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Introduction to Lipid Metabolism

Author, Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP 

Introduction to Lipid Metabolism

This series of articles is concerned with lipid metabolism. These discussions lay
the groundwork to proceed to discussions that will take on a somewhat different
approach, but they are critical to developing a more complete point of view of life
processes.  I have indicated that there are protein-protein interactions or protein-membrane interactions and associated regulatory features, but the focus of the
discussion or points made were different, and will be returned to.  The role of
lipids in circulating plasma proteins as biomarkers for coronary vascular disease
can be traced to the early work of Frederickson and the classification of lipid disorders.  The very critical role of lipids in membrane structure in health and
disease has had much less attention, despite the enormous importance,
especially in the nervous system.

This portion of the discussions of metabolism will have several topics on lipid
metabolism.  The first is concerned with the basic types of lipids -which are defined structurally and have different carbon chain length, and have
two basic types of indispensible fatty acid derivations – along pro-inflammatory
and anti-inflammatory pathways:

  1. Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) and LA, n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids LCPUFAs (EPA, DHA, and AA), eicosanoids,
    delta-3-desaturase, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes.
  2. the role of the mitochondrial electron transport chain in hydrogen transfers
    and oxidative phosphorylation with respect to the oxidation of fatty acids
    and fatty acid synthesis.
  3. The membrane structures of the cell, including
  • the cytoskeleton, essential organelles, and the intercellular matrix, which
    is a critical consideration for
  • cell motility, membrane conductivity, flexibility, and  signaling.
  • The membrane structure involves aggregation of lipids with proteins,
  • and is associated with hydrophobicity.
  1. The pathophysiology of systemic circulating lipid disorders.
  2. The fifth is the pathophysiology of cell structures under oxidative
    stress.
  3. Lipid disposal and storage diseases.

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Mechanisms of Drug Resistance

Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence, CSO

 

Mechanisms of Drug Resistance

This discussion is a continuing discussion of matters of metabolomics and the
essential role of genomic or epigenetic mechanisms to guide the development of
proteomic driven effectors of resistance to drug therapy.
We start with the elucidation of efflux pumps in bacteria, and we conclude with
consideration of cancer cells.

Part 1. Antimicrobial Resistance

Antimicrobial resistance is the ability of microbes, such as bacteria, viruses,
parasites, or
fungi, to grow in the presence of a chemical (drug) that would normally kill it
or limit its growth.

difference between non-resistant bacteria and drug resistant bacteria

difference between non-resistant bacteria and drug resistant bacteria

http://www.niaid.nih.gov/SiteCollectionImages/topics/antimicrobialresistance/1whatIs
DrugResistance.gif

Non-resistant bacteria multiply, and upon drug treatment, the bacteria die. Drug
resistant bacteria multiply as well, but upon drug treatment, the bacteria continue
to spread.

Many infectious diseases are increasingly difficult to treat because of antimicrobial-resistant organisms, including HIV infection, staphylococcal infection, tuberculosis,
influenza, gonorrhea, candida infection, and malaria.

Between 5 and 10 percent of all hospital patients develop an infection. About 90,000
of these patients die each year as a result of their infection, up from 13,300 patient
deaths in 1992.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (April 2011), antibiotic
resistance in the United States costs an estimated $20 billion a year in excess health
care costs. In addition, a cost of $35 million in other societal costs and more than 8
million additional days that people spend in the hospital. This is because people
infected with antimicrobial-resistant organisms are more likely to have longer hospital stays and may require more complicated treatment.

Diagnostic tests designed to determine which microbe is causing infection and to
which antimicrobials the microbe might be resistant take a few days or weeks to give
results because of a requirement for the microbe to grow for it to be identified.

Part 2. Antibiotic Tolerance   
Reported By Jef Akst | June 25, 2014

Optimization of lag time underlies antibiotic tolerance in evolved bacterial
populations

O. Fridma et al.    Nature, 2014 
http://dx.doi.org://10.1038/nature13469

Populations of Escherichia coli grown in the lab develop tolerance when exposed to
repeated treatments with the antibiotic ampicillin. The bacteria evolved to stay in a
dormant “lag” phase for just longer than three-, five-, or eight-hour-long treatment
courses. Antibiotic tolerance, which allows bacteria to survive even high levels of
antibiotics by remaining dormant. Tolerance may lead to an inaccurate assumption
that an unsuccessful antibiotic treatment failed as a result of resistance, in which
the microbe has evolved to grow in the presence of the drug. Resistance is very well
known; but the issue of tolerance is much less known,” according to Tom Coenye of
the Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Microbiology (LPM) at Gent University in Belgium,
who was not involved in the research.  This is a new phenomenon, extended lag,
where mutants have a longer lag time, and that extended lag allows them to survive
an attack by antibiotics.

To gain a better understanding of how bacterial populations might evolve to tolerate
antibiotic exposure, Nathalie Q. Balaban, a microbiologist and physicist at The Hebrew
University of Jerusalem in Israel and her colleagues exposed cultures of E. coli to high
concentrations of ampicillin for three, five, or eight hours, then washed the drug away
and suspended the bacteria in fresh media to be grown overnight. The next day, the
team repeated these treatments. In 10 cycles we could see that tolerance had evolved,
” Balaban said. Indeed, while the ampicillin treatments killed more than 99.9 percent of
the E. coli, by day 10, bacterial survival had increased 100-fold.

Moreover, the bacteria were also tolerant to norfloxacin, an antibiotic with a different mechanism of action than ampicillin but also ineffective during the dormant stage,
further supporting the idea that the E. coli populations had evolved to tolerate certain
durations of antibiotic exposure. “This is characteristic of tolerance,” said Balaban.
“The bacteria that have evolved tolerance under ampicillin are also more tolerant to
this completely different class of antibiotics.” Resistance, on the other hand, is usually
class-specific, she noted.

The researchers identified three genes that seemed to play a functional role in antibiotic
tolerance. While the exact mechanism of how mutations in these genes may have
lengthened the bacteria’s lag time is not yet known, two of the genes are part of pathways
that were previously implicated in bacterial persistence, including an antitoxin in a
common toxin-antitoxin module
 that may help regulate that bacteria’s growth.

Part 3. Multidrug Resistance Perspective

Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in salmonella: efflux pumps, genetics,
quorum sensing and biofilm formation.

Perspectives in Drug Discovery and Design 02/2011; 8:114-123.
Martins M, McCusker, Amaral, Fanning S

Multidrug resistance (MDR) to antibiotics presents a serious therapeutic problem
in the treatment of bacterial infections. The importance of this mechanism of resistance
in clinical settings is reflected in the increasing number of reports of multidrug resistant
isolates. In Salmonella enterica, the most common etiological agent of food borne
salmonellosis worldwide, MDR is becoming a major concern.

In Salmonella the main mechanisms of antibiotic resistance are mutations in target
genes (such as DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV) and the over-expression of efflux pumps. However, other mechanisms such as

  1. changes in the cell envelope;
  2. down regulation of membrane porins;
  3. increased lipopolysaccharide (LPS) component of the outer cell membrane;
  4. quorum sensing and
  5. biofilm formation

can also contribute to the resistance seen in this microorganism. To overcome
this problem new therapeutic approaches are urgently needed.

In the case of efflux-mediated multidrug resistant isolates, one of the treatment
options could be

  • the use of efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs)
  • in combination with the antibiotics to which the bacteria is resistant.

By blocking the efflux pumps

  • resistance is partly or wholly reversed,
  • allowing antibiotics showing no activity against the MDR strains
  • to be used to treat these infections.

Compounds that show potential as an EPI are therefore of interest, as well as new
strategies to target the efflux systems. Quorum sensing (QS) and biofilm formation
are systems also known to be involved in antibiotic resistance. Consequently,
compounds that

  • can disrupt or inhibit these bacterial “communication systems” will be of use in
    the treatment of these infections.

Part 5. Effux pumps and S. Aureus

Multidrug Efflux Pumps in Staphylococcus aureus: an Update

SS Costa, M Viveiros, L Amaral and I Couto
1Grupo de Micobactérias, Unidade de Microbiologia Médica, Instituto de Higiene e
Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (IHMT, UNL), 2Centro de Recursos
Microbiológicos (CREM), UNL, Portugal,3COST ACTION BM0701 (ATENS), Brussels,
Belgium
The Open Microbiology Journal 2013;(Suppl 1-M5): 59-71

The emergence of infections caused by multi- or pan-resistant bacteria in the hospital
or in the community settings is an increasing health concern. Albeit there is no single
resistance mechanism behind multi-resistance, multidrug efflux pumps,

  • proteins that cells use to detoxify from noxious compounds,

seem to play a key role in the emergence of these multidrug resistant (MDR) bacteria.
During the last decades, experimental data has established their contribution to low
level resistance to antimicrobials in bacteria and their

  • potential role in the appearance of MDR phenotypes, by the extrusion of multiple,
    unrelated compounds.

Recent studies suggest that

  • efflux pumps may be used by the cell as a first-line defense mechanism,

avoiding the drug to reach lethal concentrations, until a stable, more efficient alteration
occurs, that allows survival in the presence of that agent.

In this paper we review the current knowledge on

  • MDR efflux pumps and their
  • intricate regulatory network in Staphylococcus aureus,

a major pathogen, responsible from mild to life-threatening infections. Particular emphasis will be given to the potential role that

  • aureus MDR efflux pumps,
  • either chromosomal or plasmid-encoded, have
  • on resistance towards different antimicrobial agents and
  • on the selection of drug – resistant strains.

We will also discuss the many questions that still remain on the role of each specific
efflux pump and the need to establish appropriate methodological approaches to
address all these questions.

        Table 1. Multidrug Efflux Pumps Described for Staphylococcus aureus

Efflux Pump  Family Regulator(s) Substrate Specificity  References 
Chromosomally-encoded Efflux Systems 
NorA MFS MgrA,
NorG(?)
Hydrophilic fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin,
norfloxacin) QACs (tetraphenylphosphonium,
benzalkonium chloride) Dyes (e.g. ethidium
bromide, rhodamine)
[16,18,19]
NorB MFS MgrA,
NorG
Fluoroquinolones (e.g. hydrophilic: ciprofloxacin,
norfloxacin and hydrophobic: moxifloxacin,
sparfloxacin) Tetracycline QACs (e.g.
tetraphenylphosphonium, cetrimide) Dyes (e.g. ethidium bromide)
[31]
NorC MFS MgrA(?),
NorG
Fluoroquinolones (e.g. hydrophilic: ciprofloxacin
and hydrophobic: moxifloxacin) Dyes
(e.g. rhodamine)
[35,36]
MepA MATE MepR Fluoroquinolones (e.g. hydrophilic: ciprofloxacin,
norfloxacin and hydrophobic: moxifloxacin,
sparfloxacin) Glycylcyclines (e.g. tigecycline) QACs (e.g. tetraphenylphosphonium, cetrimide, benzalkonium chloride) Dyes
(e.g. ethidium bromide)
[37,38]
MdeA MFS n.i. Hydrophilic fluoroquinolones (e.g. ciprofloxacin,
norfloxacin) Virginiamycin, novobiocin, mupirocin,
fusidic acid QACs (e.g. tetraphenylphosphonium,
benzalkonium chloride, dequalinium) Dyes (e.g. ethidium bromide)
[39,40]
SepA n.d. n.i. QACs (e.g. benzalkonium chloride) Biguanidines
(e.g. chlorhexidine) Dyes (e.g. acriflavine)
[41]
SdrM MFS n.i. Hydrophilic fluoroquinolones (e.g. norfloxacin) Dyes (e.g. ethidium bromide, acriflavine) [42]
LmrS MFS n.i. Oxazolidinone (linezolid) Phenicols
(e.g. choramphenicol, florfenicol) Trimethoprim, erythromycin, kanamycin,
fusidic acid QACs (e.g. tetrapheny-
lphosphonium) Detergents (e.g. sodium
docecyl sulphate) Dyes (e.g. ethidium
bromide)
[43]
Plasmid-encoded Efflux Systems

QacA MFS QacR QACs (e.g. tetraphenylphosphonium,
benzalkonium chloride, dequalinium)
Biguanidines (e.g. chlorhexidine)
Diamidines (e.g. pentamidine) Dyes
(e.g. ethidium bromide,
rhodamine, acriflavine)
[45,49]
QacB MFS QacR QACs (e.g. tetraphenylphosphonium,
benzalkonium chloride)Dyes (e.g. ethidium bromide, rhodamine,
acriflavine)
[53]
Smr SMR n.i. QACs (e.g. benzalkonium chloride,
cetrimide) Dyes (e.g. ethidium bromide)
[58,61]
QacG SMR n.i. QACs (e.g. benzalkonium chloride,
cetyltrymethylammonium) Dyes
(e.g. ethidium bromide)
[67]
QacH SMR n.i. QACs (e.g. benzalkonium chloride,
cetyltrymethylammonium) Dyes
(e.g. ethidium bromide)
[68]
QacJ SMR n.i. QACs (e.g. benzalkonium chloride,
cetyltrymethylammonium) Dyes
(e.g. ethidium bromide)
[69]

a n.d.: The family of transporters to which SepA belongs is not elucidated to date.
b n.i.: The transporter has no regulator identified to date.
QACs: quaternary ammonium compounds

Identification of the plasmid-encoded qacA efflux pump gene
in meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
strain HPV107, a representative of the MRSA Iberian clone

S.S. Costaa,b, E. Ntokouc, A. Martinsa,d, M. Viveirosa,e, S. Pournarasc,
I. Coutoa,b, L. Amarala,d,e,∗
a Unidade de Micobactérias, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical,
Universidade Nova de Lisboa (IHMT, UNL), b Centro de Recursos Microbiológicos,
Universidade Nova de Lisboa (CREM, UNL), d Unidade de Parasitologia e
Microbiologia Médica (UPMM), Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade
Nova de Lisboa (IHMT, UNL), Lisbon, Portugal; e COST ACTION BM0701 (ATENS)
c Department of Microbiology, Medical School, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece;
Int J Antimicrobial Agents  2010; 36: 557–561
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/ijantimicag

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a major nosocomial
bacterium for which prevention and control measures consist mainly of

  • the application of biocides with antiseptic and disinfectant activity.

In this study, we demonstrated the presence of

  • the plasmid-located efflux pump gene qacA in MRSA strain HPV107,

a clinical isolate representative of the MRSA Iberian clone. The existence
of efflux activity in strain HPV107 due to the QacA pump was found and

  • this QacA efflux activity was linked with a phenotype of
  • reduced susceptibility towards several biocide compounds.

No association could be made with antibiotic resistance. This work
emphasises the potential of QacA pump activity in

  • the maintenance and dissemination of important MRSA strains in
    the hospital setting and, increasingly, in the community.

Efflux-mediated response of Staphylococcus aureus exposed to
ethidium bromide

I Couto1,2, S S Costa1, M Viveiros1, M Martins1,3 and L Amaral1,3*
1Unidade de Micobacterias, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical,
Universidade Nova de Lisboa (UNL), 2Centro de Recursos Microbiolo´gicos (CREM), Faculdade de Cieˆncias e Tecnologia, UNL,3UPMM,
Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, UNL, Portugal
J Antimicrob Chemother  (2008) 62, 504–513
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1093/jac/dkn217

By adapting an antibiotic-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus strain to
increasing concentrations of ethidium bromide, a known substrate
of efflux pumps (EPs), and

  • by phenotypically and genotypically analysing the resulting progeny,
  • we characterized the molecular mechanisms of S. aureus
    adaptation to ethidium bromide.

ATCC 25923 was grown in increasing concentrations of ethidium bromide.
The MICs of representatives of eight classes of antibiotics, eight biocides
and two dyes against ATCC 25923 and its ethidium bromide-resistant progeny
ATCC 25923EtBr were determined

  • with or without six efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs).

Efflux activity in the presence/absence of EPIs was evaluated by realtime
fluorometry. The presence and expression of eight EP genes were assayed
by PCR and quantitative RT–PCR (qRT–PCR), respectively. Mutations in
grlA, gyrA and norA promoter regions were screened by DNA sequencing.

Compared with its parental strain, ATCC 25923EtBr was

  • 32-fold more resistant to ethidium bromide and
  • also more resistant to biocides and hydrophilic fluoroquinolones.
  • Resistance to these could be reduced by the EPIs chlorpromazine,
    thioridazine and reserpine.

Increased efflux of ethidium bromide by ATCC 25923EtBr could be
inhibited by the same EPIs. qRT–PCR showed that

  • norA was 35-fold over-expressed in ATCC 25923EtBr,

whereas the remaining EP genes showed no significant increase in their

expression. Sequencing of the norA promoter region revealed

  • a 70 bp deletion in ATCC 25923EtBr.

Exposure of S. aureus to quaternary compounds such as ethidium bromide
results in decreased susceptibility of the organism to a wide variety of
compounds, including quinolones and biocides

  • through an efflux-mediated response, which
  • for strain ATCC 25923 is mainly NorA-mediated.

This altered expression may result from alterations in the norA
promoter region
.

Ethnic consumption of plant leaf extracts and appraisal of
their nutraceutical efficacy against multidrug resistant
staphylococcus aureus

Kaushik S1, 2*, Tomar Rs1, Shrivastav V1, Shrivastav A2 And Jain Sk3
Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Madhya Pradesh,
Gwalior (M.P.);  2: College of Life Sciences, Cancer Hospital and
Research Institute, Gwalior (M.P.); 3: Department of Microbiology,
Vikram University, Ujjain (M.P.), INDIA
IJBPAS, Feb, 2014, 3(2): 204-209

Nutraceuticals are natural bioactive chemical compounds that have
health promoting, disease preventing or medicinal properties.
Emergence of Multi Drug Resistant Staphylococci is increasing at
alarming rates and diseases caused by these strains leave patients
against multiple resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

The test bacteria were isolated and characterized by standard and
NCCLS recommended microbiological techniques. A total of eighteen
plant extracts were analysed for their antimicrobial activity. The
selection of medicinal plants was based on their traditional uses in
India. However most of these plants were not previously screened.
Antibacterial activity of these components was performed by standard
Kirby Bauer Disk Diffusion method approved by NCCLS and the
inhibitory effect was analysed by calculating Zone of inhibition.

Among the eighteen plant extracts analysed we found highest
activity in the effect of chemotherapy and as promising bio control agents

  • Guava,
  • Mango,
  • Jamun and
  • Pomengrate plant extracts,

while most of the other plants were either showing very moderate/
least activity against test bacteria. Our recent experiment indicated
that phytochemicals extracted with methanol can be utilized as
nutraceutical to lower the side.

Part 6. Efflux pumps and gram-negative organisms

Efflux Pumps that Bestow Multi-Drug Resistance of Pathogenic Gram-
negative 
Bacteria 

Amaral L1,2*, Spengler G2, Martins A2,3 and Molnar J2
1Travel Medicine of the Centre for Malaria and Other Tropical Diseases (CMDT),
Institute of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Lisbon, Portugal 2Department of
Medical Microbiology and Immunobiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of
Szeged, Szeged, Hungary 3Unit of Parasitology and Medical Microbiology
(UPMM), Institute of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Lisbon, Portugal
Amaral et al., Biochem Pharmacol 2013; 2:3
http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2167-0501.1000119

The efflux pump

The efflux pump

Efflux pumps are integral plasma membrane protein systems that recognize and bind
noxious compounds present in the cytoplasm (toxic products produced by metabolism;
compounds that have penetrated the cell), or periplasm of the bacterial cell and extrude
it into the environment in which the bacterium resides [1].

The efflux pump machinery gives the cell additional protection to the one provided by

  • the constituents of its cell wall (example: lipopolysaccharides), and
  • provides an initial protection to noxious agents present in its
    natural environment that have penetrated into the cell (example: bile
    salts in the colon) [1].

The efflux pump machinery is divided into five superfamily classes;

  • the major facilitator (MF),
  • the ATP-binding cassette (ABC),
  • the resistance-nodulation-division (RND),
  • the small multi-drug resistance (SMR) and
  • the multi-drug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE).

With respect to Gram-negative bacteria, although they all play
important roles in the protection of the bacterium from noxious
agents present in the environment, the

  • main efflux pump of the Gram negative bacterium is a
    member of the RND superfamily, and
  • because multi-drug resistance of clinical isolates have
    been associated with the over-expression of this pump,

it has received a great deal of attention [2].

The first in vitro response of bacteria to a given noxious agent,
such as an antibiotic, is to over-express its main efflux pump [2].
If the bacterium is serially exposed in vitro to increasing
concentrations of that compound, it responds by increasing
the effective number of its main efflux pump, as well as others
that provide redundant protection [2].

However, if that “adapted” bacterium is now maintained at a
constant level of a noxious agent, the level of efflux pump
activity increases up to a maximum, followed by a gradual
return of efflux pump activity to its basal level. Concomitant
to this process, an accumulation of mutations of essential
proteins located in the plasma membrane (example penicillin
binding proteins), mutations 30 S component of the ribosome
and gyrase take place [3]. These events suggest that when
the organism is faced with an environment that contains a
constant toxic level of a compound, and the cost for
maintaining an energy consuming system, such as that
needed for the energy dependent efflux pump, is too
great a price to pay.

Therefore, in order to survive in this unchanging environment,
other mechanisms are activated. For example, activation of a
mutator master gene is thought to be an important step at this
level, which results in the mutation of genes that code for
essential proteins, reversing the over-expression of efflux-
pumps, but still conferring the bacterial resistant to the
environmental pressure via other mechanism(s), yet
to be understood [4,5].

During therapy, the level of resistance increases many fold
higher than that of the initial infecting strain. Hence, clinical
isolates from treated patients often show much higher levels
of antibiotic resistance than that of their wild type counterpart
(sometimes it can even present a 1000 fold increase) [6].
At this stage, resistance is usually related to the presence
of mutations, which reduces the survival of the resistant
bacteria,

  • once it is transferred to a noxious agent-free environment

that contains the competing wild type counterpart [3,4].

Depending upon when during therapy a clinical strain is isolated,
its resistance to two or more antibiotic classes (multi-drug
resistance (MDR)), may be due entirely to over-expressed
efflux pumps; to a mixture of over-expressed efflux pumps
and increasing accumulation of mutations; and only to mutations [3,4].

The degree of resistance can readily be determined with
methods that employ compounds known for their modulation
of efflux pump activity, such as

  • phenothiazines [7] or phenyl-arginine-betanaphthylamide
    (PAβN),
  • the latter which competes with the antibiotic as
    substrate of the efflux pump [8].

If in presence of such compounds,

  • the MDR bacterium is rendered fully susceptible
    to the antibiotic(s) to which it was initially resistant,
  • resistance is most likely due to its overexpressed
    efflux pump systems.
  • Contributions made by accumulated mutations
    render the organism less and less affected by the EPI.

This type of information is of great value to clinicians faced
with long-term therapy of a bacterial infection that
progresses to an MDR phenotype. It should be understood
that although the Gram-negative bacterium has essentially
one main efflux pump, such as

  • the AcrAB (Escherichia coli) or
  • the MexAB (Pseudomonas aeruginosa),

the deletion of the main efflux pump results in the over-
expression of one or more other RND efflux pumps,
such as is the case for deletion of the AcrAB, followed by

  • the over-expression of the AcrEF pump [2].

Redundancy of as many as nine RND efflux pumps [2],
provides additional protection to the organism.

The pumps belonging to the RND family form

  • a tripartite complex together with
  • the periplasmic proteins belonging to the
    membrane fusion-protein (MFP) family and
  • the outer membrane channels.

RND transporters consist of

  • a transporter protein that recognises and
    binds the noxious agent
    in the cytoplasm or periplasm and
  • transports it to the contiguous channel (TolC),
  • ending at the surface of the outer membrane.

The transporter is attached to the plasma membrane
by two or three fusion proteins, which are believed to assist the

  • extrusion of the substrate by peristaltic actions [9].

Although the actual structure of RND efflux pumps
in the cell envelop is not completely understood,

  • the structure of the transporter, TolC and fusion
    proteins are well established for major Gram-negative
    bacteria [10].

The PMF energy dependent efflux pump most likely needs the
passage of hydronium ions through its internal cavity,

  • for the release of the substrate that is
  • in turn ejected into the TolC channel via the
  • peristaltic action of the fusion proteins [11].

A low pH,

  • the concentration of hydronium ions at the surface of the cell
  • results in a pH difference of 2 or 3 pH units compared
    to that of the milieu,

the surface concentration of hydronium ions

  • provides the force for the mobility of hydronium ions
  • through porins leading to the acidification of the periplasm,
  • providing the low pH needed by the transporter
  • for the release of the substrate.

At high pH, these hydronium ions come from

  • hydrolysis of ATP by ATP synthase, and
  • are passed into the transporter, thereby
  • reducing its internal pH, so that
  • the release of the substrates can take place [11,12].

EPIs, such as the phenothiazines chlorpromazine or thioridazine,

  • exert their inhibition at pH above 6, and
  • are thought to affect hydrolysis of ATP
  • denying the efflux pump transporter hydronium ions needed

for release of the bound substrate [11,12].

The search for EPIs that are clinically useful continues, although

with respect to thioridazine, this old neuroleptic has been shown

  • to inhibit efflux pumps of pathogenic mycobacteria [13], and
  • has been successfully used to treat extensively drug resistant
    tuberculosis infections [14].

The regulation of the main efflux pump of Escherichia coli may
take place via   distinct pathways. The induced synthesis of the
transporter component of the AcrAB efflux pump, when the
organism is exposed in vitro to a noxious agent,

  1. involves the activation of the stress gene soxS,
  2. followed by the activation of the local regulator marA,
  3. then by the activation of the transporter gene acrB [8].

In the case of Salmonella spp. two component resistance
mechanisms, such as the PmrA/PmrB system, directly
activate the master efflux pump regulator ram A gene [15].
The activation of the PmrA/PmrB system takes place
readily when Salmonella spp. is phagocytosed due to
the acidic nature of the phagolysosome [15], as follows:

  1. PmrB is a sensor that self-phosphorylates, and
  2. then transfers the phosphate to PmrA.
  3. PmrA activates a nine gene operon, which
  4. codes for Lipid A introduced into the nascent
    lipopolysaccharide layer of the outer membrane.
  5. The increased presence of Lipid A renders the
    phagocytosed bacterium practically immune to
    everything, including the hydrolases of the
    phagolysososome [15].

Although some EPIs are in clinical trials, none have yet to
reach the marketplace,    mainly due to their common
toxicity against healthy mammalian cells, affecting
intrinsic mammalian efflux pumps, as for example
those of the blood brain barrier. Lastly, it should be
noted that compounds that inhibit the efflux pump
of bacteria also have the capacity to promote the
removal of plasmids that carry antibiotic resistant
genes [16,17].

  1. Nikaido H, Pages JM (2012) Broad-specificity efflux
    pumps and their role in multidrug resistance of Gram-
    negative bacteria. FEMSMicrobiol Rev 36: 340-363.
  2. Viveiros M, Jesus A, Brito M, Leandro C, Martins M,
    et al. (2005) Inducement and reversal of tetracycline
    resistance in Escherichia coli K-12 and expression of
    proton gradient-dependent multidrug efflux pump
    genes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 49: 3578-3582.
  3. Martins A, Couto I, Aagaard L, Martins M, Viveiros M
    (2007) Prolonged exposure of methicillin-resistant
    Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) COL strain to
    increasing concentrations of oxacillin results in a
    multidrug-resistant phenotype. Int J Antimicrob
    Agent 29: 302-305.
  4. Martins A, Spengler G, Molnar J, Amaral L (2012)
    Sequential responses of bacteria to noxious agents
    (antibiotics) leading to accumulation of mutations
    and permanent resistance. Biochem Pharmacol J
    Open Access 1: 7.

Inhibitors of efflux pumps of Gram-negative
bacteria inhibit Quorum Sensing

Leonard Amaral, Joseph Molnar
1 Grupo de Micobacterias, Unidade de Microbacterilogia,
Centro de Malaria e Doenças Tropicais (CMDT), Instituto de
Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa,
Lisbon, Portugal; 2 Cost Action BM0701 (ATENS) of the
European Commission/European Science Foundation;
3 Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunobiology,
University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
Open Journal of Pharmacology, 2012, 2-2

Quorum Sensing (QS) systems of bacteria consist of

  • a producer of the QS signal and the responder.

The generation of a QS signal provides the means by which
a population can behave in a concerted manner such as

  • swarming, swimming and secretion of biofilm, etc.

Because concerted bahaviour bestows protection to the bacterial
species, and hence factors involved in the severity of an infection
such as virulence are products of QS systems, compounds that
inhibit the QS system have significant clinical relevance. Recent
evidence suggests that

  • the secretion of QS signals takes place via
  • the efflux pump system of the producer of the signal.

Interestingly, compounds such as phenothiazines and
trifluoromethyl ketones (TFs)

  • that inhibit proton motive force (PMF) activities such
    as swarming and swimming also
  • inhibit the PMF dependent efflux pump systems of
    bacteria and their QS   systems.

This review discusses the relationship between the efflux
pump, the QS system and the compounds that affect both.
Lastly, suggestions are made regarding classes of compounds
that have been shown

  • to inhibit PMF dependent efflux pumps and the need
  • to evaluate them for QS inhibitory properties.

Keywords: Quorum Sensing, QS signal, acylated hydroxyl
lactone (AHL), efflux pumps, Proton Motive Force (PMF),
inhibitors of efflux pumps, inhibitors of QS systems,
phenothiazines, Trifluormethyl Ketones (TFs), plants
sources for QS inhibitors

Efflux pumps of bacteria provide protection from noxious
agents that are present in the environment in which they
exist. Noxious agents may be naturally occurring compounds
present in environments outside and within the human.

Because over-expressed efflux pumps render antibiotic
therapy problematic, an intense search for agents that
inhibit specific efflux pumps of specific bacteria has
been conducted during the past decade [9].

Communication between bacteria of the same strain
or species and between species contributes to their
survival [11-13]. Communication involves the secretion
of signals that invoke a specific response from the responder
[11-13]. This  communication process is termed Quorum
sensing (QS). When it takes place between strains of the
same species,

  • communication is directed towards the reduction
    of population growth and
  • reducing the possibility of exceeding the nutritional
    support of the environment

Other signals may involve a population response that involves

  • the secretion of bioactive molecules that inhibit the
    replication of a competing population species [14-16]
    or even kill [biocidins) [17-21] or
  • promote a swarming effect that recruits members
    of the same species to migrate  to a specific location [22-24]
    similar to swarming by insects subsequent to signals
    indicating site of food [example bees).
  • biofilm, encase the bacteria at distances from each other
    [25-29] and within the matrix of this biofilm are
    channels used for further communication [30].

Biofilms are produced in the wild, at sites such as surfaces
of rocks which maintain the bacterial population in situ [31]
and are also produced at sites of the human colonized by
infecting bacteria [32, 33].

Agents that inhibit the QS response of the infecting bacterium
are obviously important and hence, the search for such agents
that inhibit the QS system and biofilm formation has been in
effect for the past two decades [11-13].

There is a relationship between efflux pumps (EP), QS and
biofilm (BF) secretion which has come to the forefront only
recently [13]. Control of this relationship is critical for
successful therapy of MDR bacterial infections which have
become rather commonplace. It is the intent of this review
to identify agents which may serve to interfere with the
complex system of EP-QS-BF interaction.

Proton motive force (PMF) dependent transporters obtain
their energy for function from the proton motive force. The
proton motive force is the result of cellular metabolism which
yields protons that are not used for coupling with molecular
oxygen and which are exported to the surface of the cell [43-45]
where they are distributed and bound to components of
the protective lipopolysaccharide layer that covers the cell
and constitutes a part of the outer cell wall of Gram-negative
[46] and the cell wall of Gram positive bacteria [47].

The larger the concentration of protons (hydronium ions)
on the surface of the cell with respect to their lower
concentration on the medial side of the cytoplasmic
membrane creates an electrochemical gradient that
is termed the proton motive force (PMF) [48].

Because hydronium ions cannot penetrate the cell wall
or the membrane, they may re-enter the cell only
through channels such as porins in general [49, 50].
The movement of these hydromium ions from the
surface of the cell to the periplasm or cytoplasm is
predicated upon systems that use the PMF as source
of energy-namely the resistance nodulation division
(RND) family of transporters.

E. coli has a multiplicity of efflux pumps that may
exceed 30 in number [51]. However, the main
efflux pump of this organism is the AcrAB-TolC
efflux pump [52, 53] which when deleted, its
function is replaced by the AcrEF-TolC efflux
pump [51]. Both efflux pumps are members
of the resistance nodulation division family of
transporters [51] and consist of three proteins:

  1. The transporter AcrB coded by the gene acrB and
    is intimately attached to the  plasma membrane;
  2. Two fusion proteins AcrA coded by the gene acrA
    that flank the AcrB transporter and are thought
    to assist the movement of a substrate through
    the AcrB transporter [35]; and,
  3. TolC which is also part of other tri-unit efflux pumps
    of the organism [35], is contiguous with the AcrB
    transporter and provides a conduit for the extrusion
    of the substrate [38].

Although the means for the recognition of the substrate to
be extruded appears to involve a pocket within the transporter,
it appears to be

  • defined by a phenyalanine residue [54].

Nevertheless, studies employing fluorochromes recognised by
the AcrB transporter indicate that the binding and release of
the substrate are pH dependent [55].

  • At low pH the dissociation of the substrate is high and
  • at high pH it is very slow.

In a physiological environment of ca. pH 7, if the dissociation
of the substrate is slow or not at all, then the effectiveness of
the pump to extrude a noxious agent would be nullified.
However, since the pump functions at this pH, conditions that
result in the dissociation of the substrate needed for continuous
pump action must involve a

  • decrease of the pH of the internal cavity of the pump
    to which the substrate is bound.

It has been postulated that the lowering of the pH takes place
by the generation of hydronium ions from metabolism [6] which

  • pass from the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane
    through the transporter.

At lower pH, there is no need for the generation of metabolically
derived  hydronium ions since these ions can be

  • diverted by the PMF from the surface of the cell
    to the periplasm via porins.

Whether hydronium ions are to be generated from the
hydrolysis of ATP at high pH or used for the synthesis
of ATP at low pH is a special

  • function of ATP synthase [56-58].

Model of the AcrAB-TolC efflux pump of a Gram-
negative bacterium

AcrAB-TolC efflux pump of a Gram-negative bacterium

AcrAB-TolC efflux pump of a Gram-negative bacterium

Hypothesis. At near neutral pH, Hydronium ions from hydrolysis of ATP
by ATP synthase pass through the AcrB

transporter, reduce the pH to a point that causes the release of the
substrate. When the hydronium ions reach the surface of the cell they
are distributed over that surface and bind to lipopolysaccharides
and basic amino acids. When there is a need for hydronium ions for
activity of the efflux pump and the pH is lower than neutral, and
the hydrolysis of ATP is not favoured, hydronium ions from the
surface of cell via the PMF mobilize through the Aqua porins
and reach the transporter where they are pushed through
the transporter by the peristaltic action caused by the fusion
proteins. Substrates bound to the transporter dissociate
when the pH is reduced by the flow of hydronium ions and
are carried out by the flow of water.

Inhibitors of bacterial efflux pumps
Inhibitors of the QS of bacteria

Because phenothiazines inhibit many energy dependent systems
of bacteria such as motility [89, 90, 95], and these phenothiazines
also inhibit efflux pumps of bacteria [6, 7, 9, 41, 51, 73, 74, 76-83],
there seems to be a correlation between an active efflux pump
system and a functional QS system. That this assumption is correct,
recent evidence has been provided showing that the efflux pumps of
the AHL responding environmental Chromobacterium violaceum
(CV026) bacterium and that of E. coli are inhibited by the phenothiazine
thioridazine (TZ) [12]. Because TZ is known to inhibit genes that
regulate and code for efflux pumps of bacteria [41, 119, 120], it is
possible that the inhibition of the responding CV0126 bacterium to
AHLs [12] involves the inhibition of genes that code and regulate
the efflux pump of the responder which is assumed to recognise the
AHL signal as an noxious agent and hence would extrude it to the
environment [12]. The inhibition of an efflux pump should manifest
itself as an inhibitor of the QS component responsible for biofilm
formation.

Since the discovery of berberine a powerful inhibitor of bacterial
efflux pumps [159], plants have become sources of inhibitors of
efflux pumps [160-164]. Given that efflux pumps and the  QS of
bacteria have an intimate relationship as described in this review,
attention has been focused on plants for potential sources of inhibitors
of efflux pumps and QS systems. Essential oils from Columbian
plants have yielded a large number of compounds that inhibit the
QS system of responding bacteria such as

  1. limonene-carvone , the
  2. citral (geranial-neral) (isolated from Lippia alba),
  3. α-pinene (from Ocotea sp.),
  4. β-pinene (from Swinglea glutinosa),
  5. cineol (from Elettaria cardamomun),
  6. α-zingiberene (from Zingiber officinale) and
  7.  pulegone (from Minthostachys mollis) [165].

Several other essential oils, in particular were shown to present
promising inhibitory properties for the short chain AHL quorum
sensing (QS) system in Escherichia coli containing the biosensor

  •  plasmid pJBA132, in  particular Lippia alba.

Citral was the only  essential oil that presented some activity for
the long chain AHL QS system in Pseudomonas putida containing

  •  the plasmid pRK-C12 [165].

The essence of this review is to correlate the relationship of the
efflux pump system to the QS system of bacteria via the use of
compounds that inhibit both systems. Simply put, inhibitors of
the efflux pump system also, when studied, inhibit the QS system
as well. Because the PMF dependent efflux pump system of Gram-
negatives that is overexpressed is responsible for the multi-drug
phenotype of the bacterium, compounds that affect the PMF of
the bacterium are candidates that will inhibit the activity of the
pump. Consequently, this inhibition will inhibit the secretion of
biofilm, and because biofilm is a deterrent to the action of antibiotics,
compounds that affect the efflux pump system are promising
candidates for clinical evaluation.

Limiting and controlling carbapenem-resistant
Klebsiella pneumonia

L Saidel-Odes, A Borer.
1Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology Unit, 2Infectious
Diseases Institute, Soroka University Medical Center and the
Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev,
Beer-Sheva, Israel
Infection and Drug Resistance 2014:7 9–14

Carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP)

  • is resistant to almost all antimicrobial agents,
  • is associated with substantial morbidity and mortality, and
  • poses a serious threat to public health.

The ongoing worldwide spread of this pathogen emphasizes the
need for immediate intervention. This article reviews the global
spread and risk factors for CRKP colonization/infection, and
provides an overview of the strategy to combat CRKP dissemination

Outbreaks of CRKP that have occurred around the world have
been associated with the plasmid-encoded carbapenemase
K. pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC),

  • a carbapenem-hydrolyzing β-lactamase.19

CRKP isolates are resistant to almost all available antimicrobials
and are susceptible

  • only to polymyxins and tigecycline;
  • a minority to the few remaining aminoglycosides,
    though resistance to these agents is increasingly reported.20,21

Several investigators have evaluated predictors for CRKP colonization.
The following summarizes various studies.

  1. In a multivariate analysis, prior use of macrolides and
    any antibiotic exposure $14 days remained the only
    independent factors associated with CRKP bacteremia
  2. Nosocomial isolation of CRKP was strongly favored by the
    selection pressure of carbapenem. In this study, prior
    treatment with fluoroquinolones was associated with
    decreased risk for the emergence of CRKP.
  3. Previous use of carbapenem and cephalosporin
  4. Nursing home residency before hospital admission, bedridden
    status, and previous antibiotic therapy
  5. exposure to fluoroquinolones
  6. the recipient of antibiotics
  7. intensive care unit (ICU) stay, and
  8. Poor functional status,
  9. Independent predictors of subsequent carbapenem-
    resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) infection were
  • admission to the ICU,
  • having a central venous  catheter,
  • receipt of antibiotics, and
  • diabetes mellitus

Schwaber et al and the Israeli CRE Working Group enforced the
Israel Ministry of Health guidelines mandating physical separation
of hospitalized carriers of CRE and dedicated staffing and appointed
a professional task force charged with containment.19 The monthly
incidence of nosocomial CRE was reduced from 55.5 to 11.7 cases
per 100,000 patient days within 15 months.

Part 7.  Tuberculosis

The Mechanism by which the Phenothiazine Thioridazine
Contributes to Cure Problematic Drug-Resistant Forms
of Pulmonary Tuberculosis: Recent Patents for “New Use”

L Amaral1*, A Martins2,3, G Spengler2, A Hunyadi4 and J Molnar2
Recent Patents on Anti-Infective Drug Discovery 2013; 8(3):000-000

At this moment, over half million patients suffer from multi-drug
resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) according to the data from the WHO.
A large majority is terminally ill with essentially incurable pulmonary
tuberculosis. This herein mini-review provides the experimental and
observational evidence that a specific phenothiazine,

  • thioridazine,

will contribute to cure any form of drug-resistant tuberculosis. This
antipsychotic agent is no longer under patent  protection for its
initial use. The reader is informed on the recent developments

  • in patenting this compound for “new use” with a special
  • emphasis on the aspects of drug-resistance.

Given that economic motivation can stimulate the use of this drug
as an antitubercular agent, future prospects are also discussed.

Thioridazine is not the only phenothiazine that has been recommended
for therapy of pulmonary tuberculosis. In general, many phenothiazines
have been implicated for antitubercular activity [62, 80-86]. Among
these are

  • trifluoperazine [87-94],
  • methdilazine [95, 96],
  • promazine [97, 98],
  • promethazine [97, 98],
  • fluphenazin [99],
  • propiomazine [100], and
  • the methylene blue related toluidine blue [101].

There are phenothiazine compounds derived from the parental
methylene blue for therapy of pathologies unrelated to tuberculosis
that also possess

  •  antitubercular [44, 48] and/or antimalarial properties [44].

Moreover, derivatives made from any of the phenothiazines that
have in vitro activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis are also
active [61, 67, 102, 103], suggesting ample opportunities for
patenting of new analogs developed from known, active phenothiazines
with even less side effects than those of TZ, as recently suggested by
Musuka and co-authors [104]. It is important to mention, that the
commercially available phenothiazines such as for example

  •  trifluoperazine, methdilazine, promazine, promethazine,
    fluphenazin and propiomazine

are beyond patent protection as initially intended. Nevertheless,
these compounds have been patented as adjuvants for the treatment
of MDR cancer (patent expired in 2011 [105]; and, right afterwards,
a new patent has been filed with a priority date of 28th March, 2012,
claiming combination therapy of cancer with a chemotherapeutic
agent and a dopamine receptor antagonist against Cancer stem cells (CSC).

Taking into account that intrinsic MDR is considered as one of the key
properties of CSCs [107], the subject to be covered is indeed related.
According to the MDR, XDR and TDR Mycobacterium tuberculosis,
subjects of this herein paper, the initial step for actually reaching those
in need has been made: a patent has been published in December, 2007,
for the use of TZ and its derivatives for reversing anti-microbial drug
resistance [108]. We must note, however, that, despite the six years
passed since, we were unable to find any related clinical trials, which
would certainly be of outmost importance and urgency in order to
proceed towards an effective therapy of highly resistant mycobacterial
infections.

Mechanism Of Action Of Tz: Why It Cures Multi-Drug,
Extensively Drug Resistant And Probably Totally Drug
Resistant Tuberculosis

Over-expressed efflux pumps of Mycobacterium tuberculosis render
the organism multi-drug resistant [13]. Special attention has been
given to those coded by the

  • mmpL7, p55, efpA, mmr, Rv1258c and Rv2459 genes [109].

The activity of these efflux pumps can be suppressed by

  • concentrations of TZ that have no effect on the viability of
    Mycobacterium tuberculosis
  • rendering the organism susceptible to the antibiotic to
    which it was initially resistant
  • as a consequence of the over-expression of its
    efflux pumps [109].

TZ has also been shown to inhibit the activity of the main

  • efflux pumps of bacteria belonging to other species.

TZ has strong inhibitory activity against the genes that code for
essential proteins of M. tuberculosis [122-124].  Consequently, we
may conclude that the in vitro activity of TZ involves

  • the inhibition of the efflux pumps of M. tuberculosis and that
  • the in vitro exposure of this organism to TZ renders the organism
  • susceptible to antibiotics to which it was initially resistant
  • as a consequence of over-expressed efflux pumps [21].

Phenothiazines such as CPZ, TZ, trifluoperazine, etc., also inhibit

  • the binding of calcium to calcium binding proteins such as

calmodulin in eukaryotes [125], and

  • interfere with other proteins involved in
  • the regulation of cellular activity [126].

They inhibit the transport of calcium and potassium systems

  • in eukaryotic cells [127-129] as well as in
  • mycobacteria [89, 130] and
  • E. coli [113].

In fact, in the latter case, calcium was shown essential to

  • the continuous activity of the thioridiazine sensitive
    efflux system [113].

The killing activity of the human macrophage as well as that
of the neutrophil

  • is dependent upon the retention of calcium and potassium
  • within the phagolysosome of the cell [131].

Considering this, several alternative choices are available for
patenting under “new use”, which would allow a “fresh start”
for the compound to be developed. However, the needed
experimental proof that these phenothiazine agents have
activity at the pulmonary macrophage of the alveolar unit
(the site where the causative organism of pulmonary tuberculosis
resides) is still absent.

Targeting the Human Macrophage with Combinations
of Drugs and Inhibitors of Ca2+ and K+ Transport to
Enhance the Killing of Intracellular Multi-Drug Resistant
M. tuberculosis (MDR-TB) – a Novel, Patentable Approach
to Limit the Emergence of XDR-TB

Marta Martins
UCD Centre for Food Safety, School of Agriculture, Food Science and
Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
& Unit of Mycobacteriology and UPMM; Instituto de Higiene e Medicina
Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (IHMT/UNL),  Lisbon, Portugal
Recent Patents on Anti-Infective Drug Discovery, 2011, 6, 000-000

The emergence of resistance in Tuberculosis has become a serious
problem for the control of this disease. For that reason, new therapeutic
strategies that can be implemented in the clinical setting are urgently
needed. The design of new compounds active against mycobacteria
must take into account that Tuberculosis is mainly an intracellular
infection of the alveolar macrophage and therefore must maintain
activity within the host cells.

An alternative therapeutic approach will be described in this review,
focusing on the activation of the phagocytic cell and the subsequent
killing of the internalized bacteria. This approach explores the combined
use of antibiotics and phenothiazines, or Ca2+ and K+ flux inhibitors,
in the infected macrophage.

Targeting the infected macrophage and not the internalized bacteria
could overcome the problem of bacterial multi-drug resistance. This
will potentially eliminate the appearance of new multi-drug resistant
tuberculosis (MDR-TB) cases and subsequently prevent the emergence
of extensively-drug resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB).

Patents resulting from this novel and innovative approach could be
extremely valuable if they can be implemented in the clinical setting.
Other patents will also be discussed such as the treatment of TB
using immunomodulator compounds (for example: betaglycans).

Role of Phenothiazines and Structurally Similar
Compounds of Plant Origin in the Fight against
Infections by Drug Resistant Bacteria


SG. Dastidar 1, JE. Kristiansen 2, J Molnar 3 and L Amaral
Antibiotics 2013; 2: 58-71;
http://dx.doi.org:/10.3390/antibiotics2010058

Phenothiazines have their primary effects on the plasma membranes
of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Among the components of the
prokaryotic plasma membrane affected are

  • efflux pumps,
  • their energy sources
  • and energy providing enzymes, such as ATPase,
  • and genes that regulate and code for the permeability
    aspect of a bacterium.

The response of multidrug and extensively drug resistant
tuberculosis to phenothiazines shows an alternative therapy for the
treatment of these dreaded diseases, which are claiming more and
more lives every year throughout the world.

Many phenothiazines have shown

  • synergistic activity with several antibiotics thereby
  • lowering the doses of antibiotics administered to patients
    suffering from specific bacterial infections.

Trimeprazine is synergistic with trimethoprim. Flupenthixol (Fp)
has been found to be synergistic with penicillin and chlorpromazine
(CPZ); in addition, some antibiotics are also synergistic. Along with
the antibacterial action described in this review,

  • many phenothiazines possess plasmid curing activities, which
  • render the bacterial carrier of the plasmid sensitive to antibiotics.

Thus, simultaneous applications of a phenothiazine like TZ would not
only act as an additional antibacterial agent but also would help

  • to eliminate drug resistant plasmid from
    the infectious bacterial cells.

Part 8.  Cancer Cytotherapy

Synthesis and Structure-Activity Relationships of Novel
Dioxolanes as MDR Modulators in Cancer

A Martins 1,2,†,*, J Csábi 3,†, A Balázs 4, DKitka 1, L Amaral 5,
J Molnár 1, A Simon 6, G Tóth 6 and A Hunyadi 3,
Molecules 2013, 18, 15255-15275;
http://dx.doi.org:/10.3390/molecules181215255

Ecdysteroids, molting hormones of insects, can exert several mild,
non-hormonal bioactivities in mammals, including humans. In a
previous study, we have found a significant effect of certain derivatives

  • on the ABCB1 transporter mediated multi-drug resistance of a
  • transfected murine leukemia cell line.

In this paper, we present a structure-activity relationship study
focused on

  • the apolar dioxolane derivatives of 20-hydroxyecdysone.

Semi-synthesis and bioactivity of a total of 32 ecdysteroids, including
20 new compounds, is presented, supplemented with their

  • complete 1H- and 13C-NMR signal assignment

As published before [9], the 20,22-diol moiety of 20E is more reactive
than the 2,3-diol, probably due to the free rotation of the 20,22-bond
of 20E that allows the 20,22-dioxolane ring to form with less strain.

This allowed us to selectively obtain the 20,22-mono-dioxolane
derivatives 2–14, or, depending on the amount of reagent and the
reaction time, the 2,3;20,22-bis-homo-dioxolanes 17 and 21–25.

By utilizing the 20,22-monodioxolane ecdysteroids, another aldehyde
or ketone could be coupled to position 2,3, resulting in several bis-hetero-
dioxolane derivatives 26–33. For this, however, gradually decreasing
reactivity with the increase of the size of the reagent was a limiting factor:

  • larger aldehydes or ketones (mainly those containing a
    substituted aromatic ring) could not be coupled at the 2,3-position.
  • The 2,3-monodioxolane derivatives also appeared to be present as
    minor side-products of the reactions, and as a consequence of their
    low amount, only one such compound (compound 15) was isolated and studied.

To selectively obtain this kind of a compound (16) in a more reasonable
yield, another, three-step approach was successfully applied:

  • after protecting the 20,22-diol with phenylboronic acid, the
    2,3-acetonide could be prepared, and
  • removal of the 20,22 protecting group afforded the desired
    2,3-monoacetonide in a one-pot procedure.

In the case of the reactions with aldehydes or asymmetric ketones,
the new C-28 and C-29 central atoms of the dioxolane rings are
stereogenic centers and thus two possible diastereomers can be
formed at both diols. Their configuration was elucidated by two-
dimensional ROESY or selective one-dimensional ROESY experiments,
e.g., in the doubly substituted

  • dioxolane derivative 22 (R1 = R4 = n-Bu, R2 = R3 = H)
  • the unambiguous differentiation of the 1H and 13C signals of
    the two n-butyl groups was achieved in the following way
    (see Figure 2).

Assignment of the H-C(28) atoms (δ = 4.93/105.9 ppm) was supported by

  • the H-2/C-28 and H-3/C-28 HMBC correlations, and
  • that of H-C(29) (δ = 4.91/105.6 ppm) by the H-22/C-29
    cross peak, respectively.

The selective ROESY experiment irradiating at 4.93 ppm showed

  • contacts with the Hα-2 and Hα-3 atoms proving the
    α position of the R2 = H atom.

The ROESY response obtained irradiating H = R3 signal (δ = 4.91)
on H-22 (δ = 3.64 ppm) revealed their

  • cis arrangement and the R configuration around C-29.

The unambiguous assignments of the signals

  • of the two n-butyl groups R1 and R4 were achieved by
  • selective TOCSY experiments (irradiation at
  • δ = 4.93 and 4.91, respectively).

Figure 2

Stereostructure of 22. Red-ROESY proximitries. Blue- 1H. Black-1 001

Stereostructure of 22. Red-ROESY proximitries. Blue- 1H. Black-1 001

Stereostructure of 22. Red arrows indicate the detected ROESY
steric proximities, the blue numbers give the characteristic 1H,
and the black numbers the 13C chemical shifts.

 

Related Material

Identification of Efflux Pump-mediated Multidrug-resistant
Bacteria by the Ethidium Bromide-agar Cartwheel Method

M Martins, M Viveiros, I Couto, SS. Costa, T Pacheco, S Fanning,
Jean-Marie Pagès, and L Amaral
in vivo 2011; 25: 171-178  

Index for efflux activity of the MDR strains. The capacity to efflux EtBr
of each bacterial strain was ranked relative to the reference strain
according to the following formula:

 

Index for efflux activity of the MDR strains

Index for efflux activity of the MDR strains

A Simple Method for Assessment of MDR Bacteria for
Over-Expressed Efflux Pumps

M Martinsa,b*, MP. McCuskera,b, M Viveirosa,c, I Coutoc,d,
S Fanninga,b, Jean-Marie Pagès b,e, L Amaral,b,
The Open Microbiol J 2013; 7: 1-5  1874-2858/13 Bentham

Flowchart followed to test bacterial strains using the EtBr-agar
Cartwheel method.

Flowchart followed to test bacterial strains using the EtBr-agar Cartwheel method.

Flowchart followed to test bacterial strains using the EtBr-agar Cartwheel method.

EtBr-agar cartwheel method applied to different bacterial species

EtBr-agar cartwheel method applied to different bacterial species

EtBr-agar cartwheel method applied to different bacterial species

The effect of selected EPIs on the resistance of the induced and
MDR Gram-positive bacteria.

TET
Enterococcus EFC
ATCC29212
HSEFM-D
1.5
>2.5
w/o
EPI
+
TZ
+
CPZ
+
RES
4
16
4
4
4
4
4
8
(4×) (4×) (2×)
                                MCEtBr NOR  (mg/l) MIC NOR (mg/l)
HSEFM-E >2.5 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125

EPI: Efflux pump inhibitor; w/o: without; TZ: thioridazine; CPZ:
chlorpromazine; PAN: phenyl arginine β-naphthylamide. Values
in bold-type correspond to a decrease of 4-fold or higher on
the MIC values in comparison to those in the absence of inhibitor.
Values in parenthesis indicate the MIC decrease relative to that
of the original culture. The concentration of each EPI used is
defined in the Materials and Methods section.

Macrocyclic diterpenes resensitizing multidrug
resistant phenotypes 

MA. Reis a, A Paterna a, RJ. Ferreira a, H Lage b,
Maria-José U. Ferreira a,⇑
a Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade
de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
b Charité Campus Mitte, Institute of Pathology, Berlin, Germany
Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

Herein, collateral sensitivity effect was exploited as a strategy to
select effective compounds to overcome multidrug resistance in
cancer. Thus, eleven macrocyclic diterpenes, namely jolkinol D (1),
isolated from Euphorbia piscatoria, and its derivatives (2–11) were
evaluated for their activity on three different Human cancer entities:

  • gastric (EPG85-257), pancreatic (EPP85-181) and colon (HT-29)

each with a variant selected for resistance to mitoxantrone

  1. EPG85-257RN;
  2. EPP85-181RN;
  3. HT-29RN and
  • one to daunorubicin (EPG85-257RD; EPP85-181RD; HT-29RD).

Jolkinol D (1) and most of its derivatives (2–11) exhibited significant
collateral sensitivity effect towards the cell lines

  • EPG85-257RN (associated with P-glycoprotein overexpression) and
  • HT-29RD (altered topoisomerase II expression).

The benzoyl derivative, jolkinoate L (8) demonstrated ability to

  • target different cellular contexts with
  • concomitant high antiproliferative activity.

These compounds were previously assessed as
P-glycoprotein modulators,

  • at non-cytotoxic doses, on MDR1-mouse lymphoma cells.

A regression analysis between

  1. the antiproliferative activity presented herein and
  2. the previously assessed P-glycoprotein modulatory effect

showed a strong relation between the compounds that presented

  • both high P-glycoprotein modulation and cytotoxicity.

Molecular Docking Characterizes Substrate-Binding Sites
and Efflux Modulation Mechanisms within P
Glycoprotein.

Ferreira,† Maria-José U. Ferreira,† and DJVA dos Santos*,†,‡
†Research Institute for Medicines and Pharmaceutical Sciences
(iMed.UL), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
‡REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Faculty of
Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
J. Chem. Inf. Model. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1021/ci400195v

P-Glycoprotein (Pgp) is one of the best characterized ABC
transporters
, often involved

  • in the multidrug-resistance phenotype
  • overexpressed by several cancer cell lines.

Experimental studies contributed to important knowledge concerning
substrate polyspecificity, efflux mechanism, and drug binding sites.
This information is, however, scattered through different perspectives,
not existing a unifying model for the knowledge available for this transporter.
Using a previously refined structure of murine Pgp,

  • three putative drug-binding sites were hereby characterized
  • by means of molecular docking.

The modulator site (M-site) is characterized by

  • cross interactions between both Pgp halves

herein defined for the first time, having an important role in

  • impairing conformational changes leading to substrate efflux.

Two other binding sites, located next to the inner leaflet of the lipid bilayer,

  • were identified as the substrate binding H and R sites
  • by matching docking and experimental results.

A new classification model

  • with the ability to discriminate substrates from modulators

is also proposed, integrating a vast number of theoretical and experimental data.

conformational changes leading to substrate efflux

conformational changes leading to substrate efflux

conformational changes leading to substrate efflux

http://pubs.acs.org/appl/literatum/publisher/achs/journals/content/jcisd8/
2013/jcisd8.2013.53.issue-7/ci400195v/production/pdfimages_v02/normal.img-000.jpg

 

 

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Imaging-guided cancer treatment

Imaging-guided cancer treatment

Writer & reporter: Dror Nir, PhD

It is estimated that the medical imaging market will exceed $30 billion in 2014 (FierceMedicalImaging). To put this amount in perspective; the global pharmaceutical market size for the same year is expected to be ~$1 trillion (IMS) while the global health care spending as a percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) will average 10.5% globally in 2014 (Deloitte); it will reach ~$3 trillion in the USA.

Recent technology-advances, mainly miniaturization and improvement in electronic-processing components is driving increased introduction of innovative medical-imaging devices into critical nodes of major-diseases’ management pathways. Consequently, in contrast to it’s very small contribution to global health costs, medical imaging bears outstanding potential to reduce the future growth in spending on major segments in this market mainly: Drugs development and regulation (e.g. companion diagnostics and imaging surrogate markers); Disease management (e.g. non-invasive diagnosis, guided treatment and non-invasive follow-ups); and Monitoring aging-population (e.g. Imaging-based domestic sensors).

In; The Role of Medical Imaging in Personalized Medicine I discussed in length the role medical imaging assumes in drugs development.  Integrating imaging into drug development processes, specifically at the early stages of drug discovery, as well as for monitoring drug delivery and the response of targeted processes to the therapy is a growing trend. A nice (and short) review highlighting the processes, opportunities, and challenges of medical imaging in new drug development is: Medical imaging in new drug clinical development.

The following is dedicated to the role of imaging in guiding treatment.

Precise treatment is a major pillar of modern medicine. An important aspect to enable accurate administration of treatment is complementing the accurate identification of the organ location that needs to be treated with a system and methods that ensure application of treatment only, or mainly to, that location. Imaging is off-course, a major component in such composite systems. Amongst the available solution, functional-imaging modalities are gaining traction. Specifically, molecular imaging (e.g. PET, MRS) allows the visual representation, characterization, and quantification of biological processes at the cellular and subcellular levels within intact living organisms. In oncology, it can be used to depict the abnormal molecules as well as the aberrant interactions of altered molecules on which cancers depend. Being able to detect such fundamental finger-prints of cancer is key to improved matching between drugs-based treatment and disease. Moreover, imaging-based quantified monitoring of changes in tumor metabolism and its microenvironment could provide real-time non-invasive tool to predict the evolution and progression of primary tumors, as well as the development of tumor metastases.

A recent review-paper: Image-guided interventional therapy for cancer with radiotherapeutic nanoparticles nicely illustrates the role of imaging in treatment guidance through a comprehensive discussion of; Image-guided radiotherapeutic using intravenous nanoparticles for the delivery of localized radiation to solid cancer tumors.

 Graphical abstract

 Abstract

One of the major limitations of current cancer therapy is the inability to deliver tumoricidal agents throughout the entire tumor mass using traditional intravenous administration. Nanoparticles carrying beta-emitting therapeutic radionuclides [DN: radioactive isotops that emits electrons as part of the decay process a list of β-emitting radionuclides used in radiotherapeutic nanoparticle preparation is given in table1 of this paper.) that are delivered using advanced image-guidance have significant potential to improve solid tumor therapy. The use of image-guidance in combination with nanoparticle carriers can improve the delivery of localized radiation to tumors. Nanoparticles labeled with certain beta-emitting radionuclides are intrinsically theranostic agents that can provide information regarding distribution and regional dosimetry within the tumor and the body. Image-guided thermal therapy results in increased uptake of intravenous nanoparticles within tumors, improving therapy. In addition, nanoparticles are ideal carriers for direct intratumoral infusion of beta-emitting radionuclides by convection enhanced delivery, permitting the delivery of localized therapeutic radiation without the requirement of the radionuclide exiting from the nanoparticle. With this approach, very high doses of radiation can be delivered to solid tumors while sparing normal organs. Recent technological developments in image-guidance, convection enhanced delivery and newly developed nanoparticles carrying beta-emitting radionuclides will be reviewed. Examples will be shown describing how this new approach has promise for the treatment of brain, head and neck, and other types of solid tumors.

The challenges this review discusses

  • intravenously administered drugs are inhibited in their intratumoral penetration by high interstitial pressures which prevent diffusion of drugs from the blood circulation into the tumor tissue [1–5].
  • relatively rapid clearance of intravenously administered drugs from the blood circulation by kidneys and liver.
  • drugs that do reach the solid tumor by diffusion are inhomogeneously distributed at the micro-scale – This cannot be overcome by simply administering larger systemic doses as toxicity to normal organs is generally the dose limiting factor.
  • even nanoparticulate drugs have poor penetration from the vascular compartment into the tumor and the nanoparticles that do penetrate are most often heterogeneously distributed

How imaging could mitigate the above mentioned challenges

  • The inclusion of an imaging probe during drug development can aid in determining the clearance kinetics and tissue distribution of the drug non-invasively. Such probe can also be used to determine the likelihood of the drug reaching the tumor and to what extent.

Note: Drugs that have increased accumulation within the targeted site are likely to be more effective as compared with others. In that respect, Nanoparticle-based drugs have an additional advantage over free drugs with their potential to be multifunctional carriers capable of carrying both therapeutic and diagnostic imaging probes (theranostic) in the same nanocarrier. These multifunctional nanoparticles can serve as theranostic agents and facilitate personalized treatment planning.

  • Imaging can also be used for localization of the tumor to improve the placement of a catheter or external device within tumors to cause cell death through thermal ablation or oxidative stress secondary to reactive oxygen species.

See the example of Vintfolide in The Role of Medical Imaging in Personalized Medicine

vinta

Note: Image guided thermal ablation methods include radiofrequency (RF) ablation, microwave ablation or high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU). Photodynamic therapy methods using external light devices to activate photosensitizing agents can also be used to treat superficial tumors or deeper tumors when used with endoscopic catheters.

  • Quality control during and post treatment

For example: The use of high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) combined with nanoparticle therapeutics: HIFU is applied to improve drug delivery and to trigger drug release from nanoparticles. Gas-bubbles are playing the role of the drug’s nano-carrier. These are used both to increase the drug transport into the cell and as ultrasound-imaging contrast material. The ultrasound is also used for processes of drug-release and ablation.

 HIFU

Additional example; Multifunctional nanoparticles for tracking CED (convection enhanced delivery)  distribution within tumors: Nanoparticle that could serve as a carrier not only for the therapeutic radionuclides but simultaneously also for a therapeutic drug and 4 different types of imaging contrast agents including an MRI contrast agent, PET and SPECT nuclear diagnostic imaging agents and optical contrast agents as shown below. The ability to perform multiple types of imaging on the same nanoparticles will allow studies investigating the distribution and retention of nanoparticles initially in vivo using non-invasive imaging and later at the histological level using optical imaging.

 multi

Conclusions

Image-guided radiotherapeutic nanoparticles have significant potential for solid tumor cancer therapy. The current success of this therapy in animals is most likely due to the improved accumulation, retention and dispersion of nanoparticles within solid tumor following image-guided therapies as well as the micro-field of the β-particle which reduces the requirement of perfectly homogeneous tumor coverage. It is also possible that the intratumoral distribution of nanoparticles may benefit from their uptake by intratumoral macrophages although more research is required to determine the importance of this aspect of intratumoral radionuclide nanoparticle therapy. This new approach to cancer therapy is a fertile ground for many new technological developments as well as for new understandings in the basic biology of cancer therapy. The clinical success of this approach will depend on progress in many areas of interdisciplinary research including imaging technology, nanoparticle technology, computer and robot assisted image-guided application of therapies, radiation physics and oncology. Close collaboration of a wide variety of scientists and physicians including chemists, nanotechnologists, drug delivery experts, radiation physicists, robotics and software experts, toxicologists, surgeons, imaging physicians, and oncologists will best facilitate the implementation of this novel approach to the treatment of cancer in the clinical environment. Image-guided nanoparticle therapies including those with β-emission radionuclide nanoparticles have excellent promise to significantly impact clinical cancer therapy and advance the field of drug delivery.

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Metformin, Thyroid-Pituitary Axis, Diabetes Mellitus, and Metabolism

Metformin, Thyroid-Pituitary Axis, Diabetes Mellitus, and Metabolism

Larry H, Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator
and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/9/27/2014/Metformin,_thyroid-pituitary_ axis,_diabetes_mellitus,_and_metabolism

The following article is a review of the central relationship between the action of
metformin as a diabetic medication and its relationship to AMPK, the important and
essential regulator of glucose and lipid metabolism under normal activity, stress, with
its effects on skeletal muscle, the liver, the action of T3 and more.

We start with a case study and a publication in the J Can Med Assoc.  Then we shall look
into key literature on these metabolic relationships.

Part I.  Metformin , Diabetes Mellitus, and Thyroid Function

Hypothyroidism, Insulin resistance and Metformin
May 30, 2012   By Janie Bowthorpe
The following was written by a UK hypothyroid patient’s mother –
Sarah Wilson.

My daughter’s epilepsy is triggered by unstable blood sugars. And since taking
Metformin to control her blood sugar, she has significantly reduced the number of
seizures. I have been doing research and read numerous academic medical journals,
which got me thinking about natural thyroid hormone and Hypothyroidism. My hunch
was that when patients develop hypothyroid symptoms, they are actually becoming
insulin resistant (IR). There are many symptoms in common between women with
polycystic ovaries and hypothyroidism–the hair loss, the weight gain, etc.
(http://insulinhub.hubpages.com/hub/PCOS-and-Hypothyroidism).

A hypothyroid person’s body behaves as if it’s going into starvation mode and so, to
preserve resources and prolong life, the metabolism changes. If hypothyroid is prolonged
or pronounced, then perhaps, chemical preservation mode becomes permanent even
with the reintroduction of thyroid hormones. To get back to normal, they need
a “jump-start” reinitiate a higher rate of metabolism. The kick start is initiated through
AMPK, which is known as the “master metabolic regulating enzyme.”
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMP-activated protein kinase).

Guess what? This is exactly what happens to Diabetes patients when Metformin is
introduced. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metformin
Suggested articles: http://www.springerlink.com/content/r81606gl3r603167/  and
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2265.2011.04029.x/pdf

Note the following comments/partial statements:
“Hypothyroidism is characterized by decreased insulin responsiveness”;
“the pivotal regulatory role of T3 in major metabolic pathways”.

The community knows that T3/NTH (natural thyroid hormone [Armour]) makes
hypothyroid patients feel better – but the medical establishment is averse to T3/NTH
(treating subclinical hypoT (T3/T4 euthyroid) with natural dessicated thyroid (NDT).
The medical establishment might find an alternative view about impaired metabolism
more if shown real proof that the old NDT **was/is** having the right result –i.e., the
T3 is jump-starting the metabolism by re-activating
 AMPK.

If NDT also can be used for hypothyroidism without the surmised “dangers” of NTH,
then they should consider it. [The reality in the choice is actually recombinant TH
(Synthroid)]. Metformin is cheap, stable and has very few serious side effects. I use the
car engine metaphor, and refer to glucose as our petrol, AMPK as the spark plug and
both T3 and Metformin as the ignition switches. Sometimes if you have flat batteries in
the car, it doesn’t matter how much you turn the ignition switch or pump the petrol
pedal, all it does is flatten the battery and flood the engine.

Dr. Skinner in the UK has been treating “pre-hypothyroidism” the way that some
doctors treat “pre-diabetes”. Those hypothyroid patients who get treated early
might not have had their AMPK pathways altered and the T4-T3 conversion still works.
There seems to be no reason why thyroid hormone replacement therapy shouldn’t
logically be given to ward off a greater problem down the line.

It’s my belief that there is clear and abundant academic evidence that the AMPK/
Metformin research should branch out to also look at thyroid disease.

Point – direct T3 is kicking the closed -down metabolic process back into life,
just like Metformin does for insulin resistance.
http://www.hotthyroidology.com/editorial_79.html
There is serotonin resistance! http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17250776

Metformin Linked to Risk of Low Levels of Thyroid Hormone

CMAJ (Canadian Medical Association Journal) 09/22/2014

Metformin, the drug commonly for treating type 2 diabetes,

  • is linked to an increased risk of low thyroid-stimulating hormone
    (TSH) levels
  • in patients with underactive thyroids (hypothyroidism),

according to a study in CMAJ (Canadian Medical Association Journal).

Metformin is used to lower blood glucose levels

  • by reducing glucose production in the liver.

previous studies have raised concerns that

  • metformin may lower thyroid-stimulating hormone levels.

Study characteristics:

  1. Retrospective  long-term
  2. 74 300 patient who received metformin and sulfonylurea
  3. 25-year study period.
  4. 5689 had treated hypothyroidism
  5. 59 937 had normal thyroid function.

Metformin and low levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone in
patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus

Jean-Pascal Fournier,  Hui Yin, Oriana Hoi Yun Yu, Laurent Azoulay  +
Centre for Clinical Epidemiology (Fournier, Yin, Yu, Azoulay), Lady Davis Institute,
Jewish General Hospital; Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational
Health (Fournier), McGill University; Division of Endocrinology (Yu), Jewish General
Hospital; Department of Oncology (Azoulay), McGill University, Montréal, Que., Cananda

CMAJ Sep 22, 2014,   http://dx.doi.org:/10.1503/cmaj.140688

Background:

  • metformin may lower thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels.

Objective:

  • determine whether the use of metformin monotherapy, when compared with
    sulfonylurea monotherapy,
  • is associated with an increased risk of low TSH levels(< 0.4 mIU/L)
  • in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Methods:

  • Used the Clinical Practice Research Datalink,
  • identified patients who began receiving metformin or sulfonylurea monotherapy
    between Jan. 1, 1988, and Dec. 31, 2012.
  • 2 subcohorts of patients with treated hypothyroidism or euthyroidism,

followed them until Mar. 31, 2013.

  • Used Cox proportional hazards models to evaluate the association of low TSH
    levels with metformin monotherapy, compared with sulfonylurea monotherapy,
    in each subcohort.

Results:

  • 5689 patients with treated hypothyroidism and 59 937 euthyroid patients were
    included in the subcohorts.

For patients with treated hypothyroidism:

  1. 495 events of low TSH levels were observed (incidence rate 0.1197/person-years).
  2. 322 events of low TSH levels were observed (incidence rate 0.0045/person-years)
    in the euthyroid group.
  • metformin monotherapy was associated with a 55% increased risk of low TSH
    levels 
    in patients with treated hypothyroidism (incidence rate 0.0795/person-years
    vs.0.1252/ person-years, adjusted hazard ratio [HR] 1.55, 95% confidence
    interval [CI] 1.09– 1.20), compared with sulfonylurea monotherapy,
  • the highest risk in the 90–180 days after initiation (adjusted HR 2.30, 95% CI
    1.00–5.29).
  • No association was observed in euthyroid patients (adjusted HR 0.97, 95% CI 0.69–1.36).

Interpretation: The clinical consequences of this needs further investigation.

 

Crude and adjusted hazard ratios for suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone
levels (< 0.1 mIU/L) associated with the use metformin monotherapy, compared
with sulfonylurea monotherapy, in patients with treated hypothyroidism or
euthyroidism and type 2 diabetes
Variable No. events
suppressed
TSH levels
Person-years of
exposure
Incidence rate,
per 1000 person-years (95% CI)
Crude
HR
Adjusted HR*(95% CI)
Patients with treated hypothyroidism, = 5689
Sulfonylure,
= 762
18 503 35.8
(21.2–56.6)
1.00 1.00
(reference)
Metformin,
= 4927
130 3 633 35.8
(29.9–42.5)
1.05 0.99
(0.57–1.72)
Euthyroid patients, = 59 937
Sulfonylurea,
= 7980
12 8 576 1.4
(0.7–2.4)
1.00 1.00
(reference)
Metformin,
= 51 957
75 63 047 1.2
(0.9–1.5)
0.85 1.03
(0.52–2.03)

 

Part II. Metabolic Underpinning 
(Source: Wikipedia, AMPK and thyroid)

5′ AMP-activated protein kinase or AMPK or 5′ adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase
is an enzyme that plays a role in cellular energy homeostasis.
It consists of three proteins (subunits) that

  1. together make a functional enzyme, conserved from yeast to humans.
  2. It is expressed in a number of tissues, including the liver, brain, and skeletal
    muscle.
  3. The net effect of AMPK activation is stimulation of
    1. hepatic fatty acid oxidation and ketogenesis,
    2. inhibition of cholesterol synthesis,
    3. lipogenesis, and triglyceride synthesis,
    4. inhibition of adipocyte lipolysis and lipogenesis,
    5. stimulation of skeletal muscle fatty acid oxidation and muscle
      glucose uptake, and
    6. modulation of insulin secretion by pancreatic beta-cells.

The heterotrimeric protein AMPK is formed by α, β, and γ subunits. Each of these three
subunits takes on a specific role in both the stability and activity of AMPK.

  • the γ subunit includes four particular Cystathionine beta synthase (CBS) domains
    giving AMPK its ability to sensitively detect shifts in the AMP:ATP ratio.
  • The four CBS domains create two binding sites for AMP commonly referred to as
    Bateman domains. Binding of one AMP to a Bateman domain cooperatively
    increases the binding affinity of the second AMP to the other Bateman domain.
  • As AMP binds both Bateman domains the γ subunit undergoes a conformational
    change which exposes the catalytic domain found on the α subunit.
  • It is in this catalytic domain where AMPK becomes activated when
    phosphorylation takes place at threonine-172by an upstream AMPK kinase
    (AMPKK). The α, β, and γ subunits can also be found in different isoforms.

AMPK acts as a metabolic master switch regulating several intracellular systems

  1. the cellular uptake of glucose,
  2. the β-oxidation of fatty acids and
  3. the biogenesis of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) and
  4. mitochondria

The energy-sensing capability of AMPK can be attributed to

  • its ability to detect and react to fluctuations in the AMP:ATP ratio that take
    place during rest and exercise (muscle stimulation).

During muscle stimulation,

  • AMP increases while ATP decreases, which changes AMPK into a good substrate
    for activation.
  • AMPK activity increases while the muscle cell experiences metabolic stress
    brought about by an extreme cellular demand for ATP.
  • Upon activation, AMPK increases cellular energy levels by
    • inhibiting anabolic energy consuming pathways (fatty acid synthesis,
      protein synthesis, etc.) and
    • stimulating energy producing, catabolic pathways (fatty acid oxidation,
      glucose transport, etc.).

A recent JBC paper on mice at Johns Hopkins has shown that when the activity of brain
AMPK was pharmacologically inhibited,

  • the mice ate less and lost weight.

When AMPK activity was pharmacologically raised (AICAR see below)

  • the mice ate more and gained weight.

Research in Britain has shown that the appetite-stimulating hormone ghrelin also
affects AMPK levels.

The antidiabetic drug metformin (Glucophage) acts by stimulating AMPK, leading to

  1. reduced glucose production in the liver and
  2. reduced insulin resistance in the muscle.

(Metformin usually causes weight loss and reduced appetite, not weight gain and
increased appetite, ..opposite of expected from the Johns Hopkins mouse study results.)

Triggering the activation of AMPK can be carried out provided two conditions are met.

First, the γ subunit of AMPK

  • must undergo a conformational change so as to
  • expose the active site(Thr-172) on the α subunit.

The conformational change of the γ subunit of AMPK can be accomplished

  • under increased concentrations of AMP.

Increased concentrations of AMP will

  • give rise to the conformational change on the γ subunit of AMPK
  • as two AMP bind the two Bateman domains located on that subunit.
  • It is this conformational change brought about by increased concentrations
    of  AMP that exposes the active site (Thr-172) on the α subunit.

This critical role of AMP is further substantiated in experiments that demonstrate

  • AMPK activation via an AMP analogue 5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide
    ribotide (ZMP) which is derived fromthe familiar
  • 5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside (AICAR)

AMPK is a good substrate for activation via an upstream kinase complex, AMPKK
AMPKK is a complex of three proteins,

  1. STE-related adaptor (STRAD),
  2. mouse protein 25 (MO25), and
  3. LKB1 (a serine/threonine kinase).

The second condition that must be met is

  • the phosphorylation/activation of AMPK on its activating loop at
    Thr-172of the α subunit
  • brought about by an upstream kinase (AMPKK).

The complex formed between LKB1 (STK 11), mouse protein 25 (MO25), and the
pseudokinase STE-related adaptor protein (STRAD) has been identified as

  • the major upstream kinase responsible for phosphorylation of AMPK
    on its activating loop at Thr-172

Although AMPK must be phosphorylated by the LKB1/MO25/STRAD complex,

  • it can also be regulated by allosteric modulators which
  • directly increase general AMPK activity and
  • modify AMPK to make it a better substrate for AMPKK
  • and a worse substrate for phosphatases.

It has recently been found that 3-phosphoglycerate (glycolysis intermediate)

  • acts to further pronounce AMPK activation via AMPKK

Muscle contraction is the main method carried out by the body that can provide
the conditions mentioned above needed for AMPK activation

  • As muscles contract, ATP is hydrolyzed, forming ADP.
  • ADP then helps to replenish cellular ATP by donating a phosphate group to
    another ADP,

    • forming an ATP and an AMP.
  • As more AMP is produced during muscle contraction,
    • the AMP:ATP ratio dramatically increases,
  • leading to the allosteric activation of AMPK

For over a decade it has been known that calmodulin-dependent protein kinase
kinase-beta (CaMKKbeta) can phosphorylate and thereby activate AMPK,

  • but it was not the main AMPKK in liver.

CaMKK inhibitors had no effect on 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-beta-4-
ribofuranoside (AICAR) phosphorylation and activation of AMPK.

  • AICAR is taken into the celland converted to ZMP,
  • an AMP analogthat has been shown to activate AMPK.

Recent LKB1 knockout studies have shown that without LKB1,

  • electrical and AICAR stimulation of muscleresults in very little
    phosphorylation of AMPK and of ACC, providing evidence that
  • LKB1-STRAD-MO25 is the major AMPKK in muscle.

Two particular adipokines, adiponectin and leptin, have even been demonstrated
to regulate AMPK. A main functions of leptin in skeletal muscle is

  • the upregulation of fatty acid oxidation.

Leptin works by way of the AMPK signaling pathway, and adiponectin also
stimulates the oxidation of fatty acids via the AMPK pathway, and

  • Adiponectin also stimulates the uptake of glucose in skeletal muscle.

An increase in enzymes which specialize in glucose uptake in cells such as GLUT4
and hexokinase II are thought to be mediated in part by AMPK when it is activated.
Increases in AMPK activity are brought about by increases in the AMP:ATP ratio
during single bouts of exercise and long-term training.

One of the key pathways in AMPK’s regulation of fatty acid oxidation is the

  • phosphorylation and inactivation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase.
  1. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) converts acetyl-CoA (ACA) to malonyl-CoA
    (MCA), an inhibitor of carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT-1).
  2. CPT-1 transports fatty acids into the mitochondria for oxidation.
  3. Inactivation of ACC results in increased fatty acid transport and oxidation.
  4. the AMPK induced ACC inactivation  and reduced conversion to MCA
    may occur as a result of malonyl-CoA decarboxylase (MCD)
  5. MCD as an antagonist to ACC, decarboxylatesmalonyl-CoA to acetyl-CoA
    (reversal of ACC conversion of ACA to MCA)
  6. This resultsin decreased malonyl-CoA and increased CPT-1 and fatty acid oxidation.

AMPK also plays an important role in lipid metabolism in the liver. It has long been
known that hepatic ACC has been regulated in the liver.

  1. It phosphorylates and inactivates 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGCR)
  2. acetyl-CoA(ACA) is converted to mevalonic acid (MVA) by ACC
    with inhibition of CPT-1
  3. HMGR converts 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA, which is made from MVA
  4. which then travels down several more metabolic steps to become cholesterol.

Insulin facilitates the uptake of glucose into cells via increased expression and
translocation of glucose transporter GLUT-4. In addition, glucose is phosphorylated
by hexokinase wheni iot enters the cell. The phosphorylated form keeps glucose from
leaving the cell,

  • The decreasedthe concentration of glucose molecules creates a gradient for more
    glucose to be transported into the cell.
AMPK and thyroid hormone regulate some similar processes. Knowing these similarities,
Winder and Hardie et al. designed an experiment to see if AMPK was influenced by thyroid
hormone. They found that all of the subunits of AMPK were increased in skeletal muscle,
especially in the soleus and red quadriceps, with thyroid hormone treatment. There was
also an increase in phospho-ACC, a marker of AMPK activity.
  •  Winder WW, Hardie DG (July 1999). “AMP-activated protein kinase,
    a metabolic master switch: possible roles in type 2 diabetes”. J. Physiol. 277
    (1 Pt 1): E1–10. PMID 10409121.
  • Winder WW, Hardie DG (February 1996). “Inactivation of acetyl-CoA
    carboxylase and activation of AMP-activated protein kinase in muscle
    during exercise”. J. Physiol. 270 (2 Pt 1): E299–304. PMID 8779952.
  • Hutber CA, Hardie DG, Winder WW (February 1997). “Electrical stimulation
    inactivates muscle acetyl-CoA carboxylase and increases AMP-activated
    protein kinase”. Am. J. Physiol. 272 (2 Pt 1): E262–6. PMID 9124333
  • Durante PE, Mustard KJ, Park SH, Winder WW, Hardie DG (July 2002).
    “Effects of endurance training on activity and expression of AMP-activated
    protein kinase isoforms in rat muscles”. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol.
    Metab. 283 (1): E178–86. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00404.2001. PMID 12067859
  • Corton JM, Gillespie JG, Hardie DG (April 1994). “Role of the AMP-activated
    protein kinase in the cellular stress response”. Curr. Biol. 4 (4):
    315–24. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(00)00070-1. PMID 7922340
  • Winder WW (September 2001). “Energy-sensing and signaling by
    AMP-activated protein kinase in skeletal muscle”. J. Appl. Physiol. 91 (3):
    1017–28. PMID 11509493
  • Suter M, Riek U, Tuerk R, Schlattner U, Wallimann T, Neumann D (October
    2006). “Dissecting the role of 5′-AMP for allosteric stimulation, activation,
    and deactivation of AMP-activated protein kinase”.  J. Biol. Chem.
    281 (43): 32207–6. doi:10.1074/jbc.M606357200. PMID 16943194

 

Part III. Pituitary-thyroid axis and diabetes mellitus
The Interface Between Thyroid and Diabetes Mellitus

Leonidas H. Duntas, Jacques Orgiazzi, Georg Brabant   Clin Endocrinol. 2011;75(1):1-9.
Interaction of Metformin and Thyroid Function

Metformin acts primarily by

  • suppressing hepatic gluconeogenesis via activation of AMPK
  • It has the opposite effects on hypothalamic AMPK,
    • inhibiting activity of the enzyme.
  • the metformin effects on hypothalamic AMPK activity will
    • counteractT3 effects at the hypothalamic level.
  • AMPK therefore represents a direct target for dual regulation
    • in the hypothalamic partitioning of energy homeostasis.
  • metformin crossesthe blood–brain barrier and
    • levels in the pituitary gland are substantially increased.
  • It convincinglysuppresses TSH

A recent study recruiting 66 patients with benign thyroid nodules furthermore
demonstrated that metformin significantly decreases nodule size in patients with
insulin resistance.[76] The effect of metformin, which was produced over a
6-month treatment period, parallelled a fall in TSH concentrations and achieved a
shrinkage amounting to 30% of the initial nodule size when metformin was
administered alone and up to 55% when it was added to ongoing LT4 treatment.

These studies reveal a

  • suppressive effect of metformin on TSH secretion patterns in
    hypothyroid patients, an effect that is apparently
  • independent of T4 treatment and does not alter the TH profile.
  • A rebound of TSH secretion occurs at about 3 months following metformin
    withdrawal.

It appears that recommendations for more frequent testing, on an annual to
biannual basis, seems justified in higher risk groups like patients over 50 or 55,
particularly with suggestive symptoms, raised antibody titres or dylipidaemia.
We thus would support the suggestion of an initial TSH and TPO antibody testing
which, as discussed, will help to predict the development of hypothyroidism in
patients with diabetes.

Hypothalamic AMPK and fatty acid metabolism mediate thyroid
regulation of energy 
balance
M López,  L Varela,  MJ Vázquez,  S Rodríguez-Cuenca, CR González, …, & Vidal-Puig
Nature Medicine  29 Aug 2010; 16: 1001–1008 http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nm.2207

Thyroid hormones have widespread cellular effects; however it is unclear whether
their effects on the central nervous system (CNS) contribute to global energy balance.
Here we demonstrate that either

  • whole-body hyperthyroidism or central administration of triiodothyronine
    (T3) decreases

    • the activity of hypothalamic AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK),
    • increases sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity and
    • upregulates thermogenic markers in brown adipose tissue (BAT).

Inhibition of the lipogenic pathway in the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus
(VMH) prevents CNS-mediated activation of BAT by thyroid hormone and reverses
the weight loss associated with hyperthyroidism. Similarly, inhibition of thyroid
hormone receptors in the VMH reverses the weight loss associated with hyperthyroidism.

This regulatory mechanism depends on AMPK inactivation, as genetic inhibition of this
enzyme in the VMH of euthyroid rats induces feeding-independent weight loss and
increases expression of thermogenic markers in BAT. These effects are reversed by
pharmacological blockade of the SNS. Thus, thyroid hormone–induced modulation
of AMPK activity and lipid metabolism in the hypothalamus is a major regulator of
whole-body energy homeostasis.

Metabolic Basis for Thyroid Hormone Liver Preconditioning:
Upregulation of AMP-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling
  
LA Videla,1 V Fernández, P Cornejo, and R Vargas
1Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences,
Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, 2Faculty of Medicine, Diego Portales University,
Santiago, Chile
Academic Editors: H. M. Abu-Soud and D. Benke
The Scientific World Journal 2012; 2012, ID 475675, 10 pp
http://dx.doi.org/10.1100/2012/475675

The liver is a major organ responsible for most functions of cellular metabolism and

  • a mediator between dietary and endogenous sources of energy for extrahepatic tissues.
  • In this context, adenosine-monophosphate- (AMP-) activated protein kinase (AMPK)
    constitutes an intrahepatic energy sensor
  • regulating physiological energy dynamics by limiting anabolism and stimulating
    catabolism, thus increasing ATP availability.
  • This is achieved by mechanisms involving direct allosteric activation and
    reversible phosphorylation of AMPK, in response to signals such as

    • energy status,
    • serum insulin/glucagon ratio,
    • nutritional stresses,
    • pharmacological and natural compounds, and
    • oxidative stress status.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) lead to cellular AMPK activation and

  • downstream signaling under several experimental conditions.

Thyroid hormone (L-3,3′,5-triiodothyronine, T3) administration, a condition
that enhances liver ROS generation,

  • triggers the redox upregulation of cytoprotective proteins
    • affording preconditioning against ischemia-reperfusion (IR) liver injury.

Data discussed in this work suggest that T3-induced liver activation of AMPK

  • may be of importance in the promotion of metabolic processes
  • favouring energy supply for the induction and operation of preconditioning
    mechanisms.

These include

  1. antioxidant,
  2. antiapoptotic, and
  3. anti-inflammatory mechanisms,
  4. repair or resynthesis of altered biomolecules,
  5. induction of the homeostatic acute-phase response, and
  6. stimulation of liver cell proliferation,

which are required to cope with the damaging processes set in by IR.

The liver functions as a mediator between dietary and endogenous sources
of energy and extrahepatic organs that continuously require energy, mainly
the brain and erythrocytes, under cycling conditions between fed and fasted states.

In the fed state, where insulin action predominates, digestion-derived glucose is
converted to pyruvate via glycolysis, which is oxidized to produce energy, whereas
fatty acid oxidation is suppressed. Excess glucose can be either stored as hepatic
glycogen or channelled into de novo lipogenesis.

In the fasted state, considerable liver fuel metabolism changes occur due to decreased
serum insulin/glucagon ratio, with higher glucose production as a consequence of
stimulated glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis (from alanine, lactate, and glycerol).

Major enhancement in fatty acid oxidation also occurs to provide energy for liver
processes and ketogenesis to supply metabolic fuels for extrahepatic tissues. For these
reasons, the liver is considered as the metabolic processing organ of the body, and
alterations in liver functioning affect whole-body metabolism and energy homeostasis.

In this context, adenosine-monophosphate- (AMP-) activated protein kinase (AMPK)
is the downstream component of a protein kinase cascade acting as an

  • intracellular energy sensor regulating physiological energy dynamics by
  • limiting anabolic pathways, to prevent excessive adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
    utilization, and
  • by stimulating catabolic processes, to increase ATP production.

Thus, the understanding of the mechanisms by which liver AMPK coordinates hepatic
energy metabolism represents a crucial point of convergence of regulatory signals
monitoring systemic and cellular energy status

Liver AMPK: Structure and Regulation

AMPK, a serine/threonine kinase, is a heterotrimeric complex comprising

  1. a catalytic subunit α and
  2. two regulatory subunits β and γ .

The α subunit has a threonine residue (Thr172) within the activation loop of the kinase
domain, with the C-terminal region being required for association with β and γ subunits.
The β subunit associates with α and γ by means of its C-terminal region , whereas

  • the γ subunit has four cystathionine β-synthase (CBS) motifs, which
  • bind AMP or ATP in a competitive manner.

75675.fig.001 (not shown)

Figure 1: Regulation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) by
(A) direct allosteric activation and
(B) reversible phosphorylation and downstream responses maintaining
intracellular energy balance.

Regulation of liver AMPK activity involves both direct allosteric activation and
reversible phosphorylation. AMPK is allosterically activated by AMP through

  • binding to the regulatory subunit-γ, which induces a conformational change in
    the kinase domain of subunit α that protects AMPK from dephosphorylation
    of Thr172, probably by protein phosphatase-2C.

Activation of AMPK requires phosphorylation of Thr172 in its α subunit, which can be
attained by either

(i) tumor suppressor LKB1 kinase following enhancement in the AMP/ATP ratio, a
kinase that plays a crucial role in AMPK-dependent control of liver glucose and
lipid metabolism;

(ii) Ca2+-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase-β (CaMKKβ) that
phosphorylates AMPK in an AMP-independent, Ca2+-dependent manner;

(iii) transforming growth-factor-β-activated kinase-1 (TAK1), an important
kinase in hepatic Toll-like receptor 4 signaling in response to lipopolysaccharide.

Among these kinases, the relevance of CaMKKβ and TAK1 in liver AMPK activation
remains to be established in metabolic stress conditions. Both allosteric and
phosphorylation mechanisms are able to elicit

  • over 1000-fold increase in AMPK activity, thus allowing
  • the liver to respond to small changes in energy status in a highly sensitive fashion.

In addition to rapid AMPK regulation through allosterism and reversible phosphorylation

  • long-term effects of AMPK activation induce changes in hepatic gene expression.

This was demonstrated for

(i) the transcription factor carbohydrate-response element-binding protein (ChREBP),

  • whose Ser568 phosphorylation by activated AMPK
  • blocks its DNA binding capacity and glucose-induced gene transcription
  • under hyperlipidemic conditions;(ii) liver sterol regulatory element-binding
    protein-1c (SREBP-1c), whose mRNA and protein expression and those of
    its target gene for fatty acid synthase (FAS)
  • are reduced by metformin-induced AMPK activation,
  • decreasing lipogenesis and increasing fatty acid oxidation due to
    malonyl-CoA depletion;

(iii) transcriptional coactivator transducer of regulated CREB activity-2 (TORC2),
a crucial component of the hepatic gluconeogenic program, was reported
to be phosphorylated by activated AMPK.

This modification leads to subsequent cytoplasmatic sequestration of TORC2 and
inhibition of gluconeogenic gene expression, a mechanism underlying

  • the plasma glucose-lowering effects of adiponectin and metformin
  • through AMPK activation by upstream LKB1.

Activation of AMPK in the liver is a key regulatory mechanism controlling glucose
and lipid metabolism,

  1. inhibiting anabolic processes, and
  2. enhancing catabolic pathways in response to different signals, including
    1. energy status,
    2. serum insulin/glucagon ratio,
    3. nutritional stresses,
    4. pharmacological and natural compounds, and
    5. oxidative stress status

Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and AMPK Activation

The high energy demands required to cope with all the metabolic functions
of the liver are met by

  • fatty acid oxidation under conditions of both normal blood glucose levels and
    hypoglycemia, whereas
  • glucose oxidation is favoured in hyperglycemic states, with consequent
    generation of ROS.

Under normal conditions, ROS occur at relatively low levels due to their fast processing
by antioxidant mechanisms, whereas at acute or prolonged high ROS levels, severe
oxidation of biomolecules and dysregulation of signal transduction and gene expression
is achieved, with consequent cell death through necrotic and/or apoptotic-signaling
pathways.

Thyroid Hormone (L-3,3′,5-Triiodothyronine, T3), Metabolic Regulation,
and ROS Production

T3 is important for the normal function of most mammalian tissues, with major actions
on O2 consumption and metabolic rate, thus

  • determining enhancement in fuel consumption for oxidation processes
  • and ATP repletion.

T3 acts predominantly through nuclear receptors (TR) α and β, forming

  • functional complexes with retinoic X receptor that
  • bind to thyroid hormone response elements (TRE) to activate gene expression.

T3 calorigenesis is primarily due to the

  • induction of enzymes related to mitochondrial electron transport and ATP
    synthesis, catabolism, and
  • some anabolic processes via upregulation of genomic mechanisms.

The net result of T3 action is the enhancement in the rate of O2 consumption of target
tissues such as liver, which may be effected by secondary processes induced by T3

(i) energy expenditure due to higher active cation transport,

(ii) energy loss due to futile cycles coupled to increase in catabolic and anabolic pathways, and

(iii) O2 equivalents used in hepatic ROS generation both in hepatocytes and Kupffer cells

In addition, T3-induced higher rates of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation are
likely to induce higher levels of ATP, which are partially balanced by intrinsic uncoupling
afforded by induction of uncoupling proteins by T3. In agreement with this view, the
cytosolic ATP/ADP ratio is decreased in hyperthyroid tissues, due to simultaneous
stimulation of ATP synthesis and consumption.

Regulation of fatty acid oxidation is mainly attained by carnitine palmitoyltransferase Iα (CPT-Iα),

  • catalyzing the transport of fatty acids from cytosol to mitochondria for β-oxidation,
    and acyl-CoA oxidase (ACO),
  • catalyzing the first rate-limiting reaction of peroxisomal β-oxidation, enzymes that are
    induced by both T3 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPAR-α).

Furthermore, PPAR-α-mediated upregulation of CPT-Iα mRNA is enhanced by PPAR-γ
coactivator 1α (PGC-1α), which in turn

  • augments T3 induction of CPT-Iα expression.

Interestingly, PGC-1α is induced by

  1. T3,
  2. AMPK activation, and
  3. ROS,

thus establishing potential links between

  • T3 action, ROS generation, and AMPK activation

with the onset of mitochondrial biogenesis and fatty acid β-oxidation.

Liver ROS generation leads to activation of the transcription factors

  1. nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB),
  2. activating protein 1 (AP-1), and
  3. signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3)

at the Kupffer cell level, with upregulation of cytokine expression (TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6),
which upon interaction with specific receptors in hepatocytes trigger the expression of

  1. cytoprotective proteins (Figure 3(A)).

These responses and the promotion of hepatocyte and Kupffer-cell proliferation
represent hormetic effects reestablishing

  1. redox homeostasis,
  2. promoting cell survival, and
  3. protecting the liver against ischemia-reperfusion injury.

T3 liver preconditioning also involves the activation of the

  1. Nrf2-Keap1 defense pathway
  • upregulating antioxidant proteins,
  • phase-2 detoxifying enzymes, and
  • multidrug resistance proteins, members of the ATP binding cassette (ABC)
    superfamily of transporters (Figure 3(B))

In agreement with T3-induced liver preconditioning, T3 or L-thyroxin afford
preconditioning against IR injury in the heart, in association with

  • activation of protein kinase C and
  • attenuation of p38 and
  • c-Jun-N-terminal kinase activation ,

and in the kidney, in association with

  • heme oxygenase-1 upregulation.

475675.fig.002

http://www.hindawi.com/journals/tswj/2012/floats/475675/thumbnails/475675.fig.002_th.jpg

Figure 2: Calorigenic response of thyroid hormone (T3) and its relationship with O2
consumption, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and antioxidant depletion in the liver.
Abbreviations: CYP2E1, cytochrome P450 isoform 2E1; GSH, reduced glutathione; QO2, rate
of O2 consumption; SOD, superoxide dismutase.

475675.fig.003

genomic signaling in T3 calorigenesis and ROS production 475675.fig.003

genomic signaling in T3 calorigenesis and ROS production 475675.fig.003

http://www.hindawi.com/journals/tswj/2012/floats/475675/thumbnails/475675.fig.003_th.jpg

Figure 3: Genomic signaling mechanisms in T3 calorigenesis and liver reactive oxygen
species (ROS) production leading to
(A) upregulation of cytokine expression in Kupffer cells and hepatocyte activation of genes
conferring cytoprotection,
(B) Nrf2 activation controling expression of antioxidant and detoxication proteins, and
(C) activation of the AMPK cascade regulating metabolic functions.Abbreviations: AP-1, activating protein 1; ARE, antioxidant responsive element; CaMKKβ,
Ca2+-calmodulin-dependent kinase kinase-β; CBP, CREB binding protein; CRC, chromatin
remodelling complex; EH, epoxide hydrolase; HO-1, hemoxygenase-1; GC-Ligase,
glutamate cysteine ligase; GPx, glutathione peroxidase; G-S-T, glutathione-S-transferase;
HAT, histone acetyltransferase; HMT, histone arginine methyltransferase; IL1,
interleukin 1; iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; LKB1, tumor suppressor LKB1 kinase;
MnSOD, manganese superoxide dismutase; MRPs, multidrug resistance proteins; NF-κB,
nuclear factor-κB; NQO1, NADPH-quinone oxidoreductase-1; NRF-1, nuclear respiratory
factor-1; Nrf2, nuclear receptor-E2-related factor 2; PCAF, p300/CBP-associated
factor; RXR, retinoic acid receptor; PGC-1, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ
coactivator-1; QO2, rate of O2 consumption; STAT3, signal transducer and activator
of transcription 3; TAK1, transforming-growth-factor-β-activated kinase-1; TNF-α, tumor
necrosis factor-α; TR, T 3 receptor; TRAP, T3-receptor-associated protein; TRE,  T3 responsive element; UCP, uncoupling proteins; (—), reported mechanisms;
(- - - -), proposed mechanisms.

 

T3 is a key metabolic regulator coordinating short-term and long-term energy needs,
with major actions on liver metabolism. These include promotion of

(i) gluconeogenesis and hepatic glucose production, and

(ii) fatty acid oxidation coupled to enhanced adipose tissue lipolysis, with

  • higher fatty acid flux to the liver and
  • consequent ROS production (Figure 2) and
  • redox upregulation of cytoprotective proteins

affording liver preconditioning (Figure 3).

Thyroid Hormone and AMPK Activation: Skeletal Muscle and Heart

In skeletal muscle, T3 increases the levels of numerous proteins involved in

  1. glucose uptake (GLUT4),
  2. glycolysis (enolase, pyruvate kinase, triose phosphate isomerase),
  3. fatty acid oxidation (carnitine palmitoyl transferase-1, mitochondrial thioesterase I),
    and uncoupling protein-3,

effects that are achieved through enhanced transcription of TRE-containing genes

Skeletal muscle AMPK activation is characterized by

(i) being a rapid and transient response,

(ii) upstream activation by Ca2+-induced mobilization and CaMKKβ activation,

(iii) upstream upregulation of LKB1 expression, which requires association with STRAD
and MO25 for optimal phosphorylation/activation of AMPK, and

(iv) stimulation of mitochondrial fatty acid β-oxidation.

T3-induced muscle AMPK activation was found to trigger two major downstream

signaling pathways, namely,

(i) peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) mRNA
expression and phosphorylation, a transcriptional regulator for genes related to

  • mitochondrial biogenesis,
  • fatty acid oxidation, and
  • gluconeogenesis and

(ii) cyclic AMP response element binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation, which

  • in turn induces PGC-1α expression in liver tissue, thus
  • reinforcing mechanism (i).

These data indicate that AMPK phosphorylation of PGC-1α initiates many of the
important gene regulatory functions of AMPK in skeletal muscle.

In heart, hyperthyroidism increased glycolysis and sarcolemmal GLUT4 levels by the
combined effects of AMPK activation and insulin stimulation, with concomitant increase
in fatty acid oxidation proportional to enhanced cardiac mass and contractile function.

Thyroid Hormone, AMPK Activation, and Liver Preconditioning

Recent studies by our group revealed that administration of a single dose of 0.1 mg T3/kg
to rats activates liver AMPK (Figure 4; unpublished work).

  1. enhancement in phosphorylated AMPK/nonphosphorylated AMPK ratios in T3-
    treated rats over control values thatis significant in the time period of 1 to 48
    hours after hormone treatment
  2. Administration of a substantially higher dose (0.4 mg T3/kg) resulted in
    decreased liver AMPK activation at 4 h to return to control values at 6 h
    after treatment

Activation of liver AMPK by T3 may be of relevance in terms of

  • promotion of fatty acid oxidation for ATP supply,
  • supporting hepatoprotection against IR injury (Figure 3(C)).

This proposal is based on the high energy demands underlying effective liver
preconditioning for full operation of hepatic

  • antioxidant, antiapoptotic, and anti-inflammatory mechanisms,
  • oxidized biomolecules repair or resynthesis,
  • induction of the homeostatic acute-phase response, and
  • promotion of hepatocyte and Kupffer cell proliferation,

mechanisms that are needed to cope with the damaging processes set in by IR.
T3 liver preconditioning , in addition to that afforded by

  • n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids given alone or
  • combined with T3 at lower dosages, or
  • by iron supplementation,

constitutes protective strategies against hepatic IR injury.

Studies on the molecular mechanisms underlying T3-induced liver AMPK
activation (Figure 4) are currently under assessment in our laboratory.

References

Fernández and L. A. Videla, “Kupffer cell-dependent signaling in thyroid hormone
calorigenesis: possible applications for liver preconditioning,” Current Signal
Transduction Therapy 2009; 4(2): 144–151.

Viollet, B. Guigas, J. Leclerc et al., “AMP-activated protein kinase in the regulation
of  hepatic energy metabolism: from physiology to therapeutic perspectives,” Acta
Physiologica 2009; 196(1): 81–98.

Carling, “The AMP-activated protein kinase cascade – A unifying system
for energy control,” Trends in Biochemical Sciences, 2004;. 29(1): 18–24.

E. Kemp, D. Stapleton, D. J. Campbell et al., “AMP-activated protein kinase,
super 
metabolic regulator,” Biochemical Society Transactions 2003; 31(1):
162–168
.

G. Hardie, “AMP-activated protein kinase-an energy sensor that
regulates all ;aspects of cell function,” Genes and Development,
2011; 25(18): 1895–1908.

Woods, P. C. F. Cheung, F. C. Smith et al., “Characterization of AMP-activated
protein kinase βandγ subunits Assembly of the heterotrimeric complex in vitro,”
Journal of Biological Chemistry 1996;271(17): 10282–10290.

Xiao, R. Heath, P. Saiu et al., “Structural basis for AMP binding to mammalian AMP-
activated protein kinase,” Nature 2007; 449(7161): 496–500.

more…

Impact of Metformin and compound C on NIS expression and iodine uptake in vitro and in vivo: a role for CRE in AMPK modulation of thyroid function.
Abdulrahman RM1, Boon MRSips HCGuigas BRensen PCSmit JWHovens GC.
Author information 
Thyroid. 2014 Jan;24(1):78-87.  Epub 2013 Sep 25.  PMID: 23819433
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1089/thy.2013.0041.

Although adenosine monophosphate activated protein kinase (AMPK) plays a crucial role
in energy metabolism, a direct effect of AMPK modulation on thyroid function has only
recently been reported, and much of its function in the thyroid is currently unknown.

The aim of this study was

  1. to investigate the mechanism of AMPK modulation in iodide uptake.
  2. to investigate the potential of the AMPK inhibitor compound C as an enhancer of
    iodide uptake by thyrocytes.

Metformin reduced NIS promoter activity (0.6-fold of control), whereas compound C
stimulated its activity (3.4-fold) after 4 days. This largely coincides with

  • CRE activation (0.6- and 3.0-fold).

These experiments show that AMPK exerts its effects on iodide uptake, at least partly,
through the CRE element in the NIS promoter. Furthermore, we have used AMPK-alpha1
knockout mice to determine the long-term effects of AMPK inhibition without chemical compounds.
These mice have a less active thyroid, as shown by reduced colloid volume and reduced
responsiveness to thyrotropin.

NIS expression and iodine uptake in thyrocytes

  • can be modulated by metformin and compound C.

These compounds exert their effect by

  • modulation of AMPK, which, in turn, regulates
  • the activation of the CRE element in the NIS promoter.

Overall, this suggests that AMPK modulating compounds may be useful for the
enhancement of iodide uptake by thyrocytes, which could be useful for the
treatment of thyroid cancer patients with radioactive iodine.

AMPK: Master Metabolic Regulator

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@ themedicalbiochemistrypage.org

AMPK-activating drugs metformin or phenformin might provide protection against cancer 1741-7007-11-36-5

AMPK-activating drugs metformin or phenformin might provide protection against cancer 1741-7007-11-36-5

 

AMPK and AMPK-related kinase (ARK) family 1741-7007-11-36-4

AMPK and AMPK-related kinase (ARK) family 1741-7007-11-36-4

 

central role of AMPK in the regulation of metabolism

 

 

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) was first discovered as an activity that

AMPK induces a cascade of events within cells in response to the ever changing energy
charge of the cell. The role of AMPK in regulating cellular energy charge places this
enzyme at a central control point in maintaining energy homeostasis.

More recent evidence has shown that AMPK activity can also be regulated by physiological stimuli, independent of the energy charge of the cell, including hormones and nutrients.

 

Once activated, AMPK-mediated phosphorylation events

These events are rapidly initiated and are referred to as

  • short-term regulatory processes.

The activation of AMPK also exerts

  • long-term effects at the level of both gene expression and protein synthesis.

Other important activities attributable to AMPK are

  1. regulation of insulin synthesis and
  2. secretion in pancreatic islet β-cells and
  3. modulation of hypothalamic functions involved in the regulation of satiety.

How these latter two functions impact obesity and diabetes will be discussed below.

Regulation of AMPK

In the presence of AMP the activity of AMPK is increased approximately 5-fold.
However, more importantly is the role of AMP in regulating the level of phosphorylation
of AMPK. An increased AMP to ATP ratio leads to a conformational change in the γ-subunit
leading to increased phosphorylation and decreased dephosphorylation of AMPK.

The phosphorylation of AMPK results in activation by at least 100-fold. AMPK is
phosphorylated by at least three different upstream AMPK kinases (AMPKKs).
Phosphorylation of AMPK occurs in the α subunit at threonine 172 (T172) which

  • lies in the activation loop.

One kinase activator of AMPK is

  • Ca2+-calmodulin-dependent kinase kinase β (CaMKKβ)
  • which phosphorylates and activates AMPK in response to increased calcium.

The distribution of CaMKKβ expression is primarily in the brain with detectable levels
also found in the testes, thymus, and T cells. As described for the Ca2+-mediated
regulation of glycogen metabolism,

  • increased release of intracellular stores of Ca2+ create a subsequent demand for
    ATP.

Activation of AMPK in response to Ca fluxes

  • provides a mechanism for cells to anticipate the increased demand for ATP.

Evidence has also demonstrated that the serine-threonine kinase, LKB1 (also called
serine-threonine kinase 11, STK11) which is encoded by the Peutz-Jeghers syndrome
tumor suppressor gene, is required for activation of AMPK in response to stress.

The active LKB1 kinase is actually a complex of three proteins:

  1. LKB1,
  2. Ste20-related adaptor (STRAD) and
  3. mouse protein 25 (MO25).

Thus, the enzyme complex is often referred to as LKB1-STRAD-MO25. Phosphorylation
of AMPK by LKB1 also occurs on T172. Unlike the limited distribution of CaMKKβ,

  • LKB1 is widely expressed, thus making it the primary AMPK-regulating kinase.

Loss of LKB1 activity in adult mouse liver leads to

  • near complete loss of AMPK activity and
  • is associated with hyperglycemia.

The hyperglycemia is, in part, due to an increase in the transcription of gluconeogenic
genes. Of particular significance is the increased expression of

  • the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ) coactivator 1α
    (PGC-1α), which drives gluconeogenesis.
  • Reduction in PGC-1α activity results in normalized blood glucose levels in
    LKB1-deficient mice.

The third AMPK phosphorylating kinase is transforming growth factor-β-activated
kinase 1 (TAK1). However, the normal physiological conditions under which TAK1
phosphorylates AMPK are currently unclear.

The effects of AMP are two-fold:

  1. a direct allosteric activation and making AMPK a poorer substrate for
    dephosphorylation.

Because AMP affects both
the rate of AMPK phoshorylation in the positive direction and
dephosphorylation in the negative direction,

the cascade is ultrasensitive. This means that

  1. a very small rise in AMP levels can induce a dramatic increase in the activity of
    AMPK.

The activity of adenylate kinase, catalyzing the reaction shown below, ensures that

  • AMPK is highly sensitive to small changes in the intracellular [ATP]/[ADP] ratio.

2 ADP ——> ATP + AMP

Negative allosteric regulation of AMPK also occurs and this effect is exerted by
phosphocreatine. As indicated above, the β subunits of AMPK have a glycogen-binding domain, GBD. In muscle, a high glycogen content

  • represses AMPK activity and
  • this is likely the result of interaction between the GBD and glycogen,
  • the GBD of AMPK allows association of the enzyme with the regulation of glycogen metabolism
  • by placing AMPK in close proximity to one of its substrates glycogen synthase.

AMPK has also been shown to be activated by receptors that are coupled to

  • phospholipase C-β (PLC-β) and by
  • hormones secreted by adipose tissue (termed adipokines) such as leptinand adiponectin (discussed below).

Targets of AMPK

The signaling cascades initiated by the activation of AMPK exert effects on

  • glucose and lipid metabolism,
  • gene expression and
  • protein synthesis.

These effects are most important for regulating metabolic events in the liver, skeletal
muscle, heart, adipose tissue, and pancreas.

Demonstration of the central role of AMPK in the regulation of metabolism in response
to events such as nutrient- or exercise-induced stress. Several of the known physiologic
targets for AMPK are included as well as several pathways whose flux is affected by
AMPK activation. Arrows indicate positive effects of AMPK, whereas, T-lines indicate
the resultant inhibitory effects of AMPK action.

The uptake, by skeletal muscle, accounts for >70% of the glucose removal from the
serum in humans. Therefore, it should be obvious that this event is extremely important
for overall glucose homeostasis, keeping in mind, of course, that glucose uptake by
cardiac muscle and adipocytes cannot be excluded from consideration. An important fact
related to skeletal muscle glucose uptake is that this process is markedly impaired in
individuals with type 2 diabetes.

The uptake of glucose increases dramatically in response to stress (such as ischemia) and
exercise and is stimulated by insulin-induced recruitment of glucose transporters
to the plasma membrane, primarily GLUT4. Insulin-independent recruitment of glucose
transporters also occurs in skeletal muscle in response to contraction (exercise).

The activation of AMPK plays an important, albeit not an exclusive, role in the induction of
GLUT4 recruitment to the plasma membrane. The ability of AMPK to stimulate
GLUT4 translocation to the plasma membrane in skeletal muscle is by a different mechanism
than that stimulated by insulin and insulin and AMPK effects are additive.

Under ischemic/hypoxic conditions in the heart the activation of AMPK leads to the
phosphorylation and activation of the kinase activity of phosphofructokinase-2, PFK-2
(6-phosphofructo-2-kinase). The product of the action of PFK-2 (fructose-2,6-bisphosphate,
F2,6BP) is one of the most potent regulators of the rate of flux through
glycolysis and gluconeogenesis.

In liver the PKA-mediated phosphorylation of PFK-2 results in conversion of the
enzyme from a kinase that generates F2,6BP to a phosphatase that removes the
2-phosphate thus reducing the levels of the potent allosteric activator of the glycolytic
enzyme 6-phosphfructo-1-kinase, PFK-1 and the potent allosteric inhibitor
of the gluconeogenic enzyme fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (F1,-6BPase).

It is important to note that like many enzymes, there are multiple isoforms of PFK-2
(at least 4) and neither the liver or the skeletal muscle isoforms contain the AMPK
phosphorylation sites found in the cardiac and inducible (iPFK2) isoforms of PFK-2.

Inducible PFK-2 is expressed in the monocyte/macrophage lineage in response to pro-
inflammatory stimuli. The ability to activate the kinase activity by phosphorylation of
PFK-2 in cardiac tissue and macrophages in response to ischemic conditions allows these
cells to continue to have a source of ATP via anaerobic glycolysis. This phenomenon is
recognized as the Pasteur effect: an increased rate of glycolysis in response to hypoxia.

Of pathological significance is the fact that the inducible form of PFK-2 is commonly
expressed in many tumor cells and this may allow AMPK to play an important role in
protecting tumor cells from hypoxic stress. Indeed, techniques for depleting AMPK in
tumor cells have shown that these cells become sensitized to nutritional stress upon loss
of AMPK activity.

Whereas, stress and exercise are powerful inducers of AMPK activity in skeletal muscle,
additional regulators of its activity have been identified.

Insulin-sensitizing drugs of the thiazolidinedione family (activators of PPAR-γ, see
below) as well as the hypoglycemia drug metformin exert a portion of their effects
through regulation of the activity of AMPK.

As indicated above, the activity of the AMPK activating kinase, LKB1, is critical for
regulating gluconeogenic flux and consequent glucose homeostasis. The action of
metformin in reducing blood glucose levels

  • requires the activity of LKB1 in the liver for this function.

Also, several adipokines (hormones secreted by adipocytes) either stimulate or inhibit
AMPK activation:

  1. leptin and adiponectin have been shown to stimulate AMPK activation, whereas,
  2. resistininhibits AMPK activation.

Cardiac effects exerted by activation of AMPK also include

AMPK-mediated phosphorylation of eNOS leads to increased activity and consequent
NO production and provides a link between metabolic stresses and cardiac function.

In platelets, insulin action leads to an increase in eNOS activity that is

  • due to its phosphorylation by AMPK.

Activation of NO production in platelets leads to

  • a decrease in thrombin-induced aggregation, thereby,
  • limiting the pro-coagulant effects of platelet activation.

The response of platelets to insulin function clearly indicates why disruption in insulin
action is a major contributing factor in the development of the metabolic syndrome

Activation of AMPK leads to a reduction in the level of SREBP

  • a transcription factor &regulator of the expression of numerous
    lipogenic enzymes

Another transcription factor reduced in response to AMPK activation is

  • hepatocyte nuclear factor 4α, HNF4α
    • a member of the steroid/thyroid hormone superfamily.
    • HNF4α is known to regulate the expression of several liver and
      pancreatic β-cell genes such as GLUT2, L-PK and preproinsulin.
  • Of clinical significance is that mutations in HNF4α are responsible for
    • maturity-onset diabetes of the young, MODY-1.

Recent evidence indicates that the gene for the carbohydrate-response-element-
binding protein (ChREBP) is a target for AMPK-mediated transcriptional regulation
in the liver. ChREBP is rapidly being recognized as a master regulator of lipid
metabolism in liver, in particular in response to glucose uptake.

The target of the thiazolidinedione (TZD) class of drugs used to treat type 2 diabetes is
the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γPPARγ which

  • itself may be a target for the action of AMPK.

The transcription co-activator, p300, is phosphorylated by AMPK

  • which inhibits interaction of p300 with not only PPARγ but also
  • the retinoic acid receptor, retinoid X receptor, and
  • thyroid hormone receptor.

PPARγ is primarily expressed in adipose tissue and thus it was difficult to reconcile how
a drug that was apparently acting only in adipose tissue could lead to improved insulin
sensitivity of other tissues. The answer to this question came when it was discovered that the TZDs stimulated the expression and release of the adipocyte hormone (adipokine),
adiponectin. Adiponectin stimulates glucose uptake and fatty acid oxidation in skeletal
muscle. In addition, adiponectin stimulates fatty acid oxidation in liver while inhibiting
expression of gluconeogenic enzymes in this tissue.

These responses to adiponectin are exerted via activation of AMPK. Another
transcription factor target of AMPK is the forkhead protein, FKHR (now referred to as
FoxO1). FoxO1 is involved in the activation of glucose-6-phosphatase expression and,
therefore, loss of FoxO1 activity in response to AMPK activation will lead to reduced
hepatic output of glucose.

This concludes a very complicated perspective that ties together the thyroid hormone
activity, the hypophysis, diabetes mellitus, and AMPK tegulation of metabolism in the
liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, and heart.  I also note at this time that there
nongenetic points to be made here:

  1. The tissue specificity of isoenzymes
  2. The modulatory role of AMP:ATP ratio in phosphorylation/dephosphorylation
    effects on metabolism tied to AMPK
  3. The tie in of stress or ROS with fast reactions to protect harm to tissues
  4. The relationship of cytokine activation and release to the above metabolic events
  5. The relationship of effective and commonly used diabetes medications to AMPK
    mediated processes
  6. The preceding presentation is notable for the importance of proteomic and
    metabolomic invetigations in elucidation common chronic and nongenetic diseases

 

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Imaging-Biomarkers; from discovery to validation

Author: Dror Nir, PhD.

Preface

Recent technology advances such as miniaturization and improvement in electronic-processing components is driving increased introduction of innovative medical-imaging devices into critical nodes of major-diseases’ management pathways. Similarly, medical imaging bears outstanding potential to improve the process of drugs development and regulation (e.g. companion diagnostics and imaging surrogate markers. In; The Role of Medical Imaging in Personalized Medicine I discussed in length the role medical imaging assumes in drugs development.  Integrating imaging into drug development processes, specifically at the early stages of drug discovery, as well as for monitoring drug delivery and the response of targeted processes to the therapy is a growing trend. A nice (and short) review highlighting the processes, opportunities, and challenges of medical imaging in new drug development is: Medical imaging in new drug clinical development. An important aspect of drug development that is largely discussed is facilitating testing of the new drug through clinical studies. A major hurdle in development of many anti-cancer drugs is the long time that is required to determine the efficacy of the new drug through measurement of clinically meaningful endpoints; e.g. overall survival. Imaging is offering the opportunity to determine surrogate markers of clinical outcome (as a substitute for a clinically meaningful endpoints). The need for surrogate outcome markers is especially great with newer agents that may act by tumour stabilization as opposed to shrinkage.

To comply with current trends; e.g. personalized medicine and evidence-based medicine, medical imaging must support quantification of meaningful pathological phenomena; e.g. morphological deformations, enhanced/reduced chemical reactions, presence/absence of biological substances etc….

 

Two examples: 

Molecular imaging (e.g. PET, MRS) allows the visual representation, characterization, and quantification of biological processes at the cellular and subcellular levels within intact living organisms. In oncology, it can be used to depict the abnormal molecules as well as the aberrant interactions of altered molecules on which cancers depend. An established biological process is neoplastic angiogenesis is associated with a number of detectable changes at molecular and microcirculatory levels. In Positron emission tomographic imaging of angiogenesis and vascular function the authors are offering that direct study of angiogenic molecular biology and tumour circulation before during and after treatment may offer useful surrogate markers for vascular-targeted therapies. The paper reviews two main areas: (a) the methodology behind PET imaging of tumour blood supply with 15O-oxygen labelled compounds; and (b) newer tracers in development as markers of angiogenetic biology.

A largely sought-for application for medical imaging is Monitoring quality of surgery: Cancer patients could benefit from a surgical procedure that helps the surgeon to determine adequate tumor resection margins. Variety of applications and work-flows; e.g. Systemic injection of tumor-specific fluorescence agents with subsequent intraoperative optical imaging to guide the surgeon in the process are offered. Recently, in order to overcome the problem of tumor heterogeneity it was proposed to shift the focus of tumor targeting towards the follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR).

Imaging bio-markers

Being able to discover and clinically validate fundamental finger-prints of cancer which can be detected and quantified through medical-imaging modalities is key to transforming the potential presented by medical imaging into clinical reality. Such specific finger-prints/characteristics are usually referred to as imaging bio-markers.

A critical step in the discovery and validation of imaging bio-markers is the matching of tissue location as depicted by imaging-products (most commonly images) to their histology, as underlined by a pathologist under the microscope.

Since histology requires extraction of organ tissue and some processing, it is impossible to achieve such matching in real time. Therefore, different techniques were developed to support the retrospective matching between histology and imaging. The most prevalent one rely on image registration: i.e. the products of medical imaging are registered to images of pathology slides. The main limitation of such methods has to do with:

  1. The fact that the two images poses largely different image resolution.
  2. The form-factor (shape and dimensions) of Histological tissue-slides are distorted in comparison to their in-vivo state.
  3. Histology-reading is subjective; i.e. the concordance between readings of different pathologist is far from being satisfactory. It gets worse when it comes to staging of the cancer.
  4. There is large variation in the quality of medical imaging products.

A Workflow to Improve the Alignment of Prostate Imaging with Whole-mount Histopathology presents a robust methodology validating imaging biomarkers in the case of prostate cancer. In this paper we describe a workflow for three-dimensional alignment of prostate imaging data against whole-mount prostatectomy reference specimens and assess its performance against a standard workflow. We hypothesized that integration of image registration principles into the histological workflow for radical prostatectomy specimens would increase the alignment accuracy. In this post I will include only few excerpts from this paper which I strongly recommend to read in full.

Materials and Methods

Ethical approval was granted. Patients underwent motorized transrectal ultrasound (Prostate Histoscanning) to generate a three-dimensional image of the prostate before radical prostatectomy. The test workflow incorporated steps for axial alignment between imaging and histology, size adjustments following formalin fixation, and use of custom-made parallel cutters and digital caliper instruments. The control workflow comprised freehand cutting and assumed homogeneous block thicknesses at the same relative angles between pathology and imaging sections. The basic requirements of image registration were incorporated within the pathological protocol.

We demonstrate that the use of a simple, custom-made tissue-planer to slice the formalin-fixed prostate results in more uniform and parallel tissue blocks than conventional freehand techniques, and increases the accuracy of image alignment.  We also show that accounting for dimensional change due to formalin fixation is essential during image alignment.

Figure 1: Suggested workflow for registration of scanned histopathological data with radiological imaging

 fig1

 Figure 3

A sketch of the tissue cutting device is shown (A).  The formalin-fixed prostate was placed on the space marked “X” on the device with its flat posterior surface facing down.  With the probe in the urethra to align the AP axis with the device, the base of the gland was gently pressed onto “Y”.  The probe was then removed, and a mounted microtome blade was lowered along the 4mm raised edge of the device from top to bottom to cut away the block (B).  The sliced block was put aside with its apical face facing down, and the process was repeated by gently pressing the cut surface flush against the device before each cut (C).  The thickness of each block was measured in 5 locations marked (D).

fig3

Results

Thirty radical prostatectomy specimens were histologically and radiologically processed, either by an alignment-optimized workflow (n = 20) or a control workflow (n = 10). The optimized workflow generated tissue blocks of heterogeneous thicknesses but with no significant drifting in the cutting plane. The control workflow resulted in significantly nonparallel blocks, accurately matching only one out of four histology blocks to their respective imaging data. The image-to-histology alignment accuracy was 20% greater in the optimized workflow (P < .0001), with higher sensitivity (85% vs. 69%) and specificity (94% vs. 73%) for margin prediction in a 5 × 5-mm grid analysis.

Figure 5. Assessment of alignment accuracy between radiological images and pathological sections

The method of assessing alignment accuracy between radiological images and pathological slides is shown using an example.  Each square within the grids overlaid onto histology and radiological images were scored either as a “1”, indicating the presence of a histological or radiological margin, respectively, or “0”.  Scored pathology grids were used as the reference, and scored radiology grids were used as the index.  Hence, we determined true positives i.e. grid points score “1” in both histology and radiology (yellow squares, n=25), false positives i.e. grid points on the radiology scores “1” but not on histology (green squares, n=4), false negatives i.e. grid points on the histology scores “0” but not on radiology (red squares, n=3), and true negatives (grey squares, n=38).

 fig5

Conclusions

A significantly better alignment was observed in the optimized workflow. Evaluation of prostate imaging biomarkers using whole-mount histology references should include a test-to-reference spatial alignment workflow.

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NIH Considers Guidelines for CAR-T therapy: Report from Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee

Reporter: Stephen J. Williams, Ph.D.

UPDATED 5/27/2024

The practice of pharmacovigilence, both premarketing and postmarketing, has very well defined best practices concerning most small molecule drugs and even medical devices.  However, for many cell based therapies and many gene based therapies, often still administered within the university, academic setting, pharmacovigilence reporting and adherence may be a not as efficient and thorough as conducted by large big pharmaceutical firms.  Big pharma will devote massive resources for the conduct of pharmacovigilence data collecting and analysis.  For many cell based therapies, like CAR-T therapies and some gene therapies are almost conducted as clinical trials within university medical centers, which may not have the resources for a large pharmacovigilence program.

In a report by IQVIA, oncologists were asked about their concerns with cell based therapies.  A recurring concern involved the lack of information on the adverse events related to these therapies, especially after an oncologist’s patient would return from administration of their CAR-T therapy and then both patient and oncologist felt ‘on their own’.

Most recently the FDA has issued black box warning on many CAR-T therapies for their risk in inducing secondary malignancies (see What does this mean for Immunotherapy? FDA put a temporary hold on Juno’s JCAR015, Three Death of Cerebral Edema in CAR-T Clinical Trial and Kite Pharma announced Phase II portion of its CAR-T ZUMA-1 trial).

Source: https://www.fiercepharma.com/ai-and-machine-learning/oncologists-have-shopping-car-t-full-complaints-safety-questions-cell?utm_medium=email&utm_source=nl&utm_campaign=LS-NL-FiercePharma+Tracker&oly_enc_id=2360C5096034F3G

Note: the IQVIA will be submitted as an abstract at the current ASCO meeting

UPDATED 5/10/2022

In the mid to late 1970’s a public debate (and related hysteria) had emerged surrounding two emerging advances in recombinant DNA technology;

  1. the development of vectors useful for cloning pieces of DNA (the first vector named pBR322) and
  2. the discovery of bacterial strains useful in propagating such vectors

As discussed by D. S, Fredrickson of NIH’s Dept. of Education and Welfare in his historical review” A HISTORY OF THE RECOMBINANT DNA GUIDELINES IN THE UNITED STATES” this international concern of the biological safety issues of this new molecular biology tool led the National Institute of Health to coordinate a committee (the NIH Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee) to develop guidelines for the ethical use, safe development, and safe handling of such vectors and host bacterium. The first conversations started in 1974 and, by 1978, initial guidelines had been developed. In fact, as Dr. Fredrickson notes, public relief was voiced even by religious organizations (who had the greatest ethical concerns)

On December 16, 1978, a telegram purporting to be from the Vatican was hand delivered to the office of Joseph A. Califano, Jr., Secretary of Health, Education,

and Welfare. “Habemus regimen recombinatum,” it proclaimed, in celebration of the

end of a long struggle to revise the NIH Guidelines for Research Involving

Recombinant DNA Molecules

The overall Committee resulted in guidelines (2013 version) which assured the worldwide community that

  • organisms used in such procedures would have limited pathogenicity in humans
  • vectors would be developed in a manner which would eliminate their ability to replicate in humans and have defined antibiotic sensitivity

So great was the success and acceptance of this committee and guidelines, the NIH felt the Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee should meet regularly to discuss and develop ethical guidelines and clinical regulations concerning DNA-based therapeutics and technologies.

A PowerPoint Slideshow: Introduction to NIH OBA and the History of Recombinant DNA Oversight can be viewed at the following link:

http://www.powershow.com/view1/e1703-ZDc1Z/Introduction_to_NIH_OBA_and_the_History_of_Recombinant_DNA_Oversight_powerpoint_ppt_presentation

Please see the following link for a video discussion between Dr. Paul Berg, who pioneered DNA recombinant technology, and Dr. James Watson (Commemorating 50 Years of DNA Science):

http://media.hhmi.org/interviews/berg_watson.html

The Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee has met numerous times to discuss new DNA-based technologies and their biosafety and clinical implication including:

A recent Symposium was held in the summer of 2010 to discuss ethical and safety concerns and discuss potential clinical guidelines for use of an emerging immunotherapy technology, the Chimeric Antigen Receptor T-Cells (CART), which at that time had just been started to be used in clinical trials.

Considerations for the Clinical Application of Chimeric Antigen Receptor T Cells: Observations from a Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee Symposium Held June 15, 2010[1]

Contributors to the Symposium discussing opinions regarding CAR-T protocol design included some of the prominent members in the field including:

Drs. Hildegund C.J. Ertl, John Zaia, Steven A. Rosenberg, Carl H. June, Gianpietro Dotti, Jeffrey Kahn, Laurence J. N. Cooper, Jacqueline Corrigan-Curay, And Scott E. Strome.

The discussions from the Symposium, reported in Cancer Research[1]. were presented in three parts:

  1. Summary of the Evolution of the CAR therapy
  2. Points for Future Consideration including adverse event reporting
  3. Considerations for Design and Implementation of Trials including mitigating toxicities and risks

1. Evolution of Chimeric Antigen Receptors

Early evidence had suggested that adoptive transfer of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, after depletion of circulating lymphocytes, could result in a clinical response in some tumor patients however developments showed autologous T-cells (obtained from same patient) could be engineered to express tumor-associated antigens (TAA) and replace the TILS in the clinical setting.

However there were some problems noticed.

  • Problem: HLA restriction of T-cells. Solution: genetically engineer T-cells to redirect T-cell specificity to surface TAAs
  • Problem: 1st generation vectors designed to engineer T-cells to recognize surface epitopes but engineered cells had limited survival in patients.   Solution: development of 2nd generation vectors with co-stimulatory molecules such as CD28, CD19 to improve survival and proliferation in patients

A summary table of limitations of the two types of genetically-modified T-cell therapies were given and given (in modified form) below

                                                                                                Type of Gene-modified T-Cell

Limitations aβ TCR CAR
Affected by loss or decrease of HLA on tumor cells yes no
Affected by altered tumor cell antigen processing? yes no
Need to have defined tumor target antigen? no yes
Vector recombination with endogenous TCR yes no

A brief history of construction of 2nd and 3rd generation CAR-T cells given by cancer.gov:

http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/research-updates/2013/CAR-T-Cells

cartdiagrampic

Differences between  second- and third-generation chimeric antigen receptor T cells. (Adapted by permission from the American Association for Cancer Research: Lee, DW et al. The Future Is Now: Chimeric Antigen Receptors as New Targeted Therapies for Childhood Cancer. Clin Cancer Res; 2012;18(10); 2780–90. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-1920)

Constructing a CAR T Cell (from cancer.gov)

The first efforts to engineer T cells to be used as a cancer treatment began in the early 1990s. Since then, researchers have learned how to produce T cells that express chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) that recognize specific targets on cancer cells.

The T cells are genetically modified to produce these receptors. To do this, researchers use viral vectors that are stripped of their ability to cause illness but that retain the capacity to integrate into cells’ DNA to deliver the genetic material needed to produce the T-cell receptors.

The second- and third-generation CARs typically consist of a piece of monoclonal antibody, called a single-chain variable fragment (scFv), that resides on the outside of the T-cell membrane and is linked to stimulatory molecules (Co-stim 1 and Co-stim 2) inside the T cell. The scFv portion guides the cell to its target antigen. Once the T cell binds to its target antigen, the stimulatory molecules provide the necessary signals for the T cell to become fully active. In this fully active state, the T cells can more effectively proliferate and attack cancer cells.

2. Adverse Event Reporting and Protocol Considerations

The symposium had been organized mainly in response to two reported deaths of patients enrolled in a CART trial, so that clinical investigators could discuss and formulate best practices for the proper conduct and analysis of such trials. One issue raised was lack of pharmacovigilence procedures (adverse event reporting). Although no pharmacovigilence procedures (either intra or inter-institutional) were devised from meeting proceedings, it was stressed that each institution should address this issue as well as better clinical outcome reporting.

Case Report of a Serious Adverse Event Following the Administration of T Cells Transduced With a Chimeric Antigen Receptor Recognizing ERBB2[2] had reported the death of a patient on trial.

In A phase I clinical trial of adoptive transfer of folate receptor-alpha redirected autologous T cells for recurrent ovarian cancer[3] authors: Lana E Kandalaft*, Daniel J Powell and George Coukos from University of Pennsylvania recorded adverse events in pilot studies using a CART modified to recognize the folate receptor, so it appears any adverse event reporting system is at the discretion of the primary investigator.

Other protocol considerations suggested by the symposium attendants included:

  • Plan for translational clinical lab for routine blood analysis
  • Subject screening for pulmonary and cardiac events
  • Determine possibility of insertional mutagenesis
  • Informed consent
  • Analysis of non T and T-cell subsets, e.g. natural killer cells and CD*8 cells

3. Consideration for Design of Trials and Mitigating Toxicities

  • Early Toxic effectsCytokine Release Syndrome– The effectiveness of CART therapy has been manifested by release of high levels of cytokines resulting in fever and inflammatory sequelae. One such cytokine, interleukin 6, has been attributed to this side effect and investigators have successfully used an IL6 receptor antagonist, tocilizumab (Acterma™), to alleviate symptoms of cytokine release syndrome (see review Adoptive T-cell therapy: adverse events and safety switches by Siok-Keen Tey).

 

Below is a video form Dr. Renier Brentjens, M.D., Ph.D. for Memorial Sloan Kettering concerning the finding he made that the adverse event from cytokine release syndrome may be a function of the tumor cell load, and if they treat the patient with CAR-T right after salvage chemotherapy the adverse events are alleviated..

Please see video below:

http link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Gg6elUMIVE

  • Early Toxic effects – Over-activation of CAR T-cells; mitigation by dose escalation strategy (as authors in reference [3] proposed). Most trials give billions of genetically modified cells to a patient.
  • Late Toxic Effectslong-term depletion of B-cells . For example CART directing against CD19 or CD20 on B cells may deplete the normal population of CD19 or CD20 B-cells over time; possibly managed by IgG supplementation

Below is a curation of various examples of the need for developing a Pharmacovigilence Framework for Engineered T-Cell Therapies

As shown above the first reported side effects from engineered T-cell or CAR-T therapies stemmed from the first human trial occuring at University of Pennsylvania, the developers of the first CAR-T therapy.  The clinical investigators however anticipated the issue of a potential cytokine storm and had developed ideas in the pre-trial phase of how to ameliorate such toxicity using anti-cytokine antibodies.  However, until the trial was underway they were unsure of which cytokines would be prominent in causing a cytokine storm effect from the CAR-T therapy.  Fortunately, the investigators were able to save patient 1 (described here in other posts) using anti-IL1 and 10 antibodies.  

 

Over the years, however, multiple trials had to be discontinued as shown below in the following posts:

What does this mean for Immunotherapy? FDA put a temporary hold on Juno’s JCAR015, Three Death of Celebral Edema in CAR-T Clinical Trial and Kite Pharma announced Phase II portion of its CAR-T ZUMA-1 trial

The NIH has put a crimp in the clinical trial work of Steven Rosenberg, Kite Pharma’s star collaborator at the National Cancer Institute. The feds slammed the brakes on the production of experimental drugs at two of its facilities–including cell therapies that Rosenberg works with–after an internal inspection found they weren’t in compliance with safety and quality regulations.

In this instance Kite was being cited for manufacturing issues, apparantly fungal contamination in their cell therapy manufacturing facility.  However shortly after other CAR-T developers were having tragic deaths in their initial phase 1 safety studies.

Juno Halts Cancer Trial Using Gene-Altered Cells After 3 Deaths

 

Juno halts its immunotherapy trial for cancer after three patient deaths

By DAMIAN GARDE @damiangarde and MEGHANA KESHAVAN @megkesh

JULY 7, 2016

In Juno patient deaths, echoes seen of earlier failed company

By SHARON BEGLEY @sxbegle

JULY 8, 2016

https://www.statnews.com/2016/07/08/juno-echoes-of-dendreon/

After a deadly clinical trial, will immune therapies for cancer be a bust?

By DAMIAN GARDE @damiangarde

JULY 8, 2016

This led to warnings by FDA and alteration of their trials as well as the use of their CART as a monotherapy

Hours after Juno CAR-T study deaths announced, Kite enrolls CAR-T PhII

Well That Was Quick! FDA Lets Juno Restart Trial With a New Combination Chemotherapuetic

 at Seattle Times

FDA lets Juno restart cancer-treatment trial

Certainly with so many issues there would seem to be more rigorous work to either establish a pharmacovigilence framework or to develop alternative engineered T cells with a safer profile

However here we went again

New paper sheds fresh light on Tmunity’s high-profile CAR-T deaths
Jason Mast
Editor
The industry-wide effort to push CAR-T therapies — wildly effective in several blood cancers — into solid tumors took a hit last year when Tmunity, a biotech founded by CAR-T pioneer Carl June and backed by several blue-chip VCs, announced it shut down its lead program for prostate cancer after two patients died.

On a personal note this trial was announced in a Bio International meeting here in Philadelphia a few years ago in 2019

see Live Conference Coverage on this site

eProceedings for BIO 2019 International Convention, June 3-6, 2019 Philadelphia Convention Center; Philadelphia PA, Real Time Coverage by Stephen J. Williams, PhD @StephenJWillia2

and the indication was for prostate cancer, in particular hormone resistant castration resistant.  Another one was planned for pancreatic cancer from the same group and the early indications were favorable.

From Onclive

Source: https://www.onclive.com/view/car-t-cell-therapy-trial-in-solid-tumors-halted-following-2-patient-deaths 

Tmunity Therapeutics, a clinical-stage biotherapeutics company, has halted the development of its lead CAR T-cell product following the deaths of 2 patients who were enrolled to a trial investigating its use in solid tumors.1

The patients reportedly died from immune effector cell-associated neurotoxicity syndrome (ICANS), which is a known adverse effect associated with CAR T-cell therapies.

“What we are discovering is that the cytokine profiles we see in solid tumors are completely different from hematologic cancers,” Oz Azam, co-founder of Tmunity said in an interview with Endpoints News. “We observed ICANS. And we had 2 patient deaths as a result of that. We navigated the first event and obviously saw the second event, and as a result of that we have shut down the version one of that program and pivoted quickly to our second generation.”

Previously, with first-generation CAR T-cell therapies in patients with blood cancers, investigators were presented with the challenge of overcoming cytokine release syndrome. Now ICANS, or macrophage activation, is proving to have deadly effects in the realm of solid tumors. Carl June, the other co-founder of Tmunity, noted that investigators will now need to dedicate their efforts to engineering around this, as had been done with tocilizumab (Actemra) in 2012.

The company is dedicated to the development of novel approaches that produce best-in-class control over T-cell activation and direction in the body.2 The product examined in the trial was developed to utilize engineered patient cells to target prostate-specific membrane antigen; it was also designed to use a dominant TGFβ receptor to block an important checkpoint involved in cancer.

Twenty-four patients were recruited for the dose-escalating study and the company plans to release data from high-dose cohorts later in 2021.

“We are going to present all of this in a peer-reviewed publication because we want to share this with the field,” Azam said. “Because everything we’ve encountered, no matter what…people are going to encounter this when they get into the clinic, and I don’t think they’ve really understood yet because so many are preclinical companies that are not in the clinic with solid tumors. And the rubber meets the road when you get in the clinic, because the ultimate in vivo model is the human model.”

Azam added that the company plans to develop a new investigational new drug for version 2, which they hope will result in a safer product.

References

  1. Carroll J. Exclusive: Carl June’s Tmunity encounters a lethal roadblock as 2 patient deaths derail lead trial, raise red flag forcing rethink of CAR-T for solid tumors. Endpoints News. June 2, 2021. Accessed June 3, 2021. https://bit.ly/3wPYWm0
  2. Research and Development. Tmunity Therapeutics website. Accessed June 3, 2021. https://bit.ly/3fOH3OR

Forward to 2022

Reprogramming a new type of T cell to go after cancers with less side effects, longer impact

A Sloan Kettering Institute research team thinks new, killer, innate-like T cells could make promising candidates to treat cancers that so far haven’t responded to immunotherapy treatments. (koto_feja)

Immunotherapy is one of the more appealing and effective kinds of cancer treatment when it works, but the relatively new approach is still fairly limited in the kinds of cancer it can be used for. Researchers at the Sloan Kettering Institute have discovered a new kind of immune cell and how it could be used to expand the reach of immunotherapy treatments to a much wider pool of patients.

The cells in question are called killer innate-like T cells, a threatening name for a potentially lifesaving innovation. Unlike normal killer T cells, killer innate-like T cells stay active much longer and can burrow further into potentially cancerous tissue to attack tumors. The research team first reported these cells in 2016, but it’s only recently that they were able to properly understand and identify them.

“We think these killer innate-like T cells could be targeted or genetically engineered for cancer therapy,” said the study’s lead author, Ming Li, Ph.D., in a press release. “They may be better at reaching and killing solid tumors than conventional T cells.”

Below is the referenced paper from Pubmed:

Evaluation of the safety and efficacy of humanized anti-CD19 chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy in older patients with relapsed/refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma based on the comprehensive geriatric assessment system

Affiliations 

Abstract

Anti-CD19 chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy has led to unprecedented results to date in relapsed/refractory (R/R) diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), yet its clinical application in elderly patients with R/R DLBCL remains somewhat limited. In this study, a total of 31 R/R DLBCL patients older than 65 years of age were enrolled and received humanized anti-CD19 CAR T-cell therapy. Patients were stratified into a fit, unfit, or frail group according to the comprehensive geriatric assessment (CGA). The fit group had a higher objective response (OR) rate (ORR) and complete response (CR) rate than that of the unfit/frail group, but there was no difference in the part response (PR) rate between the groups. The unfit/frail group was more likely to experience AEs than the fit group. The peak proportion of anti-CD19 CAR T-cells in the fit group was significantly higher than that of the unfit/frail group. The CGA can be used to effectively predict the treatment response, adverse events, and long-term survival.

Introduction

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common subtype of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), accounting for 30–40% of cases, with the median age of onset being older than 65 years [1]. Although the five-year survival rate for patients with DLBCL has risen to more than 60% with the application of standardized treatments and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, nearly half of patients progress to relapsed/refractory (R/R) DLBCL. Patients with R/R DLBCL, especially elderly individuals, have a poor prognosis [2,3], so new treatments are needed to prolong survival and improve the prognosis of this population.

As a revolutionary immunotherapy therapy, anti-CD19 chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy has achieved unprecedented results in hematological tumors [4]. As CD19 is expressed on the surface of most B-cell malignant tumors but not on pluripotent bone marrow stem cells, CD19 has been used as a target for B-cell malignancies, including B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia, NHL, multiple myeloma, and chronic lymphocytic leukemia [5]. Despite the wide application and high efficacy of anti-CD19 CAR T-cell therapy, reports of adverse events (AEs) such as cytokine release syndrome (CRS) and immune effector cell-associated neurotoxic syndrome (ICANS) have influenced its use [6]. Especially in elderly patients, AEs associated with anti-CD19 CAR T-cell therapy might be more obvious.

Although anti-CD19 CAR T-cell therapy has been reported in the treatment of NHL, including R/R DLBCL, few studies to date have assessed the safety of anti-CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in elderly R/R DLBCL patients, and its clinical application in the elderly R/R DLBCL population is limited. In ZUMA-1 [7] to R/R DLBCL patients who received CAR T-cell therapy, the CR rate in patients ≥65 years was higher than that of in patients <65 years (75% vs. 53%). Lin et al. [8] reported 49 R/R DLBCL patients (24 patients >65 years, 25 patients <65 years) who received CAR T-cell therapy with a median follow-up of 179 days. The CR rate at 100 days was 51%, while the 6-month progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) were 48% and 71%, respectively. Neither of the two studies carried out a comprehensive geriatric assessment (CGA) of fit, unfit, and frail groups of R/R DLBCL patients over 65 years of age and further analyzed the differences in efficacy and side effects in the three groups. The CGA is an effective system designed to evaluate the prognosis and improve the survival of elderly patients with cancer. The CGA system includes age, activities of daily living (ADL), instrumental ADL (IADL), and the Cumulative Illness Rating Score for Geriatrics (CIRS-G) [9].

In this study, elderly R/R DLBCL patients were grouped according to their CGA results (fit vs. unfit/frail) before receiving humanized anti-CD19 CAR T-cell therapy. We then analyzed the efficacy and AEs of anti-CD19 CAR T-cell therapy and compared findings between these groups.

 

Well it appears that the discriminator was only fitness going into the trial  a bit odd that the whole field appears to be lacking in development of Safety Biomarkers.

 

 

However Genentech (subsidiary of Roche) may now be using some data to develop therapies which may combat resistance to CART therapies which may provide at least, for now, a toxicokinetic approach to reducing AEs by lowering the amount of CARTs needed to be administered.

 

Source: https://www.fiercebiotech.com/research/genentech-uncovers-how-cancer-cells-resist-t-cell-attack-potential-boon-immunotherapy

Roche’s Genentech is exploring inhibiting ESCRT as an anticancer strategy, said Ira Mellman, Ph.D., Genentech’s vice president of cancer immunology. (Roche)

Cancer cells deploy various tactics to avoid being targeted and killed by the immune system. A research team led by Roche’s Genentech has now identified one such method that cancer cells use to resist T-cell assault by repairing damage.

To destroy their targets, cancer-killing T cells known as cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) secrete the toxin perforin to form little pores in the target cells’ surface. Another type of toxin called granzymes are delivered directly into the cells through those portals to induce cell death.

By using high-res imaging in live cells, the Genentech-led team found that the membrane damage caused by perforin could trigger a repair response. The tumor cells could recruit endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT) proteins to remove the lesions, thereby preventing granzymes from entering, the team showed in a new study published in Science.

The following is the Science paper

Membrane repair in target cell defenses

Killer T cells destroy virus-infected and cancer cells by secreting two protein toxins that act as a powerful one-two punch. Pore-forming toxins, perforins, form holes in the plasma membrane of the target cell. Cytotoxic proteins released by T cells then pass through these portals, inducing target cell death. Ritter et al. combined high-resolution imaging data with functional analysis to demonstrate that tumor-derived cells fight back (see the Perspective by Andrews). Protein complexes of the ESCRT family were able to repair perforin holes in target cells, thereby delaying or preventing T cell–induced killing. ESCRT-mediated membrane repair may thus provide a mechanism of resistance to immune attack. —SMH

Abstract

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and natural killer cells kill virus-infected and tumor cells through the polarized release of perforin and granzymes. Perforin is a pore-forming toxin that creates a lesion in the plasma membrane of the target cell through which granzymes enter the cytosol and initiate apoptosis. Endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT) proteins are involved in the repair of small membrane wounds. We found that ESCRT proteins were precisely recruited in target cells to sites of CTL engagement immediately after perforin release. Inhibition of ESCRT machinery in cancer-derived cells enhanced their susceptibility to CTL-mediated killing. Thus, repair of perforin pores by ESCRT machinery limits granzyme entry into the cytosol, potentially enabling target cells to resist cytolytic attack.
Cytotoxic lymphocytes, including cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and natural killer (NK) cells, are responsible for identifying and destroying virus-infected or tumorigenic cells. To kill their targets, CTLs and NK cells secrete a pore-forming toxin called perforin through which apoptosis-inducing serine proteases (granzymes) are delivered directly into the cytosol. Successful killing of target cells often requires multiple hits from single or multiple T cells (1). This has led to the idea that cytotoxicity is additive, often requiring multiple rounds of sublethal lytic granule secretion events before a sufficient threshold of cytosolic granzyme activity is reached to initiate apoptosis in the target (2).
Loss of plasma membrane integrity induced by cytolytic proteins or mechanical damage leads to a membrane repair response. Damage results in an influx of extracellular Ca2+, which has been proposed to lead to the removal of the membrane lesion by endocytosis, resealing of the lesions by lysosomal secretion, or budding into extracellular vesicles (3). Perforin pore formation was initially reported to enhance endocytosis of perforin (4), but subsequent work has challenged this claim (5). Endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT) proteins can repair small wounds and pores in the plasma membrane caused by bacterial pore-forming toxins, mechanical wounding, and laser ablation (67). ESCRT proteins are transiently recruited to sites of membrane damage in a Ca2+-dependent fashion, where they assemble budding structures that shed to eliminate the wound and restore plasma membrane integrity. ESCRT-dependent membrane repair has been implicated in the resealing of endogenous pore-mediated plasma membrane damage during necroptosis (8) and pyroptosis (9).

Localization of target-derived ESCRT proteins to the cytolytic synapse

To investigate whether ESCRT-mediated membrane repair might be involved in the removal of perforin pores during T cell killing, we first determined whether ESCRT proteins in cancer-derived cells were recruited to sites of CTL engagement after perforin secretion. We used CTLs from OT-I mice that express a high-affinity T cell receptor (TCR) that recognizes the ovalbumin peptide SIINFEKL (OVA257-264) bound to the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) allele H-2Kb (10). We performed live-cell microscopy of OT-I CTLs engaging SIINFEKL-pulsed target cells that express enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP)–tagged versions of Tsg101 or Chmp4b, two ESCRT proteins implicated in membrane repair (6). To correlate recruitment of ESCRT proteins with perforin exposure in time, we monitored CTL-target interaction in media with a high concentration of propidium iodide (PI), a cell-impermeable fluorogenic dye that can rapidly diffuse through perforin pores to bind and illuminate nucleic acids in the cytosol and nucleus of the target (5). EGFP-tagged ESCRT proteins were consistently recruited to the site of CTL engagement within 30 to 60 s after PI influx (Fig. 1, A and B). EGFP-Tsg101 and EGFP-Chmp4b in target cells accumulated at the cytolytic synapse after PI influx in 25 of 27 (92.6%) and 31 of 33 (93.9%) of conjugates monitored, respectively, compared with a cytosolic EGFP control, which was not recruited (Fig. 1C and movies S1 to S3). Notably, ESCRT-laden material, presumably membrane fragments, frequently detached from the target cell and adhered to the surface of the CTL (Fig. 1, D and E, and movie S2). We observed this phenomenon in ~60% of conjugates imaged in which targets expressed EGFP-Tsg101 or EGFP-Chmp4b (17 of 27 and 20 of 33 conjugates, respectively; Fig. 1D). Shedding of ESCRT-positive membrane from the cell after repair occurs after laser-induced plasma membrane wounding (67). Plasma membrane fragments shed from the target cell into the synaptic cleft likely contain ligands for CTL-resident receptors. Target cell death would separate the CTL and target, revealing target-derived material on the CTL surface.
FIG. 1. Fluorescently tagged ESCRT proteins in targets localize to site of CTL killing after perforin secretion.
(A) Live-cell spinning disk confocal imaging of a fluorescently labeled OT-I CTL (magenta) engaging an MC38 cancer cell expressing EGFP-Tsg101 (green) in media containing 100 μM PI (red). Yellow arrowheads highlight ESCRT recruitment. T-0:00 is the first frame of PI influx into the target cell (time in minutes:seconds). Scale bar, 10 μm. (B) Graph of EGFP-Tsg101 and PI fluorescence intensity at the IS within the target over time, from example in (A). AU, arbitrary units. (C and D) Quantification of CTL-target conjugates exhibiting accumulation of EGFP at the synapse after PI influx (C) or detectable EGFP-labeled material associated with CTL after target interaction (D) (EGFP condition: N = 22 conjugates in seven independent experiments; EGFP-Tsg101 condition: N = 27 conjugates in nine independent experiments; EGFP-Chmp4b condition: N = 33 conjugates in 24 independent experiments). (E) Live-cell spinning disk confocal imaging of OT-I CTL (magenta) killing MC38 expressing EGFP-Chmp4b (green), demonstrating the presence of target-derived EGFP-Chmp4b material (yellow arrowheads) associated with CTL membrane after a productive target encounter. T-0:00 is the first frame of PI influx into the target cell. Scale bar, 10 μm.
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3D cryo-SIM and FIB-SEM imaging of CTLs caught in the act of killing target cells

Although live-cell imaging indicated that ESCRT complexes were rapidly recruited at sites of T cell–target cell contact, light microscopy alone is of insufficient resolution to establish that this event occurred at the immunological synapse (IS). We thus sought to capture a comprehensive view of the IS in the moments immediately after secretion of lytic granules. We used cryo–fluorescence imaging followed by correlative focused ion beam–scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM), which can achieve isotropic three-dimensional (3D) imaging of whole cells at 8-nm resolution or better (1113). To capture the immediate response of target cells after perforin exposure, we developed a strategy whereby cryo-fixed CTL-target conjugates were selected shortly after perforation, indicated by the presence of a PI gradient in the target (fig. S1A). In live-cell imaging experiments, PI fluorescence across the nucleus of SIINFEKL-pulsed ID8 target cells began as a gradient and became homogeneous 158 ± 64 s, on average, after initial PI influx (N = 31 conjugates; fig. S1, B and C, and movie S4). Thus, fixed CTL-target conjugates that exhibited a gradient of PI across the nucleus would have been captured within ~3 min of perforin exposure.
Coverslips of CTL-target conjugates underwent high-pressure freezing and were subsequently imaged with wide-field cryogenic fluorescence microscopy followed by 3D cryo–structured illumination microscopy (3D cryo-SIM) performed in a customized optical cryostat (14). We selected candidate conjugates for FIB-SEM imaging on the basis of whether a gradient of PI fluorescence was observed across the nucleus of the target emanating from an attached CTL (movie S5). FIB-SEM imaging of the CTL-target conjugate at 8-nm isotropic voxels resulted in a stack of >10,000 individual electron microscopy (EM) images. The image stack was then annotated using a human-assisted machine learning–computer vision platform to segment the plasma membranes of each cell along with cell nuclei and various organelles (https://ariadne.ai/).
We captured four isotropic 3D 8-nm-resolution EM datasets of CTLs killing cancer cells moments after the secretion of lytic granule contents (Fig. 2A and movie S6). Semiautomated segmentation of the cell membranes, nuclei, lytic granules, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and centrosomes of the T cells allow for easier visualization and analysis of the 3D EM data. All FIB-SEM datasets and segmentations can be explored online at https://openorganelle.janelia.org (see links in the supplementary materials). Reconstructed views of the segmented data clearly demonstrate the polarization of the centrosome, Golgi apparatus, and lytic granules to the IS—all of which are hallmarks of CTL killing [Fig. 2A, i to iii, and movie S6, time stamp (TS) 1:33] (1516). On the target cell side, we noted cytoplasmic alterations consistent with cell damage including enhanced electron density of mitochondria adjacent to the IS (fig. S2A). Close visual scanning of the postsynaptic target cell membrane in the raw EM data failed to reveal obvious perforin pores, which have diameters (16 to 22 nm) close to the limit of resolution for this technique (17).
FIG. 2. Eight-nm-resolution 3D FIB-SEM imaging of whole CTL-target conjugate.
(A) 3D rendering of segmented plasma membrane predictions derived from isotropic 8-nm-resolution FIB-SEM imaging of a high-pressure frozen OT-I CTL (red) captured moments after secretion of lytic granules toward a peptide-pulsed ID8 ovarian cancer cell (blue). (i) Side-on sliced view corresponding to the gray horizontal line within the inset box in (A). Seen here are 3D renderings of the segmented plasma membrane of the cancer cell (blue) as well as the CTL plasma membrane (red), centrosome (gold), Golgi apparatus (cyan), lytic granules (purple), mitochondria (green), and nucleus (gray). (ii and iii) A zoomed-in view from the dashed white box in (i) shows the details of the IS (ii) and a single corresponding FIB-SEM slice docked onto the segmented data (iii). (B) Single top-down FIB-SEM slice showing overlaid target cell (blue) and CTL (red) segmentation. (i) Zoomed-in view from dashed white box in (B) details the intercellular material (IM) (gray) between the CTL and target at the IS. (C) Zoomed-in image of a 3D rendering of the surface of the target cell plasma membrane (white) opposite the intercellular material (IM) at the IS. Yellow arrowheads mark plasma membrane buds protruding into the synaptic cleft. (i and ii) Accompanying images demonstrate the orientation of the view in (C) with the rendering of the CTL (red) present (i) and removed (ii), and the dashed yellow box in (ii) indicates the area of detail shown in (C).
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The segmentation of the two cells illustrates the detailed topography of the plasma membrane of the CTL and target at the IS (fig. S2B). The raw EM and segmentation data reveal a dense accumulation of particles, vesicles, and multilamellar membranous materials, which crowd the synaptic cleft between the CTL and the target (Fig. 2B and movie S6, TS 0:40 to 0:50). The source of this intercellular material (IM) was likely in part the lytic granules because close inspection revealed similar particles and dense vesicles located within as-yet-unreleased granules (fig. S2C). To determine whether some of the membranous material within the intercellular space might also have been derived from the target cell, we examined the surface topology of the postsynaptic target cell. We noted multiple tubular and bud-like protrusions of the target cell membrane that extended into the synaptic space; thus, at least some of the membrane structures observed were still in continuity with the target cell (Fig. 2C and movie S6, TS 0:58 to 1:11). ESCRT proteins have been shown to generate budding structures in the context of plasma membrane repair (6), which led us to next assess where target-derived ESCRT proteins are distributed in the context of the postsecretion IS.
To map the localization of target-derived ESCRT proteins onto a high-resolution landscape of the IS, we captured three FIB-SEM datasets that have associated 3D cryo-SIM fluorescence data for mEmerald-Chmp4b localization (Fig. 3A, fig. S3, and movie S7). This correlative light and electron microscopy (CLEM) revealed that mEmerald-Chmp4b expressed in the target cell was specifically recruited to the target plasma membrane opposite the secreted IM (Fig. 3, B and C). The topography of the plasma membrane at the site of ESCRT recruitment was markedly convoluted, exhibiting many bud-like projections (movie S7, TS 0:37 to 0:40). mEmerald-Chmp4b fluorescence also overlapped with some vesicular structures in the intercellular synaptic space (Fig. 3C). Together, the live-cell imaging and the 3D cryo-SIM and FIB-SEM CLEM demonstrate the localization of ESCRT proteins at the synapse that was the definitive site of CTL killing and was thus spatially and temporally correlated to perforin secretion. These data implicate the ESCRT complex in the repair of perforin pores.
FIG. 3. Correlative 3D cryo-SIM and FIB-SEM reveal localization of target-derived ESCRT within the cytolytic IS.
(A) Three example datasets showing correlative 3D cryo-SIM and FIB-SEM imaging of OT-I CTLs (red) captured moments after secretion of lytic granules toward peptide-pulsed ID8 cancer cells (blue) expressing mEmerald-Chmp4b (green fluorescence). (B and C) Single FIB-SEM slices corresponding to the orange boxes in (A), overlaid with CTL and cancer cell segmentation (B) or correlative cryo-SIM fluorescence of mEmerald-Chmp4b derived from the target cell (C).
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Function of ESCRT proteins in repair of perforin pores

We next investigated whether ESCRT inhibition could enhance the susceptibility of target cells to CTL-mediated killing. Prolonged inactivation of the ESCRT pathway is itself cytotoxic (9). We thus developed strategies to ablate ESCRT function that would allow us a window of time to assess CTL killing (fig. S4). We used two approaches to block ESCRT function: CRISPR knockout of the Chmp4b gene or overexpression of VPS4aE228Q (E228Q, Glu228 → Gln), a dominant-negative kinase allele that impairs ESCRT function (fig. S4, A to C) (10). We took care to complete our assessment of target killing well in advance of spontaneous target cell death (fig. S4D).
We tested the capacity of OT-I CTLs to kill targets presenting one of four previously characterized peptides that demonstrate a range of potencies at stimulating the OT-I TCR: SIINFEKL (N4), the cognate peptide, and three separate variants (in order of highest to lowest affinity), SIITFEKL (T4), SIIQFEHL (Q4H7), and SIIGFEKL (G4) (1819). Target cells were pulsed with peptide, washed, transferred to 96-well plates, and allowed to adhere before the addition of OT-I CTLs. Killing was assessed by monitoring the uptake of a fluorogenic caspase 3/7 indicator (Fig. 4, A to D, and fig. S5A). Killing was significantly more efficient in ESCRT-inhibited target cells for both CRISPR depletion of Chmp4b (Fig. 4, A to C) and expression of the dominant-negative VPS4aE228Q (Fig. 4D). The difference in killing between the ESCRT-inhibited and control cells was greater when the lower-potency T4, Q4H7, and G4 peptides were used. Nevertheless, ESCRT inhibition moderately improved killing efficiency even in the case of the high-potency SIINFEKL peptide. ESCRT inhibition had no effect on MHC class I expression on the surface of target cells (fig. S5B). Thus, ESCRT inhibition could sensitize target cells to perforin- and granzyme-mediated killing, especially at physiologically relevant TCR-peptide MHC affinities.
FIG. 4. ESCRT inhibition enhances susceptibility of cancer cells to CTL killing and recombinant lytic proteins.
(A) Representative time-lapse data of killing of peptide-pulsed Chmp4b knockout (KO) or control B16-F10 cells by OT-I CTLs. Affinity of the pulsed peptide to OT-I TCR decreases from left to right. Error bars indicate SDs. (B) Images extracted from T4 medium-affinity peptide condition show software-detected caspase 3/7+ events in control and Chmp4b KO conditions. (C and D) Data representing the 4-hour time point of assays measuring OT-I T cells killing either Chmp4b KO (C) or VPS4 dominant-negative (D) target cells with matched controls. Error bars indicate SDs of data. Data are representative of at least three independent experimental replicates. pMHC, peptide-MHC; HA, hemagglutinin. (E and F) Determination of sublytic dose of Prf. B16-F10 cells expressing VPS4a (WT or E228Q) were exposed to increasing concentrations of Prf. Cell viability was determined by morphological gating (E). FSC, forward scatter; SSC, side scatter. (G and H) B16-F10 cells expressing VPS4a (WT or E228Q) were exposed to a sublytic dose of Prf in combination with increasing concentrations of recombinant GZMB (rGZMB). Cell death was determined by Annexin V–allophycocyanin (APC) staining (G). Controls include a condition with no perforin and 5000 ng/ml rGZMB and sublytic perforin with no rGZMB. Graphs in (F) and (H) represent the means of three experiments, and error bars indicate SDs. Statistical significance was determined by multiple unpaired t tests with alpha = 0.05. ns, not significant; *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001.
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We next directly tested the effects of ESCRT inhibition when target cells were exposed to both recombinant perforin (Prf) and granzyme B (GZMB), the most potently proapoptotic granzyme in humans and mice (20). Prf alone at high concentrations can lyse cells (4), so we first determined a sublytic Prf concentration that would temporarily permeabilize the plasma membrane but permit the cells to recover. B16-F10 cells expressing either VPS4aWT (WT, wild-type) or VPS4aE228Q were exposed to a range of Prf concentrations in the presence of PI, and cell viability and PI uptake were assessed using flow cytometry. Cells that expressed dominant-negative VPS4aE228Q were more sensitive to Prf alone than ESCRT-competent cells (Fig. 4, E and F). At 160 ng/ml Prf, there was no significant difference in cell viability for either condition. Cells in the live gate that were PI+ had been permeabilized by Prf but recovered. Although the percentage of PI+ live cells was similar under both sets of conditions, the mean fluorescence intensity of PI was higher in live ESCRT-inhibited cells (fig. S6). A delay in plasma membrane resealing could account for this difference.
We reasoned that delaying perforin pore repair might also enhance GZMB uptake into the target. ESCRT-inhibited cells were more sensitive to combined perforin-GZMB when cell death was measured by Annexin V staining (Fig. 4, G and H). Similar results were observed when these experiments were repeated with a murine lymphoma cancer cell line (fig. S7). The observation that ESCRT-inhibited target cells are more sensitive to both CTL-secreted and Prf-GZMB supports the hypothesis that the ESCRT pathway contributes to membrane repair after Prf exposure.
Escaping cell death is one of the hallmarks of cancer. Our findings suggest that ESCRT-mediated membrane repair of perforin pores may restrict accessibility of the target cytosol to CTL-secreted granzyme, thus promoting survival of cancer-derived cells under cytolytic attack. Although other factors may contribute to setting the threshold for target susceptibility to killing, the role of active repair of perforin pores must now be considered as a clear contributing factor.

Acknowledgments

We thank members of the Mellman laboratory for advice, discussion, and reagents; B. Haley for assistance with plasmid construct design; the Genentech FACS Core Facility for technical assistance; S. Van Engelenburg of Denver University for invaluable discussions and guidance; A. Wanner, S. Spaar, and the Ariande AI AG (https://ariadne.ai/) for assistance with FIB-SEM segmentation, CLEM coregistration, data presentation, and rendering; D. Bennett of the Janelia Research Campus for assisting with data upload to https://openorganelle.janelia.org; and the Genentech Postdoctoral Program for support.
Funding: A.T.R. and I.M. are funded by Genentech/Roche. C.S.X., G.S., A.W., D.A., N.I., and H.F.H. are funded by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI).

Please look for a Followup Post concerning “Developing a Pharmacovigilence Framework for Engineered T-Cell Therapies”

 

References

  1. Ertl HC, Zaia J, Rosenberg SA, June CH, Dotti G, Kahn J, Cooper LJ, Corrigan-Curay J, Strome SE: Considerations for the clinical application of chimeric antigen receptor T cells: observations from a recombinant DNA Advisory Committee Symposium held June 15, 2010. Cancer research 2011, 71(9):3175-3181.
  2. Morgan RA, Yang JC, Kitano M, Dudley ME, Laurencot CM, Rosenberg SA: Case report of a serious adverse event following the administration of T cells transduced with a chimeric antigen receptor recognizing ERBB2. Molecular therapy : the journal of the American Society of Gene Therapy 2010, 18(4):843-851.
  3. Kandalaft LE, Powell DJ, Jr., Coukos G: A phase I clinical trial of adoptive transfer of folate receptor-alpha redirected autologous T cells for recurrent ovarian cancer. Journal of translational medicine 2012, 10:157.

Other posts on this site on Immunotherapy and Cancer include

Report on Cancer Immunotherapy Market & Clinical Pipeline Insight

New Immunotherapy Could Fight a Range of Cancers

Combined anti-CTLA4 and anti-PD1 immunotherapy shows promising results against advanced melanoma

Molecular Profiling in Cancer Immunotherapy: Debraj GuhaThakurta, PhD

Pancreatic Cancer: Genetics, Genomics and Immunotherapy

$20 million Novartis deal with ‘University of Pennsylvania’ to develop Ultra-Personalized Cancer Immunotherapy

Upcoming Meetings on Cancer Immunogenetics

Tang Prize for 2014: Immunity and Cancer

ipilimumab, a Drug that blocks CTLA-4 Freeing T cells to Attack Tumors @DM Anderson Cancer Center

Juno’s approach eradicated cancer cells in 10 of 12 leukemia patients, indicating potential to transform the standard of care in oncology

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LytPhage Presents at 1st Pitch Life Sciences-Philadelphia-September 16, 2014

Reporter: Stephen J. Williams, PhD

 

LytPhage presented at Mid-Atlantic BioAngels 1st Pitch Life Sciences in  Philadelphia Tuesday Sept. 16, 2014.

LytPhage is a new biotech company using novel bioengineering to develop therapeutics to address the worldwide crisis of antibiotic resistant organisms.  They are developing a treatment for vancomycin resistant systemic infections with their platform, which can be adapted for other problematic organisms.  LytPhage is a spin-out form Temple University.

The overall goal is to use genetically modified bacteriophage (bacterial viruses) as an antimicrobial therapy against drug-resistant strains.  Their genetically modifed viruses are only lytic, meaning they result in cell death of the host but do not integrate in the host DNA.  In additon preliminary studies using mainly clinical isolates have shown good efficacy against most drug-resistant strains found in common hospital infections like Clostridium difficile colitis.  The presenters noted that bacteriophage therapy had successfully been used in Europe but no approved therapy in US

For more information about this meeting please see posting on this site

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Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence

 

Predictive value of plasma galectin-3 levels in heart failure with
reduced and preserved ejection fraction   

RA. de Boer, DJ.A. Lok, T Jaarsma1, P van der Meer, AA. Voors, HL. Hillege
& DJ. van Veldhuisen
Annals of Medicine 2011; 43: 60–68.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.3109/07853890.2010.538080

We studied 592 HFpatients who had been hospitalized for HFand were followed
for 18 months. The primary end-point was a composite of all-cause mortality and
HF hospitalization. A doubling of galectin-3 levels was associated with a hazard
ratio (HR) of 1.97 (1.62–2.42) for the primary outcome (P = 0.001). After
correction for age, gender, BNP, eGFR, and diabetes the HR was 1.38 (1.07–
1.78; P = 0.015). Galectin-3 levels were correlated with higher IL-6 and CRP
levels (P = 0.002). Changes of galectin-3 levels after 6 months did not add
prognostic information to the base-line value (n = 291); however, combining
plasma galectin-3 and BNP levels increased prognostic value over either
biomarker alone (ROC analysis, P = 0.05). The predictive value of galectin-3
was stronger in patients with preserved LVEF (n = 114) compared to
patients with reduced LVEF (P = 0.001).

Galectin-3 in Ambulatory Patients with Heart Failure: Results
from the HF-ACTION Study
GM Felker, M Fiuzat, LK. Shaw, R Clare, ,DJ. Whellan, et al.
Circ Heart Fail. 2012 Jan; 5(1): 72–78.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.111.963637

Galectin-3 is a soluble ß-galactoside-binding lectin released by activated
cardiac macrophages. Elevated levels of galectin-3 have been found to
be associated with adverse outcomes in patients with heart failure. We
evaluated the association between galectin-3 and long-term clinical
outcomes in ambulatory heart failure patients enrolled in the HF-ACTION
study.
Galectin-3 is elevated in ambulatory heart failure patients and is
associated with poor functional capacity and other known measures of
heart failure severity. In univariate analysis, galectin-3 was significantly
predictive of long-term outcomes, but this association did not
persist after adjustment for other predictors, especially NTproBNP.

 

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Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence

Early discharge using single cardiac troponin and copeptin testing in patients
with suspected 
acute coronary syndrome (ACS): a randomized, controlled
clinical process study
M Mockel, J Searle, Christian Hamm, A Slagman, S Blankenberg, et al.
EurHeartJ Apr 2014.  http://dx.doi.org:/10.1093/eurheartj/ehu178

This randomized controlled trial (RCT) evaluated whether a process with single
combined testing of copeptin and troponin at admission in patients with low-to-
intermediate risk and suspected acute coronary syndrome (ACS)  does not lead to a higher proportion of major adverse cardiac events (MACE) than
the current standard process (non-inferiority design). After clinical work-up and  single combined testing of troponin and copeptin to rule-out AMI,  early  discharge
of low- to intermediate risk patients with suspected ACS seems to be safe and has
the potential to shorten length of stay in the ED.

Diagnostic accuracy of combined cardiac troponin and copeptin
assessment for 
early rule-out of myocardial infarction: a systematic
review and meta-analysis
T Raskovalova, R Twerenbold, PO Collinson, T Keller, H Bouvaist, et al.
http://acc.sagepub.com/content/3/1/18
EurHeartJ: Acute Cardiovascular Care 2014; 3(1): 18-27.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1177/2048872613514015

This systematic review aimed to investigate the diagnostic accuracy of combined
cardiac troponin (cTn) and  copeptin assessment in comparison to cTn alone for
early rule-out of acute myocardial infarction (AMI).  In 15  studies totalling 8740
patients (prevalence of   AMI 16%), adding copeptin improved the sensitivity
of cTn assays  (from 0.87 to 0.96, p=0.003) at the expense of lower specificity
(from 0.84 to 0.56, p<0.001).

In 12 studies providing for 6988 patients without ST-segment elevation,
the summary sensitivity and specificity  estimates were 0.95 (95% CI 0.89 to
0.98) and 0.57 (95% CI 0.49 to   0.65) for the combined assessment of cTn
and copeptin. When a high-sensitivity cTnT assay was used in combination
with copeptin,  the summary sensitivity  and specificity estimates were 0.98
(95% CI 0.96 to 1.00) and 0.50 (95% CI 0.42 to 0.58). The result indicates
that  copeptin significantly improves baseline cTn sensitivity.

Diagnostic accuracy of copeptin sensitivity and specificity in patients with
suspected non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction with troponin I below
the 
99th centile at presentation
J Duchenne, S Mestres, N Dublanchet, N Combaret, G Marceau, et al.
BMJ Open 2014;4:e004449.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1136/bmjopen-2013-004449

To our knowledge, our prospective multicentric study is the only one that includes
only patients with suspected non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction and
high-sensitive cardiac troponin I below  the 99th centile  at presentation to the
emergency department, to limit spectrum bias. Our study included only patients
with negative ultrasensitive troponin at admission. However, this is the only group
of patients for which a multimarker rule-out strategy could add diagnostic value.
Serial clinical, electrographical and biochemical investigations were performed at
admission and after 2, 4, 6 and 12 h. Hs-cTnT was measured using an assay with
Dimension VISTA, Siemens. Copeptin was measured by the BRAHMS copeptin-us
assay on the KRYPTOR Compact Plus system. The follow-up period was 90 days.

The final diagnosis was adjudicated blinded to copeptin result. During 12 months,
102 patients were analysed. Final diagnosis was NSTEMI for 7.8% (n=8), unstable
angina for 3.9% (n=4), cardiac but non coronary artery disease for 8.8% (n=9),
non-cardiac chest pain for 52% (n=53) and unknown for 27.5% (n=28).

There was no statistical difference for copeptin values between patients with
NSTEMI and others (respectively 5.5 pmol/L IQR (3.1–7.9) and 6.5 pmol/L IQR
(3.9–12.1), p=0.49). Only one patient with NSTEMI had a copeptin value
above the cut-off
 of 95th centile at admission.

In this study, copeptin does not add a diagnostic value at admission to ED for patients
with suspected acute coronary syndrome without ST-
segment elevation and with hs-cTnT below the 99th centile.

Can a Second Measurement of Copeptin Improve Acute Myocardial
Infarction Rule Out?

N Marston, K Shah, C Mueller, Sean-Xavier Neath, R Christenson, J McCord, et al.
J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63(12_S):A202.  Presentation Number: 1226-242
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/S0735-1097(14)60202-3

Of the 494 patients analyzed, 378 (76.5%) had a persistently elevated copeptin at 2
hours and 116 patients (23.5%) had a copeptin that fell below the cutoff of 14 pmol/l.
The AMI rate was 6.1% when the second copeptin was elevated compared to 0%
when the second copeptin was not (p=.006), yielding a sensitivity of 100%. This
strategy identified 23.5% of patients with an intermediate risk who could be ruled
out for AMI while still in the ED. In contrast, a second troponin measurement had a
sensitivity of 74%. A negative second copeptin drawn 2 hours after presentation
demonstrated 100% sensitivity for AMI, allowing for effective rule out in this
intermediate risk cohort. This strategy identified nearly 25% of intermediate risk
patients who could be considered for discharge.

 The role of copeptin as a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker for risk
stratification in the emergency department.
Nickel CH, Bingisser R and Morgenthaler NG
BMC Medicine 2012, 10:7
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7015/10/7

Copeptin, the C-terminal part of the arginine vasopressin precursor peptide,
is a sensitive and stable surrogate marker for arginine vasopressin release.
Measurement of copeptin levels has been shown to be useful in a variety of
clinical scenarios, particularly as a prognostic marker in patients with acute
diseases such as lower respiratory tract infection, heart disease and stroke.

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Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

Leaders in Pharmaceutical Innovation

High sensitivity c-Reactive Protein

High sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP)
Author: Larry Bernstein, M.D.,  (see Reviewers/Authors page)
Revised: 12 December 2010, last major update December 2010
Copyright: (c) 2003-2010, PathologyOutlines.com, Inc.

http://dx.doi.org:/PathologyOutlines.com/cardiac

General
=========================================================================

  • hsCRP is an enhanced sensitivity C-reactive protein (CRP) immunoassay with a lowered measurement cutoff

Methodology
=========================================================================

  • Laser nephelometry

Indications
=========================================================================

  • In the JUPITER trial of apparently healthy persons without hyperlipidemia but with elevated
    high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels, rosuvastatin significantly reduced the incidence of major
    cardiovascular events ( N Engl J Med 2008;359:2195)
  • This effect is thought to be due to the effect of statins on inflammation, which is detected by hsCRP
  • hsCRP assessment for cardiovascular disease in asymptomatic individuals seems to be most useful for
    those classified as intermediate risk on the basis of traditional risk factors (e.g. an NCEP-ATP III global
    risk score between 5% and 20%), and who do not already warrant chronic treatment with aspirin and a statin

Limitations
=========================================================================

  • Most useful for patients with intermediate risk for cardiovascular disease (Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes
    2008;1:92, Ann Intern Med 2009;151:483)
  • For low risk patients, if their risk increases 3x (e.g. from 1% to 3%), their absolute cardiovascular risk
    is still low, so the hsCRP test has no practical value
  • High risk patients are candidates for chronic aspirin and lipid-lowering therapy regardless of their hsCRP test results
  • However, a recent study concludes that risk based statin treatment without hs-CRP testing is more cost-effective
    than hs-CRP screening, assuming that statins have good long-term safety and provide benefits among low-risk
    people with normal hs-CRP (Circulation 2010;122:1478)

Reference ranges
=========================================================================

  • Low risk: under 1 mg/L
  • Intermediate risk: 1-3 mg/L
  • High risk: > 3 mg/L

Additional references
=========================================================================

  • Wikipedia, Circulation 2006;113:2335, N Engl J Med 2001;344:1959

How to use C-reactive protein in acute coronary care
LM. Biasucci,W Koenig, J Mair, C Mueller, M Plebani, B Lindahl, N Rifai, P Venge, C Hamm, et al.
Eur Heart J  Nov 2013;  http://dx.doi.org:/10.1093/eurheartj/eht435

In patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI), C-reactive protein increases within 4–6 h of symptoms,
peaks 2–4 days later, and returns to baseline after 7–10 days. Because of evidence that atherosclerosis
is an inflammatory disease, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein can be used as a biomarker of risk
in primary prevention
and in patients with known cardiovascular disease.
The upper reference limit is method-dependent but usually 8 mg/L for standard assays. The distribution of high-
sensitivity C-reactive protein concentrations is skewed in both genders with a 50th percentile of 1.5 mg/L (excluding
women on hormone replacement therapy).  C-reactive protein concentrations are increased by smoking, obesity, and
hormone replacement therapy and reduced by exercise, moderate alcohol drinking, and statin use. Correction for these
factors is essential in reference range studies.
C-reactive protein assays are not standardized. We recommend the use of third-generation high-sensitivity C-reactive
protein assays that combine features of standard and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein assays. Required assay precision
should be < 10% in the range of 3 and 10 mg/L.

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