computational-genomics/

23. Big Data in Genomic Medicine

Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/17/big-data-in-genomic-medicine/

24. From Genomics of Microorganisms to Translational Medicine

Author and Curator: Demet Sag, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/03/20/without-the-past-no-future-but-learn-and-move-genomics-of-                      microorganisms-to-translational-medicine/

25. Summary of Genomics and Medicine: Role in Cardiovascular Diseases

Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/01/06/summary-of-genomics-and-medicine-role-in-cardiovascular-diseases/

 26. Genomic Promise for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Dementias, Autism Spectrum, Schizophrenia, and Serious                      Depression

Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/02/19/genomic-promise-for-neurodegenerative-diseases-dementias-autism-        spectrum-schizophrenia-and-serious-depression/

 27.  BRCA1 a tumour suppressor in breast and ovarian cancer – functions in transcription, ubiquitination and DNA repair

Sudipta Saha, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/04/brca1-a-tumour-suppressor-in-breast-and-ovarian-cancer-functions-         in-transcription-ubiquitination-and-dna-repair/

28. Personalized medicine gearing up to tackle cancer

Ritu Saxena, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/07/personalized-medicine-gearing-up-to-tackle-cancer/

29. Differentiation Therapy – Epigenetics Tackles Solid Tumors

Stephen J Williams, PhD

      http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/03/differentiation-therapy-epigenetics-tackles-solid-tumors/

30. Mechanism involved in Breast Cancer Cell Growth: Function in Early Detection & Treatment

     Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/17/mechanism-involved-in-breast-cancer-cell-growth-function-in-early-          detection-treatment/

31. The Molecular pathology of Breast Cancer Progression

Tilde Barliya, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/10/the-molecular-pathology-of-breast-cancer-progression

32. Gastric Cancer: Whole-genome reconstruction and mutational signatures

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/24/gastric-cancer-whole-genome-reconstruction-and-mutational-                   signatures-2/

33. Paradigm Shift in Human Genomics – Predictive Biomarkers and Personalized Medicine –                                                       Part 1 (pharmaceuticalintelligence.com)

Aviva  Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalntelligence.com/2013/01/13/paradigm-shift-in-human-genomics-predictive-biomarkers-and-personalized-medicine-part-1/

34. LEADERS in Genome Sequencing of Genetic Mutations for Therapeutic Drug Selection in Cancer                                         Personalized Treatment: Part 2

A Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/13/leaders-in-genome-sequencing-of-genetic-mutations-for-therapeutic-       drug-selection-in-cancer-personalized-treatment-part-2/

35. Personalized Medicine: An Institute Profile – Coriell Institute for Medical Research: Part 3

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/13/personalized-medicine-an-institute-profile-coriell-institute-for-medical-        research-part-3/

36. Harnessing Personalized Medicine for Cancer Management, Prospects of Prevention and Cure: Opinions of                           Cancer Scientific Leaders @http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/13/7000/Harnessing_Personalized_Medicine_for_ Cancer_Management-      Prospects_of_Prevention_and_Cure/

37.  GSK for Personalized Medicine using Cancer Drugs needs Alacris systems biology model to determine the in silico
effect of the inhibitor in its “virtual clinical trial”

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/14/gsk-for-personalized-medicine-using-cancer-drugs-needs-alacris-             systems-biology-model-to-determine-the-in-silico-effect-of-the-inhibitor-in-its-virtual-clinical-trial/

38. Personalized medicine-based cure for cancer might not be far away

Ritu Saxena, PhD

  http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/20/personalized-medicine-based-cure-for-cancer-might-not-be-far-away/

39. Human Variome Project: encyclopedic catalog of sequence variants indexed to the human genome sequence

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/24/human-variome-project-encyclopedic-catalog-of-sequence-variants-         indexed-to-the-human-genome-sequence/

40. Inspiration From Dr. Maureen Cronin’s Achievements in Applying Genomic Sequencing to Cancer Diagnostics

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/10/inspiration-from-dr-maureen-cronins-achievements-in-applying-                genomic-sequencing-to-cancer-diagnostics/

41. The “Cancer establishments” examined by James Watson, co-discoverer of DNA w/Crick, 4/1953

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/09/the-cancer-establishments-examined-by-james-watson-co-discover-         of-dna-wcrick-41953/

42. What can we expect of tumor therapeutic response?

Author and curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/05/what-can-we-expect-of-tumor-therapeutic-response/

43. Directions for genomics in personalized medicine

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/27/directions-for-genomics-in-personalized-medicine/

44. How mobile elements in “Junk” DNA promote cancer. Part 1: Transposon-mediated tumorigenesis.

Stephen J Williams, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/31/how-mobile-elements-in-junk-dna-prote-cancer-part1-transposon-            mediated-tumorigenesis/

45. mRNA interference with cancer expression

Author and Curator, Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

 http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/26/mrna-interference-with-cancer-expression/

46. Expanding the Genetic Alphabet and linking the genome to the metabolome

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/24/expanding-the-genetic-alphabet-and-linking-the-genome-to-the-               metabolome/

47. Breast Cancer, drug resistance, and biopharmaceutical targets

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/18/breast-cancer-drug-resistance-and-biopharmaceutical-targets/

48.  Breast Cancer: Genomic profiling to predict Survival: Combination of Histopathology and Gene Expression                            Analysis

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/24/breast-cancer-genomic-profiling-to-predict-survival-combination-of-           histopathology-and-gene-expression-analysis

49. Gastric Cancer: Whole-genome reconstruction and mutational signatures

Aviva  Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/24/gastric-cancer-whole-genome-reconstruction-and-mutational-                   signatures-2/

50. Genomic Analysis: FLUIDIGM Technology in the Life Science and Agricultural Biotechnology

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/22/genomic-analysis-fluidigm-technology-in-the-life-science-and-                   agricultural-biotechnology/

51. 2013 Genomics: The Era Beyond the Sequencing Human Genome: Francis Collins, Craig Venter, Eric Lander, et al.

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013_Genomics

52. Paradigm Shift in Human Genomics – Predictive Biomarkers and Personalized Medicine – Part 1

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/Paradigm Shift in Human Genomics_/

Signaling Pathways

  1. Proteins and cellular adaptation to stress

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/08/proteins-and-cellular-adaptation-to-stress/

  1. A Synthesis of the Beauty and Complexity of How We View Cancer:
    Cancer Volume One – Summary

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/03/26/a-synthesis-of-the-beauty-and-complexity-of-how-we-view-cancer/

  1. Recurrent somatic mutations in chromatin-remodeling and ubiquitin ligase complex genes in
    serous endometrial tumors

Sudipta Saha, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/19/recurrent-somatic-mutations-in-chromatin-remodeling-ad-ubiquitin-           ligase-complex-genes-in-serous-endometrial-tumors/

4.  Prostate Cancer Cells: Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors Induce Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition

Stephen J Williams, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/30/histone-deacetylase-inhibitors-induce-epithelial-to-mesenchymal-              transition-in-prostate-cancer-cells/

5. Ubiquinin-Proteosome pathway, autophagy, the mitochondrion, proteolysis and cell apoptosis

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/30/ubiquinin-proteosome-pathway-autophagy-the-mitochondrion-                   proteolysis-and-cell-apoptosis/

6. Signaling and Signaling Pathways

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/12/signaling-and-signaling-pathways/

7.  Leptin signaling in mediating the cardiac hypertrophy associated with obesity

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/03/leptin-signaling-in-mediating-the-cardiac-hypertrophy-associated-            with-obesity/

  1. Sensors and Signaling in Oxidative Stress

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/01/sensors-and-signaling-in-oxidative-stress/

  1. The Final Considerations of the Role of Platelets and Platelet Endothelial Reactions in Atherosclerosis and Novel
    Treatments

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/10/15/the-final-considerations-of-the-role-of-platelets-and-platelet-                      endothelial-reactions-in-atherosclerosis-and-novel-treatments

10.   Platelets in Translational Research – Part 1

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/10/07/platelets-in-translational-research-1/

11.  Disruption of Calcium Homeostasis: Cardiomyocytes and Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells: The Cardiac and
Cardiovascular Calcium Signaling Mechanism

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author, and Content Consultant to e-SERIES A:
Cardiovascular Diseases: Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC and Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/09/12/disruption-of-calcium-homeostasis-cardiomyocytes-and-vascular-             smooth-muscle-cells-the-cardiac-and-cardiovascular-calcium-signaling-mechanism/

12. The Centrality of Ca(2+) Signaling and Cytoskeleton Involving Calmodulin Kinases and
Ryanodine Receptors in Cardiac Failure, Arterial Smooth Muscle, Post-ischemic Arrhythmia,
Similarities and Differences, and Pharmaceutical Targets

     Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author, and Content Consultant to
e-SERIES A: Cardiovascular Diseases: Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC and
Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/09/08/the-centrality-of-ca2-signaling-and-cytoskeleton-involving-calmodulin-       kinases-and-ryanodine-receptors-in-cardiac-failure-arterial-smooth-muscle-post-ischemic-arrhythmia-similarities-and-           differen/

13.  Nitric Oxide Signalling Pathways

Aviral Vatsa, PhD, MBBS

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/22/nitric-oxide-signalling-pathways/

14. Immune activation, immunity, antibacterial activity

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/06/immune-activation-immunity-antibacterial-activity/

15.  Regulation of somatic stem cell Function

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Writer and Curator    Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/29/regulation-of-somatic-stem-cell-function/

16. Scientists discover that pluripotency factor NANOG is also active in adult organisms

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/10/scientists-discover-that-pluripotency-factor-nanog-is-also-active-in-adult-organisms/

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Compilation of References in Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence about proteomics, metabolomics, signaling pathways, and cell regulation

Compilation of References in Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence about
proteomics, metabolomics, signaling pathways, and cell regulation

Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

 

Proteomics

  1. The Human Proteome Map Completed
    Reporter and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/28/the-human-proteome-map-completed/
  1. Proteomics – The Pathway to Understanding and Decision-making in Medicine
    Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/24/proteomics-the-pathway-to-understanding-and-decision-making-in-medicine/
  1. Advances in Separations Technology for the “OMICs” and Clarification of Therapeutic Targets
    Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/22/advances-in-separations-technology-for-the-omics-and-clarification-of-therapeutic-targets/
  1. Expanding the Genetic Alphabet and Linking the Genome to the Metabolome
    Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/24/expanding-the-genetic-alphabet-and-linking-the-genome-to-the-metabolome/
  1. Synthesizing Synthetic Biology: PLOS Collections
    Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/17/synthesizing-synthetic-biology-plos-collections/

 

Metabolomics

  1. Extracellular evaluation of intracellular flux in yeast cells
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/25/extracellular-evaluation-of-intracellular-flux-in-yeast-cells/ 
  2. Metabolomic analysis of two leukemia cell lines. I.
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/23/metabolomic-analysis-of-two-leukemia-cell-lines-_i/ 
  3. Metabolomic analysis of two leukemia cell lines. II.
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/24/metabolomic-analysis-of-two-leukemia-cell-lines-ii/ 
  4. Metabolomics, Metabonomics and Functional Nutrition: the next step in nutritional metabolism and biotherapeutics
    Reviewer and Curator, Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/22/metabolomics-metabonomics-and-functional-nutrition-the-next-step-in-nutritional-metabolism-and-biotherapeutics/ 
  5. Buffering of genetic modules involved in tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolism provides homeomeostatic regulation
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/27/buffering-of-genetic-modules-involved-in-tricarboxylic-acid-cycle-metabolism-provides-homeomeostatic-regulation/

 

Metabolic Pathways

  1. Pentose Shunt, Electron Transfer, Galactose, more Lipids in brief
    Reviewer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/21/pentose-shunt-electron-transfer-galactose-more-lipids-in-brief/
  2. Mitochondria: More than just the “powerhouse of the cell”
    Reviewer and Curator: Ritu Saxena
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/07/09/mitochondria-more-than-just-the-powerhouse-of-the-cell/
  3. Mitochondrial fission and fusion: potential therapeutic targets?
    Reviewer and Curator: Ritu saxena
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/31/mitochondrial-fission-and-fusion-potential-therapeutic-target/ 
  4. Mitochondrial mutation analysis might be “1-step” away
    Reviewer and Curator: Ritu Saxena
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/14/mitochondrial-mutation-analysis-might-be-1-step-away/
  5. Selected References to Signaling and Metabolic Pathways in PharmaceuticalIntelligence.com
    Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/14/selected-references-to-signaling-and-metabolic-pathways-in-leaders-in-pharmaceutical-intelligence/
  6. Metabolic drivers in aggressive brain tumors
    Prabodh Kandal, PhD
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/11/metabolic-drivers-in-aggressive-brain-tumors/ 
  7. Metabolite Identification Combining Genetic and Metabolic Information: Genetic association links unknown metabolites to functionally related genes
    Author and Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/22/metabolite-identification-combining-genetic-and-metabolic-information-genetic-association-links-unknown-metabolites-to-functionally-related-genes/
  8. Mitochondria: Origin from oxygen free environment, role in aerobic glycolysis, metabolic adaptation
    Author and curator:Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/26/mitochondria-origin-from-oxygen-free-environment-role-in-aerobic-glycolysis-metabolic-adaptation/
  9. Therapeutic Targets for Diabetes and Related Metabolic Disorders
    Reporter, Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RD
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/20/therapeutic-targets-for-diabetes-and-related-metabolic-disorders/
  10. Buffering of genetic modules involved in tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolism provides homeomeostatic regulation
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/27/buffering-of-genetic-modules-involved-in-tricarboxylic-acid-cycle-metabolism-provides-homeomeostatic-regulation/
  11. The multi-step transfer of phosphate bond and hydrogen exchange energy
    Curator:Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP,
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/19/the-multi-step-transfer-of-phosphate-bond-and-hydrogen-exchange-energy/
  12. Studies of Respiration Lead to Acetyl CoA
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/18/studies-of-respiration-lead-to-acetyl-coa/
  13. Lipid Metabolism
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/15/lipid-metabolism/
  14. Carbohydrate Metabolism
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/13/carbohydrate-metabolism/
  15. Prologue to Cancer – e-book Volume One – Where are we in this journey?
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/04/13/prologue-to-cancer-ebook-4-where-are-we-in-this-journey/
  16. Introduction – The Evolution of Cancer Therapy and Cancer Research: How We Got Here?
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/04/04/introduction-the-evolution-of-cancer-therapy-and-cancer-research-how-we-got-here/
  17. Inhibition of the Cardiomyocyte-Specific Kinase TNNI3K
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/01/inhibition-of-the-cardiomyocyte-specific-kinase-tnni3k/
  18. The Binding of Oligonucleotides in DNA and 3-D Lattice Structures
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/15/the-binding-of-oligonucleotides-in-dna-and-3-d-lattice-structures/
  19. Mitochondrial Metabolism and Cardiac Function
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/14/mitochondrial-metabolism-and-cardiac-function/
  20. How Methionine Imbalance with Sulfur-Insufficiency Leads to Hyperhomocysteinemia
    Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/04/sulfur-deficiency-leads_to_hyperhomocysteinemia/
  21. AMPK Is a Negative Regulator of the Warburg Effect and Suppresses Tumor Growth In Vivo
    Author and Curator: SJ. Williams
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/12/ampk-is-a-negative-regulator-of-the-warburg-effect-and-suppresses-tumor-growth-in-vivo/
  22. A Second Look at the Transthyretin Nutrition Inflammatory Conundrum
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/03/a-second-look-at-the-transthyretin-nutrition-inflammatory-conundrum/
  23. Overview of Posttranslational Modification (PTM)
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/29/overview-of-posttranslational-modification-ptm/
  24. Malnutrition in India, high newborn death rate and stunting of children age under five years
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/15/malnutrition-in-india-high-newborn-death-rate-and-stunting-of-children-age-under-five-years/
  25. Update on mitochondrial function, respiration, and associated disorders
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/08/update-on-mitochondrial-function-respiration-and-associated-disorders/
  26. Omega-3 fatty acids, depleting the source, and protein insufficiency in renal disease
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/06/omega-3-fatty-acids-depleting-the-source-and-protein-insufficiency-in-renal-disease/ 
  27. Late Onset of Alzheimer’s Disease and One-carbon Metabolism
    Reporter and Curator: Dr. Sudipta Saha, Ph.D.
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/06/alzheimers-disease-and-one-carbon-metabolism/
  28. Problems of vegetarianism
    Reporter and Curator: Dr. Sudipta Saha, Ph.D.
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/22/problems-of-vegetarianism/

 

Signaling Pathways

  1. Introduction to e-Series A: Cardiovascular Diseases, Volume Four Part 2: Regenerative Medicine
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, writer, and Aviva Lev- Ari, PhD, RN  http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/04/27/larryhbernintroduction_to_cardiovascular_diseases-translational_medicine-part_2/
  2. Epilogue: Envisioning New Insights in Cancer Translational Biology
    Series C: e-Books on Cancer & Oncology
    Author & Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Series C Content Consultant
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/03/29/epilogue-envisioning-new-insights/
  3. Ca2+-Stimulated Exocytosis:  The Role of Calmodulin and Protein Kinase C in Ca2+ Regulation of Hormone and Neurotransmitter  Writer and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Curator and Content Editor: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/23/calmodulin-and-protein-kinase-c-drive-the-ca2-regulation-of-hormone-and-neurotransmitter-release-that-triggers-ca2-stimulated-exocy
  4. Cardiac Contractility & Myocardial Performance: Therapeutic Implications of Ryanopathy (Calcium Release-related Contractile Dysfunction) and Catecholamine Responses
    Author, and Content Consultant to e-SERIES A: Cardiovascular Diseases: Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC
    Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Article Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/28/cardiac-contractility-myocardium-performance-ventricular-arrhythmias-and-non-ischemic-heart-failure-therapeutic-implications-for-cardiomyocyte-ryanopathy-calcium-release-related-contractile/
  5. Role of Calcium, the Actin Skeleton, and Lipid Structures in Signaling and Cell Motility
    Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP Author: Stephen Williams, PhD, and Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/26/role-of-calcium-the-actin-skeleton-and-lipid-structures-in-signaling-and-cell-motility/
  6. Identification of Biomarkers that are Related to the Actin Cytoskeleton
    Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/10/identification-of-biomarkers-that-are-related-to-the-actin-cytoskeleton/
  7. Advanced Topics in Sepsis and the Cardiovascular System at its End Stage
    Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/18/advanced-topics-in-Sepsis-and-the-Cardiovascular-System-at-its-End-Stage/
  8. The Delicate Connection: IDO (Indolamine 2, 3 dehydrogenase) and Cancer Immunology
    Demet Sag, PhD, Author and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/04/the-delicate-connection-ido-indolamine-2-3-dehydrogenase-and-immunology/
  9. IDO for Commitment of a Life Time: The Origins and Mechanisms of IDO, indolamine 2, 3-dioxygenase
    Demet Sag, PhD, Author and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/04/ido-for-commitment-of-a-life-time-the-origins-and-mechanisms-of-ido-indolamine-2-3-dioxygenase/
  10. Confined Indolamine 2, 3 dioxygenase (IDO) Controls the Homeostasis of Immune Responses for Good and Bad
    Author and Curator: Demet Sag, PhD, CRA, GCP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/31/confined-indolamine-2-3-dehydrogenase-controls-the-hemostasis-of-immune-responses-for-good-and-bad/
  11. Signaling Pathway that Makes Young Neurons Connect was discovered @ Scripps Research Institute
    Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/06/26/signaling-pathway-that-makes-young-neurons-connect-was-discovered-scripps-research-institute/
  12. Naked Mole Rats Cancer-Free
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/06/20/naked-mole-rats-cancer-free/
  13. Amyloidosis with Cardiomyopathy
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/31/amyloidosis-with-cardiomyopathy/
  14. Liver endoplasmic reticulum stress and hepatosteatosis
    Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/10/liver-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-hepatosteatosis/
  15. The Molecular Biology of Renal Disorders: Nitric Oxide – Part III
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/the-molecular-biology-of-renal-disorders/
  16. Nitric Oxide Function in Coagulation – Part II
    Curator and Author: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/nitric-oxide-function-in-coagulation/
  17. Nitric Oxide, Platelets, Endothelium and Hemostasis
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/08/nitric-oxide-platelets-endothelium-and-hemostasis/
  18. Interaction of Nitric Oxide and Prostacyclin in Vascular Endothelium
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/14/interaction-of-nitric-oxide-and-prostacyclin-in-vascular-endothelium/
  19. Nitric Oxide and Immune Responses: Part 1
    Curator and Author:  Aviral Vatsa PhD, MBBS
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/18/nitric-oxide-and-immune-responses-part-1/
  20. Nitric Oxide and Immune Responses: Part 2
    Curator and Author:  Aviral Vatsa PhD, MBBS
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/nitric-oxide-and-immune-responses-part-2/
  21. Nitric Oxide and iNOS have Key Roles in Kidney Diseases – Part II
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/nitric-oxide-and-inos-have-key-roles-in-kidney-diseases/
  22. New Insights on Nitric Oxide donors – Part IV
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/new-insights-on-no-donors/
  23. Crucial role of Nitric Oxide in Cancer
    Curator and Author: Ritu Saxena, Ph.D.
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/16/crucial-role-of-nitric-oxide-in-cancer/
  24. Nitric Oxide has a ubiquitous role in the regulation of glycolysis -with a concomitant influence on mitochondrial function
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/16/nitric-oxide-has-a-ubiquitous-role-in-the-regulation-of-glycolysis-with-a-concomitant-influence-on-mitochondrial-function/
  25. Nitric Oxide and Immune Responses: Part 2
    Author and Curator: Aviral Vatsa, PhD, MBBS
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/nitric-oxide-and-immune-responses-part-2/
  26. Mitochondrial Damage and Repair under Oxidative Stress
    Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/mitochondrial-damage-and-repair-under-oxidative-stress/
  27. Is the Warburg Effect the cause or the effect of cancer: A 21st Century View?
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/17/is-the-warburg-effect-the-cause-or-the-effect-of-cancer-a-21st-century-view/
  28. Targeting Mitochondrial-bound Hexokinase for Cancer Therapy
    Curator and Author: Ziv Raviv, PhD, RN 04/06/2013
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/06/targeting-mitochondrial-bound-hexokinase-for-cancer-therapy/
  29. Ubiquinin-Proteosome pathway, autophagy, the mitochondrion, proteolysis and cell apoptosis
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/30/ubiquinin-proteosome-pathway-autophagy-the-mitochondrion-proteolysis-and-cell-apoptosis/
  30. Ubiquitin-Proteosome pathway, Autophagy, the Mitochondrion, Proteolysis and Cell Apoptosis: Part III
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/02/14/ubiquinin-proteosome-pathway-autophagy-the-mitochondrion-proteolysis-and-cell-apoptosis-reconsidered/
  31. Biochemistry of the Coagulation Cascade and Platelet Aggregation – Part I
    Curator and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/biochemistry-of-the-coagulation-cascade-and-platelet-aggregation/

 

Genomics, Transcriptomics, and Epigenetics

  1. What is the meaning of so many RNAs?
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/06/what-is-the-meaning-of-so-many-rnas/
  2. RNA and the transcription the genetic code
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Writer and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/02/rna-and-the-transcription-of-the-genetic-code/
  3. A Primer on DNA and DNA Replication
    Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/29/a_primer_on_dna_and_dna_replication/
  4. Pathology Emergence in the 21st Century
    Author and Curator: Larry Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/03/pathology-emergence-in-the-21st-century/
  5. RNA and the transcription the genetic code
    Writer and Curator, Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/02/rna-and-the-transcription-of-the-genetic-code/
  6. Commentary on Biomarkers for Genetics and Genomics of Cardiovascular Disease: Views by Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/16/commentary-on-biomarkers-for-genetics-and-genomics-of-cardiovascular-disease-views-by-larry-h-bernstein-md-fcap/
  7. Observations on Finding the Genetic Links in Common Disease: Whole Genomic Sequencing Studies
    Author an Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/18/observations-on-finding-the-genetic-links/
  8. Silencing Cancers with Synthetic siRNAs
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/09/silencing-cancers-with-synthetic-sirnas/
  9. Cardiometabolic Syndrome and the Genetics of Hypertension: The Neuroendocrine Transcriptome Control Points
    Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/12/cardiometabolic-syndrome-and-the-genetics-of-hypertension-the-neuroendocrine-transcriptome-control-points/
  10. Developments in the Genomics and Proteomics of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Treatment Targets
    Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/08/developments-in-the-genomics-and-proteomics-of-type-2-diabetes-mellitus-and-treatment-targets/
  11. CT Angiography & TrueVision™ Metabolomics (Genomic Phenotyping) for new Therapeutic Targets to Atherosclerosis
    Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/15/ct-angiography-truevision-metabolomics-genomic-phenotyping-for-new-therapeutic-targets-to-atherosclerosis/
  12. CRACKING THE CODE OF HUMAN LIFE: The Birth of BioInformatics & Computational Genomics
    Genomics Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/08/30/cracking-the-code-of-human-life-the-birth-of-bioinformatics-computational-genomics/
  13. Big Data in Genomic Medicine
    Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/17/big-data-in-genomic-medicine/
  14.  From Genomics of Microorganisms to Translational Medicine
    Author and Curator: Demet Sag, PhD
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/03/20/without-the-past-no-future-but-learn-and-move-genomics-of-microorganisms-to-translational-medicine/
  15.  Summary of Genomics and Medicine: Role in Cardiovascular Diseases
    Author and Curator, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
    http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/01/06/summary-of-genomics-and-medicine-role-in-cardiovascular-diseases/

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Metabolomic analysis of two leukemia cell lines. II.

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator

Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence

 

In Part I of metabolomics of two leukemia cell lines, we have established a major premise for the study, an insight into the use of an experimental model, and some insight into questions raised.

I here return to examine these before pursuing more detail in the study.

Q1. What strong metabolic pathways come into focus in this study?

Answer – The aerobic and anaerobic glycolytic pathways, with a difference measured in the extent of participation of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation.

Q2. Would we expect to also gain insight into the effect, on balance, played by a suppressed ubiquitin pathway?

Answer – lets look into this in Part II.

Q3. Would the synthesis of phospholipid and the maintenance of membrane structures requires availability of NADPH, which would be a reversal of the TCA cycle at the cost of delta G in catabolic energy, be consistent with increased dependence of anaerobic glycolysis  with unchecked replication?

Answer: Part II might show this, as the direction and the difference between the cell lines is consistent with a Warburg (Pasteur) effect.

Recall the observation that the model is based on experimental results from  lymphocytic leukemia cell lines in cell culture.  The internal metabolic state is inferred from measurement of external metabolites.

The classification of the lymphocytic leukemias in humans is based on T-cell and B-cell lineages, but actually uses cell differentiation (CD) markers on the cytoskeleton for recognition.  It is only a conjecture that if the cells line were highly anaplastic, they might not be sustainable in cell culture in perpetuity.
The analogue of these cells to what I would expect to see in humans is the SLL having the characteristic marking: CD5, see http://www.pathologyoutlines.com/topic/lymphomaSLL.html

Micro description
=======================================================

● Effacement of nodal architecture by pale staining pseudofollicles or proliferation centers with ill-defined borders, containing small round mature lymphocytes, prolymphocytes (larger than small lymphocytes, abundant basophilic cytoplasm, prominent nucleoli), paraimmunoblasts (larger cells with distinct nucleoli) and many smudge cells
● Pseudofollicular centers are highlighted by decreasing light through the condenser at low power; cells have pale cytoplasm but resemble soccer balls or smudge cells on peripheral smear (cytoplasm is bubbly in mantle cell lymphoma); may have plasmacytoid features
● May have marginal zone, perifollicular or interfollicular patterns, but these cases also have proliferation centers (Mod Pathol 2000;13:1161)
● Interfollicular pattern: large, reactive germinal centers; resembles follicular lymphoma but germinal centers are bcl2 negative and tumor cells resemble SLL by morphology and immunostains
(Am J Clin Path 2000;114:41)
● Paraimmunoblastic variant: diffuse proliferation of paraimmunoblasts (normally just in pseudoproliferation centers); rare, <30 reported cases; usually multiple lymphadenopathies and rapid disease progression; case report in 69 year old man (Hum Pathol 2002;33:1145); consider as mantile cell lymphoma if t(11;14)(q13;q32) is present; may also represent CD5+ diffuse large B cell lymphoma
Bone marrow: small focal aggregates of variable size with irregular, poorly circumscribed outlines; lymphocytes are well differentiated, small, round with minimal atypia; may have foci of transformation; rarely has granulomas (J Clin Pathol 2005;58:815)
● Marrow infiltrative patterns are also described as diffuse (unmutated IgH genes, ZAP-70+, more aggressive), nodular (associated with IgH hypermutation, ZAP-70 negative) or mixed (variable mutation of IgH, variable ZAP-70, Hum Pathol 2006;37:1153)

 

Positive stains
=======================================================

● CD5, CD19, CD20 (dim), CD23, surface Ig light chain, surface IgM (dim)
● Also CD43, CD79a, CD79b (dim in 20%, Arch Pathol Lab Med 2003;127:561), bcl2
● Variable CD11c, FMC7 (42%)
Negative stains
=======================================================

● CD10, cyclin D1
Molecular
=======================================================

● Trisomy 12 (30%, associated with atypical CLL and CD79b), deletion 13q14 (25-50%),
deletion of 11q23 (worse prognosis, 10-20%)

 

Results

We set up a pipeline that could be used to

  • infer intracellular metabolic states from semi-quantitative data
  • regarding metabolites exchanged between cells and their environment.

Our pipeline combined the following four steps:

  1. data acquisition,
  2. data analysis,
  3. metabolic modeling and
  4.  experimental validation of
  • the model predictions (Fig. 1A).

We demonstrated the pipeline and the predictive potential

  • to predict metabolic alternations in diseases such as cancer
  • based on two lymphoblastic leukemia cell lines.

The resulting Molt-4 and CCRF-CEM condition-specific cell line models were able

  • to explain metabolite uptake and secretion
  •  by predicting the distinct utilization of central metabolic pathways by the two cell lines.

Whereas the CCRF-CEM model

  • resembled more a glycolytic, commonly referred to as ‘Warburg’ phenotype,
  • our predictions suggested  a more respiratory phenotype for the Molt-4  model.

We found these predictions to be in agreement with measured gene expression differences

  • at key regulatory steps in the central metabolic pathways, and
  • they were also consistent with  data regarding the energy and redox states of the cells.

After a brief discussion of the data generation and analysis steps, the results

  • derived from model generation and analysis will be described in detail.

 

2.1 Pipeline for generation of condition-specific metabolic cell line models

2.1.1 Generation of experimental data

We monitored the growth and viability of lymphoblastic leukemia cell lines in
serum- free medium (File S2, Fig. S1). Multiple omics  data sets  were derived  from these cells.

Extracellular metabolomics (exo-metabolomic) data,

  • comprising measurements of the metabolites in the spent medium of the cell cultures
    (Paglia et al. 2012a),
  • were collected along with transcriptomic data, and
  • these data sets were used to construct the models.

 

2.1.4 Condition-specific models for CCRF-CEM and Molt-4 cells

To determine whether we had obtained two distinct models,

  • we evaluated the reactions, metabolites, and genes of the two models.

Both the Molt-4 and CCRF-CEM models contained approximately

  • half of the reactions and metabolites present in the global model (Fig. 1C).

They were very similar to each other in terms of their

  • reactions,
  • metabolites, and
  • genes (File S1, Table S5A–C).

The Molt– 4 model contained

  • seven reactions that were not present in the CCRF-CEM model
    (Co-A biosynthesis pathway and exchange reactions).

In contrast, the CCRF-CEM  contained

31 unique reactions

  • arginine and proline metabolism,
  • vitamin B6  metabolism,
  • fatty acid activation,
  • transport, and exchange reaction.
  • There  were 2 and 15 unique metabolites in the Molt-4 and CCRF-CEM models,  respectively
    (File S1, Table S5B).
    Approximately three quarters of the global  model  genesremained in the condition-specific cell line models  (Fig. 1C).

The Molt-4 model contained

  • 15 unique genes, and

the CCRF-CEM model had

  • 4 unique genes (File S1, Table S5C).

Both models lacked NADH dehydrogenase
(complex I of the electron transport chain—ETC),

  •  determined by  the  absence of expression of a mandatory subunit
    (NDUFB3, Entrez gene ID 4709).

The ETC was fueled by FADH2 originating from

  1. succinate dehydrogenase and
  2. from fatty acid oxidation, which
  • through flavoprotein electron transfer
  • could contribute to the same ubiquinone pool as
  • complex I and complex II (succinate dehydrogenase).

Despite their different in vitro growth rates
(which differed by 11 %, see File S2, Fig. S1) and

  • differences in exo-metabolomic data (Fig. 1B) and
  • transcriptomic data,
  • the internal networks were largely conserved
  • in the two condition-specific cell line models.

 

2.1.5 Condition-specific cell line models predict distinct metabolic strategies

Despite the overall similarity of the metabolic models,

  • differences in their cellular uptake and secretion patterns suggested
  • distinct metabolic states in the two cell lines
    (Fig. 1B and see “Materials and methods” section for more detail).

To interrogate the metabolic differences, we sampled the solution space

  • of each model  using an Artificial Centering Hit-and-Run (ACHR) sampler (Thiele et al. 2005).

For this  analysis, additional constraints were applied, emphasizing

  • the  quantitative differences in commonly uptaken and secreted metabolites.

The  maximum possible uptake and maximum possible secretion flux rates were

  • reduced according to the measured relative differences between the cell lines
    (Fig. 1D, see “Materials and methods” section).

We plotted the number of sample points containing a particular flux rate for each reaction. The resulting

  • binned histograms can be understood as representing the probability that
  • a particular reaction can have a certain flux value.

A comparison of the sample points obtained for the Molt-4 and CCRF-CEM models revealed

  • a  considerable shift in the distributions, suggesting
  • a higher utilization of  glycolysis by the CCRF-CEM model (File S2, Fig. S2).

This result  was further  supported by differences

  • in medians calculated from sampling points (File S1,  Table S6).

The shift persisted throughout all reactions of the pathway and

  • was  induced by the higher glucose uptake (35 %) from
  • the extracellular medium in CCRF-CEM cells.

The sampling median for glucose uptake was 34 % higher

  • in the  CCRF-CEM model than in Molt-4 model (File S2, Fig. S2).

The usage of the  TCA cycle was also distinct in the two condition-specific cell-line models (Fig. 2).

  • the models used succinate dehydrogenase differently (Figs. 23).

The Molt-4 model utilized an associated reaction to generate FADH2, whereas

  • in  the CCRF-CEM model, the histogram was shifted in the opposite direction,
  • toward  the generation of succinate.

Additionally, there was a higher efflux of  citrate toward

  • amino acid and lipid metabolism in the CCRF-CEM model (Fig. 2).

There was higher flux through anaplerotic and cataplerotic reactions

  • in the CCRF-CEM model than in the Molt-4 model (Fig. 2);
  • these reactions include the efflux  of citrate through

 

  1. ATP-citrate lyase,
  2. uptake of glutamine,
  3. generation of  glutamate from glutamine,
  4. transamination of pyruvate and
  5.  glutamate to alanine  and to 2-oxoglutarate,
  6. secretion of nitrogen, and
  7. secretion of alanine.

The Molt-4 model showed higher utilization of oxidative phosphorylation (Fig. 3),

  • supported by elevated median flux through ATP synthase (36 %) and other  enzymes,
  • which contributed to higher oxidative metabolism.

The sampling  analysis therefore revealed different usage of

  • central metabolic pathways by the condition-specific models.

 

Fig. 2

Differences in the use of the TCA cycle by the CCRF-CEM

Differences in the use of the TCA cycle by the CCRF-CEM

Differences in the use of the TCA cycle by the CCRF-CEM model (red) and the Molt-4 model (blue).
The table provides the median values of the sampling results. Negative values in histograms and Table

  • describe reversible  reactions with flux in the reverse direction.

There are multiple reversible  reactions for the transformation of

  1. isocitrate and α-ketoglutarate,
  2. malate and  fumarate, and
  3. succinyl-CoA and succinate.

These reactions are  unbounded,  and therefore histograms are not shown.
The details of participating cofactors  have been removed.

Atp ATP, cit citrate, adp ADP, pi phosphate, oaa oxaloacetate, accoa acetyl-CoAcoa coenzyme-A,
icit isocitrate, αkg α-ketoglutarate, succcoa succinyl-CoAsucc succinate, fumfumarate, mal malate,
oxa oxaloacetate,  pyr pyruvate, lac lactate, ala alanine, gln glutamine, ETC electron transport  chain.

 

Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1007/s11306-014-0721-3 
contains supplementary material,  which  is available to authorized users.

  1.  K. Aurich _ G. Paglia _ O ´ . Rolfsson _ S. Hrafnsdo´ ttir _
  2. Magnu´sdo´ ttir _ B. Ø. Palsson _ R. M. T. Fleming _ I. Thiele. Center for Systems Biology,
    University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
  3.  K. Aurich _ R. M. T. Fleming _ I. Thiele (&). Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine,
    University of Luxembourg, Campus Belval, Esch-Sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
    e-mail: ines.thiele@uni.lu
  4. M. Stefaniak. School of Health Science, Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition,
    University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
  5. Ø. Palsson. Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA

http://link.springer.com/static-content/images/404/art%253A10.1007%252
Fs11306-014-0721-3/MediaObjects/11306_2014_721_Fig3_HTML.gif

 

Fig. 3

Fatty acid oxidation and ETC _Fig3

Fatty acid oxidation and ETC _Fig3

 

Sampling reveals different utilization of oxidative phosphorylation by the

  • generated models.

Different distributions are observed for the CCRF-CEM model (red) and the Molt-4 model (blue).

  • Molt-4 has higher  median  flux through ETC reactions II–IV.

The table provides the median values  of the sampling results. Negative values in the histograms and in the table describe

  • reversible reactions with flux in the reverse direction.

Both models lack Complex I of the ETC because of constraints

  • arising from the mapping of transcriptomic data.

Electron transfer flavoprotein and

  • electron transfer flavoprotein–ubiquinone oxidoreductase
  •  both also carry higher flux in the Molt-4 model

 

2.1.6 Experimental validation of energy and redox status of CCRF-CEM and Molt-4 cells

Cancer cells have to balance their needs

  •  for energy and biosynthetic precursors, and they have
  • to maintain redox homeostasis to proliferate (Cairns et al. 2011).

We conducted enzymatic assays of cell lysates to measure levels and/or ratios of

  • ATP,
  • NADPH + NADP,
  • NADH + NAD, and
  • glutathione.

These measurements were used to provide support for

  • the in silico predicted metabolic differences (Fig. 4).

Additionally, an Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) assay was used

  • to evaluate the cellular antioxidant status (Fig. 4B).

Total concentrations of NADH + NAD, GSH + GSSG, NADPH + NADP and ATP, were higher in Molt-4 cells  (Fig. 4A).

The higher ATP concentration in Molt-4 cells could either result from

  • high production rates, or intracellular  accumulation connected to high or
  • low reactions fluxes (Fig. 4A).

Our simplified view that oxidative Molt-4 produces less ATP and was contradicted by

  • the higher ATP concentrations measured (Fig. 4L).

Yet we want to emphasize that concentrations

  • cannot be compared to flux values,
  • since we are modeling at steady-state.

NADH/NAD+ ratios for both cell lines were shifted toward NADH (Fig. 4D, E), but

  • the shift toward NADH was more pronounced in CCRF-CEM (Fig. 4E),
  • which matched  our expectation based on the higher utilization of
  • glycolysis and 2-oxoglutarate  dehydrogenase in the CCRF-CEM model (Fig. 4L).

 

Fig. 4 (not shown)

A–K  Experimentally determined ATP, NADH + NAD, NADPH + NADP, and GSH + GSSG concentrations, and ROS detoxification in the CCRF-CEM and Molt-4 cells.

L Expectations for cellular energy and redox states. Expectations are based on predicted metabolic differences of the Molt-4 and CCRF-CEM models

2.1.7 Comparison of network utilization and alteration in gene expression

With the assumption that

  • differential expression of particular genes would cause reaction flux changes,

we determined how the differences in gene expression (between CCRF-CEM and Molt-4)

  • compared to the flux differences observed in the  models.

Specifically, we checked whether the reactions associated with genes upregulated
(significantly more expressed in CCRF-CEM cells compared to Molt-4  cells)

  • were indeed more utilized by the CCRF-CEM model,

and we  checked  whether downregulated genes

  • were associated with reactions more utilized by the Molt-4 model.

The set of downregulated genes was associated with 15 reactions, and

  • the set of 49 upregulated genes was associated with 113 reactions in the models.

Reactions were defined as differently utilized

  • if the difference in flux exceeded 10 % (considering only non-loop reactions).

Of the reactions associated with upregulated genes,

  • 72.57 % were more utilized by the CCRF-CEM model, and
  • 2.65 % were more utilized by the Molt-4 model (File S1, Table S7).

In contrast, all 15 reactions associated with the 12 downregulated genes

  • were more utilized in the CCRF-CEM model (File S1, Table S8).

After this initial analysis, we approached the question from a different angle, asking

  • whether the majority of the reactions associated with each individual gene
  • upregulated in CCRF-CEM were more utilized by the CCRF-CEM model.
  •  this was the case for 77.55 % of the upregulated genes.

The majority of reactions associated with two (16.67 %) downregulated genes

  • were more utilized by the Molt-4 model.

Taken together, our comparisons of the

  • direction of gene expression with the fluxes of the two cancer cell-line models
  • confirmed that reactions associated with upregulated genes in the CCRF-CEM
    cells were generally more utilized by the CCRF-CEM model.

2.1.8 Accumulation of DEGs and AS genes at key metabolic steps

After we confirmed that most reactions associated with upregulated genes

  • were more utilized by the CCRF-CEM model,

we checked the locations of DEGs within the network. In this analysis, we paid special attention to

  • the central metabolic pathways that we had found
  • to be distinctively utilized by the two models.

Several DEGs and AS events were associated with

  • glycolysis,
  • the ETC,
  • pyruvate metabolism, and
  • the PPP (Table 1).

 

Table 1

DEGs and AS events of central metabolic and cancer-related pathways

Full lists of DEGs and AS are provided in the supplementary material.

Upregulated significantly more expressed in CCRF-CEM compared to Molt-4 cells

PPP pentose phosphate pathway, OxPhos oxidative phosphorylation, Glycolysis/gluconglycolysis/gluconeogenesis, Pyruvate met. pyruvate metabolism

Moreover, in glycolysis, the DEGs and/or AS genes

  • were associated with all three rate-limiting steps, i.e., the steps mediated by
  1. hexokinase,
  2. pyruvate kinase, and
  3. phosphofructokinase.

Of these key enzymes,

  • hexokinase 1 (Entrez Gene ID: 3098) was alternatively spliced,
  • pyruvate kinase (PKM, Entrez gene ID: 5315) was significantly more
    expressed in the CCRF-CEM cells (Table 1),

in agreement with the higher in silico predicted flux.

However, in contrast to the observed

  • higher utilization of glycolysis in the CCRF-CEM model,
  • the gene associated with the rate-limiting glycolysis step, phosphofructokinase (Entrez Gene ID: 5213),
  • was significantly upregulated in Molt-4 cells relative to CCRF-CEM cells.

This higher expression was detected for only a single isozyme, however. Two of
the three genes associated with phosphofructokinase were also subject to
alternative splicing (Table 1). In addition to the key enzymes, fructose
bisphosphate aldolase (Entrez Gene ID: 230) was also significantly

  • upregulated in Molt-4 cells relative to CCRF-CEM cells,
  • in contrast to the predicted higher utilization of glycolysis in the CCRF-CEM model.

Additionally, glucose-6P-dehydrogenase (G6PD), which catalyzes

  • the first reaction and committed step of the PPP,
  • was an AS gene (Table 1).

A second AS gene associated with

  •  the PPP reaction of the deoxyribokinase
  • was RBKS (Entrez Gene ID: 64080).

This gene is also associated with ribokinase, but ribokinase was removed

  • because of the lack of ribose uptake or secretion.

Single AS genes were associated with different complexes of the ETC (Table 1).

Literature query revealed that at least 13 genes associated with alternative

  • splicing events were mentioned previously in connection with both alternative
    splicing and cancer (File S1, Table S14), and
  • 37 genes were associated with cancer, e.g., upregulated, downregulated at the
    level of mRNA or protein, or otherwise
  • connected to cancer metabolism and signaling.

One general observation was that there was a surprising

  • accumulation of metabolite transporters among the AS.

Overall, the high incidence of

  • differential gene expression events at metabolic control points
  • increases the plausibility of the in silico predictions.

 

2.1.9 Single gene deletion

Analyses of essential genes in metabolic models have been used

  • to predict candidate drug targets for cancer cells (Folger et al. 2011).

Here, we conducted an in silico gene deletion study for all model genes to identify

  • a unique set of knock-out (KO) genes
  • for each condition-specific cell line model.

The analysis yielded 63 shared lethal KO genes and

  • distinct sets of KO genes for the CCRF-CEM model (11 genes) and the Molt-4 model (3 genes).

For three of the unique CCRF-CEM KO genes,

  • the genes were only present in the CCRF-CEM model (File S1, Table S9).

 

The essential genes for both models were then

  • related to the cell-line-specific differences in metabolite uptake and secretion (Fig. 1B).

The CCRF-CEM model

  1. needed to generate putrescine from ornithine
    (ORNDC, Entrez Gene ID: 4953)
  2. to subsequently produce 5-methylthioadenosine for secretion (Fig. 1B).
  3. S-adenosylmethioninamine produced by adenosylmethionine decarboxylase
    (arginine and proline metabolism, associated with Entrez Gene ID: 262)
  • is a substrate required for generation of 5-methylthioadenosine.

Another example of a KO gene connected to an enforced exchange reaction was

  • glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase 1 (GOT1, Entrez Gene ID: 2805).

Without GOT1, the CCRF-CEM model was forced to secrete

  • 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate (Fig. 1B),
  • the second product of tyrosine transaminase,
  • which is produced only by that enzyme.

 

One KO gene in the Molt-4 model (Entrez Gene ID: 26227) was associated with

  • phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (PGDH),
  • which catalyzes the conversion of 3-phospho-d-glycerate to 3-phosphohydroxypyruvate
  • while generating NADH from NAD+.

This KO gene is particularly interesting, given

  • the involvement of this reaction in a novel pathway for ATP generation in rapidly proliferating cells
    (Locasale et al. 2011; Vander Heiden 2011; Vazquez et al. 2011).

Reactions associated with unique KO genes were in many cases utilized more by the model, in which

  • the gene KO was lethal,
  • underlining the potential importance of these reactions for the models.

Thus, single gene deletion provided unique sets of lethal genes that could be

  • specifically targeted to kill these cells.

 

3 Discussion

In the current study, we explored the possibility of

  • semi-quantitatively integrating metabolomic data with
  • the human genome-scale reconstruction to facilitate analysis.

By constructing condition-specific cell line models

  • to provide a structured framework,
  • we derived insights that could not have been obtained from data analysis alone.

We derived condition-specific cell line models

  • for CCRF-CEM and
  • Molt-4 cells

that were able to explain the observed exo-metabolomic differences (Fig. 1B).

Despite the overall similarities between the models, the analysis revealed

  • distinct usage of central metabolic pathways (Figs. 234),
  • which we validated based on experimental data and
  • differential gene expression.

The additional data sufficiently supported

  • metabolic differences in the cell lines,
  • providing confidence in the generated models and the model-based predictions.

We used the validated models

  • to predict unique sets of lethal genes
  • to identify weak links in each model.

These weak links may represent potential drug targets.

Integrating omics data with the human genome-scale reconstruction

  • provides a structured framework (i.e., pathways)
  • that is based on careful consideration of the available biochemical literature
    (Thiele and Palsson2010).

This network context can simplify omics data analysis, and

  • it allows even non-biochemical experts
  • to gain fast and comprehensive insights
  • into the metabolic aspects of omics data sets.

Compared to transcriptomic data,

  • methods for the integration and analysis of metabolomic data
  • in the context of metabolic models are less well established,

although it is an active field of research (Li et al. 2013; Paglia et al. 2012b).
In contrast to other studies, our approach emphasizes

  • the representation of experimental conditions rather than
  • the reconstruction of a generic, cell-line-specific network,
  • which would require the combination of data sets from
  • many experimental conditions and extensive manual curation.

Rather, our way of model construction allowed us to efficiently

  • assess the metabolic characteristics of cells.

Despite the fact, that only a limited number of exchanged metabolites can be

  • measured by available metabolomics platforms and
  • at reasonable time-scale,

and that pathways of measured metabolites might still be unknown to date
(File S1, Tables S2–S3), our methods have the potential

  • to reveal metabolic characteristics of cells
  • which could be useful for biomedicine and personalized health.

The reasons why some cancers respond to certain treatments and not others
remain unclear, and choosing a treatment for a specific patient is often difficult
(Vander Heiden 2011). One potential application of our approach could be the
characterization of cancer phenotypes to explore how cancer cells or other cell
types

  • with particular metabolic characteristics respond to drugs.

The generation of our condition-specific cell line models involved

  • only limited manual curation,
  • making this approach a fast way to place metabolomic data
  • into a network context.

Model building mainly involves

  • the rigid reduction of metabolite exchanges
  • to match the observed metabolite exchange pattern
  • with as few additional metabolite exchanges as possible.

It should be noted that this reduction determines,

  • which pathways can be utilized by the model.

Our approach mostly conserved the internal network redundancy. However, a

  • more significant reduction may be achieved using different data.

Generally, a trade-off exists between the reduction of the internal network and

  • the increasing number of network gaps that need to be curated
  • by using additional omics data, such as transcriptomics and proteomics.

One way to prevent the emergence of network gaps would be

  • to use mapping algorithms that conserve network functionality,
    such as GIMME (Becker and Palsson 2008).

However, several additional methods exist for the integration of
transcriptomic data (Blazier and Papin 2012), and

  • which model-building method is best depends on the available data.

Interestingly, the lack of a significant contribution of our

  • gene expression data to the reduction of network size
  • suggests that the use of transcriptomic data is not necessary
  • to identify distinct metabolic strategies;
  • rather, the integration of exo-metabolomic data alone
    may provide sufficient insight.

However, sampling of the cell line models constrained

  • according to the exo-metabolomic profiles only, or
  • increasing the cutoff for the generation of absent and present calls (p < 0.01),
  • did not yield the same insights as presented herein (File S1, Table S18).

Only recently Gene Inactivation Moderated by Metabolism, Metabolomics and
Expression (GIM(3)E) became available, which

  • enforces minimum turnover of detected metabolites
  • based on intracellular metabolomics data as well as
  • gene expression microarray data (Schmidt et al. 2013).

In contrast to this approach, we emphasized our analysis on the

  • relative differences in the exo-metabolomic data of two cell lines.

GIM(3)E constitutes another integration method when the analysis should be

  • emphasized on intracellular metabolomics data (Schmidt et al. 2013).

The metabolic differences predicted by the models are generally plausible.
Cancers are known to be heterogeneous (Cairns et al. 2011), and

  • the contribution of oxidative phosphorylation to cellular ATP production
    may vary (Zu and Guppy 2004).

Moreover, leukemia cell lines have been shown

  • to depend on glucose, glutamine, and fatty acids to varying extents
  • to support proliferation.

Such dependence may cause the cells to adapt their metabolism

  • to the environmental conditions (Suganuma et al. 2010).

In addition to identifying supporting data in the literature, we performed

  • several analyses to validate the models and model predictions.

Our expectations regarding the levels and ratios of metabolites

  • relevant to energy and redox state were largely met (Fig. 4L).

The more pronounced shift of the NADH/NAD+ ratio

  • toward NADH in the CCRF-CEM cells
  • was in agreement with the predicted Warburg phenotype (Fig. 4),
  • and the higher lactate secretion in the CCRF-CEM cells (File S2, Fig. S2)
  • implies an increase in NADH relative to NAD+
    (Chiarugi et al. 2012; Nikiforov et al. 2011), again
  • matching the known Warburg phenotype.

ROS production is enhanced in certain types of cancer (Droge 2002; Ha et al. 2000), and

  • the generation of ROS is thought to contribute to
  1. mutagenesis,
  2. tumor promotion, and
  3. tumor progression (Dreher and Junod1996; Ha et al. 2000).

However, decreased mitochondrial glucose oxidation and

  • a transition to aerobic glycolysis
  • protect cells against ROS damage during biosynthesis and cell division
    (Brand and Hermfisse1997).

The higher ROS detoxification capability in Molt-4 cells, in combination with

  • higher spermidine dismutase utilization by the Molt-4 model (Fig. 4),
  • provided a consistent picture of the predicted respiratory phenotype (Fig. 4L).

Control of NADPH maintains the redox potential through GSH and

  • protects against oxidative stress, yet
  • changes in the NADPH ratio in response to oxidative damage
  • are not well understood (Ogasawara et al.2009).

Under stress conditions, as assumed for Molt-4 cells,

  • the NADPH/NADP+ ratio is expected to decrease because of
  • the continuous reduction of GSSG (Fig. 4L), and
  • this was confirmed in the Molt-4 cells (Fig. 4).

The higher amounts of GSH found in Molt-4 cells in vitro may demonstrate

  • an additional need for ROS scavengers because of
  • a greater reliance on oxidative metabolism.

Cancer is related to metabolic reprogramming, which results from

  • alterations of gene expression and
  • the expression of specific isoforms or
  • splice forms to support proliferation
    (Cortes-Cros et al. 2013; Marin-Hernandez et al. 2009).

The gene expression differences detected between the two cell lines in this study
supported the existence of

  • metabolic differences in these cell lines, particularly because
  • key steps of the metabolic pathways central to cancer metabolism
  • seemed to be differentially regulated (Table 1).

The detailed analysis of the respective

  • differences on the pathway fluxes exceeds the scope of this study, which was to
  • demonstrate the potential of the integration of exo-metabolomic data into the network context.

We found discrepancies between differential gene regulation and

  • the flux differences between the two models as well as
  • the utilization AS gene-associated reaction.

This is not surprising, since analysis of the detailed system is required

  • to make any further assumptions on the impact that
  • the differential regulation or splicing might have on the reaction flux,
  • given that for many of the concerned enzymes isozymes exist, or
  • only one of multiple subunits of a protein complex was concerned.

Additionally, reaction fluxes are regulated by numerous post-translational factors, e.g.,

  • protein modification,
  • inhibition through proteins or metabolites,
  • alter reaction fluxes (Lenzen 2014),

which are out of the scope of constraint-based steady-state modeling.

Rather, the results of the presented  approach

  • demonstrate how the models can be used to generate
  • informed hypothesis that can guide experimental work.

The combination of our tailored metabolic models and

  • differential gene expression analysis seems well-suited
  • to determine the potential drivers
  • involved in metabolic differences between cells.

Such information could be valuable for drug discovery, especially when more

  • peripheral metabolic pathways are considered.

Statistical comparisons of gene expression data with sampling-derived flux data

  • could be useful in future studies (Mardinoglu et al. 2013).

A single-gene-deletion analysis revealed that PGDH was

  • a lethal KO gene for the Molt-4 model only.

Differences in PGDH protein levels

  • correspond to the amount of glycolytic carbon
  • diverted into glycine biosynthesis.

Rapidly proliferating cells may use an

  • alternative glycolytic pathway for ATP generation,
  • which may provide an advantage in the case of
  • extensive oxidative phosphorylation and proliferation
    (Locasale et al.2011; Vander Heiden 2011; Vazquez et al. 2011).

For breast cancer cell lines, variable dependency on

  • the expression of PGDH has already been demonstrated
    (Locasale et al. 2011).

This example of a unique KO gene demonstrates how

  • in silico gene deletion in metabolomics-driven models
  • can identify the metabolic pathways used by cancer cells.

This approach can provide valuable information for drug discovery.

In conclusion, our contextualization method produced

  • metabolic models that agreed in many ways with the validation data sets.

The analyses described in this study have great potential to reveal

  • the mechanisms of metabolic reprogramming,
  • not only in cancer cells but also in other cells affected by diseases, and
  • for drug discovery in general.

 

4.3 Analysis of the extracellular metabolome

Mass spectrometry analysis of the exo-metabolome was performed by
Metabolon®, Inc. (Durham, NC, USA) using a standardized analytical platform.
In total, 75 extracellular metabolites were detected in the initial data set for at
least 1 of the 2 cell lines (Paglia et al. 2012a). Of these metabolites, 15 were not
part of our global model and were discarded. Apart from being absent in our
global model, an independent search in HMDB (Wishart et al. 2013) revealed no
pathway information was available for most of these metabolites (File S1, Tables S2–S3).
It should be noted that metabolites e.g.,

  • N-acetylisoleucine,
  • N-acetyl-methionine or pseudouridine,

constitute protein and RNA degradation products, which were out of the scope
of the metabolic network.

Thiamin (Vitamin B1) was part of the minimal medium of essential compounds
supplied to both models.Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) and Trehalose were excluded
since these compounds cannot be produced by human cells. Erythrose and
fructose were also excluded. In contrast 46 metabolites that were part of the
global model. The data set included two different time points, which allowed us
to treat the increase/decrease of a metabolite signal between time points as

  • evidence for uptake or secretion when the change was greater than 5 %
    from what was observed in the control (File S1, Tables S2–S3).

We found 12 metabolites that were taken up by both cell lines and
10 metabolites that were commonly secreted by both cell lines over
the course of the experiment.

Molt-4 cells took up three metabolites not taken up by CCRF-CEM cells, and
secreted one metabolite not secreted by CCRF-CEM cells. Two of the three
uniquely uptaken metabolites were essential amino acids:

  1. valine and
  2. methionine.

It is unlikely that these metabolites were not taken up by the CCRF-CEM cells,
and the CCRF-CEM model was allowed to take up this metabolite. Therefore,
no quantitative constraints were applied for the sampling analysis either.
CCRF-CEM cells had

  • four unique uptaken
  • and seven unique secreted metabolites
    (exchange not detected in Molt-4 cells).

 

4.4 Network refinement based on exo-metabolic data

Despite its comprehensiveness, the human metabolic reconstruction is

  • not complete with respect to extracellular metabolite transporters
    (Sahoo et al. 2014; Thiele et al. 2013).

Accordingly, we identified metabolite transport systems

  • from the literature for metabolites that were already part of the global model,
  • but whose extracellular transport was not yet accounted for.

Diffusion reactions were included whenever a respective transporter could not be identified.

In total, 34 reactions [11 exchange reactions, 16 transport reactions and 7 demand reactions
(File S1, Table S11)] were added to Recon 2 (Thiele et al. 2013), and 2 additional reactions
were added to the global model (File S1, Table S10).

4.5 Expression profiling

Molt-4 and CCRF-CEM cells were grown in advanced RPMI 1640 and 2 mM
GlutaMax, and the cells were resuspended in medium containing DMSO
(0.67 %) at a concentration of 5 × 105 cells/mL. The cell suspension (2 mL)
was seeded in 12-well plates in triplicate. After 48 h of growth, the cells
were collected by centrifugation at 201×g for 5 min. Cell pellets were snap-frozen
in liquid N2 and kept frozen until RNA extraction and analysis by Aros
(Aarhus, Denmark).

4.6 Analysis of transcriptomic data

We used the Affymetrix GeneChip Human Exon 1.0 ST Array to measure whole
genome exon expression. We generated detection above background (DABG) calls
using ROOT (version 22) and the XPS package for R (version 11.1), with Robust
Multi-array Analysis summarization. Calls for data mapping were assigned based
on p < 0.05 as the cutoff probability to distinguish presence versus absence for
the 1,278 model genes (File S1, Table S12).

Differential gene expression and alternative splicing analyses were performed by
using AltAnalyse software (v2.02beta) with default options on the raw data files
(CEL files). The Homo sapiens Ensemble 65 database was used, probe set filtering
was kept as DABG p < 0.05, and non-log expression < 70 was used for
constitutive probe sets to determine gene expression levels. For the comparison,
CCRF-CEM was the experimental group and Molt-4 was the baseline group. The
set of DEGs between cell lines was identified based on a p < 0.05 FDR cutoff
(File S1, Table S13A–B). Alternative splicing analysis was performed on core probe sets
with a minimum alternative exon score of 2 and a maximum absolute gene
expression change of 3 because alternative splicing is a less critical factor among
highly DEGs (File S1, Table S14). Gene expression data, complete lists of DABG p-values,
DEGs and alternative splicing events have been deposited in the Gene
Expression Omnibus
 (GEO) database (Accession number: GSE53123).

 

4.7 Deriving cell-type-specific subnetworks

Transcriptomic data were mapped to the model in a manual fashion (COBRA
function: deleteModelGenes). Specifically, reactions dependent on gene products
that were called as “absent” were constrained to zero, such that fluxes through
these reactions were disabled. Submodels were extracted based on the set of
reactions carrying flux (network pruning) by running fastFVA
(Gudmundsson and Thiele 2010) after mapping the metabolomic and
transcriptomic data using the COBRA toolbox (Schellenberger et al. 2011).

 

…..

 

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

File S1. Supplementary material 1 (XLSX 915 kb)

File S2. Supplementary material 2 (DOCX 448 kb)

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Metabolomic analysis of two leukemia cell lines. I.

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator

Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence

 

I have just posted a review of metabolomics.  In the last few weeks, the Human Metabolome was published.  I am hopeful that my decision has taken the right path to prepare my readers adequately if they will have read the articles that preceded this.  I pondered how I would present this massive piece of work, a study using two leukemia cell lines and mapping the features and differences that drive the carcinogenesis pathways, and identify key metabolic signatures in these differentiated cell types and subtypes.  It is a culmination of a large collaborative effort that required cell culture, enzymatic assays, mass spectrometry, the full measure of which I need not present here, and a very superb validation of the model with a description of method limitations or conflicts.  This is a beautiful piece of work carried out by a small group by today’s standards.

I shall begin this by asking a few questions that will be addressed in the article, which I need to beak up into parts, to draw the readers in more effectively.

Q 1. What metabolic pathways do you expect to have the largest role in the study about to be presented?

Q2. What are the largest metabolic differences that one expects to see in compairing the two lymphoblastic cell lines?

Q3. What methods would be used to extract the information based on external metabolites, enzymes, substrates, etc., to create the model for the cell internal metabolome?

 

 

Abstract

Metabolic models can provide a mechanistic framework to analyze information-rich omics data sets, and are increasingly being used

  • to investigate metabolic alternations in human diseases.

An expression of the altered metabolic pathway utilization is

  • the selection of metabolites consumed and released by cells.

However, methods for the inference of intracellular metabolic states from extracellular measurements in the context of metabolic models

  • remain underdeveloped compared to methods for other omics data.

Herein, we describe a workflow for such an integrative analysis

  • extracting the information from extracellular metabolomics data.

We demonstrate, using the lymphoblastic leukemia cell lines Molt-4 and CCRF-CEM, how

  • our methods can reveal differences in cell metabolism.

Our models explain metabolite uptake and secretion by

  • predicting a more glycolytic phenotype for the CCRF-CEM model and
  • a more oxidative phenotype for the Molt-4 model, which
  • was supported by our experimental data.

Gene expression analysis revealed altered expression of gene products at

  • key regulatory steps in those central metabolic pathways,

and literature query emphasized

  • the role of these genes in cancer metabolism.

Moreover, in silico gene knock-outs identified

  • unique control points for each cell line model, e.g., phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase for the Molt-4 model.

Thus, our workflow is well suited to the characterization of cellular metabolic traits based on

  • extracellular metabolomic data, and
  • it allows the integration of multiple omics data sets into a cohesive picture based on a defined model context.

Keywords Constraint-based modeling _ Metabolomics _Multi-omics _ Metabolic network _ Transcriptomics

 

Reviewer Summary:

  1. A model is introduced to demonstrate a lymphocytic integrated data set using to cell lines.
  2. The method is required to integrate extracted data sets from extracellular metabolites to an intracellular picture of cellular metabolism for each cell line.
  3. The method predicts a more glycolytic or a more oxidative metabolic framework for one or the othe cell line.
  4. The genetic phenotypes differ with a unique control point for each cell line.
  5. The model presents an integration of omics data sets into a cohesive picture based on the model context.

Without having seen the full presentation –

  1. Is the method a snapshot of the neoplastic processes described?
  2. Does the model give insight into the cellular metabolism of an initial cell state for either one or both cell lines?
  3. Would one be able to predict a therapeutic strategy based on the model for either or both cell lines?

Before proceeding further into the study, I would conjecture that there is no way of knowing the initial state ( consistent with what is described by Ilya Prigogine for a self-organizing system) because the model is based on the study of cultured cells that had an unknown metabolic control profile in a host proliferating bone marrow that is likely B-cell origin.  So this is a snapshot of a stable state of two incubated cell lines.  Then the question that is raised is whether there is not only a genetic-phenotypic relationship between the cells in culture and the external metabolites produced, but also whether differences can be discerned between the  internal metabolic constructions that would fit into a family tree.

 

Introduction

Modern high-throughput techniques

  • have increased the pace of biological data generation.

Also referred to as the ‘‘omics avalanche’’, this wealth of data

  • provides great opportunities for metabolic discovery.

Omics data sets contain a snapshot of almost the entire repertoire of

  • mRNA, protein, or metabolites at a given time point or
  • under a particular set of experimental conditions.

Because of the high complexity of the data sets,

  • computational modeling is essential for their integrative analysis.

Currently, such data analysis

  • is a bottleneck in the research process and
  • methods are needed to facilitate the use of these data sets, e.g.,
  1. through meta-analysis of data available in public databases
    [e.g., the human protein atlas (Uhlen et al. 2010)
  2. or the gene expression omnibus (Barrett  et al.  2011)], and
  3. to increase the accessibility of valuable information
    for the biomedical research community.

Constraint-based modeling and analysis (COBRA) is

  • a computational approach that has been successfully used
  • to investigate and engineer microbial metabolism through
    the prediction of steady-states (Durot et al.2009).

The basis of COBRA is network reconstruction: networks are assembled

  1. in a bottom-up fashion based on genomic data and
  2. extensive organism-specific information from the literature.

Metabolic reconstructions

  1. capture information on the known biochemical transformations
    taking place in a target organism
  2. to generate a biochemical, genetic and genomic knowledge base
    (Reed et al. 2006).

Once assembled, a metabolic reconstruction

  • can be converted into a mathematical model
    (Thiele and Palsson 2010), and
  • model properties can be interrogated using a great variety of methods
    (Schellenberger et al. 2011).

The ability of COBRA models to represent

  • genotype–phenotype and environment–phenotype relationships
  • arises through the imposition of constraints,
  • which limit the system to a subset of possible network states
    (Lewis et al. 2012).

Currently, COBRA models exist for more than 100 organisms, including humans
(Duarte et al. 2007; Thiele et al. 2013).

Since the first human metabolic reconstruction was described
[Recon 1 (Duarte et al. 2007)],

  • biomedical applications of COBRA have increased
    (Bordbar and Palsson 2012).

One way to contextualize networks is to

  • define their system boundaries
  • according to the metabolic states of the system,
    e.g., disease or dietary regimes.

The consequences of the applied constraints

  • can then be assessed for the entire network
    (Sahoo and Thiele 2013).

Additionally, omics data sets have frequently been used

  • to generate cell-type or condition-specific metabolic models.

Models exist for specific cell types, such as

  • enterocytes (Sahoo and Thiele2013),
  • macrophages (Bordbar et al. 2010), and
  • adipocytes (Mardinoglu et al. 2013), and
  • even multi-cell assemblies that represent
    the interactions of brain cells (Lewis et al. 2010).

All of these cell type specific models,

  • except the enterocyte reconstruction
  • were generated based on omics data sets.

Cell-type-specific models have been used

  • to study diverse human disease conditions.

For example, an adipocyte model was generated using

  • transcriptomic,
  • proteomic, and
  • metabolomics data.

This model was subsequently used to investigate

  • metabolic alternations in adipocytes
  • that would allow for the stratification of obese patients
    (Mardinoglu et al. 2013).

One highly active field within the biomedical applications of COBRA is

  • cancer metabolism (Jerby and Ruppin, 2012).

Omics-driven large-scale models have been used

  • to predict drug targets (Folger et al. 2011; Jerby et al. 2012).

A cancer model was generated using

  • multiple gene expression data sets and
  • subsequently used to predict synthetic lethal gene pairs
  • as potential drug targets selective for the cancer model,
  • but non-toxic to the global model (Recon 1),
  • a consequence of the reduced redundancy in the
    cancer specific model (Folger et al. 2011).

In a follow up study, lethal synergy between

  • FH and enzymes of the heme metabolic pathway
    were experimentally validated and
  • resolved the mechanism by which FH deficient cells,
    e.g., in renal-cell cancer cells
  • survive a non-functional TCA cycle (Frezza et al. 2011).

Contextualized models, which contain only 

  • the subset of reactions active in 
  • a particular tissue (or cell-) type,
  • can be generated in different ways
    (Becker and Palsson, 2008; Jerby et al. 2010).

However, the existing algorithms mainly consider

  • gene expression and proteomic data to define the reaction sets
  • that comprise the contextualized metabolic models.

These subset of reactions are usually defined based on

  • the expression or absence of expression of the genes or proteins
    (present and absent calls), or
  • inferred from expression values or differential gene expression.

Comprehensive reviews of the methods are available
(Blazier and Papin, 2012; Hyduke et al. 2013).

Only the compilation of a large set of omics data sets

  • can result in a tissue (or cell-type) specific metabolic model, whereas

the representation of one particular experimental condition is achieved through

  • the integration of omics data set generated from one experiment only
    (condition-specific cell line model).

Recently, metabolomic data sets

  • have become more comprehensive and using these data sets allow
  • direct determination of the metabolic network components (the metabolites).

Additionally, metabolomics has proven to be

  1. stable,
  2. relatively inexpensive, and
  3. highly reproducible
    (Antonucci et al. 2012).

These factors make metabolomic data sets

  •  particularly valuable for interrogation of metabolic phenotypes. 

Thus, the integration of these data sets is now an active field of research
(Li et al. 2013; Mo et al. 2009; Paglia et al. 2012b; Schmidt et al. 2013).

Generally, metabolomic data can be incorporated into metabolic networks as

  1. qualitative,
  2. quantitative, and
  3. thermodynamic constraints
    (Fleming et al. 2009; Mo et al. 2009).

Mo et al. used metabolites detected in the spent medium
of yeast cells to determine

  • intracellular flux states through a sampling analysis (Mo et al. 2009),
  • which allowed unbiased interrogation of the possible network states
    (Schellenberger and Palsson 2009)
  • and prediction of internal pathway use.

Such analyses have also been used

  • to reveal the effects of enzymopathies on red blood cells (Price et al. 2004),
  • to study effects of diet on diabetes (Thiele et al. 2005) and
  • to define macrophage metabolic states (Bordbar et al. 2010).

This type of analysis is available as a function in the COBRA toolbox
(Schellenberger et al. 2011).

 

 

 

In this study, we established a workflow for the generation and analysis of

  • condition-specific metabolic cell line models that
  • can facilitate the interpretation of metabolomic data.

Our modeling yields meaningful predictions regarding

  • metabolic differences between two lymphoblastic leukemia cell lines
    (Fig. 1A).
Differences in the use of the TCA cycle by the CCRF-CEM

Differences in the use of the TCA cycle by the CCRF-CEM

 

 

 

http://link.springer.com/static-content/images/404/art%253A10.1007%252
Fs11306-014-0721-3/MediaObjects/11306_2014_721_Fig1_HTML.gif

Fig. 1

A  Combined experimental and computational pipeline to study human metabolism.
Experimental work and omics data analysis steps precede computational modeling. Model

  • predictions are validated based on targeted experimental data.

Metabolomic and transcriptomic data are used for

  • model refinement and submodel extraction.

Functional analysis methods are used to characterize

  • the metabolism of the cell-line models and compare it to additional experimental
    data.

The validated models are subsequently 

  • used for the prediction of drug targets.

B Uptake and secretion pattern of model.
All metabolite uptakes and secretions that were mapped during model
generation are shown.
Metabolite uptakes are depicted on the left, and

  • secreted metabolites are shown on the right.

A number of metabolite exchanges mapped to the model

  • were unique to one cell line.

Differences between cell lines were used to set

  • quantitative constraints for the sampling analysis.

C Statistics about the cell line-specific network generation.

 Quantitative constraints.
For the sampling analysis, an additional

  • set of constraints was imposed on the cell line specific models,
  • emphasizing the differences in metabolite uptake and secretion between cell lines.

Higher uptake of a metabolite was allowed in the model of the cell line

  • that consumed more of the metabolite in vitro, whereas
  • the supply was restricted for the model with lower in vitro uptake.

This was done by establishing the same ratio between the models bounds as detected in vitro.
X denotes the factor(slope ratio) that

  1. distinguishes the bounds, and
  2. which was individual for each metabolite.
  • (a) The uptake of a metabolite could be x times higher in CCRF-CEM cells,
    (b) the metabolite uptake could be x times higher in Molt-4,
    (c) metabolite secretion could be x times higher in CCRF-CEM, or
    (d) metabolite secretion could be x times higher in Molt-4 cells. LOD limit of detection.

The consequence of the adjustment was, in case of uptake, that  one model

  1. was constrained to a lower metabolite uptake (A, B), and the difference
  2. depended on the ratio detected in vitro.

In case of secretion,

  • one model had to secrete more of the metabolite, and again

the difference depended on

  • the experimental difference detected between the cell lines.

Q5. What is your expectation that this type of integrative approach could be used for facilitating medical data interpretations?

The most inventive approach was made years ago by using data constructions from the medical literature by a pioneer in the medical record development, but the technology was  not what it is today, and the cost of data input was high.  Nevertheless, the data acquisition would not be uniform across institutions, except for those that belong to a consolidated network with all of the data in the cloud, and the calculations would be carried out with a separate engine.  However, whether the uniform capture of the massive amount of data needed is not possible in the near foreseeable future.  There is no accurate way of assessing the system cost, and predicting the benefits.  In carrying this model forward there has to be a minimal amount of insufficient data.  The developments in the regulatory sphere have created a high barrier.

This concludes a first portion of this presentation.

 

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Metabolomics, Metabonomics and Functional Nutrition: the next step in nutritional metabolism and biotherapeutics

Metabolomics, Metabonomics and Functional Nutrition: the next step in nutritional metabolism and biotherapeutics

Reviewer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP 

 

The human genome is estimated to encode over 30,000 genes, and to be responsible for generating more than 100,000 functionally distinct proteins. Understanding the interrelationships among

  1. genes,
  2. gene products, and
  3. dietary habits

is fundamental to identifying those who will benefit most from or be placed at risk by intervention strategies.

Unraveling the multitude of

  • nutrigenomic,
  • proteomic, and
  • metabolomic patterns

that arise from the ingestion of foods or their

  • bioactive food components

will not be simple but is likely to provide insights into a tailored approach to diet and health. The use of new and innovative technologies, such as

  • microarrays,
  • RNA interference, and
  • nanotechnologies,

will provide needed insights into molecular targets for specific bioactive food components and

  • how they harmonize to influence individual phenotypes(1).

Nutrigenetics asks the question how individual genetic disposition, manifesting as

  • single nucleotide polymorphisms,
  • copy-number polymorphisms and
  • epigenetic phenomena,

affects susceptibility to diet.

Nutrigenomics addresses the inverse relationship, that is how diet influences

  • gene transcription,
  • protein expression and
  • metabolism.

A major methodological challenge and first pre-requisite of nutrigenomics is integrating

  • genomics (gene analysis),
  • transcriptomics (gene expression analysis),
  • proteomics (protein expression analysis) and
  • metabonomics (metabolite profiling)

to define a “healthy” phenotype. The long-term deliverable of nutrigenomics is personalised nutrition (2).

Science is beginning to understand how genetic variation and epigenetic events

  • alter requirements for, and responses to, nutrients (nutrigenomics).

At the same time, methods for profiling almost all of the products of metabolism in a single sample of blood or urine are being developed (metabolomics). Relations between

  • diet and nutrigenomic and metabolomic profiles and
  • between those profiles and health

have become important components of research that could change clinical practice in nutrition.

Most nutrition studies assume that all persons have average dietary requirements, and the studies often

  • do not plan for a large subset of subjects who differ in requirements for a nutrient.

Large variances in responses that occur when such a population exists

  • can result in statistical analyses that argue for a null effect.

If nutrition studies could better identify responders and differentiate them from nonresponders on the basis of nutrigenomic or metabolomic profiles,

  • the sensitivity to detect differences between groups could be greatly increased, and
  • the resulting dietary recommendations could be appropriately targeted (3).

In recent years, nutrition research has moved from classical epidemiology and physiology to molecular biology and genetics. Following this trend,

  • Nutrigenomics has emerged as a novel and multidisciplinary research field in nutritional science that
  • aims to elucidate how diet can influence human health.

It is already well known that bioactive food compounds can interact with genes affecting

  • transcription factors,
  • protein expression and
  • metabolite production.

The study of these complex interactions requires the development of

  • advanced analytical approaches combined with bioinformatics.

Thus, to carry out these studies

  • Transcriptomics,
  • Proteomics and
  • Metabolomics

approaches are employed together with an adequate integration of the information that they provide(4).

Metabonomics is a diagnostic tool for metabolic classification of individuals with the asset of quantitative, non-invasive analysis of easily accessible human body fluids such as urine, blood and saliva. This feature also applies to some extent to Proteomics, with the constraint that

  • the latter discipline is more complex in terms of composition and dynamic range of the sample.

Apart from addressing the most complex “Ome”, Proteomics represents

  • the only platform that delivers not only markers for disposition and efficacy
  • but also targets of intervention.

Application of integrated Omic technologies will drive the understanding of

  • interrelated pathways in healthy and pathological conditions and
  • will help to define molecular ‘switchboards’,
  • necessary to develop disease related biomarkers.

This will contribute to the development of new preventive and therapeutic strategies for both pharmacological and nutritional interventions (5).

Human health is affected by many factors. Diet and inherited genes play an important role. Food constituents,

  • including secondary metabolites of fruits and vegetables, may
  • interact directly with DNA via methylation and changes in expression profiles (mRNA, proteins)
  • which results in metabolite content changes.

Many studies have shown that

  • food constituents may affect human health and
  • the exact knowledge of genotypes and food constituent interactions with
  • both genes and proteins may delay or prevent the onset of diseases.

Many high throughput methods have been employed to get some insight into the whole process and several examples of successful research, namely in the field of genomics and transcriptomics, exist. Studies on epigenetics and RNome significance have been launched. Proteomics and metabolomics need to encompass large numbers of experiments and linked data. Due to the nature of the proteins, as well as due to the properties of various metabolites, experimental approaches require the use of

  • comprehensive high throughput methods and a sufficiency of analysed tissue or body fluids (6).

New experimental tools that investigate gene function at the subcellular, cellular, organ, organismal, and ecosystem level need to be developed. New bioinformatics tools to analyze and extract meaning

  • from increasingly systems-based datasets will need to be developed.

These will require, in part, creation of entirely new tools. An important and revolutionary aspect of “The 2010 Project”  is that it implicitly endorses

  • the allocation of resources to attempts to assign function to genes that have no known function.

This represents a significant departure from the common practice of defining and justifying a scientific goal based on the biological phenomena. The rationale for endorsing this radical change is that

  • for the first time it is feasible to envision a whole-systems approach to gene and protein function.

This whole-systems approach promises to be orders of magnitude more efficient than the conventional approach (7).

The Institute of Medicine recently convened a workshop to review the state of the various domains of nutritional genomics research and policy and to provide guidance for further development and translation of this knowledge into nutrition practice and policy (8). Nutritional genomics holds the promise to revolutionize both clinical and public health nutrition practice and facilitate the establishment of

(a) genome-informed nutrient and food-based dietary guidelines for disease prevention and healthful aging,

(b) individualized medical nutrition therapy for disease management, and

(c) better targeted public health nutrition interventions (including micronutrient fortification and supplementation) that

  • maximize benefit and minimize adverse outcomes within genetically diverse human populations.

As the field of nutritional genomics matures, which will include filling fundamental gaps in

  • knowledge of nutrient-genome interactions in health and disease and
  • demonstrating the potential benefits of customizing nutrition prescriptions based on genetics,
  • registered dietitians will be faced with the opportunity of making genetically driven dietary recommendations aimed at improving human health.

The new era of nutrition research translates empirical knowledge to evidence-based molecular science (9). Modern nutrition research focuses on

  • promoting health,
  • preventing or delaying the onset of disease,
  • optimizing performance, and
  • assessing risk.

Personalized nutrition is a conceptual analogue to personalized medicine and means adapting food to individual needs. Nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics

  • build the science foundation for understanding human variability in
  • preferences, requirements, and responses to diet and
  • may become the future tools for consumer assessment

motivated by personalized nutritional counseling for health maintenance and disease prevention.

The primary aim of ―omic‖ technologies is

  • the non-targeted identification of all gene products (transcripts, proteins, and metabolites) present in a specific biological sample.

By their nature, these technologies reveal unexpected properties of biological systems.

A second and more challenging aspect of ―omic‖ technologies is

  • the refined analysis of quantitative dynamics in biological systems (10).

For metabolomics, gas and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry are well suited for coping with

  • high sample numbers in reliable measurement times with respect to
  • both technical accuracy and the identification and quantitation of small-molecular-weight metabolites.

This potential is a prerequisite for the analysis of dynamic systems. Thus, metabolomics is a key technology for systems biology.

In modern nutrition research, mass spectrometry has developed into a tool

  • to assess health, sensory as well as quality and safety aspects of food.

In this review, we focus on health-related benefits of food components and, accordingly,

  • on biomarkers of exposure (bioavailability) and bioefficacy.

Current nutrition research focuses on unraveling the link between

  • dietary patterns,
  • individual foods or
  • food constituents and

the physiological effects at cellular, tissue and whole body level

  • after acute and chronic uptake.

The bioavailability of bioactive food constituents as well as dose-effect correlations are key information to understand

  • the impact of food on defined health outcomes.

Both strongly depend on appropriate analytical tools

  • to identify and quantify minute amounts of individual compounds in highly complex matrices–food or biological fluids–and
  • to monitor molecular changes in the body in a highly specific and sensitive manner.

Based on these requirements,

  • mass spectrometry has become the analytical method of choice
  • with broad applications throughout all areas of nutrition research (11).

Recent advances in high data-density analytical techniques offer unrivaled promise for improved medical diagnostics in the coming decade. Genomics, proteomics and metabonomics (as well as a whole slew of less well known ―omics‖ technologies) provide a detailed descriptor of each individual. Relating the large quantity of data on many different individuals to their current (and possibly even future) phenotype is a task not well suited to classical multivariate statistics. The datasets generated by ―omics‖ techniques very often violate the requirements for multiple regression. However, another statistical approach exists, which is already well established in areas such as medicinal chemistry and process control, but which is new to medical diagnostics, that can overcome these problems. This approach, called megavariate analysis (MVA),

  • has the potential to revolutionise medical diagnostics in a broad range of diseases.

It opens up the possibility of expert systems that can diagnose the presence of many different diseases simultaneously, and

  • even make exacting predictions about the future diseases an individual is likely to suffer from (12).

Cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in Western countries. Although coronary thrombosis is the final event in acute coronary syndromes,

  • there is increasing evidence that inflammation also plays a role in development of atherosclerosis and its clinical manifestations, such as
  • myocardial infarction, stroke, and peripheral vascular disease.

The beneficial cardiovascular health effects of

  • diets rich in fruits and vegetables are in part mediated by their flavanol content.

This concept is supported by findings from small-scale intervention studies with surrogate endpoints including

  1. endothelium-dependent vasodilation,
  2. blood pressure,
  3. platelet function, and
  4. glucose tolerance.

Mechanistically, short term effects on endothelium-dependent vasodilation

  • following the consumption of flavanol-rich foods, as well as purified flavanols,
  • have been linked to an increased nitric oxide bioactivity.

The critical biological target(s) for flavanols have yet to be identified (13), but we are beginning to see over the horizon.

Nutritional sciences

Nutrition sciences apply

  1. transcriptomics,
  2. proteomics and
  3. metabolomics

to molecularly assess nutritional adaptations.

Transcriptomics can generate a

  • holistic overview on molecular changes to dietary interventions.

Proteomics is most challenging because of the higher complexity of proteomes as compared to transcriptomes and metabolomes. However, it delivers

  • not only markers but also
  • targets of intervention, such as
  • enzymes or transporters, and
  • it is the platform of choice for discovering bioactive food proteins and peptides.

Metabolomics is a tool for metabolic characterization of individuals and

  • can deliver metabolic endpoints possibly related to health or disease.

Omics in nutrition should be deployed in an integrated fashion to elucidate biomarkers

  • for defining an individual’s susceptibility to diet in nutritional interventions and
  • for assessing food ingredient efficacy (14).

The more elaborate tools offered by metabolomics opened the door to exploring an active role played by adipose tissue that is affected by diet, race, sex, and probably age and activity. When the multifactorial is brought into play, and the effect of changes in diet and activities studied we leave the study of metabolomics and enter the world of ―metabonomics‖. Adiponectin and adipokines arrive (15-22). We shall discuss ―adiposity‖ later.

Potential Applications of Metabolomics

Either individually or grouped as a profile, metabolites are detected by either

  • nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy or mass spectrometry.

There is potential for a multitude of uses of metabolome research, including

  1. the early detection and diagnosis of cancer and as
  2. both a predictive and pharmacodynamic marker of drug effect.

However, the knowledge regarding metabolomics, its technical challenges, and clinical applications is unappreciated

  • even though when used as a translational research tool,
  • it can provide a link between the laboratory and clinic.

Precise numbers of human metabolites is unknown, with estimates ranging from the thousands to tens of thousands. Metabolomics is a term that encompasses several types of analyses, including

(a) metabolic fingerprinting, which measures a subset of the whole profile with little differentiation or quantitation of metabolites;

(b) metabolic profiling, the quantitative study of a group of metabolites, known or unknown, within or associated with a particular metabolic pathway; and

(c) target isotope-based analysis, which focuses on a particular segment of the metabolome by analyzing

  • only a few selected metabolites that comprise a specific biochemical pathway.

 

Dynamic Construct of the –Omics

Dynamic Construct of the –Omics

 

Dynamic Construct of the –Omics

 

 

Iron metabolism – Anemia

Hepcidin is a key hormone governing mammalian iron homeostasis and may be directly or indirectly involved in the development of most iron deficiency/overload and inflammation-induced anemia. The anemia of chronic disease (ACD) is characterized by macrophage iron retention induced by cytokines and hepcidin regulation. Hepcidin controls cellular iron efflux on binding to the iron export protein ferroportin. While patients present with both ACD and iron deficiency anemia (ACD/IDA), the latter results from chronic blood loss. Iron retention during inflammation occurs in macrophages and the spleen, but not in the liver. In ACD, serum hepcidin concentrations are elevated, which is related to reduced duodenal and macrophage expression of ferroportin. Individuals with ACD/IDA have significantly lower hepcidin levels than ACD subjects. ACD/IDA patients, in contrast to ACD subjects, were able to absorb dietary iron from the gut and to mobilize iron from macrophages. Hepcidin elevation may affect iron transport in ACD and ACD/IDA and it is more responsive to iron demand with IDA than to inflammation. Hepcidin determination may aid in selecting appropriate therapy for these patients (23).

There is correlation between serum hepcidin, iron and inflammatory indicators associated with anemia of chronic disease (ACD), ACD, ACD concomitant iron-deficiency anemia (ACD/IDA), pure IDA and acute inflammation (AcI) patients. Hepcidin levels in anemia types were statistically different, from high to low: ACD, AcI > ACD/IDA > the control > IDA. Serum ferritin levels were significantly increased in ACD and AcI patients but were decreased significantly in ACD/IDA and IDA. Elevated serum EPO concentrations were found in ACD, ACD/IDA and IDA patients but not in AcI patients and the controls. A positive correlation exists between hepcidin and IL-6 levels only in ACD/IDA, AcI and the control groups. A positive correlation between hepcidin and ferritin was marked in the control group, while a negative correlation between hepcidin and ferritin was noted in IDA. The significant negative correlation between hepcidin expression and reticulocyte count was marked in both ACD/IDA and IDA groups. If the hepcidin role in pathogenesis of ACD, ACD/IDA and IDA, it could be a potential marker for detection and differentiation of these anemias (24).

Cancer

Because cancer cells are known to possess a highly unique metabolic phenotype, development of specific biomarkers in oncology is possible and might be used in identifying fingerprints, profiles, or signatures to detect the presence of cancer, determine prognosis, and/or assess the pharmacodynamic effects of therapy (25).

HDM2, a negative regulator of the tumor suppressor p53, is over-expressed in many cancers that retain wild-type p53. Consequently, the effectiveness of chemotherapies that induce p53 might be limited, and inhibitors of the HDM2–p53 interaction are being sought as tumor-selective drugs. A binding site within HDM2 has been dentified which can be blocked with peptides inducing p53 transcriptional activity. A recent report demonstrates the principle using drug-like small molecules that target HDM2 (26).

Obesity, CRP, interleukins, and chronic inflammatory disease

Elevated CRP levels and clinically raised CRP levels were present in 27.6% and 6.7% of the population, respectively. Both overweight (body mass index [BMI], 25-29.9 kg/m2) and obese (BMI, 30 kg/m2) persons were more likely to have elevated CRP levels than their normal-weight counterparts (BMI, <25 kg/m2). After adjusting for potential confounders, the odds ratio (OR) for elevated CRP was 2.13 for obese men and 6.21 for obese women. In addition, BMI was associated with clinically raised CRP levels in women, with an OR of 4.76 (95% CI, 3.42-6.61) for obese women. Waist-to-hip ratio was positively associated with both elevated and clinically raised CRP levels, independent of BMI. Restricting the analyses to young adults (aged 17-39 years) and excluding smokers, persons with inflammatory disease, cardiovascular disease, or diabetes mellitus and estrogen users did not change the main findings (27).

A study of C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 with measures of obesity and of chronic infection as their putative determinants related levels of C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 to markers of the insulin resistance syndrome and of endothelial dysfunction. Levels of C-reactive protein were significantly related to those of interleukin-6 (r=0.37, P<0.0005) and tumor necrosis factor-a (r=0.46, P<0.0001), and concentrations of C-reactive protein were related to insulin resistance as calculated from the homoeostasis model and to markers of endothelial dysfunction (plasma levels of von Willebrand factor, tissue plasminogen activator, and cellular fibronectin). A mean standard deviation score of levels of acute phase markers correlated closely with a similar score of insulin resistance syndrome variables (r=0.59, P<0.00005) and the data suggested that adipose tissue is an important determinant of a low level, chronic inflammatory state as reflected by levels of interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-a, and C-reactive protein (28).

A number of other studies have indicated the inflammatory ties of visceral obesity to adipose tissue metabolic profiles, suggesting a role in ―metabolic syndrome‖. There is now a concept of altered liver metabolism in ―non-alcoholic‖ fatty liver disease (NAFLD) progressing from steatosis to steatohepatitis (NASH) (31,32).

These unifying concepts were incomprehensible 50 years ago. It was only known that insulin is anabolic and that insulin deficiency (or resistance) would have consequences in the point of entry into the citric acid cycle, which generates 16 ATPs. In fat catabolism, triglycerides are hydrolyzed to break them into fatty acids and glycerol. In the liver the glycerol can be converted into glucose via dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate by way of gluconeogenesis. In the case of this cycle there is a tie in with both catabolism and anabolism.

 

TCA_reactions

TCA_reactions

 http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Image:TCA_reactions.gif

 

For bypass of the Pyruvate Kinase reaction of Glycolysis, cleavage of 2 ~P bonds is required. The free energy change associated with cleavage of one ~P bond of ATP is insufficient to drive synthesis of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), since PEP has a higher negative G of phosphate hydrolysis than ATP.

The two enzymes that catalyze the reactions for bypass of the Pyruvate Kinase reaction are the following:

(a) Pyruvate Carboxylase (Gluconeogenesis) catalyzes:

pyruvate + HCO3 + ATP — oxaloacetate + ADP + Pi

(b) PEP Carboxykinase (Gluconeogenesis) catalyzes:

oxaloacetate + GTP — phosphoenolpyruvate + GDP + CO2

The concept of anomalies in the pathways with respect to diabetes was sketchy then, and there was much to be filled in. This has been substantially done, and is by no means complete. However, one can see how this comes into play with diabetic ketoacidosis accompanied by gluconeogenesis and in severe injury or sepsis with peripheral proteolysis to provide gluconeogenic precursors. The reprioritization of liver synthetic processes is also brought into play with the conundrum of protein-energy malnutrition.

The picture began to be filled in with the improvements in technology that emerged at the end of the 1980s with the ability to profile tissue and body fluids by NMR and by MS. There was already a good inkling of a relationship of type 2 diabetes to major indicators of CVD (29,30). And a long suspected relationship between obesity and type 2 diabetes was evident. But how did it tie together?

End Stage Renal Disease and Cardiovascular Risk

Mortality is markedly elevated in patients with end-stage renal disease. The leading cause of death is cardiovascular disease.

As renal function declines,

  • the prevalence of both malnutrition and cardiovascular disease increase.

Malnutrition and vascular disease correlate with the levels of

  • markers of inflammation in patients treated with dialysis and in those not yet on dialysis.

The causes of inflammation are likely to be multifactorial. CRP levels are associated with cardio-vascular risk in the general population.

The changes in endothelial cell function,

  • in plasma proteins, and
  • in lpiids in inflammation

are likely to be atherogenic.

That cardiovascular risk is inversely correlated with serum cholesterol in dialysis patients, suggests that

  • hyperlipidemia plays a minor role in the incidence of cardiovascular disease.

Hypoalbuminemia, ascribed to malnutrition, has been one of the most powerful risk factors that predict all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in dialysis patients. The presence of inflammation, as evidenced by increased levels of specific cytokines (interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor a) or acute-phase proteins (C-reactive protein and serum amyloid A), however, has been found to be associated with vascular disease in the general population as well as in dialysis patients. Patients have

  • loss of muscle mass and changes in plasma composition—decreases in serum albumin, prealbumin, and transferrin levels, also associated with malnutrition.

Inflammation alters

  • lipoprotein structure and function as well as
  • endothelial structure and function

to favor atherogenesis and increases

  • the concentration of atherogenic proteins in serum.

In addition, proinflammatory compounds, such as

  • advanced glycation end products, accumulate in renal failure, and
  • defense mechanisms against oxidative injury are reduced,

contributing to inflammation and to its effect on the vascular endothelium (33,34).

Endogenous copper can play an important role in postischemic reperfusion injury, a condition associated with endothelial cell activation and increased interleukin 8 (IL-8) production. Excessive endothelial IL-8 secreted during trauma, major surgery, and sepsis may contribute to the development of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and multiple organ failure (MOF). No previous reports have indicated that copper has a direct role in stimulating human endothelial IL-8 secretion. Copper did not stimulate secretion of other cytokines. Cu(II) appeared to be the primary copper ion responsible for the observed increase in IL-8 because a specific high-affinity Cu(II)-binding peptide, d-Asp-d-Ala-d-Hisd-Lys (d-DAHK), completely abolished this effect in a dose-dependent manner. These results suggest that Cu(II) may induce endothelial IL-8 by a mechanism independent of known Cu(I) generation of reactive oxygen species (35).

Blood coagulation plays a key role among numerous mediating systems that are activated in inflammation. Receptors of the PAR family serve as sensors of serine proteinases of the blood clotting system in the target cells involved in inflammation. Activation of PAR_1 by thrombin and of PAR_2 by factor Xa leads to a rapid expression and exposure on the membrane of endothelial cells of both adhesive proteins that mediate an acute inflammatory reaction and of the tissue factor that initiates the blood coagulation cascade. Other receptors that can modulate responses of the cells activated by proteinases through PAR receptors are also involved in the association of coagulation and inflammation together with the receptors of the PAR family. The presence of PAR receptors on mast cells is responsible for their reactivity to thrombin and factor Xa , essential to the inflammation and blood clotting processes (36).

The understanding of regulation of the inflammatory process in chronic inflammatory diseases is advancing.

Evidence consistently indicates that T-cells play a key role in initiating and perpetuating inflammation, not only via the production of soluble mediators but also via cell/cell contact interactions with a variety of cell types through membrane receptors and their ligands. Signalling through CD40 and CD40 ligand is a versatile pathway that is potently involved in all these processes. Many inflammatory genes relevant to atherosclerosis are influenced by the transcriptional regulator nuclear factor κ B (NFκB). In these events T-cells become activated by dendritic cells or inflammatory cytokines, and these T-cells activate, in turn, monocytes / macrophages, endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts to produce pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, the coagulation cascade in vivo, and finally matrix metalloproteinases, responsible for tissue destruction. Moreover, CD40 ligand at inflammatory sites stimulates fibroblasts and tissue monocyte/macrophage production of VEGF, leading to angiogenesis, which promotes and maintains the chronic inflammatory process.

NFκB plays a pivotal role in co-ordinating the expression of genes involved in the immune and inflammatory response, evoking tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), chemokines such as monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and interleukin (IL)-8, matrix metalloproteinase enzymes (MMP), and genes involved in cell survival. A complex array of mechanisms, including T cell activation, leukocyte extravasation, tissue factor expression, MMP expression and activation, as well induction of cytokines and chemokines, implicated in atherosclerosis, are regulated by NFκB.

Expression of NFκB in the atherosclerotic milieu may have a number of potentially harmful consequences. IL-1 activates NFκB upregulating expression of MMP-1, -3, and -9. Oxidized LDL increases macrophage MMP-9, associated with increased nuclear binding of NFκB and AP-1. Expression of tissue factor, initiating the coagulation cascade, is regulated by NFκB. In atherosclerotic plaque cells, tissue factor antigen and activity were inhibited following over-expression of IκBα and dominant-negative IKK-2, but not by dominant negative IKK-1 or NIK. Tis supports the concept that activation of the ―canonical‖ pathway upregulates pro-thrombotic mediators involved in disease. Many of the cytokines and chemokines which have been detected in human atherosclerotic plaques are also regulated by NFκB. Over-expression of IκBα inhibits release of TNFα, IL-1, IL-6, and IL-8 in macrophages stimulated with LPS and CD40 ligand (CD40L). This report describes how NFκB activation upregulates major pro-inflammatory and pro-thrombotic mediators of atherosclerosis (37-41).

This review is both focused and comprehensive. The details of evolving methods are avoided in order to build the argument that a very rapid expansion of discovery has been evolving depicting disease, disease mechanisms, disease associations, metabolic biomarkers, study of effects of diet and diet modification, and opportunities for targeted drug development. The extent of future success will depend on the duration and strength of the developed interventions, and possibly the avoidance of dead end interventions that are unexpectedly bypassed. I anticipate the prospects for the interplay between genomics, metabolomics, metabonomics, and personalized medicine may be realized for several of the most common conditions worldwide within a few decades (42-44).

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  7. van Dijk -, Feskens EJ, Bos MB, Hoelen DW, et al. A saturated fatty acid-rich diet induces an obesity-linked proinflammatory gene expression profile in adipose tissue of subjects at risk of metabolic syndrome. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;90:1656-64.[MUFA in LDL lowering].
  8. Theurl I, Aigner E, Theurl M, Nairz M, et al. Regulation of iron homeostasis in anemia of chronic disease and iron deficiency anemia: diagnostic and therapeutic implications. Blood. 2009;113(21):5277-86
  9. Cheng PP, Jiao XY, Wang XH, Lin JH, Cai YM. Hepcidin expression in anemia of chronic disease and concomitant iron-deficiency anemia. Clin Exp Med. 2010 May 25. [Epub ahead of print].
  10. Spratlin JL, Serkova NJ, and Eckhardt SG. Clinical Applications of Metabolomics in Oncology: A Review. Clin Cancer Res. 2009 ;15; 15(2): 431–440.
  11. Fischer PM, Lane DP. Small molecule inhibitors of thep53 suppressor HDM2: have protein-protein interactions come of age as drug targets? Trends in Pharm Sci 2004;25(7):343-346.
  12. Visser M, Bouter LM, McQuillan GM, Wener HM. Elevated C-Reactive Protein Levels in Overweight and Obese Adults. JAMA. 1999;282:2131-2135.
  13. Yudkin JS, Stehouwer CDA, Emeis JJ, Coppack SW. C-Reactive Protein in Healthy Subjects: Associations With Obesity, Insulin Resistance, and Endothelial Dysfunction : A Potential Role for Cytokines Originating From Adipose Tissue? Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 1999; 19:972-978.
  14. Visvikis-Siest S, Siest G. The STANISLAS cohort: a 10-year followup of supposed healthy families. Gene-environment interactions, reference values and evaluation of biomarkers in prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Clin Chem Lab Med 2008;46:733-47.
  15. Schmidt MI, Duncan BB. Diabesity: an inflammatory metabolic condition. Clin Chem Lab Med 2003;41:1120-1130.
  16. Fenkci S, Rota S, Sabir N, Akdag B. Ultrasonographic and biochemical evaluation of visceral obesity in obese women with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Eur J Med Res 2007;12:68-73. (VAT, HOMA)
  17. Lee JW, Lee HR, Shim JY, Im JA, et al. Viscerally obese women with normal body weight have greater brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity than non viscerally obese women with excessive body weight. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2007;66:572-8. [visceral obesity – high trigly, high baPWV, greater SFA and thigh SFA].
  18. Kaysen GE. The Microinflammatory State in Uremia: Causes and Potential Consequences. J Am Soc Nephrol 2001;12:1549–1557.
  19. Kaysen GE. Role of Inflammation and Its Treatment in ESRD Patients. Blood Purif 2002;20:70–80.
  20. Bar-Or D, Thomas GW, Yukl RL, Rael LT, et al. Copper stimulates the synthesis and release of interleukin-8 in human endothelial cells: a possible early role in systemic inflammatory responses. Shock 2003;20(2):154–158.
  21. Dugina TN, Kiseleva EV, Chistov IV, Umarova BA, and Strukova SM. Receptors of the PAR Family as a Link between Blood Coagulation and Inflammation. Biochemistry (Moscow), 2002; 67(1):65-74. [Translated from Biokhimiya 2002;67(1):77-87].
  22. Monaco C, Andreakos E, Kiriakidis S, Feldmann M, and and Ewa Paleolog. T-Cell-Mediated Signalling in Immune, Inflammatory and Angiogenic Processes: The Cascade of Events Leading to Inflammatory Diseases. Current Drug Targets – Inflammation & Allergy, 2004, 3, 35-42.
  23. Monaco C, Grosjean J, and Paleolog E. The role of the NFκB pathway in atherosclerosis. [E-mail: e.paleolog@imperial.ac.uk]
  24. Libby P, Ridker PM, and Maseri A. Inflammation and atherosclerosis. Circulation 2002;105:1135-43.
  25. Karin M, Yamamoto Y, Wang QM. The IKK NF-kappa B system: a treasure trove for drug development. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2004;3:17-26.
  26. Karin M, Ben-Neriah Y. Phosphorylation meets ubiquitination: the control of NF-[kappa]B activity. Annu Rev Immunol 2000;18:621-63.
  27. Lee DY, Bowen BP, and Northen TR. Mass spectrometry–based metabolomics, analysis of metabolite-protein interactions, and imaging. BioTechniques 2010;49:557-565.
  28. Faca V, Krasnoselsky A, and Hanash S. Innovative proteomic approaches for cancer biomarker discove.
  29. Sharp, P, and MIT faculty. ‘Convergence’ offers potential for revolutionary advance in biomedicine. The Third Revolution: Convergence of the Life Sciences, Physical Sciences and Engineering. White paper. Reported in Biotechnology Jan 5, 2011. [Convergence is a new paradigm that can yield critical advances in a broad array of sectors]

 

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Introduction to Translational Medicine (TM) – Part 1: Translational Medicine

Introduction to Translational Medicine (TM) – Part 1: Translational Medicine

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

and

Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 

Article ID #134: Introduction to Translational Medicine (TM) – Part 1: Translational Medicine. Published on 4/25/2014

WordCloud Image Produced by Adam Tubman

 

This document in the Series A: Cardiovascular Diseases e-Series Volume 4: Translational and Regenerative Medicine,  is a measure of the postgenomic and proteomic advances in the laboratory to the practice of clinical medicine.  The Chapters are preceded by several videos by prominent figures in the emergence of this transformative change.  When I was a medical student, a large body of the current language and technology that has extended the practice of medicine did not exist, but a new foundation, predicated on the principles of modern medical education set forth by Abraham Flexner, was sprouting.  The highlights of this evolution were:

  • Requirement for premedical education in biology, organic chemistry, physics, and genetics.
  • Medical education included two years of basic science education in anatomy, physiology, pharmacology, and pathology prior to introduction into the clinical course sequence of the last two years.
  • Post medical graduate education was an internship year followed by residency in pediatrics, OBGyn, internal medicine, general surgery, psychiatry, neurology, neurosurgery, pathology, radiology, and anesthesiology, emergency medicine.
  • Academic teaching centers were developing subspecialty centers in ophthalmology, ENT and head and neck surgery, cardiology and cardiothoracic surgery, and hematology, hematology/oncology, and neurology.
  • The expansion of postgraduate medical programs included significant postgraduate funding for programs by the National Institutes of Health, and the NIH had faculty development support in a system of peer-reviewed research grant programs in medical and allied sciences.

The period after the late 1980s saw a rapid expansion of research in genomics and drug development to treat emerging threats of infectious diseases as US had a large worldwide involvement after the end of the Vietnam War, and drug resistance was increasingly encountered (malaria, tick borne diseases, salmonellosis, pseudomonas aeruginosa, staphylococcus aureus, etc.).

Moreover, the post-millenium found a large, dwindling population of veterans who had served in WWII and Vietnam, and cardiovascular, musculoskeletal,  dementias, and cancer were now more common.  The Human Genome Project was undertaken to realign the existing knowledge of gene structure and genetic regulation with the needs for drug development, which was languishing in development failures due to unexpected toxicities.

A substantial disconnect existed between diagnostics and pharmaceutical development, which had been over-reliant on modification of known organic structures to increase potency and reduce toxicity.  This was about to change with changes in medical curricula, changes in residency programs and physicians cross-training in disciplines, and the emergence of bio-pharma, based on the emerging knowledge of the cell function, and at the same time, the medical profession was developing an evidence-base for therapeutics, and more pressure was placed on informed decision-making.

The great improvement in proteomics came from GCLC/MS-MS and is described in the video interview with Dr. Gyorgy Marko-Varga, Sweden, in video 1 of 3 (Advancing Translational Medicine).  This is a discussion that is focused on functional proteomics role in future diagnostics and therapy, involving a greater degree of accuracy in mass spectrometry (MS) than can be obtained by antibody-ligand binding, and is illustrated below, the last emphasizing the importance of information technology and predictive analytics

Thermo ScientificImmunoassays and LC–MS/MS have emerged as the two main approaches for quantifying peptides and proteins in biological samples. ELISA kits are available for quantification, but inherently lack the discriminative power to resolve isoforms and PTMs.

To address this issue we have developed and applied a mass spectrometry immunoassay–selected reaction monitoring (Thermo Scientific™ MSIA™ SRM technology) research method to quantify PCSK9 (and PTMs), a key player in the regulation of circulating low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C).

A Day in the (Future) Life of a Predictive Analytics Scientist

 

By Lars Rinnan, CEO, NextBridge   April 22, 2014

A look into a normal day in the near future, where predictive analytics is everywhere, incorporated in everything from household appliances to wearable computing devices.

During the test drive (of an automobile), the extreme acceleration makes your heart beat so fast that your personal health data sensor triggers an alarm. The health data sensor is integrated into the strap of your wrist watch. This data is transferred to your health insurance company, so you say a prayer that their data scientists are clever enough to exclude these abnormal values from your otherwise impressive health data. Based on such data, your health insurance company’s consulting unit regularly gives you advice about diet, exercise, and sleep. You have followed their advice in the past, and your performance has increased, which automatically reduced your insurance premiums. Win-win, you think to yourself, as you park the car, and decide to buy it.

In the clinical presentation at Harlan Krumholtz’ Yale Symposium, Prof. Robert Califf, Director of the Duke University Translational medicine Clinical Research Institute, defines translational medicine as effective translation of science to clinical medicine in two segments:

  1. Adherence to current standards
  2. Improving the enterprise by translating knowledge

He says that discrepancies between outcomes and medical science will bridge a gap in translation by traversing two parallel systems.

  1. Physician-health organization
  2. Personalized medicine

He emphasizes that the new basis for physician standards will be legitimized in the following:

  1. Comparative effectiveness (Krumholtz)
  2. Accountability

Some of these points are repeated below:

WATCH VIDEOS ON YOUTUBE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JFdJRh9ZPps#t=678  Harlan Krumholtz

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JFdJRh9ZPps#t=678  complexity

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JFdJRh9ZPps#t=678  integration map

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JFdJRh9ZPps#t=678  progression

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JFdJRh9ZPps#t=678  informatics

An interesting sidebar to the scientific medical advances is the huge shift in pressure on an insurance system that has coexisted with a public system in Medicare and Medicaid, initially introduced by the health insurance industry for worker benefits (Kaiser, IBM, Rockefeller), and we are undertaking a formidable change in the ACA.

The current reality is that actuarially, the twin system that has existed was unsustainable in the long term because it is necessary to have a very large pool of the population to spread the costs, and in addition, the cost of pharmaceutical development has driven consolidation in the industry, and has relied on the successes from public and privately funded research.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X6J_7PvWoMw#t=57  Corbett Report Nov 2013

(1979 ER Brown)  UCPress  Rockefeller Medicine Men

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X6J_7PvWoMw#t=57   Liz Fowler VP of Wellpoint (designed ACA)

I shall digress for a moment and insert a video history of DNA, that hits the high points very well, and is quite explanatory of the genomic revolution in medical science, biology, infectious disease and microbial antibiotic resistance, virology, stem cell biology, and the undeniability of evolution.

DNA History

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UUDzN4w8mKI&list=UUoHRSQ0ahscV14hlmPabkVQ

As I have noted above, genomics is necessary, but not sufficient.  The story began as replication of the genetic code, which accounted for variation, but the accounting for regulation of the cell and for metabolic processes was, and remains in the domain of an essential library of proteins. Moreover, the functional activity of proteins, at least but not only if they are catalytic, shows structural variants that is characterized by small differences in some amino acids that allow for separation by net charge and have an effect on protein-protein and other interactions.

Protein chemistry is so different from DNA chemistry that it is quite safe to consider that DNA in the nucleotide sequence does no more than establish the order of amino acids in proteins. On the other hand, proteins that we know so little about their function and regulation, do everything that matters including to set what and when to read something in the DNA.

Jose Eduardo de Salles Roselino

Chapters 2, 3, and 4 sequentially examine:

  • The causes and etiologies of cardiovascular diseases
  • The diagnosis, prognosis and risks determined by – biomarkers in serum, circulating cells, and solid tissue by contrast radiography
  • Treatment of cardiovascular diseases by translation of science from bench to bedside, including interventional cardiology and surgical repair

These are systematically examined within a framework of:

  • Genomics
  • Proteomics
  • Cardiac and Vascular Signaling
  • Platelet and Endothelial Signaling
  • Cell-protein interactions
  • Protein-protein interactions
  • Post-Translational Modifications (PTMs)
  • Epigenetics
  • Noncoding RNAs and regulatory considerations
  • Metabolomics (the metabolome)
  • Mitochondria and oxidative stress

 

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Reporter and Curator: Dr. Sudipta Saha, Ph.D.

Conventional tumor markers are unsuitable for detecting carcinoma at an early stage and lack clinical efficacy and utility. Multiple classification analysis revealed that the variations in the levels of malonic acid and L-serine largely contributed to the separation of esophageal cancer; gastric cancer was characterized by changes in the levels of 3-hydroxypropionic acid and pyruvic acid; and L-alanine, glucuronoic lactone and L-glutamine contributed to the separation of colorectal cancer. Some metabolites are more sensitive for detecting gastrointestinal cancer than conventional biomarkers and thus metabolomics has the potential as an early diagnostic tool for cancer. Studies also showed that global metabolic profiling of colon mucosae would define metabolic signatures that not only discriminate malignant from normal mucosae, but also could distinguish the anatomical and clinicopathological characteristics of colorectal cancer. Thus it is suggested that metabolic profiling of colorectal cancer mucosae could provide new phenotypic biomarkers for colorectal cancer management.

A full spectrum of metabolic aberrations that are directly linked to colorectal cancer at early curable stages is critical for developing and deploying molecular diagnostic and therapeutic approaches that will significantly improve patient survival. A number of dysregulated metabolic pathways, such as glycolysis, tricarboxylic acid cycle, urea cycle, pyrimidine metabolism, tryptophan metabolism, polyamine metabolism, as well as gut microbial-host co-metabolism in colorectal cancer subjects are reported. Significantly increased tryptophan metabolism, and disturbed tricarboxylic acid cycle and the gut microflora metabolism were observed in the colorectal cancer patients. The urinary metabolite profile of postoperative colorectal cancer subjects altered significantly from that of the preoperative stage. The significantly down-regulated gut microflora metabolism and tricarboxylic acid cycle were observed in postoperative colorectal cancer subjects, presumably due to the colon flush involved in the surgical procedure and weakened physical conditions of the patients. The expression of 5-hydroxytryptophan significantly decreased in postsurgery cases, suggesting a recovered tryptophan metabolism toward healthy state. Abnormal histamine metabolism and glutamate metabolism were found only in the urine samples of colorectal cancer patients. There are distinct urinary metabolic footprints of colorectal cancer patients characterized by altered levels of metabolites derived from gut microbial-host co-metabolism. A panel of metabolite markers composed of citrate, hippurate, p-cresol, 2-aminobutyrate, myristate, putrescine, and kynurenate was able to discriminate colorectal cancer subjects from their healthy counterparts. These potential metabolite markers provide a novel and promising molecular diagnostic approach for the early detection of colorectal cancer.

Source References:

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21773981

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22792336

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19063642

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20121166

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22148915

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Reporter and Curator: Dr. Sudipta Saha, Ph.D.

The metabolite pool of cells and tissues represents the end result of metabolism determined by genetic, environmental and nutritional factors. The metabolic profile of biological systems is closely related to the individual phenotype and reflects the biological endpoint of a multitude of pathways and their interaction with any confounding stimuli. Cancer cells exhibit activation of specific metabolic pathways to compensate for their extremely high energy demands. Indeed increased glucose uptake and lactate production and decreased respiration are key phenomena of tumour cell metabolism. In particular, the generation of an acidic microenvironment through increased lactate production, even under aerobic conditions, may confer extracellular matrix degeneration and exert toxic effects on surrounding cell populations, while being harmless for the cancer cell itself. Thus, the metabolic adaptations may indeed be critical for the development of accelerated proliferation and the invasive growth of tumour cell populations. The molecular mechanisms underlying the metabolic hallmarks of cancer are still poorly understood, although genetic, epigenetic and environmental factors driving cancer development and progression will interact to determine the metabolic phenotype of tumour cells. Recent studies suggest that metabolic changes play a pivotal role in the biology of renal cell carcinoma – a tumour entity that is largely resistant to conventional chemo- and radiotherapy. The metabolic profile of renal tumours may thus serve as a reliable biomarker of malignant transformation and biological behaviour.

Recent advances in metabolic profiling technologies by providing quantitative measures of metabolite profiles from gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOF-MS) based technology present the opportunity to apply this technique in human specimens. Global metabolic profiling has emerged as a promising approach to characterize the metabolite pool within a cell, tissue or bodily fluid under certain conditions, such as health or disease status. Metabolic profiling is applied to monitor the health to disease continuum and has the potential of increasing our understanding of the mechanisms of disease. Thus the characterization of the metabolic features in tumours is expected to provide a better understanding of the mechanisms of malignant transformation and progression and may lead to the identification of metabolic biomarkers for cancer detection and prognostication. However, comparative profiling of low molecular weight compounds, such as sugars, lipids and amino acids, in cancer as compared to the corresponding normal tissue is a rather unexplored area. The objective of this study was to characterize the key metabolic features of renal cell carcinoma using GC-TOF-MS and mutual information as well as decision tree-based data analysis.

Hypoxia is key in tumour cell behaviour. Hypoxia, via hypoxia inducible factor, plays a key role in the metabolic changes in the kidney cancer cell and influences different pathways. Pathways that use tyrosine kinases and mammalian target of rapamycin are well studied. Hypoxia-related effects on vascular epithelial growth factors and angiogenesis will influence the metabolic status of the cell significantly. This is the basis of inhibitor-type drugs or antibody blocking agents and the effect on the clinical course of renal cell carcinoma patients. Detailed information about metabolic changes is crucial to understanding these mechanisms more clearly. Treating renal cell carcinoma patients is not like treating one disease. Renal cell carcinoma has different morphologic entities with distinct differences in cytogenetic background. These differences should be reflected in the different approaches of diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. This consideration will help to increase the efficacy of novel agents and decrease unnecessary side-effects. Metabolomics explains the importance of explaining genetic changes and the functional outcome of the tumour cells. In addition, epidemiologic differences in incidence and prevalence in different parts of the world may help provide insight into the etiology of kidney cancer. Factors that may influence renal cancer likelihood (eg, obesity, antihypertensive therapy) may have an explanation in metabolomics.

Source References:

http://www.europeanurology.com/article/S0302-2838(12)01352-8/fulltext

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19845817

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18072195

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17123452

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20464042

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21930086

https://www.google.com.tw/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=8&cad=rja&ved=0CGwQFjAH&url=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sfu.ca%2Fcuaj%2Findex.php%2Fjournal%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F665%2F466&ei=-ub8UbD0JcfolAXeyYGYBw&usg=AFQjCNFIzdti065pBEGKlEDkBDCPA4IwUw&sig2=scgq8qT9ffKa65MxAvpuNg&bvm=bv.50165853,d.dGI

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Reporter and Curator: Dr. Sudipta Saha, Ph.D.

The prostate has long been known to exhibit unique metabolite profiles. In the last decade, advances in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and mass spectrometry have been applied toward identifying metabolic alterations in prostate cancer that may provide clinically useful biomarkers. As with genomics and proteomics, advances in technology and bioinformatics have led to the application of metabolomic profiling to prostate cancer—the high throughput evaluation of a large complement of metabolites in the prostate and how they are altered by disease perturbations. Recently, high profile publications have drawn attention to the potential of metabolomic analysis to identify biomarkers for early detection or disease progression from readily accessible body fluids as well as tissue specimens from biopsy and surgery.

Worldwide, the number of prostate cancer cases is approaching one million, and it is the sixth leading cause of cancer deaths in men. Both incidence and mortality are increasing in many traditionally low risk countries in Asia, and Central and Eastern Europe. Testing with serum prostate specific antigen has contributed to decreases in prostate cancer mortality in many developed countries, but the test and the diagnostic paradigm suffer from a number of problems, including low specificity of prostate specific antigen, inability to specify a cut-point below which cancer is unlikely, non-trivial false-negative rate for prostate biopsy, and over-diagnosis and over-treatment of relatively indolent tumors with low potential for morbidity or death if left untreated. For men diagnosed with prostate cancer, a number of algorithms primarily based on tumor pathology and prostate specific antigen are available to predict the likely clinical outcome. Although these prediction tools generally work well, there is still significant variability in outcomes for men at both the low and high end of the risk spectrum. Although distinct metabolic characteristics of the prostate have long been known, global metabolomic profiling of prostate cancer is at an early stage.

Studies of the metabolic alterations associated with prostate cancer have demonstrated characteristic decreases in citrate and polyamines, and increases in cholines, glycerophospholipids, lactate, and components of a number of pathways of amino acid metabolism. Results for sarcosine have been prominent but inconsistent. However, it is likely that inconsistent findings are not unique to sarcosine. Rather, the attention given to sarcosine has resulted in reports of validation efforts focused on this molecule, whereas reports from other metabolomic profiling studies have focused on discovery and have not emphasized null associations. Metabolite profiles with potential relevance to prostate cancer biology have been identified in tissue, bone, urine, expressed prostatic fluid, and plasma, and have correlated with clinical progression as well as established prognostic attributes. Given the relatively low cost of metabolomic profiling compared with the other ‘omics’ disciplines, and the parallel advances being made in molecular magnetic resonance imaging, metabolomics has great potential for application to detection of clinically significant disease and monitoring disease progression, in both the active surveillance and post-treatment settings. In addition, because of their functional significance, metabolomic biomarkers or profiles hold particular promise for addressing one of the current challenges to personalized medicine: co-development of targeted therapeutics and companion diagnostics.

Source References:

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21930089

http://people.ucalgary.ca/~adeleon/paper_prostate.pdf

http://www.ctsi.ufl.edu/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/DeFeo-2011-A-decade-in-prostate.pdf

http://www.fasebj.org/cgi/content/meeting_abstract/21/6/A768-c

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pros.22704/abstract

http://dept.stat.lsa.umich.edu/~gmichail/journal.pone.0021417.pdf

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Reporter and Curator: Dr. Sudipta Saha, Ph.D.

Hepatocellular carcinoma is one of the most common malignancies worldwide, and it has a poor prognosis due to its rapid development and early metastasis. An understanding of tumor metabolism would be helpful for the clinical diagnosis and therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma. Chronic hepatitis B virus infection is the primary risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma, and the majority of hepatocellular carcinoma cases develop from hepatitis infections and subsequent cirrhosis. Rapid development and early metastasis are the typical characteristics of hepatocellular carcinoma, which always results in a poor prognosis. Therefore, investigating the hepatocarcinogenesis mechanism is very important for decreasing the incidence and mortality of hepatocellular carcinoma. The abnormal metabolism of cancer has been considered an important characteristic of tumors, which could clarify the pathogenesis and provide potential therapeutic targets for clinical treatments. According to the Warburg effect, the deregulated energy metabolism of cancer cells may also modify many related metabolic pathways that influence various biological processes, such as cell proliferation and apoptosis. As a common characteristic of cancer cells, modified metabolism has been the focus of cancer research.

Because of its asymptomatic nature, hepatocellular carcinoma is usually diagnosed at late and advanced stages, for which there are no effective therapies. Thus, biomarkers for early detection and molecular targets for treating hepatocellular carcinoma are urgently needed. Emerging high-throughput metabolomics technologies have been widely applied, aiming at the discovery of candidate biomarkers for cancer staging, prediction of recurrence and prognosis, and treatment selection. Tissue metabolomics is a useful tool for studying the abnormal metabolisms of diseases, and it can provide information about the metabolic modifications and the upstream regulative mechanism in diseases. More importantly, the systemic metabolic characteristics of tissues could provide opportunities for exploring novel diagnostic markers or therapeutic targets for clinical applications. Tissue metabolomics is conducted using a pairwise comparison of different parts of tissue from each patient, which can remove individual differences, such as age, sex, region, etc. The differences between the tumor cells and their surrounding host cells may reflect the interactions of the tumor and the host, which are important clues for studying the invasion and metastasis of tumors. Metabolic profiles, which are affected by many physiological and pathological processes, may provide further insight into the metabolic consequences of this severe liver disease. Small-molecule metabolites have an important role in biological systems and represent attractive candidates to understand hepatocellular carcinoma phenotypes. The power of metabolomics allows an unparalleled opportunity to query the molecular mechanisms of hepatocellular carcinoma.

Source References:

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23824744

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23150189

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hep.26350/abstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21114800

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19305372

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