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Heroes in Basic Medical Research – Leroy Hood

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence

Series E. 2; 4.5

Leroy Hood, MD, PhD

Dr. Hood created the technological foundation for the sciences of genomics (study of genes) and proteomics (study of proteins) through the invention of five groundbreaking instruments and by explicating the potentialities of genome and proteome research into the future through his pioneering of the fields of systems biology and systems medicine. Hood’s instruments not only pioneered the deciphering of biological information, but also introduced the concept of high throughput data accumulation through automation and parallelization of the protein and DNA chemistries.

The first four instruments were commercialized by Applied Biosystems, Inc., a company founded by Dr. Hood in 1981, and the ink-jet technology was commercialized by Agilent Technologies, thus making these instruments immediately available to the world-community of scientists.

The first two instruments transformed the field of proteomics. The protein sequencer allowed scientists to read and analyze proteins that had not previously been accessible, resulting in the characterization of a series of new proteins whose genes could then be cloned and analyzed. These discoveries led to significant ramifications for biology, medicine, and pharmacology. The second instrument, the protein synthesizer, synthesized proteins and peptides in sufficient quantities to begin characterizing their functions. The DNA synthesizer, the first of three instruments for genomic analyses, was used to synthesize DNA fragments for DNA mapping and gene cloning. The most notable of Hood’s inventions, the automated DNA sequencer developed in 1986, made possible high-speed sequencing of human genomes and was the key technology enabling the Human Genome Project.

In the early 1990s Hood and his colleagues developed the ink-jet DNA synthesis technology for creating DNA arrays with tens of thousands of gene fragments, one of the first of the so-called DNA chips, which enabled measuring the levels of 10,000s of expressed genes. This instrument has also transformed genomics, biology, and medicine.

In 1992, Hood created the first cross-disciplinary biology department, Molecular Biotechnology, at the University of Washington. In 2000, he left the UW to co-found Institute for Systems Biology, the first of its kind. He has pioneered systems medicine the years since ISB’s founding.

In 2000, Hood and two colleagues founded the Institute for Systems Biology (ISB), a nonprofit research institute integrating biology, technology, computation and medicine to take a systems (holistic) approach to studying the complexity of biology and medicine by analyzing all elements in a biological system rather than studying them one gene or protein at a time (an atomistic approach).

Hood has made many seminal discoveries in the fields of immunology, neurobiology and biotechnology and, most recently, has been a leader in the development of systems biology, its applications to cancer, neurodegenerative disease, and the linkage of systems biology to personalized medicine.

Hood’s efforts in a systems approach to disease have led him to pioneer a new approach to medicine that he coined P4 Medicine in 2003. His view is that P4 medicine will transform the practice of medicine over the next decade, moving it from a largely reactive discipline to a proactive one.

Dr. Hood’s outstanding contributions have had a resounding effect on the advancement of science since the 1960s. Throughout his career, he has adhered to the advice of his mentor, Dr. William J. Dreyer: “If you want to practice biology, do it on the leading edge, and if you want to be on the leading edge, invent new tools for deciphering biological information.”

 

Hood is now pioneering new approaches to P4 medicine

Co-founder and Chairman P4 Medicine institute

—predictive, preventive, personalized and participatory, and most recently, has embarked on creating a P4 pilot project on 100,000 well individuals, that is transforming healthcare.

In addition to his ground-breaking research, Hood has published 750 papers, received 36 patents, 17 honorary degrees and more than 100 awards and honors. He is one of only 15 individuals elected to all three National Academies—the National Academy of Science, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. Hood has founded or co-founded 15 different biotechnology companies.

 

http://www.youtube.com/watch%3Fv%3D5aE8tgbsl9U Feb 18, 2015 Dr. Leroy Hood, President and Co-founder, Institute for Systems Biology, gives a talk entitled “Systems Medicine and a Longitudinal, …

http://www.youtube.com/watch%3Fv%3DaYGTLj02sx0  Nov 19, 2014 … of Healthcare? A Personal View of Biological Complexity, Paradigm Changes, Systems Biology and Systems Medicine .Speaker: Leroy Hood.

http://www.youtube.com/watch%3Fv%3DnT1MvnH6j8Q Sep 26, 2014 Dr. Leroy Hood discusses how P4 (Predictive, Preventive, … EMBC 2014 Theme Keynote Lecture with Dr. Emery Brown – Duration: 58:49. by …

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RoadMap – Presentation to Investors: FOUR Lines of Business @ GDE to absorb Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence

Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Investors Network – Meeting with Investor: ACTIVITY BOARD

PC – meeting 8/15, Skype 8/17 – 9/17

RN – meeting 8/18, sent feedback

CW – Skype 8/13, Skype TBD

HK – Conference Call 8/28

Henri C & Antoine Loth Skype 9/4

HK – Skype 9/28

GDE is a Global Holding Company

Meet GAMA, DELTA, EPSILON (GDE), The New Conglomerate Absorbing LPBI run by:

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN – Co-Founder

Gerard Loiseau, ESQ – Co-Founder

What’s Part of GDE?

What makes up the alphabet of the new GDE? Future filing and future blog posts, GDE includes

  • GDE – “Scientific Media @Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence (LPBI)”

HQS – Boston, MA

  1. Scientific Journal
  2. BioMed e-Series
  3. Biotech and Medicine REAL TIME Press Coverage using Social Media and Tweet Analytics

I am seeking an M&A with a European Scientific Publisher

  • GDE – Deals, Funding and Partnerships – Early Stage Start Ups in need for funding: Biologics, Small Molecules and Medical Devices

HQS – Boston, MA

HQS – Lausanne, Switzerland

I am seeking an Investment House to fund my Client-Companies

I am seeking to split my Finders Fee to get the funding accomplished

  • Medical 3D BioPrinting – M3DP

Matrix Organization

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/08/26/lpbis-m3dp-matrix-organization/

Repository of Resources on M3DP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/08/18/repository-for-lpbis-initiative-on-medical-3d-printing/

HQS – Boston, MA

HQS – Lausanne, Switzerland

I am seeking a Private Equity Investor interested in Medical 3D BioPrinting to invest for an Equity position and provide Business Development and Finance capabilities to a Technical Team of Scientists (PhDs, MD/PhDs) and BioEngineers in Tissue Engineering, Pharmaceutical and Medical Devices (Cardiovascualr and Orthopedic) using 3D BioPrinting

  • Commercialization of US Patents: Biologics, Small Molecules and Medical Devices

HQS – Boston, MA

HQS – Lausanne, Switzerland

I am seeking a Private Equity Investor interested in Biologics, Small Molecules and Medical Devices to invest for an Equity position and provide Business Development and Finance capabilities to a Group of US Patent Holders in these domains

I am interested in introductions facilitating mutually beneficial business deals.

DETAILS

  • GDE – “Scientific Media: Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence (LPBI)”

HQS – Boston, MA

Scientific Journal

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/

BioMed e-Series

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/biomed-e-books/

Biotech and Medicine REAL TIME Press Coverage using Social Media and Tweet Analytics

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/08/15/press-release-on-amazon-com-biomedical-e-books-e-series-by-the-team-of-leaders-in-pharmaceutical-business-intelligence-cardiovascular-genomics-cancer-biomed-patient-centered-medicine/

HQS – Boston, MA

HQS – Lausanne, Switzerland

  • Medical 3D BioPrinting

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/medical-3d-printing/

HQS – Boston, MA

HQS – Lausanne, Switzerland

Ontology Building for Medical 3D Printing: The Team @ Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence (LPBI)

Cardiovascular Applications of 3D BioPrinting

Using 3D printed models for planning and guidance during endovascular intervention (VIDEO)

 VIEW VIDEO

http://www.3dbioprintingconference.com/surgery/using-3d-printed-models-for-planning-and-guidance-during-endovascular-intervention-video/

Bioprinted Valves That Grow: How 3D Printing is Transforming Heart Surgery (VIDEO)

VIEW VIDEO

http://www.3dbioprintingconference.com/3d-bioprinting/bioprinted-valves-that-grow-how-3d-printing-is-transforming-heart-surgery/

  • Medical Devices & Biologics: Commercialization  – US Patents

HQS – Boston, MA

HQS – Lausanne, Switzerland

FIVE Business Opportunities we would like INVESTORS to consider exploring involvement of their business network with our VENTURES, as follows:

Business #1: Scientific Media

#1A: Scientific Journal

#1B: BioMed e-Series

#1C: Biotech and Medicine REAL TIME Press Coverage using Social Media and Tweet Analytics

Business #1A: Scientific Journal in Life Sciences, Medicine, Pharmaceutical Intelligence and BioMed

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/

e-Readership on 9/2/2015

721,818 Views

7,004 Scientific Comments

3,206 Articles 

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ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 2,666

nature.com 1,596

Business #1B: BioMed e-Series – Sixteen Books on Amazon.com

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/biomed-e-books/

We will complete publishing of 16 books in 5 series — the BioMed e-Series will have on 12/2015 NINE of the 16 Volumes on Amazon.com

PRESS RELEASE: On Amazon.com BioMedical e-Books e-Series by the Team of Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence: Cardiovascular, Genomics, Cancer, BioMed, Patient Centered Medicine

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/08/15/press-release-on-amazon-com-biomedical-e-books-e-series-by-the-team-of-leaders-in-pharmaceutical-business-intelligence-cardiovascular-genomics-cancer-biomed-patient-centered-medicine/

Potential e-Books Translation to Chinese – Explorations with

  • Chinese College of Cardiology
  • Chinese College of Oncology
  • Chinese College of Genomics and Genetics

Business #1C: Biotech and Medicine REAL TIME Press Coverage using Social Media and Tweet Analytics

Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence’s Record of Biotech and Medicine Conferences REAL TIME Press Coverage using Social Media & Tweet Analytics

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/press-coverage/

Business #2: Deals, Funding and Partnerships – 20 Early Stage Funding:

Biologics and Medical Devices

Twenty early stage Start ups in Medical Devices and Biologics in need for Funding

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/joint-ventures/

Business #3: Medical 3D BioPrinting

NEW Venture Development in Medical 3D BioPrinting

  • Medical 3D Printing

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/medical-3d-printing/

  • Material for Presentation to Investors based on Our Twelve Lecture Series on Medical 3D Printing Applications & Technologies by LPBI’s Medical 3D Printing Team 

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/08/15/twelve-lecture-series-on-medical-3d-printing-applications-technologies-by-lpbis-medical-3d-printing-team/

Business #4:Medical Devices: Commercialization  – US Patents

4.1    Inventions of Dr. Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC

Inventions and Designs of Dr. Pearlman

  1. Medical 3D Printing ideas by Dr. Pearlman
  • 1a products
  • 1b services: consulting and design

Protected: INVENTION: 3D Reparative Transforming BioStent – Concept Description

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/09/03/invention-3d-reparative-transforming-biostent-concept-description-2/

  1. Portfolio of Medical Innovations that Dr. Pearlman is seeking funding for

4.2    Inventions of Mr. Bill Zurn

Medical Devices using MEMS and MRI

To view the patent, click on this link:

https://www.google.com/patents/US8663209?dq=US+Patent+8,663,209&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Qs6aVYDDOZTboASGkI_gCg&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA

  • Medical MEMS, Sensors and 3D Printing: Frontier in Process Control of BioMaterials

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/08/10/medical-mems-sensors-and-3d-printing- frontier-in-process-control-of-biomaterials/

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Vaccine for Heart Disease

Writer and Curator: Larry, MD, FCAP 

 

 

Introduction

Research investigators at Wayne State University in collaboration with La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology (LJAI) are developing a T-cell peptide-based vaccine for cardiovascular disease, specifically, to reduce immune-based inflammatory plaques in arteries.  The scientists published their findings in the December 2013 issue of Frontiers in Immunology, titled “Atheroprotective vaccination with MCH-II restricted peptides from Apo B-100.”  These experiments show proof of concept for the development of an autoantigen-specific vaccine for reducing the amount of atherosclerotic plaques in mice.
The published work was done in the laboratory of Klaus Ley, M.D., a prominent vascular biolist of LIAI based on the discovery by Harley Tse, Ph.D., Professor of immunology and microbiology at Wayne Stae University School of Medicine, and Wayne State’s Cardiovascular Research Institute with Michael Shae, Ph.D., adjunct assistant professor of immunology and microbiology.Shaw and Tse are the first to demonstrate that two T-cell epitopes of the autoantigen apoB100 are deeply involved in the development of the disease. The discovery is reported in J Immunol Clin Res Apr-Jun, 2014; 2: “Identification of two immunogenic T cell epitopes of ApoB100 and their Autoimmune Implications.”

 

Atheroprotective Vaccination with MHC-II Restricted Peptides from ApoB-100.

Tse K, Gonen A, Sidney J, Ouyang H, Witztum JL, Sette A, Tse H, Ley K
Front Immunol. 2013 Dec 27; 4:493.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.3389/fimmu.2013.00493 eCollection 2013.

BACKGROUND:  Subsets of CD4(+) T-cells have been proposed to serve differential roles in the development of atherosclerosis. Some T-cell types are atherogenic (T-helper type 1), while others are thought to be protective (regulatory T-cells). Lineage commitment toward one type of helper T-cell versus another is strongly influenced by the inflammatory context in which antigens are recognized. Immunization of atherosclerosis-prone mice with low-density lipoprotein (LDL) or its oxidized derivative (ox-LDL) is known to be atheroprotective. However, the antigen specificity of the T-cells induced by vaccination and the mechanism of protection are not known.

METHODS: Identification of two peptide fragments (ApoB3501-3516 and ApoB978-993) from murine ApoB-100 was facilitated using I-Ab prediction models, and their binding to I-Ab determined. Utilizing a vaccination scheme based on complete and incomplete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA and IFA) [1 × CFA + 4 × IFA], we immunized Apoe(-/-)mice with ApoB3501-3516 or ApoB978-993 emulsified in CFA once and subsequently boosted in IFA four times over 15 weeks. Spleens, lymph nodes, and aortas were harvested and evaluated by flow cytometry and real time RT-PCR. Total atherosclerotic plaque burden was determined by aortic pinning and by aortic root histology.

RESULTS:  Mice immunized with ApoB3501-3516 or ApoB978-993 demonstrated 40% reduction in overall plaque burden when compared to adjuvant-only control mice. Aortic root frozen sections from ApoB3501-3516 immunized mice showed a >60% reduction in aortic sinus plaque development. Aortas from both ApoB3501-3516 and ApoB978-993 immunized mice contained significantly more mRNA for IL-10. Both antigen-specific IgG1 and IgG2c titers were elevated in ApoB3501-3516 or ApoB978-993 immunized mice, suggesting helper T-cell immune activity after immunization.

CONCLUSION: Our data show that MHC Class II restricted ApoB-100 peptides can be atheroprotective, potentially through a mechanism involving elevated IL-10.

Atherosclerosis is decreased in ApoB3501–3516 and ApoB978–993

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3873602/bin/fimmu-04-00493-g001.jpg

Atherosclerosis is decreased in ApoB3501–3516 and ApoB978–993-treated mice compared to controls. (A) Vaccination schedule: 8-week-old female Apoe−/− mice were immunized once with either PBS or peptide in CFA, then boosted four more times with PBS or peptide in IFA. WD was maintained for 13 weeks. Mice were sacrificed and organs harvested at 23 weeks of age. (B,C) Results of aortic pinning analysis after Sudan IV staining are shown with representative photographs. N = 12–15 in each group, *p < 0.05 when compared to 1× CFA + 4× IFA group. (D) Representative aortic root staining sections after ORO staining, counter-stained with hematoxylin. (E) Plaque area from aortic roots stained from each group. Lesion sizes from 30 to 40 μm distal to start of the aortic valve were averaged per group. N = 5 in each group, *p < 0.05 when compared to 1× CFA + 1× IFA control group.

 

Inhibition of T cell response to native low density lipoprotein reduces atherosclerosis

Andreas Hermansson, DFJ Ketelhuth, D Strodthoff, M Wurm, E. Hansson, et al.
J. Exp. Med. Mar 2015; 207(5): 1081-1093
http://www.jem.org/cgi/doi/10.1084/jem.20092243

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease in which lipoproteins accumulate, eliciting an inflammatory response in the arterial wall. Adaptive immune responses that engage clonally expanded T cell populations contribute to this process, as do innate immune responses that are mounted by macrophages and other cells. Several studies have suggested that components of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles trigger vascular inflammation (Tabas et al., 2007; Hartvigsen et al., 2009).

As a consequence of oxidation, the double bonds of fatty acid residues in phospholipids, cholesteryl esters, and triglycerides are cleaved, thus generating reactive aldehydes and truncated lipids (Esterbauer et al., 1990). Among the latter, modified phospholipids, such as lysophosphatidylcholine and oxidized 1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (ox-PAPC), induce endothelial cells, macrophages, and B1-type B cells to initiate innate immune responses, effecting adhesion molecule expression, chemokine production, and secretion of natural antibodies containing germline IgM sequences (Leitinger et al., 1997; Binder et al., 2004; Gharavi et al., 2007).

Immune responses to oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) are proposed to be important in atherosclerosis. To identify the mechanisms of recognition that govern T cell responses to LDL particles, we generated T cell hybridomas from human ApoB100 transgenic (huB100tg) mice that were immunized with human oxLDL. Surprisingly, none of the hybridomas responded to oxidized LDL, only to native LDL and the purified LDL apolipoprotein ApoB100.

However, sera from immunized mice contained IgG antibodies to oxLDL, suggesting that T cell responses to native ApoB100 help B cells making antibodies to oxLDL. ApoB100 responding CD4+ T cell hybridomas were MHC class II–restricted and expressed a single T cell receptor (TCR) variable (V)  chain, TRBV31, with different V chains. Immunization of huB100tgxLdlr/ mice with a TRBV31-derived peptide induced anti-TRBV31 antibodies that blocked T cell recognition of ApoB100. This treatment significantly reduced atherosclerosis by 65%, with a concomitant reduction of macrophage infiltration and MHC class II expression in lesions. In conclusion, CD4+ T cells recognize epitopes on native ApoB100 protein, this response is associated with a limited set of clonotypic TCRs, and blocking TCR-dependent antigen recognition by these T cells protects against atherosclerosis.

 

Impact of multiple antigenic epitopes from ApoB100, hHSP60 and Chlamydophila pneumoniae on atherosclerotic lesion development in Apobtm2SgyLdlrtm1HerJ mice

Xinjie Lu, Min Xia, V Endresz, I Faludi, A Szabo, et al.
Atherosclerosis Nov 2012; 225(1): 56–68
http://www.sciencedirect.com.scopeesprx.elsevier.com/science/article/pii/S0021915012004935
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2012.07.021

Highlights

► We produced 5 constructs using dendroaspin as a scaffold for immunization study. ► All constructs have the effect on lesion reduction. ► Modulation in atherosclerosis-related autoimmunity appears by Tregs.

Atherosclerosis is increasingly recognized as a complex chronic inflammatory disease of the arterial walls [1], [2] and [3], as evidenced by the presence of inflammatory cells, activated immune cells and cytokines in lesions, all of which indicate involvement of the immune system. Atherosclerotic plaques are known to contain macrophage-derived foam cells in which macrophages interact with T-cells to produce a wide array of cytokines that can exert both pro- and anti-inflammatory effects.

 

Antibodies against aldehyde-modified ApoB100, a major constituent of low-density lipoprotein, reduce atherosclerosis in mice expressing human ApoB100, suggesting an immunogenic role of ApoB100. Antibodies against epitopes of the human heat shock protein 60 (hHSP60) molecule (hHSP60153–163: AELKKQSKPVT and hHSP60303-312: PGFGDNRKNQ) are present in atherosclerotic patients and share considerable homology with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV)-derived protein (immediate early protein UL122) and Porphyromonas gingivalis microbial HSP60. Sequence homology between microbial HSP60 and hHSP60 has been suggested to result in immunological cross-reactivity, which may play a role in atherogenesis. Titers of Cpn antibodies are not always positively associated with the Cpn organism in atheroma; however, these antibodies might exert cross-reactivity to non-Cpn antigens.

Immunization of mice with a single construct containing multiple epitopes derived from ApoB100, hHSP60 and Cpn was more effective in reducing early atherosclerotic lesions through the induction of a specific Treg-cell response than was the construct containing either mono- or bi-epitopes. This approach offers attractive opportunities for the design of protein-based, multivalent vaccines against atherosclerosis.

 

Immunization with a combination of ApoB and HSP60 epitopes significantly reduces early atherosclerotic lesion in Apobtm2SgyLdlrtm1Her/J mice

Xinjie Lu, Daxin Chen, Valeria Endreszb, Min Xia, Ildiko Faludi, et. al.
Atherosclerosis 212 (2010) 472–480
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2010.06.007

Objective: HSP60 is emerging as an immune-dominant target of autoantibodies in atherosclerosis and recent studies have revealed oxLDL as a key antigen in the development of atherosclerosis. In this study, we assay whether immunizing Apobtm2SgyLdlrtm1Her/J mice with a combination of ApoB and human HSP60 peptides has an additive effect on athero-protection compared to ApoB or HSP60 peptides applied alone by following atherosclerotic lesion development. Methods and results: In this study, 2 weeks after the first immunization, Apobtm2SgyLdlrtm1Her/J mice were placed on a high-fat diet for 8 weeks followed by 2 weeks on a normal diet allowing the mice to adapt to the environment before sacrifice. High levels of ApoB and HSP60 antibodies were detectable in week 2 and week 12 following the first immunization with KLH-conjugated ApoB and HSP60 peptides either individually or in combination. Histological analyses demonstrated that mice immunized with both, ApoB and HSP60 peptides, showed the most significant reduction in atherosclerotic lesions (41.3%; p < 0.001) compared to a reduction of 14.7% (p < 0.05) and 21.1% (p < 0.01) in mice immunized with ApoB or HSP60 peptides, respectively; control mice were immunized with either PBS or adjuvant alone. These results

were further supported by significant differences in the cellular and humoral immune responses between test animals. Conclusions: Immunization with a combination of ApoB and HSP60 peptide antigens significantly reduced early atherosclerotic lesions in the Apobtm2SgyLdlrtm1Her/J mouse model of atherosclerosis. This approach offers promise as a novel strategy for developing anti-atherosclerotic agents.

 

Chlamydophila (Chlamydia) pneumoniae infection promotes vascular smooth muscle cell adhesion and migration through IQ domain GTPase-activating protein 1

Lijun Zhang, Xiankui Li, Lijun Zhang, Beibei Wang, Tengteng Zhang, Jing Ye
Microb Pathogen 2012; 53(5–6): 207–213
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.micpath.2012.07.005

Highlights

► C. pneumoniae infection increases the adhesion of vascular smooth muscle cells. ► C. pneumoniae infection promotes the migration of vascular smooth muscle cells. ► IQGAP1 expression was increased in the infected vascular smooth muscle cells. ► Depletion of IQGAP1 inhibits the infection-induced cell adhesion and migration.

The mechanisms for Chlamydophila (Chlamydia) pneumoniae (C. pneumoniae) infection-induced atherosclerosis are still unclear. Cell adhesion has important roles in vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) migration required in the development of atherosclerosis. However, it is still unknown whether IQ domain GTPase-activating protein 1 (IQGAP1) plays pivotal roles in C. pneumoniae infection-induced the adhesion and migration of rat primary VSMCs. Accordingly, in this study, we demonstrated that rat primary VSMC adhesion (P < 0.001) and migration (P < 0.01) measured by cell adhesion assay and Transwell assay, respectively, were significantly enhanced after C. pneumoniae infection. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed that the mRNA expression levels of IQGAP1 in the infected rat primary VSMCs were found to increase gradually to reach a peak and then decrease gradually to a level similar to the control. We further showed that the increases in rat primary VSMC adhesion to Matrigel (P < 0.001) and migration (P < 0.01) caused by C. pneumoniae infection were markedly inhibited after IQGAP1 knockdown by a pool of four short hairpin RNAs. Taken together, our results suggest that C. pneumoniae infection may promote the adhesion and migration of VSMCs possibly by upregulating the IQGAP1 expression.

 

Rosiglitazone negatively regulates c-Jun N-terminal kinase and toll-like receptor 4 proinflammatory signalling during initiation of experimental aortic aneurysms

Grisha Pirianov, Evelyn Torsney, Franklyn Howe, Gillian W. Cockerill
Atherosclerosis 2012; 225(1): 69–75
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2012.07.034

Highlights

► Rosiglitazone has a marked effect on both aneurysm rupture and development. ► Rosiglitazone modulates inflammation by blocking TLR4/JNK signalling. ► Specific antagonists of JNK and TLR4 may be therapeutic for aneurysms.

Development and rupture of aortic aneurysms (AA) is a complex process involving inflammation, cell death, tissue and matrix remodelling. The thiazolidinediones (TZDs) including Rosiglitazone (RGZ) are a family of drugs which act as agonists of the nuclear peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors and have a broad spectrum of effects on a number of biological processes in the cardiovascular system. In our previous study we have demonstrated that RGZ has a marked effect on both aneurysm rupture and development, however, the precise mechanism of this is unknown.

Methods and results  In the present study, we examined possible targets of RGZ action in the early stages of Angiotensin II-induced AA in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. For this purpose we employed immunoblotting, ELISA and antibody array approaches. We found that RGZ significantly inhibited c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) phosphorylation and down-regulated toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) expression at the site of lesion formation in response to Angiotensin II infusion in the initiation stage (6–72 h) of experimental AA development. Importantly, this effect was also associated with a decrease of CD4 antigen and reduction in production of TLR4/JNK-dependant proinflammatory chemokines MCP-1 and MIP-1α.  Conclusion These data suggest that RGZ can modulate inflammatory processes by blocking TLR4/JNK signalling in initiation stages of AA development.

 

Atheroprotective immunization with malondialdehyde-modified LDL is hapten specific and dependent on advanced MDA adducts: implications for development of an atheroprotective vaccine.

Gonen A, Hansen LF, Turner WW, Montano EN, Que X,…, Hartvigsen K.
J Lipid Res. 2014 Oct;55(10):2137-55.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1194/jlr.M053256.  Epub 2014 Aug 20.

Immunization with homologous malondialdehyde (MDA)-modified LDL (MDA-LDL) leads to atheroprotection in experimental models supporting the concept that a vaccine to oxidation-specific epitopes (OSEs) of oxidized LDL could limit atherogenesis. However, modification of human LDL with OSE to use as an immunogen would be impractical for generalized use. Furthermore, when MDA is used to modify LDL, a wide variety of related MDA adducts are formed, both simple and more complex. To define the relevant epitopes that would reproduce the atheroprotective effects of immunization with MDA-LDL, we sought to determine the responsible immunodominant and atheroprotective adducts. We now demonstrate that fluorescent adducts of MDA involving the condensation of two or more MDA molecules with lysine to form malondialdehyde-acetaldehyde (MAA)-type adducts generate immunodominant epitopes that lead to atheroprotective responses. We further demonstrate that a T helper (Th) 2-biased hapten-specific humoral and cellular response is sufficient, and thus, MAA-modified homologous albumin is an equally effective immunogen. We further show that such Th2-biased humoral responses per se are not atheroprotective if they do not target relevant antigens. These data demonstrate the feasibility of development of a small-molecule immunogen that could stimulate MAA-specific immune responses, which could be used to develop a vaccine approach to retard or prevent atherogenesis.

 

Low density lipoprotein oxidation and atherogenesis: from experimental models to clinical studies.

Napoli C
G Ital Cardiol. 1997 Dec; 27(12):1302-14.

Oxidative modifications of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) (“oxidation hypothesis”) appears to be the pathophysiologic mechanism implicated in early atherogenesis. Oxidized LDL (ox-LDL) may also induce several pro-atherogenic mechanisms, such as the regulation of vascular tone, by interfering with nitric oxide, the stimulation of cytokines and chemotactic factors (MCP-1, M-CSF, VCAM-1, etc.) and transcription factors (AP1 and NFk beta). These phenomena complicate the spectrum of direct and indirect actions of ox-LDL. The immunogenicity of ox-LDL was used to generate monoclonal antibodies against many epitopes of ox-LDL, such as malondialdehyde-lysine (MDA-2) or 4-hydroxynonenal-lysine (NA59). These antibodies showed the occurrence of ox-LDL in vivo. Another issue is the role of the humoral and cellular immune system in atherogenesis, in particular whether the immune response to ox-LDL enhances or reduces early atherogenesis. Moreover, the induction of autoantibodies against ox-LDL and the recognition by “natural” antibodies, and the use of the antigens to screen human sera may serve as a marker of atherosclerosis. In this review, we have stressed the importance of methodologic approach in the assessment of LDL-oxidation and the fact that lipoprotein (a) may also undergo oxidative modifications. Several clinical conditions are associated with increased rate of LDL-oxidation. Recently, we have observed the presence of LDL oxidation-specific epitopes in human fetal aortas. Antioxidants studies in primary prevention of atherosclerosis have produced contradictory results. This may be explained in part by the selection of patients who had advanced lesions and were often smokers. New trails suggest that antioxidants be administered early in children. Lastly, antioxidant studies in the secondary prevention of coronary heart disease (CHAOS, WACS, and HOPE) show clear evidence of the benefits of antioxidants in reducing new cardiovascular events.

 

Summary:

Atheroprotective Vaccine

Tech ID: 19640 / UC Case 2006-250-0
http://www.ucop.edu//ncd/12343.html

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease and immunological mechanisms are of central importance. It is known that oxidized LDL and its oxidized moieties were a major class of immunodominant epitopes within the atherosclerotic plaque. Oxidation of LDL leads to the generation of a variety of oxidized lipids and oxidized lipid-apo-B adducts.

Technology Description

UC San Deigo researchers proposed that an immunization strategy could be used to inhibit the progression of atherosclerosis by showing that immunization of rabbits and/or mice (and ultimately humans) with MDA-LDL could inhibit atherosclerosis. To develop a safe vaccine for human use would require the identification of the specific immunogenic oxidation-specific epitope(s) that provides the atheroprotective immunity. Until now, the mechanism of the protection, that is, the immunodominant epitope(s) has not yet been determined.

UC San Diego researchers have been able to identify a small group of MDA-derived adducts which are immunodominant and atheroprotective in mice following immunization. The invention described here has the potential to provide an antigen to formulate a wholly synthetic vaccine to inhibit  the development of atherosclerosis in man. Furthermore, in vivo levels of the adducts, and the autoantibodies recognizing them, may be used as diagnostic tools in patients with cardiovascular and other inflammatory diseases.

State Of Development

Mice have been immunized with the adducts resulting in atheroprotection. Techniques are currently being developed for a totally synthetic immunogen suitable for human clinical studies. Assays are also being developed.

Intellectual Property Info

A patent application has been filed on this technology.

Read Full Post »

Advances in Gene Editing Technology: New Gene Therapy Options in Personalized Medicine

Curators: Stephen J Williams, PhD and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Recent Advances in Gene Editing Technology Adds New Therapeutic Potential for the Genomic Era

Author and Curator: Stephen J Williams, PhD

2.1.3.2

2.1.3.2   Advances in Gene Editing Technology: New Gene Therapy Options in Personalized Medicine, Volume 2 (Volume Two: Latest in Genomics Methodologies for Therapeutics: Gene Editing, NGS and BioInformatics, Simulations and the Genome Ontology), Part 2: CRISPR for Gene Editing and DNA Repair

The fundamental shift presently occurring within the medical field as well as our understanding of underlying biology has been brought on by revolutionary advances in the disciplines referred to as ‘OMICS’ (genomics, metabolomics, transcriptomics, proteomics). This paradigm shift has brought a new, more “personalized” mindset in investigating, treating, detecting, and policy-decision making disease as well as the physician-patient relationship. This Volume One of Genomics explains this paradigm shift as our classical understanding of the gene has evolved with rapid development of molecular technologies and high-end computational methods to a vision beyond the classic model. This new model involves big data to focus of the “code of OMIC signature”, moving from our investigational focus of “one gene at a time” to analysis of the changes in the networks of protein and gene expression occurring during disease progression.

Moving toward this promise of genome-based therapeutics has required the concomitant development of methodologies unavailable to the researcher and drug developer for most of the 20th century. These new technologies have allowed for the sequencing of the whole genome (advanced and inexpensive pyrosequencing), analyze the proteome for changes in post-translational modifications (new mass spectroscopy techniques combined with automated high-throughput gel electrophoresis on robotic platforms), ability to track all the changes happening to a patient’s metabolic profile (LC-MS in combination with an array of biocurated database functions), and develop new therapeutics based on discrete disease-specific changes in protein, enzyme, and DNA/RNA (mutational analysis, and advanced molecular techniques to allow for manipulation of DNA/RNA such as gene editing and therapeutic vectors) all advancements being dependent on the massive advancements in computing power and software development.

Although this final chapter on a specific technology (Cas9-mediated gene editing) might seem out of place to the reader for the subject of this Genomics volume, as discussed above, the development of these omics-related technologies have spurred the advent of personalized therapies. For example, in the 1990’s (as highlighted in the earlier chapters of this book) Dr. Craig Venter founded Celera Genomics with the goals of 1) sequencing the human genome in a cost effective manner (using new DNA sequencing technology and workflow he and colleagues had developed, and 2) use the information from whole genome sequencing to develop a new line of genomic-based therapeutics. Other companies such as Human Genome Sciences, Myriad Genetics, Seattle Genetics and recently new ventures from 23andMe and Google Ventures were also founded based on the promise that high-end sequencing information could directly lead to this new era of genome-based therapeutics. And although many in the medical field have felt that the primary goal of these companies, in particular using genomic analysis to enhance drug development has been a bit disappointing, AS IN ALL SCIENTIFIC AND MEDICAL DISCOVERY, which involves both SERENDIPITY and INDIRECT HAPPENSTANCE, three important breakthroughs, directly related to the development of a post-genomics era personalized medicine approach, resulted from the aforementioned efforts. These were:

  • The detection of disease-specific mutations in exomes resulting in “druggable” protein targets and ability to define the respective drug-responsive patient cohorts

Chronic myelogenous (or myeloid or myelocytic) leukemia (CML) was one of the first cancers attributed to a specific chromosomal aberration, namely the translocation event resulting in a fusion protein between part of the BCR (“breakpoint cluster region”) gene from chromosome 22 with the ABL gene on chromosome 9. Early drug development efforts were directed against the tyrosine kinase activity of the aberrant BCR/ABL protein. The first of this new class of drugs was imatinib mesylate (Gleevec™) showed early success but was later noticed that a subset of patients had significantly greater response rates. This led to more detailed investigation of Gleevec’s mechanism of action and was determined that Gleevec’s therapeutic action depended on the drug’s ability to bind to an ATP binding pocket within the BCR/ABL. Patients with a specific mutation in this ATP pocket (C944T and T1052C) were found resistant to Gleevec. This finding, that pateint’s DNA could be sequenced to stratify them in responder versus nonresponder groups became a cornerstone for tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) development for various cancers. One example is the development of crizotanib, a TKI directed against a mutant version of the anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) enzyme, namely in patients carrying the ALK-EML4 fusion gene. As with Gleevec, certain mutations in the ATP binding pocket confer resistance to the inhibitory effects of crizotanib. Therefore, the Whole Exome Sequencing (WES) has shown its utility not only in drug development against cancer-specific mutant targets but stratifies patient cohorts into eligible versus non-eligible for a specific personalized therapy.

  • Ability to define at-risk populations based on genomic data and development of corresponding genetic risk assessment for disease

Tremendous advances have been made in the area of risk-assessment for a plethora of diseases, including various malignancies, heart disease, and metabolic diseases. These risk factors have been identified given our advances in whole genome sequencing and proteomic and metabolomics. And, although the aforementioned companies had not developed therapeutic agents using these technologies, their major contribution has been the development of the diagnostic tests which identify at-risk patients and susceptible populations for a given disease. For example, the development of tests for carriers of the BRCA1/BRAC2 breast/ovarian cancer susceptibility mutation or APC (for colon cancer) has led to the appearance of Family Risk Assessment Programs and radically changed the discourse between patient and physician. And although determining risk factors to a disease such as cardiac disease in a large population can be fraught with complexities, the advanced research tools together with gene-directed technologies discussed in this Volume and current chapter may give better clarity in this regard. In essence, the technology had been developed well before its use in the clinic had been identified.

  • Supplying and verifying linkages of specific genetic alterations to heritable diseases and offering a framework for future advances in gene-replacement and mutation-correction therapy

Our abilities to phenotypically correct inheritable diseases thru a gene-therapy (either by gene replacement or correction of mutated genes) have been hampered by three main areas. First identifying the specific mutations for a given inheritable disease used to be an arduous time-consuming process (linkage analysis), especially in small affected populations. However as whole exome sequencing rapidly evolved this had no longer become a rate-limiting step toward the development of a gene-directed therapy. Second and more troubling was determining a process which could deliver therapeutic genes in a safe, reliable and persistent manner. The first attempts at gene-therapy, relying on DNA virus and retroviral based delivery met with disaster and set back the field of gene therapy for decades (this story is too long for an introduction but for reference see the link.)   Recently there have been improvements in therapeutic gene-therapy delivery systems such as the use of conditionally replicative adenovirus (cRADs) and novel serotype AAV (Recombinant adeno-associated virus, a nonpathogenic single stranded DNA human parvovirus) which have greatly improved safety and therapeutic profiles). The third issue, directly related to this chapter on Cas9-mediatied DNA editing) is the ability to integrate therapeutic DNA into the genome in a safe manner or correct mutations in their proper place. It is well established that the random integration of pieces of DNA has spurious effects on gene expression or contribute to transformation by an insertional mutagenesis mechanism.

This chapter will discuss how CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing is being used in ex vivo strategies, namely to insert T-cell specific genes, in definable and safe loci, for the development of the new CAR-T cancer immuno-based therapies.   In addition CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing has much hope and promise for correcting specific mutations related to inheritable diseases, although investigations are at an infantile yet rapidly expanding area. As discussed above, new technologies have preceded their clinical use, mostly in a serendipitous and advantageous manner. Therefore it is a natural progression, using the concepts and curations in previous chapters, to investigate how a new technology, such as CRISPR/Cas9 medicated gene editing will fit into the ‘OMICS era of medicine.

Introduction   

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

This document is a review and of the brilliant accomplishment of the Doudna Laboratory at University of California, Berkeley. It also traces the developments leading up to this groundbreaking work. The principle investigator is a young woman of significant accomplishments with the astounding publication of 4 papers at this time in 2015 and 20 in 2014. She
is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, and recipient of the Breakthrough Prize and the Lurie Prize in Biomedical Sciences, R. B. Woodward Visiting Professor, Harvard University (2000-2001). She achieved the Henry Ford II Professor of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Center for Structural Biology, Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University (1994-2002) nine years after completion of her B.A. at Pomona College, and her Ph.D. under Jack Stozak at Harvard in 1989, became a Searle Scholar in 1996, and a Howard Hughes Investigator in 1997.

Her work has encompassed the editing of genes using the CRISPR-Cas9 system, and her team replaced a gene in a human cell which was convincing replicated in the Broad Laboratory at Harvard. The laboratory is currently working on the just reported immunological implications for CRISPR-Cas9 with respect to editing prokaryotic CRISPR-Cas genomic loci that encode RNA-mediated adaptive immune systems that bear some functional similarities with eukaryotic RNA interference. This is because acquired and heritable immunity against bacteriophage and plasmids begins with integration of ∼30 base pair foreign DNA sequences into the host genome.

Of special note are the following applications:

21.4.2 CRISPR: Applications for Autoimmune Diseases @UCSF

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

21.4.3 In vivo validated mRNAs

http://www.appliedstemcell.com/products/knock-in-cell-lines/in-vivo-crispr/

Doudna’s Interview from the National Academy of Science in 2004

Doudna discusses her current work with signal recognition particles, a type of RNA that is found in virtually all cell types and is responsible for directing specific proteins to specific membranes. She also discusses how advances in genomic sequencing may help catalog the complete range of functional RNA molecules. (9 minutes)

SOURCE

http://www.nasonline.org/news-and-multimedia/podcasts/interviews/jennifer-doudna.html

The Doudna lab pursues mechanistic understanding of fundamental biological processes involving RNA molecules. Research in the lab is currently focused on three major areas:

  1. bacterial immunity via the CRISPR system,
  2. RNA interference in eukaryotes, and
  3. translational control logic.

http://rna.berkeley.edu/crispr.html

http://rna.berkeley.edu/rnai.html

Different subunits are colored with invader RNAs in the background. Art by Gerard W.M. Staals

http://rna.berkeley.edu/translation.html

Alu-element regulated miRNA interactions

The Voice of Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

 

Big Pharma, CRISPR and Cancer

In January, the pharmaceutical giant Novartis announced that it would be using Doudna’s CRISPR technology for its research into cancer treatments. It plans to edit the genes of immune cells so that they will attack tumors.

https://www.quantamagazine.org/20150206-crispr-dna-editor-bacteria/#ixzz3UaJdJh5t

Evolution of the Discovery

http://www.businessinsider.com/the-biggest-biotech-discovery-of-the-century-is-about-to-change-medicine-forever-2015-2?IR=T

  • In January 2013, the scientists went one step further: They cut out a particular piece of DNA in human cells and replaced it with another one.
  • In the same month, separate teams of scientists at Harvard University and the Broad Institute reported similar success with the gene-editing tool.

https://www.quantamagazine.org/20150206-crispr-dna-editor-bacteria/#ixzz3UaOF9xi4

  • At Editas, a company based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, scientists have been investigating the Cas9 enzyme made by another species of bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes

https://www.quantamagazine.org/20150206-crispr-dna-editor-bacteria/#ixzz3UaMPy9Yw

International regulatory landscape and integration of corrective genome editing into in vitro fertilization, Motoko Araki and Tetsuya Ishii*

http://www.rbej.com/content/12/1/108

The Human Germ Line

Don’t edit the human germ line

Nature, 12 March 2015

Heritable human genetic modifications pose serious risks, and the therapeutic benefits are tenuous, warn Edward Lanphier, Fyodor Urnov and colleagues.

The CRISPR technique has dramatically expanded research on genome editing. But we cannot imagine a situation in which its use in human embryos would offer a therapeutic benefit over existing and developing methods. It would be difficult to control exactly how many cells are modified. Increasing the dose of nuclease used would increase the likelihood that the mutated gene will be corrected, but also raise the risk of cuts being made elsewhere in the genome.

http://www.nature.com/news/don-t-edit-the-human-germ-line-1.17111

Engineering the Perfect Baby

By Antonio Regalado on March 5, 2015
http://www.technologyreview.com/featuredstory/535661/engineering-the-perfect-baby/

Industry Body Calls for Gene-Editing Moratorium

Doudna’s Interview from the National Academy of Science in 2004

Track 6: Future Directions (follow link to track 6; requires RealPlayer)
Doudna discusses her current work with signal recognition particles, a type of RNA that is found in virtually all cell types and is responsible for directing specific proteins to specific membranes. She also discusses how advances in genomic sequencing may help catalog the complete range of functional RNA molecules. (9 minutes)

SOURCE

http://www.nasonline.org/news-and-multimedia/podcasts/interviews/jennifer-doudna.html

VIEW VIDEOS on Gene Editing

https://www.physicsforums.com/threads/breakthrough-prize-genome-editing-with-crispr-cas9.798959/

https://www.quantamagazine.org/20150206-crispr-dna-editor-bacteria/

RNA-guided, site-specific DNA cleavage tool, CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats), and the CRISPR-associated (Cas)9 system has been developed from the Streptococcus pyogenes type II CRISPR adaptive immune system.

The Structural Biology of CRISPR-Cas Systems

Curr Opin Struct Biol. 2015 Feb 24;30C:100-111

Authors: Jiang F, Doudna JA

Abstract
Prokaryotic CRISPR-Cas genomic loci encode RNA-mediated adaptive immune systems that bear some functional similarities with eukaryotic RNA interference. Acquired and heritable immunity against bacteriophage and plasmids begins with integration of ∼30 base pair foreign DNA sequences into the host genome. CRISPR-derived transcripts assemble with CRISPR-associated (Cas) proteins to target complementary nucleic acids for degradation. Here we review recent advances in the structural biology of these targeting complexes, with a focus on structural studies of the multisubunit Type I CRISPR RNA-guided surveillance and the Cas9 DNA endonuclease found in Type II CRISPR-Cas systems. These complexes have distinct structures that are each capable of site-specific double-stranded DNA binding and local helix unwinding.

PMID: 25723899 [PubMed – as supplied by publisher]

SOURCE

feed://eutils.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/erss.cgi?rss_guid=1T1hTO9Bp3LXOpYicP1VJ2xtLRuwKXiCBHyYsbxh719dOd_gXi

About CRISPR

“This technology will revolutionize biology in the same way PCR did,” Rudolf Jaenisch introducing Jennifer Doudna, 6/13/2014 @KI Symposium @MIT.

Top CRISPR Related Publications

http://blog.appliedstemcell.com/top-crispr-related-publications/

What is CRISPR? Why are Cas9-CRISPR services so popular?

http://blog.appliedstemcell.com/what-is-crispr-why-are-cas9-crispr-services-so-popular/ 

Custom Rat Model Generation Service Using CRISPR/Cas9

http://www.appliedstemcell.com/services/animal-models/

Annual Margaret Pittman Lecture, honors the NIH’s first female lab chief, March 11, 2015, 3:00:00 PM by Jennifer Doudna, Ph.D., University of California, Berkeley

Jennifer A. Doudna

Jennifer Doudna

Dr. Jennifer Doudna is a member of the departments of Molecular and Cell Biology and Chemistry atUC Berkeley, the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Lawrence Berkeley National Lab, along with the National Academy of Sciences, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

http://rna.berkeley.edu/people.html

AWARDS for the Discovery

http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Jennifer+Doudna+Awards&gbv=2&sa=X&oi=image_result_group&ei=VDIHVdrFOe7dsATYtoCoCQ&ved=0CD8QsAQ&tbm=isch

Jennifer Doudna, cosmology teams named 2015 Breakthrough Prize winners

Jennifer Doudna, The winner of the 2014 Lurie Prize in the Biomedical Sciences

CRISPR-Cas9 Discovery and Development of Programmable Genome Engineering – Gabbay Award Lectures in Biotechnology and Medicine – Hosted by Rosenstiel Basic Medical Sciences Research Center, 10/27/14 3:30PM Brandeis University, Gerstenzang 121

Doudna was a Searle Scholar and received a 1996 Beckman Young Investigators Award, the 1999 NAS Award for Initiatives in Research and the 2000 Alan T. Waterman Award. She was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 2002 and to the Institute of Medicine in 2010. In 2014, Doudna was awarded the Lurie Prize in Biomedical Sciences from the Foundation for the National Institutes of Health as well as the Dr. Paul Janssen Award for Biomedical Researchand Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences, both shared with Emanuelle Charpentier.

SOURCE

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Doudna

 

21.1 Introducing CRISPR/Cas9 Gene Editing Technology – Works by Jennifer A. Doudna

21.1.1 Ribozymes and RNA Machines – Work of Jennifer A. Doudna Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari Ph.D. RN

21.1.2 Evaluate your Cas9 gene editing vectors: CRISPR/Cas Mediated Genome Engineering – Is your CRISPR gRNA optimized for your cell lines? Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari Ph.D. RN

21.1.3 2:15 – 2:45, 6/13/2014, Jennifer Doudna “The biology of CRISPRs: from genome defense to genetic engineering”

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari Ph.D. RN

21.1.4  Prediction of the Winner RNA Technology, the FRONTIER of SCIENCE on RNA Biology, Cancer and Therapeutics  & The Start Up Landscape in BostonGene Editing – New Technology The Missing link for Gene Therapy?

Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

21.2 CRISPR in Other Labs

21.2.1 CRISPR @MIT – Genome Surgery

Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

21.2.2 The CRISPR-Cas9 System: A Powerful Tool for Genome Engineering and Regulation

Yongmin Yan and Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology & Nutrition, University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer, Houston, USADaoyan Wei*

21.2.3 New Frontiers in Gene Editing: Transitioning From the Lab to the Clinic, February 19-20, 2015 | The InterContinental San Francisco | San Francisco, CA

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari Ph.D. RN

21.2.4 Gene Therapy and the Genetic Study of Disease: @Berkeley and @UCSF – New DNA-editing technology spawns bold UC initiative as Crispr Goes Global

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari Ph.D. RN

21.2.5 CRISPR & MAGE @ George Church’s Lab @ Harvard

Genome Engineering: CRISPR & MAGE 
Multiplex Automated Genome Engineering (MAGE), is an intentionally broad term. In practice, it has come to be associated with a very efficient oligonucleotide allele-replacment (lambda red beta), so far restricted mainly to E.coli. CRISPR, in contrast, works in nearly every organism tested.

Relevant companies: EnEvolvEgenesisEditas.

News:
Editas (NextBigFuture, 28-Nov-2013, Brian Wang)
A Call to Fight Malaria One Mosquito at a Time by Altering DNA (NY Times, 17-Jul-2014, Carl Zimmer)

Resources:
* Vectors: Addgene
* Computational: Center for Causal Consequences of Variation (CCV)

Relevant Lab Publications:
2013 Probing the limits of genetic recoding in essential genes. Science.
2013 Genomically Recoded Organisms Impart New Biological Functions. Science.
2013 CAS9 transcriptional activators for target specificity screening and paired nickases for cooperative genome engineering. Nature Biotech.
2009 Programming cells by multiplex genome engineering and accelerated evolution. Nature.

SOURCE

http://arep.med.harvard.edu/gmc/B2.html

21.3 Patents Awarded and Pending for CRISPR

21.3.1 Litigation on the Way: Broad Institute Gets Patent on Revolutionary Gene-Editing Method

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

21.3.2 The Patents for CRISPR, the DNA editing technology as the Biggest Biotech Discovery of the Century

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

2.4 CRISPR/Cas9 Applications

21.4.1  Inactivation of the human papillomavirus E6 or E7 gene in cervical carcinoma cells using a bacterial CRISPR/Cas 

Kennedy EM1Kornepati AV1Goldstein M2Bogerd HP1Poling BC1Whisnant AW1Kastan MB2Cullen BR3.

21.4.2 CRISPR: Applications for Autoimmune Diseases @UCSF

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

21.4.3 In vivo validated mRNAs

http://www.appliedstemcell.com/products/knock-in-cell-lines/in-vivo-crispr/

Summary

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP 

CRISPR-Cas is a prokaryotic defense system against invading genetic elements. In a collaboration with John van der Oost’s laboratory, we are studying the structure and function of the effector complex of the Type III-A CRISPR-Cas system of Thermus thermophilus: the Csm complex (TtCsm). Recently, we showed that multiple Cas proteins and a crRNA guide assemble to recognize and cleave invader RNAs at multiple sites . Our negative stain EM structure of the TtCsm complex exhibits the characteristic architecture of Type I and Type III CRISPR-associated ribonucleoprotein complexes, suggesting a model for cleavage of the target RNA at periodic intervals (in collaboration with Eva Nogales, UC Berkeley, HHMI).

Double-stranded RNA induces potent and specific gene silencing in a broad range of eukaryotic organisms through a pathway known as RNA interference (RNAi). RNAi begins with the processing of endogenous or introduced precursor RNA into micro-RNAs (miRNAs) and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) 21-25 nucleotides in length by the enzyme Dicer. We previously determined the crystal structure of an intact Dicer enzyme, revealing how Dicer functions as a molecular ruler to measure and cleave duplex RNAs of a specific length. Current work focuses on the mechanism of a complex of proteins known as the RISC loading complex (RLC) which load miRNA into the endonuclease Argonaute. The RLC contains the enzyme Dicer as well as TRBP, an RNA-binding protein hypothesized to interact with miRNA and Dicer during RISC loading. We seek to determine the molecular underpinnings of these interactions, along with the role of TRBP in RISC loading.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) regulate endogenous eukaryotic genes by repressing gene expression through direct base-pairing interactions with their target messenger RNAs (mRNAs). To date, the rules used to predict miRNA-mRNA interactions have been based on one-dimensional sequence analysis. A more complete picture of miRNA-mRNA interactions should take into account the ability of RNA to form two- and three-dimensional structures. We are investigating the role of mRNA structure in the efficiency and specificity of targeting by miRNAs. Specifically, we are investigating the structure of Alu elements found within the 3′ untranslated regions (UTRs) of many human mRNAs and whether these structured domains serve as targets of a subset of human miRNAs. We are using in vitro biochemical methods and cell-based assays to probe the relationship between miRNA binding and mRNA structure.

The 5’ UTR of mRNA is also the site of multiple regulatory mechanisms, including upstream open reading frames (uORFs), internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs), protein binding sites, and stable secondary structures. Genes that profoundly influence cellular state often are controlled by multiple of these regulatory mechanisms. We are attempting to further understand regulatory elements in the 5′ UTR of mammalian mRNA using a combination of in vitro, cell-based and high-throughput techniques.

What does this mean for the development of therapeutics in the near future?

New methods for programming cell phenotype have broadly enabled drug screening, disease modeling, and regenerative medicine. Current research explores genome engineering tools, such as CRISPR/Cas9-based gene regulation and epigenome editing, to more precisely reprogram gene networks and control cellular decision making.

Donald Zack, M.D., Ph.D., Associate Professor of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, is using CRISPR/Cas9 technology to generate retinal cell type-specific reporter ES and iPS lines and to introduce retinal degeneration-associated mutations. These reporter lines can be used to follow retinal neuronal specification during differentiation, they allow the purification of specific cell types by sorting and immunopanning, and they also are useful for the development of drug screening assays.

Jacquin C. Niles, M.D., Ph.D., Associate Professor of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology is using CRISPR-Cas9 technology to study functional genetics in the human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. The team has established strategies for achieving controllable gene expression, and has integrated these into an experimental framework that facilitates efficient interrogation of virtually any target parasite gene using CRISPR/Cas9 editing.

Sidi Chen, Ph.D., Postdoctoral Fellow, Laboratory of Dr. Feng Zhang, Broad Institute and the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology is observing that cancer genomics has revealed hundreds to thousands of mutations associated with human cancer. To test the roles of these mutations, we applied CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing platform to engineer specific mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. This results in tumorigenesis in several internal organs in mice. Our method expedites modeling of multigenic cancer with virtually any combination of mutations.

Samuel Hasson, Ph.D., Principal Investigator, Neuroscience, Pfizer, Inc., observes that while RNAi-based functional genomics is a staple of gene pathway and drug target exploration, there is a need for tools to provide rapid orthogonal validation of gene candidates that emerge from RNAi campaigns. CRISPR, CRISPRi, and CRISPRa are not only developing into primary screening platforms, they are a promising method to compliment RNAi and enhance the quality of functional genomic datasets.

These are some of the developments that will be discussed in detail at an upcoming meeting in Boston, MA in June titled ‘Gene Editing for Drug Discovery’.

 SOURCE

http://rna.berkeley.edu/crispr.html

http://rna.berkeley.edu/rnai.html

http://rna.berkeley.edu/translation.html

 

Doudna Lab Publications

http://rna.berkeley.edu/publications.html

The structural biology of CRISPR-Cas systems.

Jiang F, Doudna JA
Curr Opin Struct Biol 2015 Feb 24;30C:100-111

Rational design of a split-Cas9 enzyme complex.

Wright AV, Sternberg SH, Taylor DW, Staahl BT, Bardales JA, Kornfeld JE, Doudna JA
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015 Feb 23

Genomic Engineering and the Future of Medicine.

Doudna JA
JAMA 2015 Feb 24;313(8):791-792

Integrase-mediated spacer acquisition during CRISPR-Cas adaptive immunity.

Nuñez JK, Lee AS, Engelman A, Doudna JA
Nature 2015 Feb 18

Dicer-TRBP Complex Formation Ensures Accurate Mammalian MicroRNA Biogenesis.

Wilson RC, Tambe A, Kidwell MA, Noland CL, Schneider CP, Doudna JA
Mol Cell 2014 Dec 30

Enhanced homology-directed human genome engineering by controlled timing of CRISPR/Cas9 delivery.

Lin S, Staahl B, Alla RK, Doudna JA
Elife 2014 Dec 15;3

Cutting it close: CRISPR-associated endoribonuclease structure and function.

Hochstrasser ML, Doudna JA
Trends Biochem Sci 2014 Nov 18

RNA Targeting by the Type III-A CRISPR-Cas Csm Complex of Thermus thermophilus.

Staals RH, Zhu Y, Taylor DW, Kornfeld JE, Sharma K, Barendregt A, Koehorst JJ, Vlot M, Neupane N, Varossieau K, Sakamoto K, Suzuki T, Dohmae N, Yokoyama S, Schaap PJ, Urlaub H, Heck AJ, Nogales E, Doudna JA, Shinkai A, van der Oost J
Mol Cell 2014 Nov 20;56(4):518-530

Genome editing. The new frontier of genome engineering with CRISPR-Cas9. (Free Full Text)

Doudna JA, Charpentier E
Science 2014 Nov 28;346(6213):1258096

Preface.

Doudna JA, Sontheimer EJ
Methods Enzymol 2014;546C:xix-xx

New tools provide a second look at HDV ribozyme structure, dynamics and cleavage.

Kapral GJ, Jain S, Noeske J, Doudna JA, Richardson DC, Richardson JS
Nucleic Acids Res 2014 Oct 17

Programmable RNA recognition and cleavage by CRISPR/Cas9.

O’Connell MR, Oakes BL, Sternberg SH, East-Seletsky A, Kaplan M, Doudna JA
Nature 2014 Sep 28

RNA-guided assembly of Rev-RRE nuclear export complexes.

Bai Y, Tambe A, Zhou K, Doudna JA
Elife 2014;3:e03656

Evolutionarily Conserved Roles of the Dicer Helicase Domain in Regulating RNAi Processing.

Kidwell MA, Chan JM, Doudna JA
J Biol Chem 2014 Aug 18

Structure-Guided Reprogramming of Human cGAS Dinucleotide Linkage Specificity.

Kranzusch PJ, Lee AS, Wilson SC, Solovykh MS, Vance RE, Berger JM, Doudna JA
Cell 2014 Aug 12

Insights into RNA structure and function from genome-wide studies.

Mortimer SA, Kidwell MA, Doudna JA
Nat Rev Genet 2014 May 13

Cas1-Cas2 complex formation mediates spacer acquisition during CRISPR-Cas adaptive immunity.

Nuñez JK, Kranzusch PJ, Noeske J, Wright AV, Davies CW, Doudna JA
Nat Struct Mol Biol 2014 May 4

CasA mediates Cas3-catalyzed target degradation during CRISPR RNA-guided interference.

Hochstrasser ML, Taylor DW, Bhat P, Guegler CK, Sternberg SH, Nogales E, Doudna JA
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014 Apr 18

Structures of Cas9 Endonucleases Reveal RNA-Mediated Conformational Activation.

Jinek M, Jiang F, Taylor DW, Sternberg SH, Kaya E, Ma E, Anders C, Hauer M, Zhou K, Lin S, Kaplan M, Iavarone AT, Charpentier E, Nogales E, Doudna JA
Science 2014 Feb 6

DNA interrogation by the CRISPR RNA-guided endonuclease Cas9.

Sternberg SH, Redding S, Jinek M, Greene EC, Doudna JA
Nature 2014 Jan 29

http://rna.berkeley.edu/fun/D-lab%202013/SMALL/crisprconf.jpg

http://www.nasonline.org/news-and-multimedia/podcasts/interviews/jennifer-doudna.html

The Doudna lab pursues mechanistic understanding of fundamental biological processes involving RNA molecules. Research in the lab is currently focused on three major areas:

  1. bacterial immunity via the CRISPR system,
  2. RNA interference in eukaryotes, and
  3. translational control logic.

http://rna.berkeley.edu/crispr.html

http://rna.berkeley.edu/rnai.html

http://rna.berkeley.edu/translation.html

 Other related curation on Gene Editing published as Chapter 21 in 

Genomics Orientations for Individualized Medicine

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/biomed-e-books/genomics-orientations-for-personalized-medicine/volume-one-genomics-orientations-for-personalized-medicine/

  • Advances in Gene Editing Technology: New Gene Therapy Options in Personalized Medicine

Curators: Stephen J Williams, PhD and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

  • Recent Advances in Gene Editing Technology Adds New Therapeutic Potential for the Genomic Era

Author and Curator: Stephen J Williams, PhD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/biomed-e-books/genomics-orientations-for-personalized-medicine/volume-one-genomics-orientations-for-personalized-medicine/

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Protecting Your Biotech IP and Market Strategy: Notes from Life Sciences Collaborative 2015 Meeting

 

Protecting Your Biotech IP and Market Strategy: Notes from Life Sciences Collaborative 2015 Meeting

Reporter: Stephen J. Williams, PhD

Article ID #169: Protecting Your Biotech IP and Market Strategy: Notes from Life Sciences Collaborative 2015 Meeting. Published on 3/11/2015

WordCloud Image Produced by Adam Tubman

Achievement Beyond Regulatory Approval – Design for Commercial Success

philly2nightStephen J. Williams, Ph.D.: Reporter

The Mid-Atlantic group Life Sciences Collaborative, a select group of industry veterans and executives from the pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and medical device sectors whose mission is to increase the success of emerging life sciences businesses in the Mid-Atlantic region through networking, education, training and mentorship, met Tuesday March 3, 2015 at the University of the Sciences in Philadelphia (USP) to discuss post-approval regulatory issues and concerns such as designing strong patent protection, developing strategies for insurance reimbursement, and securing financing for any stage of a business.

The meeting was divided into three panel discussions and keynote speech:

  1. Panel 1: Design for Market Protection– Intellectual Property Strategy Planning
  2. Panel 2: Design for Market Success– Commercial Strategy Planning
  3. Panel 3: Design for Investment– Financing Each Stage
  4. Keynote Speaker: Robert Radie, President & CEO Egalet Corporation

Below are Notes from each PANEL Discussion:

For more information about the Life Sciences Collaborative SEE

Website: http://www.lifesciencescollaborative.org/

Or On Facebook

Or On Twitter @LSCollaborative

Panel 1: Design for Market Protection; Intellectual Property Strategy Planning

Take-home Message: Developing a very strong Intellectual Property (IP) portfolio and strategy for a startup is CRITICALLY IMPORTANT for its long-term success. Potential investors, partners, and acquirers will focus on the strength of a startup’s IP so important to take advantage of the legal services available. Do your DUE DIGILENCE.

Panelists:

John F. Ritter, J.D.., MBA; Director Office Tech. Licensing Princeton University

Cozette McAvoy; Senior Attorney Novartis Oncology Pharma Patents

Ryan O’Donnell; Partner Volpe & Koenig

Panel Moderator: Dipanjan “DJ” Nag, PhD, MBA, CLP, RTTP; President CEO IP Shaktl, LLC

Notes:

Dr. Nag:

  • Sometimes IP can be a double edged sword; e.g. Herbert Boyer with Paul Berg and Stanley Cohen credited with developing recombinant technology but they did not keep the IP strict and opened the door for a biotech revolution (see nice review from Chemical Heritage Foundation).
  • Naked patent licenses are most profitable when try to sell IP

John Ritter: Mr. Ritter gave Princeton University’s perspective on developing and promoting a university-based IP portfolio.

  • 30-40% of Princeton’s IP portfolio is related to life sciences
  • Universities will prefer to seek provisional patent status as a quicker process and allows for publication
  • Princeton will work closely with investigators to walk them through process – Very Important to have support system in place INCLUDING helping investigators and early startups establish a STRONG startup MANAGEMENT TEAM, and making important introductions to and DEVELOPING RELATIONSHIOPS with investors, angels
  • Good to cast a wide net when looking at early development partners like pharma
  • Good example of university which takes active role in developing startups is University of Pennsylvania’s Penn UPstart program.
  • Last 2 years many universities filing patents for startups as a micro-entity

Comment from attendee: Universities are not using enough of their endowments for purpose of startups. Princeton only using $500,00 for accelerator program.

Cozette McAvoy: Mrs. McAvoy talked about monetizing your IP from an industry perspective

  • Industry now is looking at “indirect monetization” of their and others IP portfolio. Indirect monetization refers to unlocking the “indirect value” of intellectual property; for example research tools, processes, which may or may not be related to a tangible product.
  • Good to make a contractual bundle of IP – “days of the $million check is gone”
  • Big companies like big pharma looks to PR (press relation) buzz surrounding new technology, products SO IMPORTANT FOR STARTUP TO FOCUS ON YOUR PR

Ryan O’Donnell: talked about how life science IP has changed especially due to America Invests Act

  • Need to develop a GLOBAL IP strategy so whether drug or device can market in multiple countries
  • Diagnostics and genes not patentable now – Major shift in patent strategy
  • Companies like Unified Patents can protect you against the patent trolls – if patent threatened by patent troll (patent assertion entity) will file a petition with the USPTO (US Patent Office) requesting institution of inter partes review (IPR); this may cost $40,000 BUT WELL WORTH the money – BE PROACTIVE about your patents and IP

Panel 2: Design for Market Success; Commercial Strategy Planning

Take-home Message: Commercial strategy development is defined market facing data, reimbursement strategies and commercial planning that inform labeling requirements, clinical study designs, healthcare economic outcomes and pricing targets. Clarity from payers is extremely important to develop any market strategy. Develop this strategy early and seek advice from payers.

Panelists:

David Blaszczak; Founder, Precipio Health Strategies

Terri Bernacchi, PharmD, MBA; Founder & President Cambria Health Advisory Professionals

Paul Firuta; President US Commercial Operations, NPS Pharma

 

Panel Moderator: Matt Cabrey; Executive Director, Select Greater Philadelphia

 

Notes:

David Blaszczak:

  • Commercial payers are bundling payment: most important to get clarity from these payers
  • Payers are using clinical trials to alter marketing (labeling) so IMPORTANT to BUILD LABEL in early clinical trial phases (phase I or II)
  • When in early phases of small company best now to team or partner with a Medicare or PBM (pharmacy benefit manager) and payers to help develop and spot tier1 and tier 2 companies in their area

Terri Bernacchi:

  • Building relationship with the payer is very important but firms like hers will also look to patients and advocacy groups to see how they respond to a given therapy and decrease the price risk by bundling
  • Value-based contracting with manufacturers can save patient and payer $$
  • As most PBMs formularies are 80% generics goal is how to make money off of generics
  • Patent extension would have greatest impact on price, value

Paul Firuta:

  • NPS Pharma developing a pharmacy benefit program for orphan diseases
  • How you pay depends on mix of Medicare, private payers now
  • Most important change which could affect price is change in compliance regulations

Panel 3: Design for Investment; Financing Each Stage

Take-home Message: VC is a personal relationship so spend time making those relationships. Do your preparation on your value and your market. Look to non-VC avenues: they are out there.

Panelists:

Ting Pau Oei; Managing Director, Easton Capital (NYC)

Manya Deehr; CEO & Founder, Pediva Therapeutics

Sanjoy Dutta, PhD; Assistant VP, Translational Devel. & Intl. Res., Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation

 

Panel Moderator: Shahram Hejazi, PhD; Venture Partner, BioAdvance

  • In 2000 his experience finding 1st capital was what are your assets; now has changed to value

Notes:

Ting Pau Oei:

  • Your very 1st capital is all about VALUE– so plan where you add value
  • Venture Capital is a PERSONAL RELATIONSHIP
  • 1) you need the management team, 2) be able to communicate effectively                  (Powerpoint, elevator pitch, business plan) and #1 and #2 will get you important 2nd Venture Capital meeting; VC’s don’t decide anything in 1st meeting
  • VC’s don’t normally do a good job of premarket valuation or premarket due diligence but know post market valuation well
  • Best advice: show some phase 2 milestones and VC will knock on your door

Manya Deehr:

  • Investment is more niche oriented so find your niche investors
  • Define your product first and then match the investors
  • Biggest failure she has experienced: companies that go out too early looking for capital

Dr. Dutta: funding from a non-profit patient advocacy group perspective

  • Your First Capital: find alliances which can help you get out of “valley of death
  • Develop a targeted product and patient treatment profile
  • Non-profit groups ask three questions:

1) what is the value to patients (non-profits want to partner)

2) what is your timeline (we can wait longer than VC; for example Cystic Fibrosis Foundation waited long time but got great returns for their patients with Kalydeco™)

3) when can we see return

  • Long-term market projections are the knowledge gaps that startups have (the landscape) and startups don’t have all the competitive intelligence
  • Have a plan B every step of the way

Other posts on this site related to Philadelphia Biotech, Startup Funding, Payer Issues, and Intellectual Property Issues include:

PCCI’s 7th Annual Roundtable “Crowdfunding for Life Sciences: A Bridge Over Troubled Waters?” May 12 2014 Embassy Suites Hotel, Chesterbrook PA 6:00-9:30 PM
The Vibrant Philly Biotech Scene: Focus on KannaLife Sciences and the Discipline and Potential of Pharmacognosy
The Vibrant Philly Biotech Scene: Focus on Computer-Aided Drug Design and Gfree Bio, LLC
The Vibrant Philly Biotech Scene: Focus on Vaccines and Philimmune, LLC
The Bioscience Crowdfunding Environment: The Bigger Better VC?
Foundations as a Funding Source
Venture Capital Funding in the Life Sciences: Phase4 Ventures – A Case Study
10 heart-focused apps & devices are crowdfunding for American Heart Association’s open innovation challenge
Funding, Deals & Partnerships
Medicare Panel Punts on Best Tx for Carotid Plaque
9:15AM–2:00PM, January 27, 2015 – Regulatory & Reimbursement Frameworks for Molecular Testing, LIVE @Silicon Valley 2015 Personalized Medicine World Conference, Mountain View, CA
FDA Commissioner, Dr. Margaret A. Hamburg on HealthCare for 310Million Americans and the Role of Personalized Medicine
Biosimilars: Intellectual Property Creation and Protection by Pioneer and by Biosimilar Manufacturers
Litigation on the Way: Broad Institute Gets Patent on Revolutionary Gene-Editing Method
The Patents for CRISPR, the DNA editing technology as the Biggest Biotech Discovery of the Century

 

 

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The Vibrant Philly Biotech Scene: Focus on KannaLife Sciences and the Discipline and Potential of Pharmacognosy

Curator and Interviewer: Stephen J. Williams, Ph.D.

Article ID #167: The Vibrant Philly Biotech Scene: Focus on KannaLife Sciences and the Discipline and Potential of Pharmacognosy. Published on 2/19/2015

WordCloud Image Produced by Adam Tubman

 

philly2nightThis post is the third in a series of posts highlighting interviews with Philadelphia area biotech startup CEO’s and show how a vibrant biotech startup scene is evolving in the city as well as the Delaware Valley area. Philadelphia has been home to some of the nation’s oldest biotechs including Cephalon, Centocor, hundreds of spinouts from a multitude of universities as well as home of the first cloned animal (a frog), the first transgenic mouse, and Nobel laureates in the field of molecular biology and genetics. Although some recent disheartening news about the fall in rankings of Philadelphia as a biotech hub and recent remarks by CEO’s of former area companies has dominated the news, biotech incubators like the University City Science Center and Bucks County Biotechnology Center as well as a reinvigorated investment community (like PCCI and MABA) are bringing Philadelphia back. And although much work is needed to bring the Philadelphia area back to its former glory days (including political will at the state level) there are many bright spots such as the innovative young companies as outlined in these posts.

In today’s post, I had the opportunity to talk with both Dr. William Kinney, Chief Scientific Officer and Thoma Kikis, Founder/CMO of KannaLife Sciences based in the Pennsylvania Biotech Center of Bucks County.   KannaLifeSciences, although highlighted in national media reports and Headline news (HLN TV)for their work on cannabis-derived compounds, is a phyto-medical company focused on the discipline surrounding pharmacognosy, the branch of pharmacology dealing with natural drugs and their constituents.

Below is the interview with Dr. Kinney and Mr. Kikis of KannaLife Sciences and Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence (LPBI)

 

PA Biotech Questions answered by Dr. William Kinney, Chief Scientific Officer of KannaLife Sciences

 

 

LPBI: Your parent company   is based in New York. Why did you choose the Bucks County Pennsylvania Biotechnology Center?

 

Dr. Kinney: The Bucks County Pennsylvania Biotechnology Center has several aspects that were attractive to us.  They have a rich talent pool of pharmaceutically trained medicinal chemists, an NIH trained CNS pharmacologist,  a scientific focus on liver disease, and a premier natural product collection.

 

LBPI: The Blumberg Institute and Natural Products Discovery Institute has acquired a massive phytochemical library. How does this resource benefit the present and future plans for KannaLife?

 

Dr. Kinney: KannaLife is actively mining this collection for new sources of neuroprotective agents and is in the process of characterizing the active components of a specific biologically active plant extract.  Jason Clement of the NPDI has taken a lead on these scientific studies and is on our Advisory Board. 

 

LPBI: Was the state of Pennsylvania and local industry groups support KannaLife’s move into the Doylestown incubator?

 

Dr. Kinney: The move was not State influenced by state or industry groups. 

 

LPBI: Has the partnership with Ben Franklin Partners and the Center provided you with investment opportunities?

 

Dr. Kinney: Ben Franklin Partners has not yet been consulted as a source of capital.

 

LPBI: The discipline of pharmacognosy, although over a century old, has relied on individual investigators and mainly academic laboratories to make initial discoveries on medicinal uses of natural products. Although there have been many great successes (taxol, many antibiotics, glycosides, etc.) many big pharmaceutical companies have abandoned this strategy considering it a slow, innefective process. Given the access you have to the chemical library there at Buck County Technology Center, the potential you had identified with cannabanoids in diseases related to oxidative stress, how can KannaLife enhance the efficiency of finding therapeutic and potential preventive uses for natural products?

 

Dr. Kinney: KannaLife has the opportunity to improve upon natural molecules that have shown medically uses, but have limitations related to safety and bioavailability. By applying industry standard medicinal chemistry optimization and assay methods, progress is being made in improving upon nature.  In addition KannaLife has access to one of the most commercially successful natural products scientists and collections in the industry.

 

LPBI: How does the clinical & regulatory experience in the Philadelphia area help a company like Kannalife?

 

Dr. Kinney: Within the region, KannaLife has access to professionals in all areas of drug development either by hiring displaced professionals or partnering with regional contract research organizations.

 

LPBI  You are focusing on an interesting mechanism of action (oxidative stress) and find your direction appealing (find compounds to reverse this, determine relevant disease states {like HCE} then screen these compounds in those disease models {in hippocampal slices}).  As oxidative stress is related to many diseases are you trying to develop your natural products as preventative strategies, even though those type of clinical trials usually require massive numbers of trial participants or are you looking to partner with a larger company to do this?

 

Dr. Kinney: Our strategy is to initially pursue Hepatic Encephalophy (HE) as the lead orphan disease indication and then partner with other organizations to broaden into other areas that would benefit from a neuroprotective agent.  It is expected the HE will be responsive to an acute treatment regimen.   We are pursuing both natural products and new chemical entities for this development path.

 

 

General Questions answered by Thoma Kikis, Founder/CMO of KannaLife Sciences

 

LPBI: How did KannaLife get the patent from the National Institutes of Health?

 

My name is Thoma Kikis I’m the co-founder of KannaLife Sciences. In 2010, my partner Dean Petkanas and I founded KannaLife and we set course applying for the exclusive license of the ‘507 patent held by the US Government Health and Human Services and National Institutes of Health (NIH). We spent close to 2 years working on acquiring an exclusive license from NIH to commercially develop Patent 6,630,507 “Cannabinoids as Antioxidants and Neuroprotectants.” In 2012, we were granted exclusivity from NIH to develop a treatment for a disease called Hepatic Encephalopathy (HE), a brain liver disease that stems from cirrhosis.

 

Cannabinoids are the chemicals that compose the Cannabis plant. There are over 85 known isolated Cannabinoids in Cannabis. The cannabis plant is a repository for chemicals, there are over 400 chemicals in the entire plant. We are currently working on non-psychoactive cannabinoids, cannabidiol being at the forefront.

 

As we started our work on HE and saw promising results in the area of neuroprotection we sought out another license from the NIH on the same patent to treat CTE (Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy), in August of 2014 we were granted the additional license. CTE is a concussion related traumatic brain disease with long term effects mostly suffered by contact sports players including football, hockey, soccer, lacrosse, boxing and active military soldiers.

 

To date we are the only license holders of the US Government held patent on cannabinoids.

 

 

LPBI: How long has this project been going on?

 

We have been working on the overall project since 2010. We first started work on early research for CTE in early-2013.

 

 

LPBI: Tell me about the project. What are the goals?

 

Our focus has always been on treating diseases that effect the Brain. Currently we are looking for solutions in therapeutic agents designed to reduce oxidative stress, and act as immuno-modulators and neuroprotectants.

 

KannaLife has an overall commitment to discover and understand new phytochemicals. This diversification of scientific and commercial interests strongly indicates a balanced and thoughtful approach to our goals of providing standardized, safer and more effective medicines in a socially responsible way.

 

Currently our research has focused on the non-psychoactive cannabidiol (CBD). Exploring the appropriate uses and limitations and improving its safety and Metered Dosing. CBD has a limited therapeutic window and poor bioavailability upon oral dosing, making delivery of a consistent therapeutic dose challenging. We are also developing new CBD-like molecules to overcome these limitations and evaluating new phytochemicals from non-regulated plants.

 

KannaLife’s research is led by experienced pharmaceutically trained professionals; Our Scientific team out of the Pennsylvania Biotechnology Center is led by Dr. William Kinney and Dr. Douglas Brenneman both with decades of experience in pharmaceutical R&D.

 

 

LPBI: How do cannabinoids help neurological damage? -What sort of neurological damage do they help?

 

Cannabinoids and specifically cannabidiol work to relieve oxidative stress, and act as immuno-modulators and neuroprotectants.

 

So far our pre-clinical results show that cannabidiol is a good candidate as a neuroprotectant as the patent attests to. Our current studies have been to protect neuronal cells from toxicity. For HE we have been looking specifically at ammonia and ethanol toxicity.

 

 

– How did it go from treating general neurological damage to treating CTE? Is there any proof yet that cannabinoids can help prevent CTE? What proof?

 

We started examining toxicity first with ammonia and ethanol in HE and then posed the question; If CBD is a neuroprotectant against toxicity then we need to examine what it can do for other toxins. We looked at CTE and the toxin that causes it, tau. We just acquired the license in August from the NIH for CTE and are beginning our pre-clinical work in the area of CTE now with Dr. Ron Tuma and Dr. Sara Jane Ward at Temple University in Philadelphia.

 

 

LPBI: How long until a treatment could be ready? What’s the timeline?

 

We will have research findings in the coming year. We plan on filing an IND (Investigational New Drug application) with the FDA for CBD and our molecules in 2015 for HE and file for CTE once our studies are done.

 

 

LPBI: What other groups are you working with regarding CTE?

 

We are getting good support from former NFL players who want solutions to the problem of concussions and CTE. This is a very frightening topic for many players, especially with the controversy and lawsuits surrounding it. I have personally spoken to several former NFL players, some who have CTE and many are frightened at what the future holds.

 

We enrolled a former player, Marvin Washington. Marvin was an 11 year NFL vet with NY Jets, SF 49ers and won a SuperBowl on the 1998 Denver Broncos. He has been leading the charge on KannaLife’s behalf to raise awareness to the potential solution for CTE.

 

We tried approaching the NFL in 2013 but they didn’t want to meet. I can understand that they don’t want to take a position. But ultimately, they’re going to have to make a decision and look into different research to treat concussions. They have already given the NIH $30 Million for research into football related injuries and we hold a license with the NIH, so we wanted to have a discussion. But currently cannabinoids are part of their substance abuse policy connected to marijuana. Our message to the NFL is that they need to lead the science, not follow it.

 

Can you imagine the NFL’s stance on marijuana treating concussions and CTE? These are topics they don’t want to touch but will have to at some point.

 

LPBI: Thank you both Dr. Kinney and Mr. Kikis.

 

Please look for future posts in this series on the Philly Biotech Scene on this site

Also, if you would like your Philadelphia biotech startup to be highlighted in this series please contact me or

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com at:

sjwilliamspa@comcast.net or @StephenJWillia2  or @pharma_BI.

Our site is read by ~ thousand international readers DAILY and thousands of Twitter followers including venture capital.

 

Other posts on this site in this VIBRANT PHILLY BIOTECH SCENE SERIES OR referring to PHILADELPHIA BIOTECH include:

The Vibrant Philly Biotech Scene: Focus on Computer-Aided Drug Design and Gfree Bio, LLC

RAbD Biotech Presents at 1st Pitch Life Sciences-Philadelphia

The Vibrant Philly Biotech Scene: Focus on Vaccines and Philimmune, LLC

What VCs Think about Your Pitch? Panel Summary of 1st Pitch Life Science Philly

1st Pitch Life Science- Philadelphia- What VCs Really Think of your Pitch

LytPhage Presents at 1st Pitch Life Sciences-Philadelphia

Hastke Inc. Presents at 1st Pitch Life Sciences-Philadelphia

PCCI’s 7th Annual Roundtable “Crowdfunding for Life Sciences: A Bridge Over Troubled Waters?” May 12 2014 Embassy Suites Hotel, Chesterbrook PA 6:00-9:30 PM

Pfizer Cambridge Collaborative Innovation Events: ‘The Role of Innovation Districts in Metropolitan Areas to Drive the Global an | Basecamp Business

Mapping the Universe of Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence: The Model developed by LPBI and the Model of Best Practices LLC

 

 

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Mapping the Universe of Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence: The Model developed by LPBI and the Model of Best Practices LLC

Mapping the Universe of Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence: The Model developed by LPBI and the Model of Best Practices LLC

 

Author and Curator of Model A: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Reporter on Model B: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

 

This article provides the e-Reader with a MAP for navigation through two different Business Models that Co-exist in the EcoSystem of an industry called Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence.

Model A: is represented by Six Ventures of Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence (LPBI), based in Boston, Philadelphia, CT, CA and Israel

Model B: is represented by Best Practices, LLC, headquartered in Chapel Hill, NC, with Offices in NYC and in Mumbai, India.

 

We concluded that the two models are viable, represent fast growth, the models and non-competing and are in full complementarity, thus, expanding the domain and the practice of the industrial sector, aka, Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence.

 

 

Model A:

Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence (LPBI),

Boston, Philadelphia, CT, CA and Israel 

Team members

 

Our Growth Needs: Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence

 

 Our Business Portfolio

VENTURE #1:

e-Publishing: Medicine, HealthCare, Life Sciences, BioMed, Pharmaceutical

  • Open Access Online Scientific Journal

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com Site statistics http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/wp-admin/index.php?page=stats

  • Scoop.it!.com

  1. http://www.scoop.it/t/cardiotoxicity
  2. http://www.scoop.it/t/cardiovascular-and-vascular-imaging
  3. http://www.scoop.it/t/cardiovascular-disease-pharmaco-therapy

VENTURE #2:

1. BioMedical e-Books e-Series: Cardiovascular, Genomics, Cancer, BioMed, Patient Centered Medicine

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/biomed-e-books/

2. on Amazon’s Kindle e-Books List since 6/2013

3. Plans for Volume 1,2,3 – Hardcover

VENTURE #3:

International Scientific Delegations

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/scientific-delegation/

  • Shanghai, May 2015
  • Barcelona, Spain, November 2015
  • Amsterdam, May 2016
  • Geneva, November 2016

 

VENTURE #4:

Funding, Deals & Partnerships

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/joint-ventures/

 

VENTURE #5:

IP Invented HERE!

1.  Development of a NEW Nitric Oxide monitor to Alpha Szenszor Inc. sensor portfolio. A concept for a low cost POC e-nose, capable of real time ppb detection of Cancer The Cancer Team at Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence under the leadership of Dr. Williams

2.  Development of a NEW Nitric Oxide monitor to Alpha Szenszor Inc. sensor portfolio. A concept for Inhaled Nitric Oxide for the Adult HomeCare Market – IP by Dr. Pearlman and Dr. A. Lev-Ari

a.  iknow iNO is i-kNOw – Inhaled Nitric Oxide for the HomeCare Markethttp://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/10/16/iknow-ino-is-i-know-inhaled-nitric-oxide-for-the-homecare-market/

b. electronic Book on Nitric Oxide by Nitric Oxide Team @ Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence (LPBI)

Perspectives on Nitric Oxide in Disease Mechanisms

http://www.amazon.com/dp/B00DINFFY

c. The rationale and use of inhaled NO in Pulmonary Artery Hypertension and Right Sided Heart Failure Larry H. Bernstein 8/20/2012

d. Inhaled Nitric Oxide in Adults: Clinical Trials and Meta Analysis Studies – Recent Findings

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN, 6/2/2013

e. Clinical Indications for Use of Inhaled Nitric Oxide (iNO) in the Adult Patient Market: Clinical Outcomes after Use, Therapy Demand and Cost of Care

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN, 6/3/2013

3.  Cancer Genomics for NEW product development in diagnosis and treatment of Cancer Patients using sensory technology with applications for Radiation Therapy –The Cancer Team at Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence under leadership of TBA

4.  Developing Mitral Valve Disease: MRI Methods and Devices for Percutaneous Mitral Valve Replacement and Mitral Valve Repair Augmentation of Patented Technology using RF – Dr. Pearlman’s IP Non-Hardware Mitral Annuloplasty – Dr. Justin D. Pearlman

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/joint-ventures/valvecure-llc/non-hardware-mitral-annuloplasty-dr-justin-d-pearlman/

5.  Novel Technology using MRI for Vascular Lesions, Tumors, Hyperactive Glands and non-Surgical Cosmetic Reconstruction – Dr. Pearlman’s IP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/biomed-e-books/series-a-e-books-on-cardiovascular-diseases/httppharmaceuticalintelligence-combiomed-e-bookscardiovascular-diseases-causes-risks-and-management/cvd-business-affairs/mitral-valve-disease-mri-methods-and-devices/

 

VENTURE # 6:

PRESS Coverage of Conferences

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/press-coverage/

Model B:

 
Best Practices, LLC, Chapel Hill, NC, Mumbai, India, Branch in New York

 

Best Practices, LLC
6350 Quadrangle Drive, Suite 200,
Chapel HillNC 27517

+1 919-403-0251

SOURCE

http://www.best-in-class.com/sitemap

 

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Development Of Super-Resolved Fluorescence Microscopy

 

Author and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

CSO, Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence

Article ID #153: Development Of Super-Resolved Fluorescence Microscopy. Published on 10/12/2014

WordCloud Image Produced by Adam Tubman

Development Of Super-Resolved Fluorescence Microscopy

 

Part I. Nobel Prize For Chemistry 2014: Eric Betzig, Stefan W. Hell
and William E. Moerner Honored For Development Of Super-
Resolved Fluorescence Microscopy

The 2014 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded on 10/08/2014 to
Eric Betzig, Stefan W. Hell and William E. Moerner for
“the development of super-resolved fluorescence microscopy.”

The invention of the electron microscope by Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska at the
Berlin Technische Hochschule in 1931 finally overcame the barrier to higher
resolution that had been imposed by the limitations of visible light. Since then
resolution has defined the progress of the technology.

The ultimate goal was atomic resolution – the ability to see atoms – but this would
have to be approached incrementally over the course of decades. The earliest microscopes merely proved the concept: electron beams could, indeed, be tamed
to provide visible images of matter. By the late 1930s electron microscopes with theoretical resolutions of 10 nm were being designed and produced, and by 1944
this was further reduced to 2 nm. (The theoretical resolution of a an optical light microscope is 200 nm.)

Increases in the accelerating voltage of the electron beam accounted for much of
the improvement in resolution. But voltage was not everything. Improvements in electron lens technology minimized aberrations and provided a clearer picture,
which also contributed to improved resolution, as did better vacuum systems and brighter electron guns. So increasing the resolution of electron microscopes was a main driving force throughout the instrument’s development.

With nanoscopy, scientists could observe viruses, proteins and molecules there
are smaller than 0.0000002 metres.

Three researchers won the 2014 Nobel Prize in Chemistry on Wednesday,
October 8, for giving microscopes much sharper vision than was thought possible, letting scientists peer into living cells with unprecedented detail to seek the roots
of disease.  It was awarded to U.S. researchers Eric Betzig and William Moerner
and German scientist Stefan Hell. They found ways to use molecules that glow on demand to overcome what was considered a fundamental limitation for optical microscopes.

Hell, 52, of Germany, is the director at the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry and the division head at the German Cancer Research Center in
Heidelberg. He was honored for his work on fluorescence microscopy, a kind
of nano-flashlight where scientists use fluorescent molecules to see parts of a
cell. Later in his career, he developed the STED microscope, which collects light
from “a multitude of small volumes to create a whole.”

Moerner, a 61-year-old professor in chemistry and applied physics at Stanford University in California, is the recipient of the 2008 Wolf Prize in Chemistry, the
2009 Irving Langmuir Award and the 2013 Peter Debye Award. In 1989, he
was the first scientist to be able to measure the light absorption of a single molecule.
This inspired many chemists to begin focusing on single molecules, including Betzig.

Betzig, 54, the group leader at Janelia Farm Research campus at the Howard
Hughes Medical Institute in Virginia, developed new optical imaging tools for
biology. His work involved taking images of the same area multiple times, and illuminating just a few molecules each time. These images were then
superimposed to create a dense super image at the nano level,

The limitation of optical microscopy was thought to have been determined in a calculation published in 1873 that defined the limit of how tiny a detail could be revealed by optical microscopes. Based on experimental evidence and basic principles of physics, Ernst Abbe and Lord Rayleigh defined and formulated
this diffraction-limited resolution in the late 19th century (Abbe, 1873; Rayleigh,
1896
).  However, only cellular structure and objects that were at least 200 to
350 nm apart could be resolved by light microscopy because, the optical resolution
of light microscopy was limited to approximately half of the wavelength of the light used.  Later key innovations—including fluorescence and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM)—made optical microscopy one of the most powerful and
versatile diagnostic tools in modern cell biology. Using highly specific fluorescent labeling techniques such as immunocytochemistry, in situ hybridization, or
fluorescent protein tags, the spatial distribution and dynamics of virtually every subcellular structure, protein, or genomic sequence of interest can be analyzed in chemically fixed or living samples (Conchello and Lichtman, 2005; Giepmans et al., 2006).

The result of their advance is “really a window into the cell which we didn’t have before,” said Catherine Lewis, director of the cell biology and biophysics division
of the National Institute of General Medical Sciences in Bethesda, Maryland.

“You can observe the behavior of individual molecules in living cells in real time.
You can see … molecules moving around inside the cell. You can see them interacting with each other.”

The research of the three men has let scientists study diseases such as
Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s and Huntington’s at a molecular level, the Royal
Swedish Academy of Sciences said.

Part II. Electron microscopy limitations

Manfred Von Ardenne in Berlin produced the earliest scanning-transmission
electron microscope in 1937. At the University of Toronto in Canada, Cecil Hall, James Hillier, and Albert Prebus, working under the direction of Eli Burton,
produced an advanced 1938 Toronto Model electron microscope that would
later become the basis for Radio Corporation of America’s Model B, the first commercial electron microscope in North America. Ruska at Siemens in
Germany produced the first commercial electron microscope in the world in 938.

Starting in 1939, scientists in Japan gathered to decide on the best way to build
an electron microscope. This group evolved into the Japan Electron Optics Laboratory (JEOL) that would eventually produce more models and varieties
of electron microscopes than any other company. Hitachi and Toshiba in Japan
also played a major role in the early development process.

The 1960s through the 1990s produced many innovative instruments and trends.
The introduction of the first commercial scanning electron microscopes (SEMs)
in 1965 opened up a new world of analysis for materials scientists. Ultrahigh
voltage TEM instruments (up to 3 MeV at CEMES-LOE/CNRS in Toulouse,
France, and at Hitachi in Tokyo, Japan), in the 1960s and 1970s gave electrons higher energy to penetrate more deeply into thick samples. The evolution and incorporation of other detectors (electron microprobes, electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), etc.) made the SEM into a true analytical electron
microscope (AEM) beginning in the 1970s. The development of brighter
electron sources, such as the lanthanum hexaboride filament (LAB6) and the
field emission gun in the 1960s, and their commercialization in the 1970s
brought researchers a brighter source of electrons and with it better imaging
and resolution. Tilting specimen stages permitting examination of the specimen
from different angles aided significantly in the determination of crystal structure.
In the late 1980s and throughout the 1990s, the environmental electron
microscopes that allow scientists to examine samples under more natural
conditions of temperature and pressure have dramatically expanded the
types of samples that can be examined.

In medicine, the EM made a unique contribution to diagnostic anatomic
pathology in renal biopsy analysis. However, the small sample had to be
embedded, and in the early days one cut the specimen by breaking glass
for the cutting of the specimen. But even though EM ushered in a new era of molecular pathology, the contribution was limited, despite incremental
improvements.

In the past, the use of microscopes was limited by a physical restriction;
scientists could only see items that were larger than roughly half the
wavelength of light (.2 micrometers)
. However, the groundbreaking work
of the Nobel laureates bypassed the maximum resolution of traditional
microscopes and launched optical microscopy into the nanodimension.

Part III. Super resolution fluorescence microscopy

Bo Huang,1,2 Mark Bates,3 and Xiaowei Zhuang1,2,4
Author information ► Copyright and License information ►
Annu Rev Biochem. 2009; 78: 993–1016.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1146/annurev.biochem.77.061906.092014
PMCID: PMC2835776  NIHMSID: NIHMS179491

Achieving a spatial resolution that is not limited by the diffraction of
light, recent developments of super-resolution fluorescence microscopy
techniques allow the observation of many biological structures not
resolvable in conventional fluorescence microscopy. New advances
in these techniques now give them the ability to image three-dimensional
(3D) structures, measure interactions by multicolor colocalization, and
record dynamic processes in living cells at the nanometer scale. It is
anticipated that super-resolution fluorescence microscopy will become
a widely used tool for cell and tissue imaging to provide previously
unobserved details of biological structures and processes.

Keywords: Sub-diffraction limit, single-molecule, multicolor imaging,
three-dimensional imaging, live cell imaging, single-particle tracking,
photoswitchable probe

Among the various microscopy techniques, fluorescence microscopy is
one of the most widely used because of its two principal advantages:
Specific cellular components may be observed through molecule-specific
labeling, and light microscopy allows the observation of structures inside
a live sample in real time. Compared to other imaging techniques such
as electron microscopy (EM), however, conventional fluorescence
microscopy is limited by relatively low spatial resolution because of the
diffraction of light. This diffraction limit, about 200–300 nm in the lateral
direction and 500–700 nm in the axial direction, is comparable to or larger
than many subcellular structures, leaving them too small to be observed in
detail. In recent years, a number of “super-resolution” fluorescence microscopy techniques have been invented to overcome the diffraction barrier, including techniques that employ nonlinear effects to sharpen the point-spread function
of the microscope, such as stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy
(1, 2), related methods using other reversible saturable optically linear
fluorescence transitions (RESOLFTs) (3), and saturated structured-illumination microscopy (SSIM) (4), as well as techniques that are based on the localization
of individual fluorescent molecules, such as stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM) (5), photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM) (6),
and fluorescence photoactivation localization microscopy (FPALM) (7). These methods have yielded an order of magnitude improvement in spatial resolution
in all three dimensions over conventional light microscopy.

THE RESOLUTION LIMIT IN OPTICAL MICROSCOPY

Microscopes can be used to visualize fine structures in a sample by providing
a magnified image. However, even an arbitrarily high magnification does not
translate into the ability to see infinitely small details. Instead, the resolution
of light microscopy is limited because light is a wave and is subject to diffraction.

The diffraction limit

An optical microscope can be thought of as a lens system that produces a
magnified image of a small object. In this imaging process, light rays from
each point on the object converge to a single point at the image plane. However,
the diffraction of light prevents exact convergence of the rays, causing a sharp
point on the object to blur into a finite-sized spot in the image. The three-
dimensional (3D) intensity distribution of the image of a point object is called
the point spread function (PSF). The size of the PSF determines the resolution
of the microscope: Two points closer than the full width at half-maximum
(FWHM) of the PSF will be difficult to resolve because their images overlap substantially.

The FWHM of the PSF in the lateral directions (the x–y directions perpendicular
to the optical axis) can be approximated as Δxy ≈ 0.61λ / NA, where λ is the wavelength of the light, and NA is the numerical aperture of the objective
defined as NA = n sinα, with n being the refractive index of the medium and
α being the half-cone angle of the focused light produced by the objective.
The axial width of the PSF is about 2–3 times as large as the lateral width
for ordinary high NA objectives. When imaging with visible light (λ ≈ 550 nm),
the commonly used oil immersion objective with NA = 1.40 yields a PSF with
a lateral size of ~200 nm and an axial size of ~500 nm in a refractive index-
matched medium (Figure 1) (8).

Figure 1

The PSF of a common oil immersion objective with NA = 1.40, showing the
focal spot of 550 nm light in a medium with refractive index n = 1.515. The
intensity distribution in the x-z plane of the focus spot is computed numerically.

PFS of oil immersion microscope

PFS of oil immersion microscope

Because the loss of high-frequency spatial information in optical microscopy
results from the diffraction of light when it propagates through a distance larger
than the wavelength of the light (far field), near-field microscopy is one of the
earliest approaches sought to achieve high spatial resolution. By exciting the fluorophores or detecting the signal through the nonpropagating light near the fluorophore, high-resolution information be retained. Near-field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM) acquires an image by scanning a sharp probe tip across
the sample, typically providing a resolution of 20–50 nm (911). Wide-field
imaging has also been recently demonstrated in the near-field regime using
a super lens with negative refractive index (12, 13). However, the short range
of the near-field region (tens of nanometers) compromises the ability of light microscopy to look into a sample, limiting the application of near-field microscopy
to near-surface features only. This limit highlights the need to develop far-field
high-resolution imaging methods.

Among far-field fluorescence microscopy techniques, confocal and multiphoton microscopy are among the most widely used to moderately enhance the spatial resolution (14, 15). By combining a focused laser for excitation and a pinhole for detection, confocal microscopy can, in principle, have a factor of √2 improvement
in the spatial resolution. In multiphoton microscopy, nonlinear absorption processes reduce the effective size of the excitation PSF. However, this gain in the PSF size
is counteracted by the increased wavelength of the excitation light. Thus, instead
of improving the resolution, the main advantage of confocal and multi-photon microscopy over wide-field microscopy is the reduction of out-of-focus fluorescence background, allowing optical sectioning in 3D imaging.

Two techniques, 4Pi and I5M microscopy, approach this ideal situation by using
two opposing objectives for excitation and/or detection (16, 17). By acquiring
multiple images with illumination patterns of different phases and orientations,
a high-resolution image can be reconstructed. Because the illumination pattern
itself is also limited by the diffraction of light, structured illumination microscopy
(SIM) is only capable of doubling the spatial resolution by combining two diffraction-limited sources of information.  The best achievable result using these methods
would be an isotropic PSF with an additional factor of 2 in resolution improvement. This would correspond to ~100-nm image resolution in all three dimensions, as
has been demonstrated by the I5S technique, which combines I5M and SIM (22). Albeit a significant improvement, this resolution is still fundamentally limited by
the diffraction of light.

SUPER RESOLUTION FLUORESCENCE MICROSCOPY BY SPATIALLY PATTERNED EXCITATION

One approach to attain a resolution far beyond the limit of diffraction, i.e., to
realize super-resolution microscopy, is to introduce sub-diffraction-limit features
in the excitation pattern so that small-length-scale information can be read out.
We refer to this approach, including STED, RESOLFT, and SSIM, as super-
resolution microscopy by spatially patterned excitation or the “patterned excitation” approach.

The concept of STED microscopy was first proposed in 1994 (1) and subsequently demonstrated experimentally (2). Simply speaking, it uses a second laser (STED laser) to suppress the fluorescence emission from the fluorophores located off the center of the excitation. This suppression is achieved through stimulated emission: When an excited-state fluorophores encounters a photon that matches the energy difference between the excited and the ground state, it can be brought back to
the ground state through stimulated emission before spontaneous fluorescence emission occurs. This process effectively depletes excited-state fluorophores
capable of fluorescence emission (Figure 2a,b).

Figure 2

The principle of STED microscopy. (a) The process of stimulated emission. A
ground state (S0) fluorophore can absorb a photon from the excitation light and
jump to the excited state (S1).

STED microsopy

STED microsopy

The pattern of the STED laser is typically generated by inserting a phase mask
into the light path to modulate its phase-spatial distribution (Figure 2b). One such phase mask generates a donut-shaped STED pattern in the xy plane (Figure 2c)
and has provided an xy resolution of ~30 nm (24). STED can also be employed
in 4Pi microscopy (STED-4Pi), resulting in an axial resolution of 30–40 nm (25). STED has been applied to biological samples either immuno-stained with
fluorophore labeled antibodies (26) or genetically tagged with fluorescent
proteins (FPs) (27). Dyes with high photostability under STED conditions and
large stimulated emission cross sections in the visible to near infrared (IR) range
are preferred. Atto 532 and Atto 647N are among the most often used dyes for
STED microscopy.

Stimulated emission is not the only mechanism capable of suppressing
undesired fluorescence emission. A more general scheme using saturable
depletion to achieve super resolution has been formalized with the name
RESOLFT microscopy (3). This scheme employs fluorescent probes that
can be reversibly photoswitched between a fluorescent on state and a dark
off state. The off state can be the ground state of a fluorophores as in the
case of STED, the triplet state as in ground-state-depletion microscopy
(28, 29), or the dark state of a reversibly photoswitchable fluorophore (30).  RESOLFT has been demonstrated using a reversibly photoswitchable
fluorescent protein as FP595 which leads to a resolution better than 100 nm
at a depletion laser intensity of 600 W/cm2(30).

The same concept of employing saturable processes can also be applied
to SIM by introducing sub-diffraction-limit spatial features into the excitation
pattern. SSIM has been demonstrated using the saturation of fluorescence
emission, which occurs when a fluorophore is illuminated by a very high
intensity of excitation light (4). Under this strong excitation, it is immediately
pumped to the excited state each time it returns to the ground state. In SSIM,
where the sample is illuminated with a sinusoidal pattern of strong excitation
light, the peaks of the excitation pattern can be clipped by fluorescence
saturation and become flat, whereas fluorescence emission is still absent
from the zero points in the valleys (Figure 3a). These effects add higher order
spatial frequencies to the excitation pattern. Mixing this excitation pattern with
the high-frequency spatial features in the sample can effectively bring the sub-diffraction-limit spatial features into the detection range of the microscopy
(Figure 3b).

Figure 3

The principle of SSIM. (a) The generation of the illumination pattern. A
diffractive grating in the excitation path splits the light into two beams. Their interference after emerging from the objective and reaching the sample creates
a sinusoidal illumination

SSIM

SSIM

Although the image of a single fluorophore, which resembles the PSF, is a
finite-sized spot, the precision of determining the fluorophores position from
its image can be much higher than the diffraction limit, as long as the image
results from multiple photons emitted from the fluorophore. Fitting an image
consisting of N photons can be viewed as N measurements of the fluorophore position, each with an uncertainty determined by the PSF (8), thus leading to
a localization precision approximated by:

Δloc≈ΔN−−√

where Δloc is the localization precision and Δ is the size of the PSF. This
scaling of the localization precision with the photon number allows super-
resolution microscopy with a resolution not limited by the diffraction of light.

High-precision localization of bright light has reached a precision as high
as ~1 Å (33). Taking advantage of single-molecule detection and imaging
(34, 35), nanometer localization precision has been achieved for single
fluorescent molecules (36).

Using fluorescent probes that can switch between a fluorescent and a dark
state, a recent invention overcomes this barrier by separating in the time
domain the otherwise spatially overlapping fluorescent images. In this approach, molecules within a diffraction limited region can be activated at different time
points so that they can be individually imaged, localized, and subsequently deactivated (Figure 4). Massively parallel localization is achieved through
wide-field imaging, so that the coordinates of many fluorophores can be
mapped and a super-resolution images subsequently reconstructed. This
concept has been independently conceived and implemented by three labs,
and it was given the names STORM (5), PALM (6), and FPALM (7), respectively.

Iterating the activation and imaging process allows the locations of many
fluorophores to be mapped and a super-resolution image to be constructed
from these fluorophore locations. In the following, we refer to this approach
as super-resolution microscopy by single-molecule localization.

Figure 4

The principle of stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM), photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM), and fluorescence photo-
activation localization microscopy (FPALM). Different fluorescent probes
marking the sample structure are activated.

STORM

STORM

After capturing the images with a digital camera, the point-spread functions
of the individual molecules are localized with high precision based on the
photon output before the probes spontaneously photo-bleach or switch to
a dark state. The positions of localized molecular centers are indicated with
black crosses. The process is repeated in Figures (c) through (e) until all of
the fluorescent probes are exhausted due to photo-bleaching or because the background fluorescence becomes too high. The final super-resolution image
(Figure (f)) is constructed by plotting the measured positions of the fluorescent probes.
http://microscopyu.com/tutorials/flash/superresolution/storm/index.html

The resolution of this technique is limited by the number of photons detected
per photoactivation event, which varies from several hundred for FPs (6) to
several thousand for cyanine dyes such as Cy5 (5, 46). These numbers
theoretically allow more than an order of magnitude improvement in spatial
resolution according to the √N scaling rule. In practice, a lateral resolution
of ~20 nm has been established experimentally using the photoswitchable
cyanine dyes (5, 46). Super-resolution images of biological samples have
been reported with directly labeled DNA structures and immunostained DNA-
protein complexes in vitro (5) as well as with FPtagged or immunostained
cellular structures (6, 44, 46).

Table 1   Photoswitchable fluorophores used in super resolution
fluorescence microscopy

Photoswitchable fluorophores

Photoswitchable fluorophores

Recent advances in super-resolution fluorescence microscopy
(including the capability for 3D, multicolor, live-cell imaging) enable
new applications in biological samples. These technical advances
were made possible through the development of both imaging optics
and fluorescent probes.

  • 3D imaging using the single-molecule localization approach
  • 3D imaging using the patterned excitation approach
  • Multicolor imaging
  • Multicolor imaging using the patterned excitation approach
  • Multicolor imaging using the single-molecule localization approach
  • Live cell imaging

Fluorescence imaging of a live cell has two requirements: specific labeling
of the cell and a time resolution that is high enough to record relevant
dynamics in the cell.  Many fluorescent proteins and organic dyes, including
cyanine dyes (46) and caged dyes, have been shown switchable in live cells.

Because STED has a much smaller PSF than scanning confocal microscopy,
STED would inherently take more time to scan though the same size of image
field. By increasing the scanning speed and limiting the field of view to a few µm, Westphal and coworkers have observed Brownian motion of a dense suspension
of nanoparticles with an impressive rate of 80 frames per second (fps) using
STED microscopy (63). More recently, they have demonstrated video-rate
(28 fps) imaging of live hippocampal neurons and observed the movement of individual synaptic vesicles with 60–80-nm resolution (64).

Sub-diffraction-limit imaging of focal adhesion proteins in live cells has recently
been demonstrated (65). Photoswitchable fluorescent protein, EosFP, was used
to label the focal adhesion protein paxillin. A time resolution of ~25–60 seconds
per frame was obtained, and during this time interval, approximately 103
fluorophores were activated and localized per square micrometer, providing
an effective resolution of 60–70 nm by the Nyquist criterion (65). More recently, super-resolution imaging has also been demonstrated in live bacteria with photoswitchable enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (EYFP), allowing the
MreB structure in the cell to be traced (66).

The optical resolution

Optical resolution is the intrinsic ability of a given method to resolve a structure
and can be defined as the ability to distinguish two point sources in proximity.
For the patterned excitation approaches, such as STED, SSIM, and RESOLFT,
the optical resolution is represented by the size of the effective PSF. For the
single-molecule localization approach, such as STORM/PALM/FPALM, the
precision of determining the positions of individual fluorescent probes is the
principal measure of optical resolution.

By using a spatially patterned excitation profile, this approach achieves super resolution by generating an effective excitation volume with dimensions far
below the diffraction limit. Taking STED as an example, the sharpness of the
PSF results from the saturation of depletion of excited-state fluorophores in
the region neighboring the zero point of the STED laser (which coincide with
the focal point of the excitation laser). With an increasing STED laser power,
the saturated region expands toward the zero point, but fluorophores at the
zero point are not affected by the STED laser if the zero point is strictly kept
at zero intensity. Therefore, a theoretically unlimited gain in spatial resolution
may be achieved if the zero point in the depletion pattern is ideal.

The single-molecule localization approach achieves super resolution through
high precision localization of individual fluorophores. The number of photons
collected from a fluorophore is a principal factor limiting the localization
precision and hence the resolution of the final image.

Several photoswitchable fluorophores have been reported to give thousands
of photons detected per activation event [e.g., 6000 from Cy5 (46)].With the
PSF fitting procedure and the mechanical stability of the system optimized,
the background signal suppressed, and the nonuniformity of camera pixels
corrected, optical resolution of just a few nanometers could potentially be
achieved, reaching the molecular scale. As in the case of the patterned
excitation approach, the optical resolution here is also unlimited, in principle,
given a sufficient number of photons detected from the fluorescent probes.

Part III. A guide to super-resolution fluorescence microscopy

L Schermelleh1R Heintzmann2,3,4, and H Leonhardt1
JCB Jul 19, 2010 // 190(2): 165-175
The Rockefeller University Press,
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1083/jcb.201002018

Based on experimental evidence and basic principles of physics, Ernst Abbe
and Lord Rayleigh defined and formulated this diffraction-limited resolution in
the late 19th century (Abbe, 1873Rayleigh, 1896). Later key innovations—including fluorescence and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM)—made optical microscopy one of the most powerful and versatile diagnostic
tools in modern cell biology.

The optical resolution defines the physical limit of the smallest structure it
can resolve. When imaging a biological sample, the effective resolution is
also affected by several sample-specific factors, including the labeling density,
probe size, and how well the ultrastructures are preserved during sample
preparation.

The diffraction (Abbe) limit of detection

Resolution is often defined as the largest distance at which the image of
two point-like objects seems to amalgamate. Thus, most resolution criteria
(Rayleigh limit,Sparrow limit, full width at half maximum of the PSF) directly
relate to properties of the PSF. These are useful resolution criteria for visible
observation of specimen, but there are several shortcomings of such a definition
of resolution: (1) Knowing that the image is an image of two particles, these
can in fact be discriminated with the help of a computer down to arbitrary
smaller distances. Determining the positions of two adjacent particles thus
becomes a question of experimental precision and most notably photon statistics
rather than being described by the Rayleigh limit. (2) These limits do not
necessarily correspond well to what level of detail can be seen in images or
real world objects; e.g., the Rayleigh limit is defined as the distance from the
center to the first minimum of the point spread function, which can be made
arbitrarily small with the help of ordinary linear optics (e.g., Toraldo-filters),
albeit at the expense of the side lobes becoming much higher than the central
maximum. (3)

Abbe’s formulation of a resolution limit avoids all of the above shortcomings
at the expense of a less direct interpretation. The process of imaging can be
described by a convolution operation. With the help of a Fourier transformation,
every object (whether periodic or not) can uniquely be described as a sum of
sinusoidal curves with different spatial frequencies (where higher frequencies
represent fine object details and lower frequencies represent coarse details).
The rather complex process of convolution can be greatly simplified by looking
at the equivalent operation in Fourier space: The Fourier-transformed object
just needs to be multiplied with the
Fourier-transformed PSF to yield the Fourier-transformed ideal image (without
the noise). Because the Fourier-transformed PSF now describes how well each
spatial frequency of the Fourier-transformed object gets transferred to appear in the
image, this Fourier-transformed PSF is called the optical transfer function, OTF
(right panel). Its strength at each spatial frequency (e.g., measured in oscillations
per meter) conveniently describes the contrast that a sinusoidal object would
achieve in an image.

Abbe limit

Abbe limit

Interestingly, the detection OTF of a microscope has a fixed frequency
border (Abbe limit frequency, right panel). The maximum-to-maximum
distance Λmin of the corresponding sine curve is commonly referred to
as Abbe’s limit (left panel). In other words: The Abbe limit is the smallest
periodicity in a structure, which can be discriminated in its image. As a
point object contains all spatial frequencies, this Abbe limit sine curve
needs to also be present in the PSF. A standard wide-field microscope
creates an image of a point object (e.g., an emitting molecule) by capturing
the light from that molecule at various places of the objective lens, and
processing it with further lenses to then interfere at the image plane.
Conveniently due to the reciprocity principle in optics, the Abbe limit Λmin
along an in-plane direction in fluorescence imaging corresponds to the
maximum-to-maximum distance of the intensity structure one would get by
interfering two waves at extreme angles captured by the objective lens:
where λ/n is the wavelength of light in the medium of refractive index n.
The term NA = n sin(α) conveniently combines the half opening angle α
of the objective and the refractive index n of the embedding medium.

Abbe’s famous resolution limit is so attractive because it simply depends
on the maximal relative angle between different waves leaving the
object and being captured by the objective lens to be sent to the image.
It describes the smallest level of detail that can possibly be imaged with
this PSF “brush”. No periodic object detail smaller than this shortest
wavelength can possibly be transferred to the image.

Confocal laser scanning microscopy employs a redesigned optical
path and specialized hardware. A tightly focused spot of laser light is
used to scan the sample and a small aperture (or pinhole) in the
confocal image plane of the light path allows only light originating
from the nominal focus to pass (Cremer and Cremer, 1978Sheppard
and Wilson, 1981
Brakenhoff et al., 1985). The emitted light is
detected by a photomultiplier tube (PMT) or an avalanche photodiode
(APD) and the image is then constructed by mapping the detected
light in dependence of the position of the scanning spot. CLSM can
achieve a better resolution than wide-field fluorescence microscopy
but, to obtain a significant practical advantage, the pinhole needs to
be closed to an extent where most of the light is discarded
(Heintzmann et al., 2003).

Wide-field deconvolution and CLSM have long been the gold standards
in optical bioimaging, but we are now witnessing a revolution in light
microscopy that will fundamentally expand our perception of the cell.
Recently, several new technologies,collectively termed super-resolution
microscopy or nanoscopy, have been developed that break or bypass
the classical diffraction limit and shift the optical resolution down to
macromolecular or even molecular levels (Table I).

Super-resolution light microscopy methods

super resolution microscopy

super resolution microscopy

http://zeiss-campus.magnet.fsu.edu/articles/superresolution/introduction.html

Conceptually, one can discern near-field from far-field methods and
whether the subdiffraction resolution is based on a linear or nonlinear
response of the sample to its locally illuminating (exciting or depleting) irradiance. The required nonlinearity is currently achieved by using reversible saturable optical fluorescence transitions (RESOLFT) between molecular states (Hofmann et al., 2005Hell, 2007).

Besides these saturable optical fluorescence transitions also other
approaches, e.g., Rabi oscillations, could be used to generate the
required nonlinear response.

Note that each of the novel imaging modes has its individual signal-
to-noise consideration depending on various factors.  A full
discussion of this issue is beyond the scope of this review, but as a
general rule, single-point scanning systems, albeit fundamentally limited
in speed by fluorescence saturation effects, can have better signal-
to-noise performance for thicker samples.

With three-dimensional SIM (3D-SIM), an additional twofold increase
in the axial resolution can be achieved by generating an excitation
light modulation along the z-axis using three-beam interference
(Gustafsson et al., 2008Schermelleh et al.,2008) and processing a
z-stack of images accordingly. Thus, with 3D-SIM an approximately eightfold smaller volume can be resolved in comparison to conventional microscopy (Fig. 2). To computationally reconstruct a three-dimensional dataset of a typical mammalian cell of 8-µm height with a
z-spacing of 125 nm, roughly 1,000 raw images (512 × 512 pixels) are
recorded. Because no special photophysics is needed, virtually all modern fluorescent labels can be used provided they are sufficiently photostable
to accommodate the additional exposure cycles.

Resolvable volumes obtained with current commercial super-resolution microscopes.

A schematic 3D representation of focal volumes is shown for the indicated
emission maxima. The approximate lateral (x,y) and axial (z) resolution
and resolvable volumes are listed. Note that STED/CW-STED and 3D-SIM
can reach up to 20 µm into the sample, whereas PALM/STORM is usually
confined to the evanescent wave field near the sample bottom. It should be
noted that deconvolution approaches can further improve STED resolution.
For comparison the “focal volume” for PALM/STORM was estimated based
on the localization precision in combination with the z-range of TIRF.

Resolvable volumes obtained

Resolvable volumes obtained

Super-resolution microscopy of biological samples.

(A) Conventional wide-field image (left) and 3D-SIM image of a mouse
C2C12 prometaphase cell stained with primary antibodies against
lamin B and tubulin, and secondary antibodies conjugated to Alexa 488
(green) and Alexa 594 (red), respectively. Nuclear chromatin was stained
with DAPI (blue). 3D image stacks were acquired with a DeltaVision OMX
prototype system (Applied Precision). The bottom panel shows the
respective orthogonal cross sections. (B) HeLa cell stained with primary
antibodies against the nuclear pore complex protein Nup153 and
secondary antibodies conjugated with ATTO647N. The image was
acquired with a TCS STED confocal microscope (Leica). (C) TdEosFP-
paxillin expressed in a Hep G2 cell to label adhesion complexes at
the lower surface. The image was acquired on an ELYRA P.1
prototype system (Carl Zeiss, Inc.) using TIRF illumination. Single
molecule positional information was projected from 10,000 frames
recorded at 30 frames per second. On the left, signals were summed
up to generate a TIRF image with conventional wide-field lateral
resolution. Bars: 5 µm (insets, 0.5 µm).

biological images

biological images

APPLICATIONS IN BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

The cytoskeleton of mammalian cells, especially microtubules
(Figure 5a) (29444652), is the most commonly used benchmark
structure for super-resolution imaging. Other cytoskeletal structures
imaged so far include actin filaments in the lamellipodium (6),
keratin intermediate filaments (59), neurofilaments (2683) and
MreB in Caulobacter (66).

Figure 5

cytoskeleton. f5.

cytoskeleton. f5.

Examples of super-resolution images of biological samples.
(a) Two-color STORM imaging of immunostained microtubule (green)
and clathrin-coated pits (red) (From Reference 46. Reprinted with
permission from AAAS).

Organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum (27), lysosome (6),
endocytic and exocytic vesicles (465264), and mitochondria
(65356), have also been imaged. For example, using the single-molecule localization approach, 3D STORM imaging has clearly
resolved the ~150-nm diameter, hemispherical cage shape of clathrin-coated pits (4652), which only appear as diffraction-limited spots
without any feature in conventional fluorescence microscopy (Figure 5a,b).
Two-color 3D STED has resolved the hollow shape of the mitochondrial
outer membrane (marked by the translocase protein Tom20), enclosing
a matrix protein Hsp60 (56), even though the diameter of mitochondria is
only about 300–500 nm (Figure 5c). The outer membrane structure of
mitochondria and their interactions with microtubules have been resolved
by two-color 3D STORM (53). The transport of synaptic vesicles
has been recorded at video rate using 2D STED (Figure 5d ) (64).

Many plasma membrane proteins or membrane associated protein
complexes have also been studied by super-resolution fluorescence
microscopy. For example, synaptotagmin clusters after exocytosis in
primary cultured hippocampal neurons (84), the donut-shaped
clusters of Drosophila protein Bruchpilot at the neuromuscular
synaptic active zone (85), and the size distribution of syntaxin clusters
have all been imaged (8687). Photoactivation has enabled the tracking
of the influenza protein hemagglutinin and the retroviral protein Gag in
live cells, revealing the membrane microdomains (67) and the spatial
heterogeneity of membrane diffusion (68). The morphology and transport
of the focal adhension complex has also been observed using live-cell
PALM (Figure 5e) (65).

Summary points

  1. Super resolution fluorescence microscopy with a spatial resolution not limited by the diffraction of
    light has been implemented using saturated depletion/excitation or single-molecule localization
    of switchable fluorophores.
  2. Three-dimensional imaging with an optical resolution as high as ~20 nm in the lateral direction
    and 40–50 nm in axial dimension has been achieved.
  3. The resolution of these super-resolution fluorescence microscopy techniques can in principle
    reach molecular scale.
  4. In practice, the resolution of the images are not only limited by the intrinsic optical resolution,
    but also by sample specific factors including the labeling density, probe size and sample preservation.
  5. Multicolor super resolution imaging has been implemented, allowing colocalization measurements
    to be performed at nanometer scale resolution and molecular interaction to be more précisely
    identified in cells.
  6. Super-resolution fluorescence imaging allows dynamic processes to be investigated at the tens of
    nanometer resolution in living cells.
  7. Many cellular structures have been imaged at sub-diffraction-limit resolution.

Future issues

  1. Achieving molecular scale resolution (a few nanometers or less).
  2. Fast super resolution imaging of a large view field by multi-point scanning or high-speed single-molecule switching/localization.
  3. Developing new fluorescent probes that are brighter, more photostable and switchable fluorophores
    that have high on-off contrast and fast switching rate.
  4. Developing fluorescent labeling methods that can stain the target with small molecules at high specificity,
    high density and good ultrastructure preservation.
  5. Application of super resolution microscopy to provide novel biological insights

Acronyms

FP

Fluorescent Protein

FPALM

Fluorescence PhotoActivation Localization Microscopy

I5M

Combination of I2M (Illumination Interference Microscopy) and I3M
(Incoherent Imaging Interference Microscopy)

PALM

PhotoActivated Localization Microscopy

PSF

Point Spread Function

RESOLFT

REversible Saturable Optically Linear Fluorescence Transition

SIM

Structured Illumination Microscopy

SSIM

Saturated Structured Illumination Microscopy

STED

STimulated Emission Depletion

STORM

STochastic Optical Reconstruction Microscopy

glossary

Numerical aperture (NA)

The numerical aperture of an objective characterizes the solid angle
of light collected from a point light source at the focus of the objective.

Stimulated emission

The process that an excited state molecule or atom jumps to the
ground state by emitting another photon that is identical to the incoming
photon. It is the basis of laser.

Fluorescence saturation

At high excitation intensity, the fluorescence lifetime instead of the excitation
rate becomes the rate limiting step of fluorescence emission, causing the
fluorescence signal not to increase proportionally with the excitation intensity.

Nyquist criterion

To determine a structure, the sampling interval needs to be no larger than
half of the feature size.

Mitochondria

Organelles in eukaryotic cells for APT generation, consisting of two
membrane (inner and outer) enclosing the inter membrane space and
the matrix inside the inner membrane.

Clathrin-coated pit

Vesicle forming machinery involved in endocytosis and intracellular
vesicle transport, consisting of clathrin coats, adapter proteins, and
other regulatory proteins.

Focal adhesion

The macromolecular complex serving as the mechanical connection
and signaling hub between a cell and the extracellular matrix or other cells.

Selected references with abstract

Near-Field Optics: Microscopy, Spectroscopy, and Surface
Modification Beyond the Diffraction Limit
Eric Betzig,  Jay K. Trautman
AT&T Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill, NJ 07974
Science 10 Jul 1992; 257(5067) pp. 189-195
http://dx.doi.org:/0.1126/science.257.5067.189

 The near-field optical interaction between a sharp probe and a sample
of interest can be exploited to image, spectroscopically probe, or modify
surfaces at a resolution (down to ∼12 nm) inaccessible by traditional far-field
techniques. Many of the attractive features of conventional optics are
retained, including noninvasiveness, reliability, and low cost. In addition, most
optical contrast mechanisms can be extended to the near-field regime,
resulting in a technique of considerable versatility. This versatility
is demonstrated by several examples, such as the imaging of nanometric-scale features in mammalian tissue sections and the creation of ultrasmall,
magneto-optic domains having implications for high density data storage.
Although the technique may find uses in many diverse fields, two of the
most exciting possibilities are localized optical spectroscopy of semiconductors
and the fluorescence imaging of living cells.

Imaging Intracellular Fluorescent Proteins at Nanometer Resolution

 E Betzig1,2,*,†, GH. Patterson3, R Sougrat3, O.W Lindwasser3,
S Olenych4, JS. Bonifacino3, MW. Davidson4, JL Schwartz3, HF. Hess5,*  1 Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Janelia Farm Research Campus,
Ashburn, VA   2 New Millennium Research, LLC, Okemos, MI.   3 Cell Biology and Metabolism Branch, National Institute of Child Health
and Human Development (NICHD), Bethesda, MD.  4 National High
Magnetic Field Laboratory, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL.
5 NuQuest Research, LLC, La Jolla, CA.
Science 15 Sep 2006; 313(5793): pp. 1642-1645
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1126/science.1127344

We introduce a method for optically imaging intracellular proteins at
nanometer spatial resolution. Numerous sparse subsets of photo-activatable fluorescent protein molecules were activated, localized
(to ∼2 to 25 nanometers), and then bleached. The
aggregate position information from all subsets was then assembled
into a super-resolution image. We used this method—termed photo-
activated localization microscopy to image specific target proteins
in thin sections of lysosomes and mitochondria; in fixed whole cells,
we imaged vinculin at focal adhesions, actin within a lamellipodium,
and the distribution of the retroviral protein Gag at the plasma
membrane.

Toward fluorescence nanoscopy.

Hell SW.   Author information 
Nat Biotechnol. 2003 Nov; 21(11):1347-55.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14595362

For more than a century, the resolution of focusing light microscopy
has been limited by diffraction to 180 nm in the focal plane and to
500 nm along the optic axis. Recently, microscopes have been
reported that provide three- to seven-fold improved axial
resolution in live cells. Moreover, a family of concepts has emerged
that overcomes the diffraction barrier altogether. Its first exponent,
stimulated emission depletion microscopy, has so far displayed a
resolution down to 28 nm. Relying on saturated optical transitions,
these concepts are limited only by the attainable saturation level.
As strong saturation should be feasible at low light intensities,
nanoscale imaging with focused light may be closer than ever.
PMID: 14595362

Far-field optical nanoscopy.

Hell SW.  Author information 
Science. 2007 May 25;316(5828):1153-8.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17525330

In 1873, Ernst Abbe discovered what was to become a well-known
paradigm: the inability of a lens-based optical microscope to
discern details that are closer together than half of the wavelength
for its most popular imaging mode, fluorescence microscopy, the
diffraction barrier is crumbling. Here, I discuss the physical concepts
that have pushed fluorescence microscopy to the nanoscale, once
the prerogative of electron and scanning probe microscopes. Initial
applications indicate that emergent far-field optical nanoscopy will
have a strong impact in the life sciences and in other areas benefiting
from nanoscale visualization.
PMID:  17525330

Imaging intracellular fluorescent proteins at nanometer resolution.

Betzig E1, Patterson GHSougrat RLindwasser OWOlenych S,
Bonifacino JSDavidson MWLippincott-Schwartz JHess HF.
Author information
Science. 2006 Sep 15;313(5793):1642-5. Epub 2006 Aug 10
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16902090

We introduce a method for optically imaging intracellular proteins at
nanometer spatial resolution. Numerous sparse subsets of photo-ctivatable fluorescent protein molecules were activated, localized
(to approximately 2 to 25 nanometers), and then bleached. The
aggregate position information from all subsets was then assembled
into a super-resolution image. We used this method–termed photo-activated localization microscopy–to image specific target proteins in
thin sections of lysosomes and mitochondria; in fixed whole cells,
we imaged vinculin at focal adhesions, actin within a lamellipodium,
and the distribution of the retroviral protein Gag at the plasma
membrane.

Comment in

PMID:  16902090  [PubMed – indexed for MEDLINE]

Illuminating single molecules in condensed matter.

Moerner WE1, Orrit M.  Author information 
Science. 1999 Mar 12;283(5408):1670-6.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10073924

Efficient collection and detection of fluorescence coupled with careful
minimization of background from impurities and Raman scattering
now enable routine optical microscopy and study of single molecules
in complex condensed matter environments. This ultimate method
for unraveling ensemble averages leads to the observation of
new effects and to direct measurements of stochastic fluctuations.
Experiments at cryogenic temperatures open new directions in
molecular spectroscopy, quantum optics, and solid-state dynamics.
Room-emperature investigations apply several techniques
(polarization microscopy, single-molecule imaging, emission time
dependence, energy transfer, lifetime studies, and the like) to a
growing array of biophysical problems where new insight may be
gained from direct observations of hidden static and dynamic
inhomogeneity.  PMID: 10073924

Fluorescence microscopy with super-resolved optical sections.

Egner A1, Hell SW.  Author information 
Trends Cell Biol. 2005 Apr;15(4):207-15.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15817377

The fluorescence microscope, especially its confocal variant, has
become a standard tool in cell biology research for delivering
3D-images of intact cells. However, the resolution of any standard
optical microscope is atleast 3 times poorer along the axis of the
lens that in its focal plane. Here, we review principles and applications
of an emerging family of fluorescence microscopes, such as 4Pi
microscopes, which improve axial resolution by a factor of seven by
employing two opposing lenses. Noninvasive axial sections of 80-160 nm
thickness deliver more faithful 3D-images of subcellular features,
providing a new opportunity to significantly enhance our understanding
of cellular structure and function. PMID: 15817377

4Pi-confocal microscopy provides three-dimensional images of the
microtubule network with 100- to 150-nm resolution.

Nagorni M1, Hell SW.  Author information 
J Struct Biol. 1998 Nov;123(3):236-47.

We show the applicability of 4Pi-confocal microscopy to three-dimensional imaging of the microtubule network in a fixed mouse
fibroblast cell.Comparison with two-photon confocal resolution
reveals a fourfold better axial resolution in the 4Pi-confocal case.
By combining 4Pi-confocal microscopy with Richardson-Lucy
image restoration a further resolution increase is achieved.
Featuring a three-dimensional resolution in the range 100-150 nm,
the 4Pi-confocal (restored) images are intrinsically more detailed
than their confocal counterparts. Our images constitute what
to our knowledge are the best-resolved three-dimensional
images of entangled cellular microtubules obtained with light
to date.  PMID: 9878578

Part IV. Super-resolution microscopy

Super-resolution microscopy is a form of light microscopy. Due
to the diffraction of light, the resolution of conventional light
microscopy is limited as stated by Ernst Abbe in 1873.[1]
A good approximation of the resolution attainable is the full
width at half maximum 
 (FWHM) of the point spread function,
and a precise wide-field microscope with high numerical
aperture
 and visible light usually reaches a resolution of ~250 nm.

Super-resolution techniques allow the capture of images with
a higher resolution than the diffraction limit. They fall into
two broad categories,
“true” super-resolution techniques, which capture information
contained in evanescent waves, and “functional” super-
resolution techniques, which use clever experimental
techniques and known limitations on the matter being
imaged to reconstruct a super-resolution image.[2]

True subwavelength imaging techniques include those that
utilize the Pendry Superlens and near field scanning optical
microscopy
, the 4Pi Microscope and structured illumination
microscopy technologies like SIM and SMI. However, the
majority of techniques of importance in biological imaging
fall into the functional category.

Groups of methods for functional super-resolution microscopy:

  1. Deterministic super-resolution: The most commonly used emitters in biological
    microscopy, fluorophores, show a nonlinear response to excitation, and this
    nonlinear response can be exploited to enhance resolution. These
    methods include STEDGSDRESOLFTand SSIM.
  2. Stochastic super-resolution: The chemical complexity of many molecular
    light sources gives them a complex temporal behaviour, which can be used
    to make several close-by fluorophores emit light at separate times and
    thereby become resolvable in time.  These methods include SOFI and all
    single-molecule localization methods (SMLM) such as SPDM,
    SPDMphymodPALM, FPALM, STORM and dSTORM.

Part V. HIV-1

Conformational dynamics of single HIV-1 envelope
trimers on the surface of native virions

James B. Munro1,*,Jason Gorman2Xiaochu Ma1,
Zhou Zhou3James Arthos4,
Dennis R. Burton5,6, et al.
1Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University
School of Medicine, New Haven, CT. 2Vaccine Research
Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious
Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD .
3Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill
Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY .
4Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy
and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda,
MD . 5Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, and
IAVI Neutralizing Antibody Center, The Scripps Research
Institute, La Jolla, CA . 6Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT, and
Harvard, Cambridge, MA. 7International AIDS Vaccine Initiative
(IAVI), New York, NY . 8Department of
Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA.

The HIV-1 envelope (Env) mediates viral entry into host cells.
To enable the direct imaging of conformational dynamics
within Env we introduced fluorophores into variable
regions of the gp120 subunit and measured single-molecule
fluorescence resonance energy transfer (smFRET) within
the context of native trimers on the surface of HIV-1 virions.
Our observations revealed unliganded HIV-1 Env to be
intrinsically dynamic, transitioning between three distinct
pre-fusion conformations, whose relative occupancies
were remodeled by receptor CD4 and antibody binding.
The distinct properties of neutralization-sensitive and
neutralization-resistant HIV-1 isolates support a dynamics-based mechanism of immune evasion and ligand recognition.

Read Full Post »

Mechanisms of Drug Resistance

Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence, CSO

 

Mechanisms of Drug Resistance

This discussion is a continuing discussion of matters of metabolomics and the
essential role of genomic or epigenetic mechanisms to guide the development of
proteomic driven effectors of resistance to drug therapy.
We start with the elucidation of efflux pumps in bacteria, and we conclude with
consideration of cancer cells.

Part 1. Antimicrobial Resistance

Antimicrobial resistance is the ability of microbes, such as bacteria, viruses,
parasites, or
fungi, to grow in the presence of a chemical (drug) that would normally kill it
or limit its growth.

difference between non-resistant bacteria and drug resistant bacteria

difference between non-resistant bacteria and drug resistant bacteria

http://www.niaid.nih.gov/SiteCollectionImages/topics/antimicrobialresistance/1whatIs
DrugResistance.gif

Non-resistant bacteria multiply, and upon drug treatment, the bacteria die. Drug
resistant bacteria multiply as well, but upon drug treatment, the bacteria continue
to spread.

Many infectious diseases are increasingly difficult to treat because of antimicrobial-resistant organisms, including HIV infection, staphylococcal infection, tuberculosis,
influenza, gonorrhea, candida infection, and malaria.

Between 5 and 10 percent of all hospital patients develop an infection. About 90,000
of these patients die each year as a result of their infection, up from 13,300 patient
deaths in 1992.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (April 2011), antibiotic
resistance in the United States costs an estimated $20 billion a year in excess health
care costs. In addition, a cost of $35 million in other societal costs and more than 8
million additional days that people spend in the hospital. This is because people
infected with antimicrobial-resistant organisms are more likely to have longer hospital stays and may require more complicated treatment.

Diagnostic tests designed to determine which microbe is causing infection and to
which antimicrobials the microbe might be resistant take a few days or weeks to give
results because of a requirement for the microbe to grow for it to be identified.

Part 2. Antibiotic Tolerance   
Reported By Jef Akst | June 25, 2014

Optimization of lag time underlies antibiotic tolerance in evolved bacterial
populations

O. Fridma et al.    Nature, 2014 
http://dx.doi.org://10.1038/nature13469

Populations of Escherichia coli grown in the lab develop tolerance when exposed to
repeated treatments with the antibiotic ampicillin. The bacteria evolved to stay in a
dormant “lag” phase for just longer than three-, five-, or eight-hour-long treatment
courses. Antibiotic tolerance, which allows bacteria to survive even high levels of
antibiotics by remaining dormant. Tolerance may lead to an inaccurate assumption
that an unsuccessful antibiotic treatment failed as a result of resistance, in which
the microbe has evolved to grow in the presence of the drug. Resistance is very well
known; but the issue of tolerance is much less known,” according to Tom Coenye of
the Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Microbiology (LPM) at Gent University in Belgium,
who was not involved in the research.  This is a new phenomenon, extended lag,
where mutants have a longer lag time, and that extended lag allows them to survive
an attack by antibiotics.

To gain a better understanding of how bacterial populations might evolve to tolerate
antibiotic exposure, Nathalie Q. Balaban, a microbiologist and physicist at The Hebrew
University of Jerusalem in Israel and her colleagues exposed cultures of E. coli to high
concentrations of ampicillin for three, five, or eight hours, then washed the drug away
and suspended the bacteria in fresh media to be grown overnight. The next day, the
team repeated these treatments. In 10 cycles we could see that tolerance had evolved,
” Balaban said. Indeed, while the ampicillin treatments killed more than 99.9 percent of
the E. coli, by day 10, bacterial survival had increased 100-fold.

Moreover, the bacteria were also tolerant to norfloxacin, an antibiotic with a different mechanism of action than ampicillin but also ineffective during the dormant stage,
further supporting the idea that the E. coli populations had evolved to tolerate certain
durations of antibiotic exposure. “This is characteristic of tolerance,” said Balaban.
“The bacteria that have evolved tolerance under ampicillin are also more tolerant to
this completely different class of antibiotics.” Resistance, on the other hand, is usually
class-specific, she noted.

The researchers identified three genes that seemed to play a functional role in antibiotic
tolerance. While the exact mechanism of how mutations in these genes may have
lengthened the bacteria’s lag time is not yet known, two of the genes are part of pathways
that were previously implicated in bacterial persistence, including an antitoxin in a
common toxin-antitoxin module
 that may help regulate that bacteria’s growth.

Part 3. Multidrug Resistance Perspective

Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in salmonella: efflux pumps, genetics,
quorum sensing and biofilm formation.

Perspectives in Drug Discovery and Design 02/2011; 8:114-123.
Martins M, McCusker, Amaral, Fanning S

Multidrug resistance (MDR) to antibiotics presents a serious therapeutic problem
in the treatment of bacterial infections. The importance of this mechanism of resistance
in clinical settings is reflected in the increasing number of reports of multidrug resistant
isolates. In Salmonella enterica, the most common etiological agent of food borne
salmonellosis worldwide, MDR is becoming a major concern.

In Salmonella the main mechanisms of antibiotic resistance are mutations in target
genes (such as DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV) and the over-expression of efflux pumps. However, other mechanisms such as

  1. changes in the cell envelope;
  2. down regulation of membrane porins;
  3. increased lipopolysaccharide (LPS) component of the outer cell membrane;
  4. quorum sensing and
  5. biofilm formation

can also contribute to the resistance seen in this microorganism. To overcome
this problem new therapeutic approaches are urgently needed.

In the case of efflux-mediated multidrug resistant isolates, one of the treatment
options could be

  • the use of efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs)
  • in combination with the antibiotics to which the bacteria is resistant.

By blocking the efflux pumps

  • resistance is partly or wholly reversed,
  • allowing antibiotics showing no activity against the MDR strains
  • to be used to treat these infections.

Compounds that show potential as an EPI are therefore of interest, as well as new
strategies to target the efflux systems. Quorum sensing (QS) and biofilm formation
are systems also known to be involved in antibiotic resistance. Consequently,
compounds that

  • can disrupt or inhibit these bacterial “communication systems” will be of use in
    the treatment of these infections.

Part 5. Effux pumps and S. Aureus

Multidrug Efflux Pumps in Staphylococcus aureus: an Update

SS Costa, M Viveiros, L Amaral and I Couto
1Grupo de Micobactérias, Unidade de Microbiologia Médica, Instituto de Higiene e
Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (IHMT, UNL), 2Centro de Recursos
Microbiológicos (CREM), UNL, Portugal,3COST ACTION BM0701 (ATENS), Brussels,
Belgium
The Open Microbiology Journal 2013;(Suppl 1-M5): 59-71

The emergence of infections caused by multi- or pan-resistant bacteria in the hospital
or in the community settings is an increasing health concern. Albeit there is no single
resistance mechanism behind multi-resistance, multidrug efflux pumps,

  • proteins that cells use to detoxify from noxious compounds,

seem to play a key role in the emergence of these multidrug resistant (MDR) bacteria.
During the last decades, experimental data has established their contribution to low
level resistance to antimicrobials in bacteria and their

  • potential role in the appearance of MDR phenotypes, by the extrusion of multiple,
    unrelated compounds.

Recent studies suggest that

  • efflux pumps may be used by the cell as a first-line defense mechanism,

avoiding the drug to reach lethal concentrations, until a stable, more efficient alteration
occurs, that allows survival in the presence of that agent.

In this paper we review the current knowledge on

  • MDR efflux pumps and their
  • intricate regulatory network in Staphylococcus aureus,

a major pathogen, responsible from mild to life-threatening infections. Particular emphasis will be given to the potential role that

  • aureus MDR efflux pumps,
  • either chromosomal or plasmid-encoded, have
  • on resistance towards different antimicrobial agents and
  • on the selection of drug – resistant strains.

We will also discuss the many questions that still remain on the role of each specific
efflux pump and the need to establish appropriate methodological approaches to
address all these questions.

        Table 1. Multidrug Efflux Pumps Described for Staphylococcus aureus

Efflux Pump  Family Regulator(s) Substrate Specificity  References 
Chromosomally-encoded Efflux Systems 
NorA MFS MgrA,
NorG(?)
Hydrophilic fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin,
norfloxacin) QACs (tetraphenylphosphonium,
benzalkonium chloride) Dyes (e.g. ethidium
bromide, rhodamine)
[16,18,19]
NorB MFS MgrA,
NorG
Fluoroquinolones (e.g. hydrophilic: ciprofloxacin,
norfloxacin and hydrophobic: moxifloxacin,
sparfloxacin) Tetracycline QACs (e.g.
tetraphenylphosphonium, cetrimide) Dyes (e.g. ethidium bromide)
[31]
NorC MFS MgrA(?),
NorG
Fluoroquinolones (e.g. hydrophilic: ciprofloxacin
and hydrophobic: moxifloxacin) Dyes
(e.g. rhodamine)
[35,36]
MepA MATE MepR Fluoroquinolones (e.g. hydrophilic: ciprofloxacin,
norfloxacin and hydrophobic: moxifloxacin,
sparfloxacin) Glycylcyclines (e.g. tigecycline) QACs (e.g. tetraphenylphosphonium, cetrimide, benzalkonium chloride) Dyes
(e.g. ethidium bromide)
[37,38]
MdeA MFS n.i. Hydrophilic fluoroquinolones (e.g. ciprofloxacin,
norfloxacin) Virginiamycin, novobiocin, mupirocin,
fusidic acid QACs (e.g. tetraphenylphosphonium,
benzalkonium chloride, dequalinium) Dyes (e.g. ethidium bromide)
[39,40]
SepA n.d. n.i. QACs (e.g. benzalkonium chloride) Biguanidines
(e.g. chlorhexidine) Dyes (e.g. acriflavine)
[41]
SdrM MFS n.i. Hydrophilic fluoroquinolones (e.g. norfloxacin) Dyes (e.g. ethidium bromide, acriflavine) [42]
LmrS MFS n.i. Oxazolidinone (linezolid) Phenicols
(e.g. choramphenicol, florfenicol) Trimethoprim, erythromycin, kanamycin,
fusidic acid QACs (e.g. tetrapheny-
lphosphonium) Detergents (e.g. sodium
docecyl sulphate) Dyes (e.g. ethidium
bromide)
[43]
Plasmid-encoded Efflux Systems

QacA MFS QacR QACs (e.g. tetraphenylphosphonium,
benzalkonium chloride, dequalinium)
Biguanidines (e.g. chlorhexidine)
Diamidines (e.g. pentamidine) Dyes
(e.g. ethidium bromide,
rhodamine, acriflavine)
[45,49]
QacB MFS QacR QACs (e.g. tetraphenylphosphonium,
benzalkonium chloride)Dyes (e.g. ethidium bromide, rhodamine,
acriflavine)
[53]
Smr SMR n.i. QACs (e.g. benzalkonium chloride,
cetrimide) Dyes (e.g. ethidium bromide)
[58,61]
QacG SMR n.i. QACs (e.g. benzalkonium chloride,
cetyltrymethylammonium) Dyes
(e.g. ethidium bromide)
[67]
QacH SMR n.i. QACs (e.g. benzalkonium chloride,
cetyltrymethylammonium) Dyes
(e.g. ethidium bromide)
[68]
QacJ SMR n.i. QACs (e.g. benzalkonium chloride,
cetyltrymethylammonium) Dyes
(e.g. ethidium bromide)
[69]

a n.d.: The family of transporters to which SepA belongs is not elucidated to date.
b n.i.: The transporter has no regulator identified to date.
QACs: quaternary ammonium compounds

Identification of the plasmid-encoded qacA efflux pump gene
in meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
strain HPV107, a representative of the MRSA Iberian clone

S.S. Costaa,b, E. Ntokouc, A. Martinsa,d, M. Viveirosa,e, S. Pournarasc,
I. Coutoa,b, L. Amarala,d,e,∗
a Unidade de Micobactérias, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical,
Universidade Nova de Lisboa (IHMT, UNL), b Centro de Recursos Microbiológicos,
Universidade Nova de Lisboa (CREM, UNL), d Unidade de Parasitologia e
Microbiologia Médica (UPMM), Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade
Nova de Lisboa (IHMT, UNL), Lisbon, Portugal; e COST ACTION BM0701 (ATENS)
c Department of Microbiology, Medical School, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece;
Int J Antimicrobial Agents  2010; 36: 557–561
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/ijantimicag

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a major nosocomial
bacterium for which prevention and control measures consist mainly of

  • the application of biocides with antiseptic and disinfectant activity.

In this study, we demonstrated the presence of

  • the plasmid-located efflux pump gene qacA in MRSA strain HPV107,

a clinical isolate representative of the MRSA Iberian clone. The existence
of efflux activity in strain HPV107 due to the QacA pump was found and

  • this QacA efflux activity was linked with a phenotype of
  • reduced susceptibility towards several biocide compounds.

No association could be made with antibiotic resistance. This work
emphasises the potential of QacA pump activity in

  • the maintenance and dissemination of important MRSA strains in
    the hospital setting and, increasingly, in the community.

Efflux-mediated response of Staphylococcus aureus exposed to
ethidium bromide

I Couto1,2, S S Costa1, M Viveiros1, M Martins1,3 and L Amaral1,3*
1Unidade de Micobacterias, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical,
Universidade Nova de Lisboa (UNL), 2Centro de Recursos Microbiolo´gicos (CREM), Faculdade de Cieˆncias e Tecnologia, UNL,3UPMM,
Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, UNL, Portugal
J Antimicrob Chemother  (2008) 62, 504–513
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1093/jac/dkn217

By adapting an antibiotic-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus strain to
increasing concentrations of ethidium bromide, a known substrate
of efflux pumps (EPs), and

  • by phenotypically and genotypically analysing the resulting progeny,
  • we characterized the molecular mechanisms of S. aureus
    adaptation to ethidium bromide.

ATCC 25923 was grown in increasing concentrations of ethidium bromide.
The MICs of representatives of eight classes of antibiotics, eight biocides
and two dyes against ATCC 25923 and its ethidium bromide-resistant progeny
ATCC 25923EtBr were determined

  • with or without six efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs).

Efflux activity in the presence/absence of EPIs was evaluated by realtime
fluorometry. The presence and expression of eight EP genes were assayed
by PCR and quantitative RT–PCR (qRT–PCR), respectively. Mutations in
grlA, gyrA and norA promoter regions were screened by DNA sequencing.

Compared with its parental strain, ATCC 25923EtBr was

  • 32-fold more resistant to ethidium bromide and
  • also more resistant to biocides and hydrophilic fluoroquinolones.
  • Resistance to these could be reduced by the EPIs chlorpromazine,
    thioridazine and reserpine.

Increased efflux of ethidium bromide by ATCC 25923EtBr could be
inhibited by the same EPIs. qRT–PCR showed that

  • norA was 35-fold over-expressed in ATCC 25923EtBr,

whereas the remaining EP genes showed no significant increase in their

expression. Sequencing of the norA promoter region revealed

  • a 70 bp deletion in ATCC 25923EtBr.

Exposure of S. aureus to quaternary compounds such as ethidium bromide
results in decreased susceptibility of the organism to a wide variety of
compounds, including quinolones and biocides

  • through an efflux-mediated response, which
  • for strain ATCC 25923 is mainly NorA-mediated.

This altered expression may result from alterations in the norA
promoter region
.

Ethnic consumption of plant leaf extracts and appraisal of
their nutraceutical efficacy against multidrug resistant
staphylococcus aureus

Kaushik S1, 2*, Tomar Rs1, Shrivastav V1, Shrivastav A2 And Jain Sk3
Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Madhya Pradesh,
Gwalior (M.P.);  2: College of Life Sciences, Cancer Hospital and
Research Institute, Gwalior (M.P.); 3: Department of Microbiology,
Vikram University, Ujjain (M.P.), INDIA
IJBPAS, Feb, 2014, 3(2): 204-209

Nutraceuticals are natural bioactive chemical compounds that have
health promoting, disease preventing or medicinal properties.
Emergence of Multi Drug Resistant Staphylococci is increasing at
alarming rates and diseases caused by these strains leave patients
against multiple resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

The test bacteria were isolated and characterized by standard and
NCCLS recommended microbiological techniques. A total of eighteen
plant extracts were analysed for their antimicrobial activity. The
selection of medicinal plants was based on their traditional uses in
India. However most of these plants were not previously screened.
Antibacterial activity of these components was performed by standard
Kirby Bauer Disk Diffusion method approved by NCCLS and the
inhibitory effect was analysed by calculating Zone of inhibition.

Among the eighteen plant extracts analysed we found highest
activity in the effect of chemotherapy and as promising bio control agents

  • Guava,
  • Mango,
  • Jamun and
  • Pomengrate plant extracts,

while most of the other plants were either showing very moderate/
least activity against test bacteria. Our recent experiment indicated
that phytochemicals extracted with methanol can be utilized as
nutraceutical to lower the side.

Part 6. Efflux pumps and gram-negative organisms

Efflux Pumps that Bestow Multi-Drug Resistance of Pathogenic Gram-
negative 
Bacteria 

Amaral L1,2*, Spengler G2, Martins A2,3 and Molnar J2
1Travel Medicine of the Centre for Malaria and Other Tropical Diseases (CMDT),
Institute of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Lisbon, Portugal 2Department of
Medical Microbiology and Immunobiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of
Szeged, Szeged, Hungary 3Unit of Parasitology and Medical Microbiology
(UPMM), Institute of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Lisbon, Portugal
Amaral et al., Biochem Pharmacol 2013; 2:3
http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2167-0501.1000119

The efflux pump

The efflux pump

Efflux pumps are integral plasma membrane protein systems that recognize and bind
noxious compounds present in the cytoplasm (toxic products produced by metabolism;
compounds that have penetrated the cell), or periplasm of the bacterial cell and extrude
it into the environment in which the bacterium resides [1].

The efflux pump machinery gives the cell additional protection to the one provided by

  • the constituents of its cell wall (example: lipopolysaccharides), and
  • provides an initial protection to noxious agents present in its
    natural environment that have penetrated into the cell (example: bile
    salts in the colon) [1].

The efflux pump machinery is divided into five superfamily classes;

  • the major facilitator (MF),
  • the ATP-binding cassette (ABC),
  • the resistance-nodulation-division (RND),
  • the small multi-drug resistance (SMR) and
  • the multi-drug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE).

With respect to Gram-negative bacteria, although they all play
important roles in the protection of the bacterium from noxious
agents present in the environment, the

  • main efflux pump of the Gram negative bacterium is a
    member of the RND superfamily, and
  • because multi-drug resistance of clinical isolates have
    been associated with the over-expression of this pump,

it has received a great deal of attention [2].

The first in vitro response of bacteria to a given noxious agent,
such as an antibiotic, is to over-express its main efflux pump [2].
If the bacterium is serially exposed in vitro to increasing
concentrations of that compound, it responds by increasing
the effective number of its main efflux pump, as well as others
that provide redundant protection [2].

However, if that “adapted” bacterium is now maintained at a
constant level of a noxious agent, the level of efflux pump
activity increases up to a maximum, followed by a gradual
return of efflux pump activity to its basal level. Concomitant
to this process, an accumulation of mutations of essential
proteins located in the plasma membrane (example penicillin
binding proteins), mutations 30 S component of the ribosome
and gyrase take place [3]. These events suggest that when
the organism is faced with an environment that contains a
constant toxic level of a compound, and the cost for
maintaining an energy consuming system, such as that
needed for the energy dependent efflux pump, is too
great a price to pay.

Therefore, in order to survive in this unchanging environment,
other mechanisms are activated. For example, activation of a
mutator master gene is thought to be an important step at this
level, which results in the mutation of genes that code for
essential proteins, reversing the over-expression of efflux-
pumps, but still conferring the bacterial resistant to the
environmental pressure via other mechanism(s), yet
to be understood [4,5].

During therapy, the level of resistance increases many fold
higher than that of the initial infecting strain. Hence, clinical
isolates from treated patients often show much higher levels
of antibiotic resistance than that of their wild type counterpart
(sometimes it can even present a 1000 fold increase) [6].
At this stage, resistance is usually related to the presence
of mutations, which reduces the survival of the resistant
bacteria,

  • once it is transferred to a noxious agent-free environment

that contains the competing wild type counterpart [3,4].

Depending upon when during therapy a clinical strain is isolated,
its resistance to two or more antibiotic classes (multi-drug
resistance (MDR)), may be due entirely to over-expressed
efflux pumps; to a mixture of over-expressed efflux pumps
and increasing accumulation of mutations; and only to mutations [3,4].

The degree of resistance can readily be determined with
methods that employ compounds known for their modulation
of efflux pump activity, such as

  • phenothiazines [7] or phenyl-arginine-betanaphthylamide
    (PAβN),
  • the latter which competes with the antibiotic as
    substrate of the efflux pump [8].

If in presence of such compounds,

  • the MDR bacterium is rendered fully susceptible
    to the antibiotic(s) to which it was initially resistant,
  • resistance is most likely due to its overexpressed
    efflux pump systems.
  • Contributions made by accumulated mutations
    render the organism less and less affected by the EPI.

This type of information is of great value to clinicians faced
with long-term therapy of a bacterial infection that
progresses to an MDR phenotype. It should be understood
that although the Gram-negative bacterium has essentially
one main efflux pump, such as

  • the AcrAB (Escherichia coli) or
  • the MexAB (Pseudomonas aeruginosa),

the deletion of the main efflux pump results in the over-
expression of one or more other RND efflux pumps,
such as is the case for deletion of the AcrAB, followed by

  • the over-expression of the AcrEF pump [2].

Redundancy of as many as nine RND efflux pumps [2],
provides additional protection to the organism.

The pumps belonging to the RND family form

  • a tripartite complex together with
  • the periplasmic proteins belonging to the
    membrane fusion-protein (MFP) family and
  • the outer membrane channels.

RND transporters consist of

  • a transporter protein that recognises and
    binds the noxious agent
    in the cytoplasm or periplasm and
  • transports it to the contiguous channel (TolC),
  • ending at the surface of the outer membrane.

The transporter is attached to the plasma membrane
by two or three fusion proteins, which are believed to assist the

  • extrusion of the substrate by peristaltic actions [9].

Although the actual structure of RND efflux pumps
in the cell envelop is not completely understood,

  • the structure of the transporter, TolC and fusion
    proteins are well established for major Gram-negative
    bacteria [10].

The PMF energy dependent efflux pump most likely needs the
passage of hydronium ions through its internal cavity,

  • for the release of the substrate that is
  • in turn ejected into the TolC channel via the
  • peristaltic action of the fusion proteins [11].

A low pH,

  • the concentration of hydronium ions at the surface of the cell
  • results in a pH difference of 2 or 3 pH units compared
    to that of the milieu,

the surface concentration of hydronium ions

  • provides the force for the mobility of hydronium ions
  • through porins leading to the acidification of the periplasm,
  • providing the low pH needed by the transporter
  • for the release of the substrate.

At high pH, these hydronium ions come from

  • hydrolysis of ATP by ATP synthase, and
  • are passed into the transporter, thereby
  • reducing its internal pH, so that
  • the release of the substrates can take place [11,12].

EPIs, such as the phenothiazines chlorpromazine or thioridazine,

  • exert their inhibition at pH above 6, and
  • are thought to affect hydrolysis of ATP
  • denying the efflux pump transporter hydronium ions needed

for release of the bound substrate [11,12].

The search for EPIs that are clinically useful continues, although

with respect to thioridazine, this old neuroleptic has been shown

  • to inhibit efflux pumps of pathogenic mycobacteria [13], and
  • has been successfully used to treat extensively drug resistant
    tuberculosis infections [14].

The regulation of the main efflux pump of Escherichia coli may
take place via   distinct pathways. The induced synthesis of the
transporter component of the AcrAB efflux pump, when the
organism is exposed in vitro to a noxious agent,

  1. involves the activation of the stress gene soxS,
  2. followed by the activation of the local regulator marA,
  3. then by the activation of the transporter gene acrB [8].

In the case of Salmonella spp. two component resistance
mechanisms, such as the PmrA/PmrB system, directly
activate the master efflux pump regulator ram A gene [15].
The activation of the PmrA/PmrB system takes place
readily when Salmonella spp. is phagocytosed due to
the acidic nature of the phagolysosome [15], as follows:

  1. PmrB is a sensor that self-phosphorylates, and
  2. then transfers the phosphate to PmrA.
  3. PmrA activates a nine gene operon, which
  4. codes for Lipid A introduced into the nascent
    lipopolysaccharide layer of the outer membrane.
  5. The increased presence of Lipid A renders the
    phagocytosed bacterium practically immune to
    everything, including the hydrolases of the
    phagolysososome [15].

Although some EPIs are in clinical trials, none have yet to
reach the marketplace,    mainly due to their common
toxicity against healthy mammalian cells, affecting
intrinsic mammalian efflux pumps, as for example
those of the blood brain barrier. Lastly, it should be
noted that compounds that inhibit the efflux pump
of bacteria also have the capacity to promote the
removal of plasmids that carry antibiotic resistant
genes [16,17].

  1. Nikaido H, Pages JM (2012) Broad-specificity efflux
    pumps and their role in multidrug resistance of Gram-
    negative bacteria. FEMSMicrobiol Rev 36: 340-363.
  2. Viveiros M, Jesus A, Brito M, Leandro C, Martins M,
    et al. (2005) Inducement and reversal of tetracycline
    resistance in Escherichia coli K-12 and expression of
    proton gradient-dependent multidrug efflux pump
    genes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 49: 3578-3582.
  3. Martins A, Couto I, Aagaard L, Martins M, Viveiros M
    (2007) Prolonged exposure of methicillin-resistant
    Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) COL strain to
    increasing concentrations of oxacillin results in a
    multidrug-resistant phenotype. Int J Antimicrob
    Agent 29: 302-305.
  4. Martins A, Spengler G, Molnar J, Amaral L (2012)
    Sequential responses of bacteria to noxious agents
    (antibiotics) leading to accumulation of mutations
    and permanent resistance. Biochem Pharmacol J
    Open Access 1: 7.

Inhibitors of efflux pumps of Gram-negative
bacteria inhibit Quorum Sensing

Leonard Amaral, Joseph Molnar
1 Grupo de Micobacterias, Unidade de Microbacterilogia,
Centro de Malaria e Doenças Tropicais (CMDT), Instituto de
Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa,
Lisbon, Portugal; 2 Cost Action BM0701 (ATENS) of the
European Commission/European Science Foundation;
3 Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunobiology,
University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
Open Journal of Pharmacology, 2012, 2-2

Quorum Sensing (QS) systems of bacteria consist of

  • a producer of the QS signal and the responder.

The generation of a QS signal provides the means by which
a population can behave in a concerted manner such as

  • swarming, swimming and secretion of biofilm, etc.

Because concerted bahaviour bestows protection to the bacterial
species, and hence factors involved in the severity of an infection
such as virulence are products of QS systems, compounds that
inhibit the QS system have significant clinical relevance. Recent
evidence suggests that

  • the secretion of QS signals takes place via
  • the efflux pump system of the producer of the signal.

Interestingly, compounds such as phenothiazines and
trifluoromethyl ketones (TFs)

  • that inhibit proton motive force (PMF) activities such
    as swarming and swimming also
  • inhibit the PMF dependent efflux pump systems of
    bacteria and their QS   systems.

This review discusses the relationship between the efflux
pump, the QS system and the compounds that affect both.
Lastly, suggestions are made regarding classes of compounds
that have been shown

  • to inhibit PMF dependent efflux pumps and the need
  • to evaluate them for QS inhibitory properties.

Keywords: Quorum Sensing, QS signal, acylated hydroxyl
lactone (AHL), efflux pumps, Proton Motive Force (PMF),
inhibitors of efflux pumps, inhibitors of QS systems,
phenothiazines, Trifluormethyl Ketones (TFs), plants
sources for QS inhibitors

Efflux pumps of bacteria provide protection from noxious
agents that are present in the environment in which they
exist. Noxious agents may be naturally occurring compounds
present in environments outside and within the human.

Because over-expressed efflux pumps render antibiotic
therapy problematic, an intense search for agents that
inhibit specific efflux pumps of specific bacteria has
been conducted during the past decade [9].

Communication between bacteria of the same strain
or species and between species contributes to their
survival [11-13]. Communication involves the secretion
of signals that invoke a specific response from the responder
[11-13]. This  communication process is termed Quorum
sensing (QS). When it takes place between strains of the
same species,

  • communication is directed towards the reduction
    of population growth and
  • reducing the possibility of exceeding the nutritional
    support of the environment

Other signals may involve a population response that involves

  • the secretion of bioactive molecules that inhibit the
    replication of a competing population species [14-16]
    or even kill [biocidins) [17-21] or
  • promote a swarming effect that recruits members
    of the same species to migrate  to a specific location [22-24]
    similar to swarming by insects subsequent to signals
    indicating site of food [example bees).
  • biofilm, encase the bacteria at distances from each other
    [25-29] and within the matrix of this biofilm are
    channels used for further communication [30].

Biofilms are produced in the wild, at sites such as surfaces
of rocks which maintain the bacterial population in situ [31]
and are also produced at sites of the human colonized by
infecting bacteria [32, 33].

Agents that inhibit the QS response of the infecting bacterium
are obviously important and hence, the search for such agents
that inhibit the QS system and biofilm formation has been in
effect for the past two decades [11-13].

There is a relationship between efflux pumps (EP), QS and
biofilm (BF) secretion which has come to the forefront only
recently [13]. Control of this relationship is critical for
successful therapy of MDR bacterial infections which have
become rather commonplace. It is the intent of this review
to identify agents which may serve to interfere with the
complex system of EP-QS-BF interaction.

Proton motive force (PMF) dependent transporters obtain
their energy for function from the proton motive force. The
proton motive force is the result of cellular metabolism which
yields protons that are not used for coupling with molecular
oxygen and which are exported to the surface of the cell [43-45]
where they are distributed and bound to components of
the protective lipopolysaccharide layer that covers the cell
and constitutes a part of the outer cell wall of Gram-negative
[46] and the cell wall of Gram positive bacteria [47].

The larger the concentration of protons (hydronium ions)
on the surface of the cell with respect to their lower
concentration on the medial side of the cytoplasmic
membrane creates an electrochemical gradient that
is termed the proton motive force (PMF) [48].

Because hydronium ions cannot penetrate the cell wall
or the membrane, they may re-enter the cell only
through channels such as porins in general [49, 50].
The movement of these hydromium ions from the
surface of the cell to the periplasm or cytoplasm is
predicated upon systems that use the PMF as source
of energy-namely the resistance nodulation division
(RND) family of transporters.

E. coli has a multiplicity of efflux pumps that may
exceed 30 in number [51]. However, the main
efflux pump of this organism is the AcrAB-TolC
efflux pump [52, 53] which when deleted, its
function is replaced by the AcrEF-TolC efflux
pump [51]. Both efflux pumps are members
of the resistance nodulation division family of
transporters [51] and consist of three proteins:

  1. The transporter AcrB coded by the gene acrB and
    is intimately attached to the  plasma membrane;
  2. Two fusion proteins AcrA coded by the gene acrA
    that flank the AcrB transporter and are thought
    to assist the movement of a substrate through
    the AcrB transporter [35]; and,
  3. TolC which is also part of other tri-unit efflux pumps
    of the organism [35], is contiguous with the AcrB
    transporter and provides a conduit for the extrusion
    of the substrate [38].

Although the means for the recognition of the substrate to
be extruded appears to involve a pocket within the transporter,
it appears to be

  • defined by a phenyalanine residue [54].

Nevertheless, studies employing fluorochromes recognised by
the AcrB transporter indicate that the binding and release of
the substrate are pH dependent [55].

  • At low pH the dissociation of the substrate is high and
  • at high pH it is very slow.

In a physiological environment of ca. pH 7, if the dissociation
of the substrate is slow or not at all, then the effectiveness of
the pump to extrude a noxious agent would be nullified.
However, since the pump functions at this pH, conditions that
result in the dissociation of the substrate needed for continuous
pump action must involve a

  • decrease of the pH of the internal cavity of the pump
    to which the substrate is bound.

It has been postulated that the lowering of the pH takes place
by the generation of hydronium ions from metabolism [6] which

  • pass from the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane
    through the transporter.

At lower pH, there is no need for the generation of metabolically
derived  hydronium ions since these ions can be

  • diverted by the PMF from the surface of the cell
    to the periplasm via porins.

Whether hydronium ions are to be generated from the
hydrolysis of ATP at high pH or used for the synthesis
of ATP at low pH is a special

  • function of ATP synthase [56-58].

Model of the AcrAB-TolC efflux pump of a Gram-
negative bacterium

AcrAB-TolC efflux pump of a Gram-negative bacterium

AcrAB-TolC efflux pump of a Gram-negative bacterium

Hypothesis. At near neutral pH, Hydronium ions from hydrolysis of ATP
by ATP synthase pass through the AcrB

transporter, reduce the pH to a point that causes the release of the
substrate. When the hydronium ions reach the surface of the cell they
are distributed over that surface and bind to lipopolysaccharides
and basic amino acids. When there is a need for hydronium ions for
activity of the efflux pump and the pH is lower than neutral, and
the hydrolysis of ATP is not favoured, hydronium ions from the
surface of cell via the PMF mobilize through the Aqua porins
and reach the transporter where they are pushed through
the transporter by the peristaltic action caused by the fusion
proteins. Substrates bound to the transporter dissociate
when the pH is reduced by the flow of hydronium ions and
are carried out by the flow of water.

Inhibitors of bacterial efflux pumps
Inhibitors of the QS of bacteria

Because phenothiazines inhibit many energy dependent systems
of bacteria such as motility [89, 90, 95], and these phenothiazines
also inhibit efflux pumps of bacteria [6, 7, 9, 41, 51, 73, 74, 76-83],
there seems to be a correlation between an active efflux pump
system and a functional QS system. That this assumption is correct,
recent evidence has been provided showing that the efflux pumps of
the AHL responding environmental Chromobacterium violaceum
(CV026) bacterium and that of E. coli are inhibited by the phenothiazine
thioridazine (TZ) [12]. Because TZ is known to inhibit genes that
regulate and code for efflux pumps of bacteria [41, 119, 120], it is
possible that the inhibition of the responding CV0126 bacterium to
AHLs [12] involves the inhibition of genes that code and regulate
the efflux pump of the responder which is assumed to recognise the
AHL signal as an noxious agent and hence would extrude it to the
environment [12]. The inhibition of an efflux pump should manifest
itself as an inhibitor of the QS component responsible for biofilm
formation.

Since the discovery of berberine a powerful inhibitor of bacterial
efflux pumps [159], plants have become sources of inhibitors of
efflux pumps [160-164]. Given that efflux pumps and the  QS of
bacteria have an intimate relationship as described in this review,
attention has been focused on plants for potential sources of inhibitors
of efflux pumps and QS systems. Essential oils from Columbian
plants have yielded a large number of compounds that inhibit the
QS system of responding bacteria such as

  1. limonene-carvone , the
  2. citral (geranial-neral) (isolated from Lippia alba),
  3. α-pinene (from Ocotea sp.),
  4. β-pinene (from Swinglea glutinosa),
  5. cineol (from Elettaria cardamomun),
  6. α-zingiberene (from Zingiber officinale) and
  7.  pulegone (from Minthostachys mollis) [165].

Several other essential oils, in particular were shown to present
promising inhibitory properties for the short chain AHL quorum
sensing (QS) system in Escherichia coli containing the biosensor

  •  plasmid pJBA132, in  particular Lippia alba.

Citral was the only  essential oil that presented some activity for
the long chain AHL QS system in Pseudomonas putida containing

  •  the plasmid pRK-C12 [165].

The essence of this review is to correlate the relationship of the
efflux pump system to the QS system of bacteria via the use of
compounds that inhibit both systems. Simply put, inhibitors of
the efflux pump system also, when studied, inhibit the QS system
as well. Because the PMF dependent efflux pump system of Gram-
negatives that is overexpressed is responsible for the multi-drug
phenotype of the bacterium, compounds that affect the PMF of
the bacterium are candidates that will inhibit the activity of the
pump. Consequently, this inhibition will inhibit the secretion of
biofilm, and because biofilm is a deterrent to the action of antibiotics,
compounds that affect the efflux pump system are promising
candidates for clinical evaluation.

Limiting and controlling carbapenem-resistant
Klebsiella pneumonia

L Saidel-Odes, A Borer.
1Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology Unit, 2Infectious
Diseases Institute, Soroka University Medical Center and the
Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev,
Beer-Sheva, Israel
Infection and Drug Resistance 2014:7 9–14

Carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP)

  • is resistant to almost all antimicrobial agents,
  • is associated with substantial morbidity and mortality, and
  • poses a serious threat to public health.

The ongoing worldwide spread of this pathogen emphasizes the
need for immediate intervention. This article reviews the global
spread and risk factors for CRKP colonization/infection, and
provides an overview of the strategy to combat CRKP dissemination

Outbreaks of CRKP that have occurred around the world have
been associated with the plasmid-encoded carbapenemase
K. pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC),

  • a carbapenem-hydrolyzing β-lactamase.19

CRKP isolates are resistant to almost all available antimicrobials
and are susceptible

  • only to polymyxins and tigecycline;
  • a minority to the few remaining aminoglycosides,
    though resistance to these agents is increasingly reported.20,21

Several investigators have evaluated predictors for CRKP colonization.
The following summarizes various studies.

  1. In a multivariate analysis, prior use of macrolides and
    any antibiotic exposure $14 days remained the only
    independent factors associated with CRKP bacteremia
  2. Nosocomial isolation of CRKP was strongly favored by the
    selection pressure of carbapenem. In this study, prior
    treatment with fluoroquinolones was associated with
    decreased risk for the emergence of CRKP.
  3. Previous use of carbapenem and cephalosporin
  4. Nursing home residency before hospital admission, bedridden
    status, and previous antibiotic therapy
  5. exposure to fluoroquinolones
  6. the recipient of antibiotics
  7. intensive care unit (ICU) stay, and
  8. Poor functional status,
  9. Independent predictors of subsequent carbapenem-
    resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) infection were
  • admission to the ICU,
  • having a central venous  catheter,
  • receipt of antibiotics, and
  • diabetes mellitus

Schwaber et al and the Israeli CRE Working Group enforced the
Israel Ministry of Health guidelines mandating physical separation
of hospitalized carriers of CRE and dedicated staffing and appointed
a professional task force charged with containment.19 The monthly
incidence of nosocomial CRE was reduced from 55.5 to 11.7 cases
per 100,000 patient days within 15 months.

Part 7.  Tuberculosis

The Mechanism by which the Phenothiazine Thioridazine
Contributes to Cure Problematic Drug-Resistant Forms
of Pulmonary Tuberculosis: Recent Patents for “New Use”

L Amaral1*, A Martins2,3, G Spengler2, A Hunyadi4 and J Molnar2
Recent Patents on Anti-Infective Drug Discovery 2013; 8(3):000-000

At this moment, over half million patients suffer from multi-drug
resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) according to the data from the WHO.
A large majority is terminally ill with essentially incurable pulmonary
tuberculosis. This herein mini-review provides the experimental and
observational evidence that a specific phenothiazine,

  • thioridazine,

will contribute to cure any form of drug-resistant tuberculosis. This
antipsychotic agent is no longer under patent  protection for its
initial use. The reader is informed on the recent developments

  • in patenting this compound for “new use” with a special
  • emphasis on the aspects of drug-resistance.

Given that economic motivation can stimulate the use of this drug
as an antitubercular agent, future prospects are also discussed.

Thioridazine is not the only phenothiazine that has been recommended
for therapy of pulmonary tuberculosis. In general, many phenothiazines
have been implicated for antitubercular activity [62, 80-86]. Among
these are

  • trifluoperazine [87-94],
  • methdilazine [95, 96],
  • promazine [97, 98],
  • promethazine [97, 98],
  • fluphenazin [99],
  • propiomazine [100], and
  • the methylene blue related toluidine blue [101].

There are phenothiazine compounds derived from the parental
methylene blue for therapy of pathologies unrelated to tuberculosis
that also possess

  •  antitubercular [44, 48] and/or antimalarial properties [44].

Moreover, derivatives made from any of the phenothiazines that
have in vitro activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis are also
active [61, 67, 102, 103], suggesting ample opportunities for
patenting of new analogs developed from known, active phenothiazines
with even less side effects than those of TZ, as recently suggested by
Musuka and co-authors [104]. It is important to mention, that the
commercially available phenothiazines such as for example

  •  trifluoperazine, methdilazine, promazine, promethazine,
    fluphenazin and propiomazine

are beyond patent protection as initially intended. Nevertheless,
these compounds have been patented as adjuvants for the treatment
of MDR cancer (patent expired in 2011 [105]; and, right afterwards,
a new patent has been filed with a priority date of 28th March, 2012,
claiming combination therapy of cancer with a chemotherapeutic
agent and a dopamine receptor antagonist against Cancer stem cells (CSC).

Taking into account that intrinsic MDR is considered as one of the key
properties of CSCs [107], the subject to be covered is indeed related.
According to the MDR, XDR and TDR Mycobacterium tuberculosis,
subjects of this herein paper, the initial step for actually reaching those
in need has been made: a patent has been published in December, 2007,
for the use of TZ and its derivatives for reversing anti-microbial drug
resistance [108]. We must note, however, that, despite the six years
passed since, we were unable to find any related clinical trials, which
would certainly be of outmost importance and urgency in order to
proceed towards an effective therapy of highly resistant mycobacterial
infections.

Mechanism Of Action Of Tz: Why It Cures Multi-Drug,
Extensively Drug Resistant And Probably Totally Drug
Resistant Tuberculosis

Over-expressed efflux pumps of Mycobacterium tuberculosis render
the organism multi-drug resistant [13]. Special attention has been
given to those coded by the

  • mmpL7, p55, efpA, mmr, Rv1258c and Rv2459 genes [109].

The activity of these efflux pumps can be suppressed by

  • concentrations of TZ that have no effect on the viability of
    Mycobacterium tuberculosis
  • rendering the organism susceptible to the antibiotic to
    which it was initially resistant
  • as a consequence of the over-expression of its
    efflux pumps [109].

TZ has also been shown to inhibit the activity of the main

  • efflux pumps of bacteria belonging to other species.

TZ has strong inhibitory activity against the genes that code for
essential proteins of M. tuberculosis [122-124].  Consequently, we
may conclude that the in vitro activity of TZ involves

  • the inhibition of the efflux pumps of M. tuberculosis and that
  • the in vitro exposure of this organism to TZ renders the organism
  • susceptible to antibiotics to which it was initially resistant
  • as a consequence of over-expressed efflux pumps [21].

Phenothiazines such as CPZ, TZ, trifluoperazine, etc., also inhibit

  • the binding of calcium to calcium binding proteins such as

calmodulin in eukaryotes [125], and

  • interfere with other proteins involved in
  • the regulation of cellular activity [126].

They inhibit the transport of calcium and potassium systems

  • in eukaryotic cells [127-129] as well as in
  • mycobacteria [89, 130] and
  • E. coli [113].

In fact, in the latter case, calcium was shown essential to

  • the continuous activity of the thioridiazine sensitive
    efflux system [113].

The killing activity of the human macrophage as well as that
of the neutrophil

  • is dependent upon the retention of calcium and potassium
  • within the phagolysosome of the cell [131].

Considering this, several alternative choices are available for
patenting under “new use”, which would allow a “fresh start”
for the compound to be developed. However, the needed
experimental proof that these phenothiazine agents have
activity at the pulmonary macrophage of the alveolar unit
(the site where the causative organism of pulmonary tuberculosis
resides) is still absent.

Targeting the Human Macrophage with Combinations
of Drugs and Inhibitors of Ca2+ and K+ Transport to
Enhance the Killing of Intracellular Multi-Drug Resistant
M. tuberculosis (MDR-TB) – a Novel, Patentable Approach
to Limit the Emergence of XDR-TB

Marta Martins
UCD Centre for Food Safety, School of Agriculture, Food Science and
Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
& Unit of Mycobacteriology and UPMM; Instituto de Higiene e Medicina
Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (IHMT/UNL),  Lisbon, Portugal
Recent Patents on Anti-Infective Drug Discovery, 2011, 6, 000-000

The emergence of resistance in Tuberculosis has become a serious
problem for the control of this disease. For that reason, new therapeutic
strategies that can be implemented in the clinical setting are urgently
needed. The design of new compounds active against mycobacteria
must take into account that Tuberculosis is mainly an intracellular
infection of the alveolar macrophage and therefore must maintain
activity within the host cells.

An alternative therapeutic approach will be described in this review,
focusing on the activation of the phagocytic cell and the subsequent
killing of the internalized bacteria. This approach explores the combined
use of antibiotics and phenothiazines, or Ca2+ and K+ flux inhibitors,
in the infected macrophage.

Targeting the infected macrophage and not the internalized bacteria
could overcome the problem of bacterial multi-drug resistance. This
will potentially eliminate the appearance of new multi-drug resistant
tuberculosis (MDR-TB) cases and subsequently prevent the emergence
of extensively-drug resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB).

Patents resulting from this novel and innovative approach could be
extremely valuable if they can be implemented in the clinical setting.
Other patents will also be discussed such as the treatment of TB
using immunomodulator compounds (for example: betaglycans).

Role of Phenothiazines and Structurally Similar
Compounds of Plant Origin in the Fight against
Infections by Drug Resistant Bacteria


SG. Dastidar 1, JE. Kristiansen 2, J Molnar 3 and L Amaral
Antibiotics 2013; 2: 58-71;
http://dx.doi.org:/10.3390/antibiotics2010058

Phenothiazines have their primary effects on the plasma membranes
of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Among the components of the
prokaryotic plasma membrane affected are

  • efflux pumps,
  • their energy sources
  • and energy providing enzymes, such as ATPase,
  • and genes that regulate and code for the permeability
    aspect of a bacterium.

The response of multidrug and extensively drug resistant
tuberculosis to phenothiazines shows an alternative therapy for the
treatment of these dreaded diseases, which are claiming more and
more lives every year throughout the world.

Many phenothiazines have shown

  • synergistic activity with several antibiotics thereby
  • lowering the doses of antibiotics administered to patients
    suffering from specific bacterial infections.

Trimeprazine is synergistic with trimethoprim. Flupenthixol (Fp)
has been found to be synergistic with penicillin and chlorpromazine
(CPZ); in addition, some antibiotics are also synergistic. Along with
the antibacterial action described in this review,

  • many phenothiazines possess plasmid curing activities, which
  • render the bacterial carrier of the plasmid sensitive to antibiotics.

Thus, simultaneous applications of a phenothiazine like TZ would not
only act as an additional antibacterial agent but also would help

  • to eliminate drug resistant plasmid from
    the infectious bacterial cells.

Part 8.  Cancer Cytotherapy

Synthesis and Structure-Activity Relationships of Novel
Dioxolanes as MDR Modulators in Cancer

A Martins 1,2,†,*, J Csábi 3,†, A Balázs 4, DKitka 1, L Amaral 5,
J Molnár 1, A Simon 6, G Tóth 6 and A Hunyadi 3,
Molecules 2013, 18, 15255-15275;
http://dx.doi.org:/10.3390/molecules181215255

Ecdysteroids, molting hormones of insects, can exert several mild,
non-hormonal bioactivities in mammals, including humans. In a
previous study, we have found a significant effect of certain derivatives

  • on the ABCB1 transporter mediated multi-drug resistance of a
  • transfected murine leukemia cell line.

In this paper, we present a structure-activity relationship study
focused on

  • the apolar dioxolane derivatives of 20-hydroxyecdysone.

Semi-synthesis and bioactivity of a total of 32 ecdysteroids, including
20 new compounds, is presented, supplemented with their

  • complete 1H- and 13C-NMR signal assignment

As published before [9], the 20,22-diol moiety of 20E is more reactive
than the 2,3-diol, probably due to the free rotation of the 20,22-bond
of 20E that allows the 20,22-dioxolane ring to form with less strain.

This allowed us to selectively obtain the 20,22-mono-dioxolane
derivatives 2–14, or, depending on the amount of reagent and the
reaction time, the 2,3;20,22-bis-homo-dioxolanes 17 and 21–25.

By utilizing the 20,22-monodioxolane ecdysteroids, another aldehyde
or ketone could be coupled to position 2,3, resulting in several bis-hetero-
dioxolane derivatives 26–33. For this, however, gradually decreasing
reactivity with the increase of the size of the reagent was a limiting factor:

  • larger aldehydes or ketones (mainly those containing a
    substituted aromatic ring) could not be coupled at the 2,3-position.
  • The 2,3-monodioxolane derivatives also appeared to be present as
    minor side-products of the reactions, and as a consequence of their
    low amount, only one such compound (compound 15) was isolated and studied.

To selectively obtain this kind of a compound (16) in a more reasonable
yield, another, three-step approach was successfully applied:

  • after protecting the 20,22-diol with phenylboronic acid, the
    2,3-acetonide could be prepared, and
  • removal of the 20,22 protecting group afforded the desired
    2,3-monoacetonide in a one-pot procedure.

In the case of the reactions with aldehydes or asymmetric ketones,
the new C-28 and C-29 central atoms of the dioxolane rings are
stereogenic centers and thus two possible diastereomers can be
formed at both diols. Their configuration was elucidated by two-
dimensional ROESY or selective one-dimensional ROESY experiments,
e.g., in the doubly substituted

  • dioxolane derivative 22 (R1 = R4 = n-Bu, R2 = R3 = H)
  • the unambiguous differentiation of the 1H and 13C signals of
    the two n-butyl groups was achieved in the following way
    (see Figure 2).

Assignment of the H-C(28) atoms (δ = 4.93/105.9 ppm) was supported by

  • the H-2/C-28 and H-3/C-28 HMBC correlations, and
  • that of H-C(29) (δ = 4.91/105.6 ppm) by the H-22/C-29
    cross peak, respectively.

The selective ROESY experiment irradiating at 4.93 ppm showed

  • contacts with the Hα-2 and Hα-3 atoms proving the
    α position of the R2 = H atom.

The ROESY response obtained irradiating H = R3 signal (δ = 4.91)
on H-22 (δ = 3.64 ppm) revealed their

  • cis arrangement and the R configuration around C-29.

The unambiguous assignments of the signals

  • of the two n-butyl groups R1 and R4 were achieved by
  • selective TOCSY experiments (irradiation at
  • δ = 4.93 and 4.91, respectively).

Figure 2

Stereostructure of 22. Red-ROESY proximitries. Blue- 1H. Black-1 001

Stereostructure of 22. Red-ROESY proximitries. Blue- 1H. Black-1 001

Stereostructure of 22. Red arrows indicate the detected ROESY
steric proximities, the blue numbers give the characteristic 1H,
and the black numbers the 13C chemical shifts.

 

Related Material

Identification of Efflux Pump-mediated Multidrug-resistant
Bacteria by the Ethidium Bromide-agar Cartwheel Method

M Martins, M Viveiros, I Couto, SS. Costa, T Pacheco, S Fanning,
Jean-Marie Pagès, and L Amaral
in vivo 2011; 25: 171-178  

Index for efflux activity of the MDR strains. The capacity to efflux EtBr
of each bacterial strain was ranked relative to the reference strain
according to the following formula:

 

Index for efflux activity of the MDR strains

Index for efflux activity of the MDR strains

A Simple Method for Assessment of MDR Bacteria for
Over-Expressed Efflux Pumps

M Martinsa,b*, MP. McCuskera,b, M Viveirosa,c, I Coutoc,d,
S Fanninga,b, Jean-Marie Pagès b,e, L Amaral,b,
The Open Microbiol J 2013; 7: 1-5  1874-2858/13 Bentham

Flowchart followed to test bacterial strains using the EtBr-agar
Cartwheel method.

Flowchart followed to test bacterial strains using the EtBr-agar Cartwheel method.

Flowchart followed to test bacterial strains using the EtBr-agar Cartwheel method.

EtBr-agar cartwheel method applied to different bacterial species

EtBr-agar cartwheel method applied to different bacterial species

EtBr-agar cartwheel method applied to different bacterial species

The effect of selected EPIs on the resistance of the induced and
MDR Gram-positive bacteria.

TET
Enterococcus EFC
ATCC29212
HSEFM-D
1.5
>2.5
w/o
EPI
+
TZ
+
CPZ
+
RES
4
16
4
4
4
4
4
8
(4×) (4×) (2×)
                                MCEtBr NOR  (mg/l) MIC NOR (mg/l)
HSEFM-E >2.5 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125

EPI: Efflux pump inhibitor; w/o: without; TZ: thioridazine; CPZ:
chlorpromazine; PAN: phenyl arginine β-naphthylamide. Values
in bold-type correspond to a decrease of 4-fold or higher on
the MIC values in comparison to those in the absence of inhibitor.
Values in parenthesis indicate the MIC decrease relative to that
of the original culture. The concentration of each EPI used is
defined in the Materials and Methods section.

Macrocyclic diterpenes resensitizing multidrug
resistant phenotypes 

MA. Reis a, A Paterna a, RJ. Ferreira a, H Lage b,
Maria-José U. Ferreira a,⇑
a Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade
de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
b Charité Campus Mitte, Institute of Pathology, Berlin, Germany
Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

Herein, collateral sensitivity effect was exploited as a strategy to
select effective compounds to overcome multidrug resistance in
cancer. Thus, eleven macrocyclic diterpenes, namely jolkinol D (1),
isolated from Euphorbia piscatoria, and its derivatives (2–11) were
evaluated for their activity on three different Human cancer entities:

  • gastric (EPG85-257), pancreatic (EPP85-181) and colon (HT-29)

each with a variant selected for resistance to mitoxantrone

  1. EPG85-257RN;
  2. EPP85-181RN;
  3. HT-29RN and
  • one to daunorubicin (EPG85-257RD; EPP85-181RD; HT-29RD).

Jolkinol D (1) and most of its derivatives (2–11) exhibited significant
collateral sensitivity effect towards the cell lines

  • EPG85-257RN (associated with P-glycoprotein overexpression) and
  • HT-29RD (altered topoisomerase II expression).

The benzoyl derivative, jolkinoate L (8) demonstrated ability to

  • target different cellular contexts with
  • concomitant high antiproliferative activity.

These compounds were previously assessed as
P-glycoprotein modulators,

  • at non-cytotoxic doses, on MDR1-mouse lymphoma cells.

A regression analysis between

  1. the antiproliferative activity presented herein and
  2. the previously assessed P-glycoprotein modulatory effect

showed a strong relation between the compounds that presented

  • both high P-glycoprotein modulation and cytotoxicity.

Molecular Docking Characterizes Substrate-Binding Sites
and Efflux Modulation Mechanisms within P
Glycoprotein.

Ferreira,† Maria-José U. Ferreira,† and DJVA dos Santos*,†,‡
†Research Institute for Medicines and Pharmaceutical Sciences
(iMed.UL), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
‡REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Faculty of
Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
J. Chem. Inf. Model. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1021/ci400195v

P-Glycoprotein (Pgp) is one of the best characterized ABC
transporters
, often involved

  • in the multidrug-resistance phenotype
  • overexpressed by several cancer cell lines.

Experimental studies contributed to important knowledge concerning
substrate polyspecificity, efflux mechanism, and drug binding sites.
This information is, however, scattered through different perspectives,
not existing a unifying model for the knowledge available for this transporter.
Using a previously refined structure of murine Pgp,

  • three putative drug-binding sites were hereby characterized
  • by means of molecular docking.

The modulator site (M-site) is characterized by

  • cross interactions between both Pgp halves

herein defined for the first time, having an important role in

  • impairing conformational changes leading to substrate efflux.

Two other binding sites, located next to the inner leaflet of the lipid bilayer,

  • were identified as the substrate binding H and R sites
  • by matching docking and experimental results.

A new classification model

  • with the ability to discriminate substrates from modulators

is also proposed, integrating a vast number of theoretical and experimental data.

conformational changes leading to substrate efflux

conformational changes leading to substrate efflux

conformational changes leading to substrate efflux

http://pubs.acs.org/appl/literatum/publisher/achs/journals/content/jcisd8/
2013/jcisd8.2013.53.issue-7/ci400195v/production/pdfimages_v02/normal.img-000.jpg

 

 

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LytPhage Presents at 1st Pitch Life Sciences-Philadelphia-September 16, 2014

Reporter: Stephen J. Williams, PhD

 

LytPhage presented at Mid-Atlantic BioAngels 1st Pitch Life Sciences in  Philadelphia Tuesday Sept. 16, 2014.

LytPhage is a new biotech company using novel bioengineering to develop therapeutics to address the worldwide crisis of antibiotic resistant organisms.  They are developing a treatment for vancomycin resistant systemic infections with their platform, which can be adapted for other problematic organisms.  LytPhage is a spin-out form Temple University.

The overall goal is to use genetically modified bacteriophage (bacterial viruses) as an antimicrobial therapy against drug-resistant strains.  Their genetically modifed viruses are only lytic, meaning they result in cell death of the host but do not integrate in the host DNA.  In additon preliminary studies using mainly clinical isolates have shown good efficacy against most drug-resistant strains found in common hospital infections like Clostridium difficile colitis.  The presenters noted that bacteriophage therapy had successfully been used in Europe but no approved therapy in US

For more information about this meeting please see posting on this site

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