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Protein Energy Malnutrition and Early Child Development
Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
In the preceding articles we have seen that poverty and low social class combined with cultural strictures or dependence on a sulfur-poor diet results in childhood stunting and impaired brain development. This is a global health issue.
The World Health Organization (WHO)[1] defines malnutrition as “the cellular imbalance between the supply of nutrients and energy and the body’s demand for them to ensure growth, maintenance, and specific functions.” The term protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) applies to a group of related disorders that includemarasmus, kwashiorkor (see the images below), and intermediate states of marasmus-kwashiorkor. The term marasmus is derived from the Greek wordmarasmos, which means withering or wasting. Marasmus involves inadequate intake of protein and calories and is characterized by emaciation. The term kwashiorkor is taken from the Ga language of Ghana and means “the sickness of the weaning.” Williams first used the term in 1933, and it refers to an inadequate protein intake with reasonable caloric (energy) intake. Edema is characteristic of kwashiorkor but is absent in marasmus.
Studies suggest that marasmus represents an adaptive response to starvation, whereas kwashiorkor represents a maladaptive response to starvation. Children may present with a mixed picture of marasmus and kwashiorkor, and children may present with milder forms of malnutrition. For this reason, Jelliffe suggested the term protein-calorie (energy) malnutrition to include both entities.
Although protein-energy malnutrition affects virtually every organ system, this article primarily focuses on its cutaneous manifestations. Patients with protein-energy malnutrition may also have deficiencies of vitamins, essential fatty acids, and trace elements, all of which may contribute to their dermatosis.
In general, marasmus is an insufficient energy intake to match the body’s requirements. As a result, the body draws on its own stores, resulting in emaciation. In kwashiorkor, adequate carbohydrate consumption and decreased protein intake lead to decreased synthesis of visceral proteins. The resulting hypoalbuminemia contributes to extravascular fluid accumulation. Impaired synthesis of B-lipoprotein produces a fatty liver.
Protein-energy malnutrition also involves an inadequate intake of many essential nutrients. Low serum levels of zinc have been implicated as the cause of skin ulceration in many patients. In a 1979 study of 42 children with marasmus, investigators found that only those children with low serum levels of zinc developed skin ulceration. Serum levels of zinc correlated closely with the presence of edema, stunting of growth, and severe wasting. The classic “mosaic skin” and “flaky paint” dermatosis of kwashiorkor bears considerable resemblance to the skin changes of acrodermatitis enteropathica, the dermatosis of zinc deficiency.
In 2007, Lin et al[2] stated that “a prospective assessment of food and nutrient intake in a population of Malawian children at risk for kwashiorkor” found “no association between the development of kwashiorkor and the consumption of any food or nutrient.”
Marasmus and kwashiorkor can both be associated with impaired glucose clearance that relates to dysfunction of pancreatic beta-cells.[3] In utero, plastic mechanisms appear to operate, adjusting metabolic physiology and adapting postnatal undernutrition and malnutrition to define whether marasmus and kwashiorkor will develop.[4]
In 2012, a report from Texas noted an 18-month-old infant with type 1 glutaric acidemia who had extensive desquamative plaques, generalized nonpitting edema, and red-tinged sparse hair, with low levels of zinc, alkaline phosphatase, albumin, and iron. This patient has a variation on kwashiorkor, and the authors suggest that it be termed acrodermatitis dysmetabolica.[5] On the same note, a boy aged 18 months with type 1 glutaric acidemia suffered from zinc deficiency and acquired protein energy malnutrition.[6]
For complex reasons, sickle cell anemia can predispose suffers to protein malnutrition.[7]
Protein energy malnutrition ramps up arginase activity in macrophages and monocytes.[8]
Protein energy malnutrition (PEM), brain and various facets of child development.
Protein energy malnutrition (PEM) is a global problem. Nearly 150 million children under 5 years in the world and 70-80 million in India suffer from PEM, nearly 20 million in the world and 4 million in India suffer from severe forms of PEM, viz., marasmus, kwashiorkor and marasmic kwashiorkor. The studies in experimental animals in the west and children in developing countries have revealed the adverse effects of PEM on the biochemistry of developing brain which leads to tissue damage and tissue contents, growth arrest, developmental differentiation, myelination, reduction of synapses, synaptic transmitters and overall development of dendritic activity. Many of these adverse effects have been described in children in clinical data, biochemical studies, reduction in brain size, histology of the spinal cord, quantitative studies and electron microscopy of sural nerve, neuro -CT scan, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and morphological changes in the cerebellar cells. Longer the PEM, younger the child, poorer the maternal health and literacy, more adverse are the effects of PEM on the nervous system. Just like the importance of nutrients on the developing brain, so are the adverse effects on the child development of lack of environmental stimulation, emotional support and love and affection to the child. When both the adverse factors are combined, the impact is severe. Hence prevention of PEM in pregnant and lactating mothers, breast feeding, adequate home based supplements, family support and love will improve the physical growth, mental development, social competence and academic performance of the child. Hence nutritional rehabilitation, psychosocial and psychomotor development of the child should begin in infancy and continue throughout. It should be at all levels, most important being in family, school, community and various intervention programmes, local, regional and national. Moreover medical students, health personnel, all medical disciplines concerned with total health care and school teachers should learn and concentrate on the developmental stimulation and enrichment of the child.
Cognitive development in children with chronic protein energy malnutrition
Background: Malnutrition is associated with both structural and functional pathology of the brain. A wide range of cognitive deficits has been reported in malnourished children. Effect of chronic protein energy malnutrition (PEM) causing stunting and wasting in children could also affect the ongoing development of higher cognitive processes during childhood (>5 years of age). The present study examined the effect of stunted growth on the rate of development of cognitive processes using neuropsychological measures.
Methods: Twenty children identified as malnourished and twenty as adequately nourished in the age groups of 5–7 years and 8–10 years were examined. NIMHANS neuropsychological battery for children sensitive to the effects of brain dysfunction and age related improvement was employed. The battery consisted of tests of motor speed, attention, visuospatial ability, executive functions, comprehension and learning and memory
Results: Development of cognitive processes appeared to be governed by both age and nutritional status. Malnourished children performed poor on tests of attention, working memory, learning and memory and visuospatial ability except on the test of motor speed and coordination. Age related improvement was not observed on tests of design fluency, working memory, visual construction, learning and memory in malnourished children. However, age related improvement was observed on tests of attention, visual perception, and verbal comprehension in malnourished children even though the performance was deficient as compared to the performance level of adequately nourished children.
Conclusion: Chronic protein energy malnutrition (stunting) affects the ongoing development of higher cognitive processes during childhood years rather than merely showing a generalized cognitive impairment. Stunting could result in slowing in the age related improvement in certain and not all higher order cognitive processes and may also result in long lasting cognitive impairments.
Malnutrition is the consequence of a combination of inadequate intake of protein, carbohydrates, micronutrients and frequent infections [1]. In India malnutrition is rampant. WHO report states that for the years 1990–1997 52% of Indian children less than 5 years of age suffer from severe to moderate under nutrition [2]. About 35% of preschool children in sub-Saharan Africa are reported to be stunted [3]. Malnutrition is associated with both structural and functional pathology of the brain. Structurally malnutrition results in tissue damage, growth retardation, disorderly differentiation, reduction in synapses and synaptic neurotransmitters, delayed myelination and reduced overall development of dendritic arborization of the developing brain. There are deviations in the temporal sequences of brain maturation, which in turn disturb the formation of neuronal circuits [1]. Long term alterations in brain function have been reported which could be related to long lasting cognitive impairments associated with malnutrition [4]. A wide range of cognitive deficits has been observed in malnourished children in India. In a study, malnourished children were assessed on the Gessell’s developmental schedule from 4 to 52 weeks of age. Children with grades II and III malnutrition had poor development in all areas of behaviour i.e., motor, adaptive, language and personal social [5]. Rural children studying in primary school between the ages of 6–8 years were assessed on measures of social maturity (Vineland social maturity scale), visuomotor co-ordination (Bender gestalt test), and memory (free recall of words, pictures and objects). Malnutrition was associated with deficits of social competence, visuomotor coordination and memory. Malnutrition had a greater effect on the immediate memory of boys as compared with those of girls. Malnourished boys had greater impairment of immediate memory for words, pictures and objects, while malnourished girls had greater impairment of immediate memory for only pictures. Delayed recall of words and pictures of malnourished boys was impaired. Malnourished girls had an impairment of delayed recall of only words. The same authors measured the intelligence of malnourished children using Malin’s Indian adaptation of the Wechsler’s intelligence scale for children. IQ scores decreased with the severity of malnutrition. Significant decreases were observed in performance IQ, as well as on the subtests of information and digit span among the verbal subtests [6]. The above study has shown that though there is decrease in full scale IQ, yet performance on all the subtests was not affected. This suggests that malnutrition may affect different neuropsychological functions to different degrees. Studies done in Africa and South America have focused on the effect of stunted growth on cognitive abilities using verbal intelligence tests based on assessment of reasoning [7]. Such an assessment does not provide a comprehensive and specific assessment of cognitive processes like attention, memory, executive functions, visuo-spatial functions, comprehension as conducted in the present study. Information about the functional status of specific cognitive processes has implications for developing a cognitive rehabilitation program for malnourished children. A neuropsychological assessment would throw light on functional status of brain behaviour relationships affected by malnutrition. Deficits of cognitive, emotional and behavioural functioning are linked to structural abnormalities of different regions of the brain. Brain structures and brain circuits compute different components of cognitive processes [8]. Malnutrition has long lasting effects in the realm of cognition and behaviour, although the cognitive processes like executive functions have not been fully assessed [9]. The differential nature of cognitive deficits associated with malnutrition suggests that different areas of the brain are compromised to different degrees. A neuropsychological assessment would be able to delineate the pattern of brain dysfunction. Malnutrition is a grave problem in our country as 52% of our children are malnourished. Effects of protein-calorie malnutrition are inextricably blended with the effects of social cultural disadvantage; even within the disadvantaged class, literacy environment at home and parental expectation regarding children’s education are powerful variables. Perhaps membership in a higher caste confers some advantage in regard to home literacy, and parental expectation. Short and tall children do differ in some cognitive tests, but not in all as demonstrated in a study done in Orissa, India [10]. But whether or not stunted growth alone is the causative variable for cognitive weakness is not determined as yet. Moreover, the functional integrity of specific cognitive processes is less clear. Chronic PEM resulting in stunting and wasting could result in delay in the development of cognitive processes or in permanent cognitive impairments. Neuropsychological measures can demonstrate delay in normally developing cognitive processes as well as permanent cognitive deficits.
Children in the age range of 5–10 years attending a corporation school in the city of Bangalore participated in the study. Corporation schools in India are government schools with minimal fee attended by children from lowmiddle class. There were 20 children in adequately nourished group and 20 in the malnourished group. The gender distribution was equal. Children in both the groups were from the same ethnic/language background. They were natives of Karnataka living in Bangalore.
After identifying the malnourished and adequately nourished children the coloured progressive matrices test [12] was administered to rule out mental retardation. Children falling at or below the fifth percentile were excluded from the sample, as the 5th percentile is suggestive of intellectually defective range. The percentile points were calculated from the raw scores using Indian norms [13]. Mental retardation was ruled out as otherwise scores on neuropsychological tests would be uniformly depressed and a differentiation of deficits might not occur. Intelligence was not treated as a covariate in the study. The groups did not differ significantly in their scores on CPM (a screening instrument to rule out intellectual impairment in both the groups).
Table 1: Demographic details of the participants
Adequately nourished N = 20 Malnourished N = 20
Mean age 5–7 years 8–10 years 5–7 years 8–10 years
5.8 years 8.8 years 6.3 years 9.3 years
Gender Girls:10 Boys: 10 Girls:10 Boys: 10
Stunted %
(height for age -2 SD from the median) —- 70%
Stunted and wasted %
(height for age and
weight for height: -2 SD from the median) —- 30%
Exclusion of behaviour problems and history of neurological disorders The children’s behaviour questionnaire form B [14] was administered to the class teachers of the identified children. Children who scored above the cut off score of 9 were not included in the sample. The personal data sheet was filled in consultation with the parents and teachers to rule out any history of any neurological/psychiatric disorders including head injury and epilepsy and one child with epilepsy was excluded. This was one of the exclusion criteria.
Exclusion of behaviour problems and history of neurological disorders The children’s behaviour questionnaire form B [14] was administered to the class teachers of the identified children. Children who scored above the cut off score of 9 were not included in the sample. The personal data sheet was filled in consultation with the parents and teachers to rule out any history of any neurological/psychiatric disorders including head injury and epilepsy and one child with epilepsy was excluded. This was one of the exclusion criteria.
The tests have been grouped under specific cognitive domains on the basis of theoretical rationale and factor analysis. Factor analysis has been done for the battery and the grouping of tests under cognitive functions like executive functions, visuospatial functions, comprehension and learning and memory was done on the basis of the clustering observed in factor analysis as well as on theoretical grounds
The neuropsychological battery consisted of the following tests:
1. Motor speed Finger tapping test [15]
2. Expressive speech Expressive speech test was administered to rule out speech related deficits
3. Attention Color trails test [18] is a measure of focused attention and conceptual tracking.
4.Color cancellation test [21] is a measure of visual scanning/selective attention
5. Executive functions FAS phonemic fluency test is a measure of verbal fluency.
6. Design fluency test [24] is a measure of design fluency, cognitive flexibility and imaginative capacity.
7. Visuo-spatial working memory span task [23]: This test is a measure of visuo-spatial working memory (VSWM) span.
8. Visuospatial functions Motor-free visual perception test [29] is a measure of visuoperceptual ability, having 36 items for visual discrimination, visual closure, figure-ground, perceptual matching and visual memory. Since this test has been originally developed for children between 5–8 years of age, it was modified and items in increasing difficulty level were added by the authors to make it applicable for the children above 8 years. Number of correct responses comprises the score.
9. Picture completion test [30] is a measure of visuoconceptual ability, visual organization and visuo-conceptual reasoning.
10. Block design test [30] is a measure of visuoconstructive ability.
11. Comprehension, learning and memory Token test [31] is a measure of verbal comprehension of commands of increasing complexity.
12.Rey’s auditory verbal learning test (RAVLT) [32] is a measure of verbal learning and memory.
13.Memory for designs test [34] is a measure of visual learning and memory.
Comparison between the performance of adequately nourished children and malnourished children Table 2.0 shows that malnourished group differed significantly from the adequately nourished group on tests of phonemic fluency, design fluency, selective attention, visuospatial working memory, visuospatial functions, verbal comprehension and verbal learning and memory showing poor performance. The two groups did not differ on the test of finger tapping. Since expressive speech was a question answer type assessment looking at repetitive speech, nominative speech and narrative speech, which is like an initial screening for aphasia, like symptoms. Since it did not give a quantitative score, hence was not taken for analysis. As a descriptive account of expressive speech it was observed that malnourished children did not have any difficulty with respect to expressive speech.
Comparison of age related differences in cognitive functions between adequately nourished and malnourished children Data was further subjected to post hoc analysis to compare the two groups across the two age groups to study the rate of improvement with age (Table 2). In both the age groups of 5–7 years and 8–10 years the adequately nourished children performed better than the malnourished children. Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 indicate age related improvement in performance across different cognitive functions in adequately nourished children as compared to malnourished children. Motor speed and coordination was not significantly affected in malnourished children as compared to the adequately nourished children (figure 1). The rate of age related improvement across the two age groups was found rapid on certain functions like selective attention (figure 2) and verbal fluency (figure 3) in malnourished children. However, working memory, design fluency, visuospatial functions, comprehension, learning, and memory showed slowing in terms of age related improvement in malnourished children. Most of the cognitive functions like design fluency (figure 3), working memory (figure 3), Visual perception (figure 4), visuoconceptual reasoning (figure 4), visual construction (figure 4), verbal comprehension (figure 5), verbal and visual memory (figures 6) have shown a very slow rate of improvement with respect to the difference in performance between the two age groups of 5–7 and 8–10 years. On the contrary functions like verbal fluency (figure 3), motor speed (figures 1), and selective attention (figure 2) showed similar rates of improvement in adequately nourished children and malnourished children while comparing the two age groups.
Table 2: Mean comparisons for the cognitive functions across the two age groups of adequately nourished and malnourished children (not shown)
Table 3: Post-hoc comparisons between adequately nourished and malnourished groups across the two age groups (not shown)
Figure 1 Age related comparisons between adequately nourished and malnourished children on motor speed (right and left hand) Age related comparisons between adequately nourished and malnourished children on motor speed (right and left hand). (not shown)
Figure 2 Age related comparisons between adequately nourished and malnourished children on selective attention (color cancellation test). (not shown)
Post-hoc comparisons were computed with Tukey’s posthoc tests to compare the means across age groups between malnourished and adequately nourished children for those test scores that showed significant effects. Hence, post hoc tests were not computed for the finger tapping test scores assessing motor speed. Table 3 presents the post-hoc results with the significance (probability level) levels of the differences across age groups and between adequately nourished and malnourished children. Post hoc results have been done to support our theoretical claims about the lack of age related improvement in certain cognitive functions on one hand and the nature of cognitive impairments on the other in malnourished children. Four comparisons were interpreted i.e., comparing performance between the two age groups of adequately nourished and malnourished children separately. The other comparison was between the adequately nourished and malnourished children for the age group of 5–7 years and similarly for the age group of 8–10 years. Results indicate age related differences within each group as well as between the two groups. Age related differences were found significant for some of the test scores between 5–7 and 8–10 year old children in the adequately nourished group but not for most of the test scores for malnourished group indicative of a delay in development of certain cognitive functions. Differences were found significant between the adequately nourished and malnourished children for the same age group for most of the test scores indicative of a deficit in a particular cognitive function. In few of the tests, performance was not found to be significantly different between the two age groups for both adequately nourished and malnourished children.
Discussion The findings of the present study could be discussed in terms of the effect of chronic malnutrition on neuropsychological performance and with respect to the rate of development of cognitive processes.
Effect of malnutrition on neuropsychological performance Our study indicates that malnourished children perform poor on most of the neuropsychological tests except that of motor speed as compared to adequately nourished children. Malnourished children showed poor performance on tests of higher cognitive functions like cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, visual perception, verbal comprehension, and memory. These findings are supported by another study on Indian malnourished children, which reported memory impairments in undernourished children and spared fine motor coordination [36]. Malnourished children showed poor performance on novel tasks like tests of executive functions i.e., working memory spatial locations. Poor performance on the tests of fluency and working memory also coincides with very slow rate of improvement between the age groups of 5–7 years and 8–10 years. Poor performance on most of the neuropsychological tests indicated a diffuse impairment including attention, executive functions, visuospatial functions, comprehension and memory.
Effect of malnutrition on cognitive development Both the groups were tested on a neuropsychological battery, which has been found to be sensitive to age related differences in cognitive functions in children (5–15 years). The age trends reported in the present study are based on the assessment that employed the NIMHANS neuropsychological battery for children [13]. The test battery has been standardized based on the growth curve modeling approach for empirical validation of age-related differences in performance on neuropsychological tests. The tests in the battery were found sensitive to show age related differences.
Malnourished children showed poor performance with respect to age as compared to adequately nourished children. The performance of malnourished children in the 5–7 years age group was poor and much lower than the adequately nourished children and did not seem to show much improvement in the 8–10 years age group. The rate of cognitive development was found to be different for different cognitive functions. The rate of development was affected for some of the cognitive functions showing minimal age related improvement across the age range of 5–7 years and 8–10 years such as design fluency, working memory, visual construction, verbal comprehension, learning and memory for verbal and visual material. On the contrary, age related improvement was observed on certain other cognitive functions in malnourished children, where the level of performance was low for both the age groups but the rate of improvement between the two age groups was similar to adequately nourished children.
Not shown
Figure 3 Age related comparisons between adequately nourished and malnourished children on executive functions.
MN 5–7 vs 8–10 p > .05 5–7 years AN vs MN p > .05 8–10 years AN vs MN p < .05 Visual memory (memory for designs test) AN 5–7 vs 8–10 p > .05 MN 5–7 vs 8–10 p > .05 5–7 years AN vs MN p < .05 8–10 years AN vs MN p < .05
Figure 4 Age related comparisons between adequately nourished and malnourished children on visuospatial functions.
Figure 5 Age related comparisons between adequately nourished and malnourished children on verbal comprehension and verbal learning.
Motor speed (right and left hand) was not found impaired in malnourished children and the rate of development was also found similar to adequately nourished children.
Executive functions such as design fluency, selective attention and working memory were found deficient in malnourished children also showing poor rate of improvement between the two age groups. All the three tests of executive functions like fluency, selective attention and working memory for spatial locations involved novel stimuli and performance required cognitive flexibility as well as faster information processing which was affected in malnourished children. Results also indicate that malnourished children showed a very slow rate of improvement on these functions.
Visuo-spatial functions like visual perception, visual construction and visuo-conceptual reasoning showed significantly poor performance when compared to the adequately nourished children but showed a steep age related improvement in performance. Performance on functions like visual perception (visual discrimination, perceptual matching, visual closure and visuospatial relationships) and visual construction was severely affected in malnourished children and also showed poor rate of improvement with age.
Verbal comprehension, learning and memory for verbal and visual material was found poor as compared to adequately nourished children but the rate of improvement between 5–7 years age group and 8–10 years age group was similar to that of adequately nourished children. These results suggest that development of comprehension with age might not be affected in malnourished children. However, other than the poor performance on the AVLT test of verbal learning, malnourished children also showed minimal improvement between the two age groups as compared to the greater magnitude of difference between the two age groups in adequately nourished children. Visual memory was most severely affected in malnourished children in terms of the poor performance on delayed recall on design learning test as well as in terms of the difference between the two age groups.
Malnutrition affects brain growth and development and hence future behavioral outcomes [37]. School-age children who suffered from early childhood malnutrition have generally been found to have poorer IQ levels, cognitive function, school achievement and greater behavioral problems than matched controls and, to a lesser extent, siblings. The disadvantages last at least until adolescence. There is no consistent evidence of a specific cognitive deficit [38]. The functional integrity of specific cognitive processes is less clear. Stunting in early childhood is common in developing countries and is associated with poorer cognition and school achievement in later childhood [39]. Deficits in children’s scores have been reported to be smaller at age 11 years than at age 8 years in a longitudinal study on malnourished children stunted children suggesting that adverse effects may decline over time [7]. In our study also all the children in malnourished group were stunted and the cross sectional assessment of age related improvement has shown similar rate of improvement across 5–7 years to 8–10 years age groups as observed in adequately nourished children though the baseline performance was low in malnourished children. These results indicate that the adverse effects of malnutrition (stunting in particular) may decline with age only for certain cognitive functions but the rate of cognitive development for most of the cognitive processes particularly higher cognitive processes including executive processes and visuospatial perception could be severely affected during the childhood years. Decline in the effects of malnutrition overtime has been reported to be independent of differences in educational, socioeconomic and psychosocial resources [7]. Hence, malnutrition (particularly stunting) may result in delayed development of cognitive processes during childhood years rather than a permanent generalized cognitive impairment.
The neuropsychological interpretation of the cognitive processes more severely affected in malnourished children suggests a diffuse cortical involvement. This is with reference to deficits pertaining to functions mediated by dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (poor performance on tests of attention, fluency and working memory), right parietal (poor performance on tests of visuospatial functions) and bilateral temporal cortex (poor performance on tests of comprehension, verbal learning, and memory for verbal and visual material). The prefrontal cortex may be particularly vulnerable to malnutrition [4]. The adverse effects of malnutrition (PEM-stunting) on cognitive development could be related to the delay in certain processes of structural and functional maturation like delayed myelination and reduced overall development of dendritic arborization of the developing brain [1].
The present study highlights two ways in which malnutrition particularly stunting could affect cognitive functions. On one hand age related improvement in cognitive performance is compromised and on the other hand there could be long lasting cognitive impairments as well. However, the effect is nor specific to a particular cognitive domain and is rather more diffuse. Results of the study also indicate that: certain cognitive functions could be vulnerable to the effect of malnutrition in terms of showing impairment but the rate of development of these functions may not be affected. On the other hand, rate of development of certain cognitive functions may be affected and may also show impairment when compared with adequately nourished children.
Conclusion Chronic protein energy malnutrition (stunting) results in cognitive impairments as well as slowing in the rate of the development of cognitive processes. Rate of development of cognitive functions may follow different patterns in children with malnutrition. Chronic protein energy malnutrition affects the development of cognitive processes differently during childhood years rather than merely showing an overall cognitive dysfunction as compared to adequately nourished children. Stunting could result in delay in the development of cognitive functions as well as in permanent cognitive impairments which show minimal improvement with increase in age. Rate of development of attention, executive functions like cognitive flexibility, working memory, visuospatial functions like visual construction is more severely affected by protein energy malnutrition in childhood years, a period that is marked by rapid ongoing development of cognitive functions.
Three groups of Ugandan children (20 in each group) and one comparison group of 20 children were examined between 11 and 17 years of age. The first three groups had been admitted to hospital for treatment of protein energy malnutrition between the ages of eight to 15, 16 to 21 and 22 to 27 months, respectively. The comparison group had not been clinically malnourished throughout the whole period up to 27 months of age. All the children came from one tribe and were individually matched for sex, age, education and home environment. It was found that the three malnourished groups fell significantly below the comparison group in anthropometric measurements and in tests of intellectual and motor abilities. No evidence was found for a relationship between the deficit and age at admission. Further analysis among the 60 malnourished children revealed that anthropometry and intellectual and motor abilities are the more affected the greater the degree of ‘chronic undernutrition’ at admission, but no correlation was found with the severity of the ‘acute malnutrition’. The results show a general impairment of intellectual abilities, with reasoning and spatial abilities most affected, memory and rote learning intermediately and language ability least, if at all, affected. These findings are discussed in the context of a comprehensive and critical appraisal of the existing literature.
Quake-Hit Nepal Gears up to Tackle Stunting in Children
HECHO, Nepal (Thomson Reuters Foundation) – Shanti Maharjan, who gave birth to a baby girl 10 days ago, has spent the last two months living under corrugated iron sheets with her husband and five others after two major earthquakes reduced her mud-and-brick home to rubble.
Adequate food, drinking water and aid such as tents and blankets have been hard to come by, she says, though scores of aid agencies rushed to the Himalayan nation to help survivors.
What worries the 26-year-old mother most is her inability to produce breastmilk for her new-born daughter, who she fears is at serious risk of malnutrition in the aftermath of the 7.8 and 7.3 magnitude quakes in April and May.
“The earthquake destroyed everything, including our food reserves,” said Maharjan, sitting under the iron sheeting on farmland on the outskirts of the capital, Kathmandu.
“There is not enough food. Getting meat, oil and fruits to eat is difficult in this situation. I am worried about my daughter’s nourishment,” she said as the baby, wrapped in a green cloth, lay sleeping on a wooden bed.
The government, aware that disruption caused by the quakes could worsen the country’s already high rate of child malnutrition is sending out teams of community nurses to give advice and food supplements to women and children in the affected areas.
A 2011 government study showed that more than 40% of Napel’s under-five-year-olds were stunted, showing that the country’s child malnutrition rate was one of the world’s highest.
Experts say the two quakes, which killed 8,895 people and destroyed half a million houses, could make things worse as survivors have inadequate food, water, shelter, healthcare and sanitation.
United Nations officials warn that the rate of stunting among children in the South Asian nation could return to the 2001 level of 57%, if authorities and aid agencies do not respond effectively.
“The risk of malnutrition is high and requires the nutrition and other sectors like agriculture, health, water, sanitation, education and social protection to respond adequately,” said Stanley Chitekwe, UNICEF’s nutrition chief in Nepal.
DRIVE TO NOURISH
Child malnutrition is an underlying cause of death for 3 million children annually around the world – nearly half of all child deaths – most of whom die from preventable illnesses such as diarrhoea due to weak immune systems.
Those lucky enough to survive grow up without enough energy, protein, vitamins and minerals, causing their brains and bodies to be stunted, and they are often unable to fulfill their potential.
Government officials admit the challenges, citing data showing that almost 70% of Nepali children under the age of two suffer from anaemia caused by iron deficiency.
“This shows that (poor) nutrition is a very big problem. The earthquake will further worsen the situation because people simply don’t have enough to eat, let alone have a nutritious diet,” said Health Ministry official Krishna Prasad Paudel.
Supported by UNICEF, authorities have now launched a drive to reach out to more than 500,000 women and children who need supplementary food and medicines.
More than 10,000 female community volunteers will be fanning out across 14 districts affected by the earthquakes, visiting devastated towns and villages and speaking to new and expectant mothers about breast-feeding their infants.
The volunteers will also advise families on eating locally available nutritious foods such as green vegetables and meat and will distribute vitamin A, iron and folic acid, and other micronutrient supplements to pregnant and breastfeeding women.
In Imadole, a prosperous district on the outskirts of the ancient town of Patan, health volunteer Urmila Sharma Dahal found an extremely thin two-year-old boy weighing 7.5 kg (16.5 pounds) last week, suffering from severe acute malnutrition.
Dahal said she provided his family with sachets of ready-to-use therapeutic food – a paste of peanut, sugar, milk powder, vitamin and oil – and the child gained nearly a kilo (2.2 pounds) in weight in just seven days.
“It does not take much. It can be done with small but right interventions,” said Dahal as she sat next to the child in the family’s brick-and-cement home.
Protein-energy malnutrition occurs due to inadequate intake of food and is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in children in developing countries (Grover and Ee 2009).
Protein energy malnutrition (PEM) has significant negative impacts on children’s growth and development (Grover and Ee 2009). Chronic PEM causes children to have stunted growth (low height for age) and to be underweight (low weight for age); it is estimated that among children under age five, one in every four is stunted and one in every six is underweight. PEM also causes two specific conditions in children: marasmus, which is characterized by an emaciated appearance, and kwashiorkor, in which children develop swollen bellies due to edema (abnormal accumulation of fluid) and discoloration of the hair because of pigment loss among other symptoms (UNWFP 2013b, Ahmed et al. 2012). Countries in sub-Saharan Africa and south Asia have the highest proportions of children suffering from PEM (UNWFP 2013a).
PEM causes direct mortality in children and also increases vulnerability to other serious diseases including diarrhea, pneumonia, and malaria. Children suffering from PEM have compromised immune systems, making them particularly susceptible to infectious diseases. Furthermore, PEM has negative impacts on children’s brain development, resulting in issues with memory and delayed motor function; these children have decreased ability to learn and have lower productivity as adults. PEM also has serious and potentially long-term impacts on other organ systems including the cardiovascular, respiratory, and gastrointestinal systems (Grover and Ee 2009).
Many adults in developing countries also suffer from PEM, with women disproportionately impacted compared with men, particularly in south Asian countries (UNWFP 2013a). Pregnant women who are undernourished can fall even further behind in their nutritional status due to the increased demand for nutrients by the developing fetus. Women who don’t gain sufficient weight during pregnancy are at increased risk for complications including maternal morbidity and mortality, low birth weight, and neonatal mortality. These women can also have difficulty providing sufficient quantities of breast milk, leading to malnutrition among neonates (Ahmed et al. 2012).
This e-Book is a comprehensive review of recent Original Research on METABOLOMICS and related opportunities for Targeted Therapy written by Experts, Authors, Writers. This is the first volume of the Series D: e-Books on BioMedicine – Metabolomics, Immunology, Infectious Diseases. It is written for comprehension at the third year medical student level, or as a reference for licensing board exams, but it is also written for the education of a first time baccalaureate degree reader in the biological sciences. Hopefully, it can be read with great interest by the undergraduate student who is undecided in the choice of a career. The results of Original Research are gaining value added for the e-Reader by the Methodology of Curation.The e-Book’s articles have been published on the Open Access Online Scientific Journal, since April 2012. All new articles on this subject, will continue to be incorporated, as published with periodical updates.
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Table of Contents forMetabolic Genomics & Pharmaceutics, Vol. I
Chapter 1: Metabolic Pathways
Chapter 2: Lipid Metabolism
Chapter 3: Cell Signaling
Chapter 4: Protein Synthesis and Degradation
Chapter 5: Sub-cellular Structure
Chapter 6: Proteomics
Chapter 7: Metabolomics
Chapter 8: Impairments in Pathological States: Endocrine Disorders; Stress
Hypermetabolism and Cancer
Chapter 9: Genomic Expression in Health and Disease
This is the first volume of the Series D: e-Books on BioMedicine – Metabolomics, Immunology, Infectious Diseases. It is written for comprehension at the third year medical student level, or as a reference for licensing board exams, but it is also written for the education of a first time bachalaureate degree reader in the biological sciences. Hopefully, it can be read with great interest by the undergraduate student who is undecided in the choice of a career.
In the Preface, I failed to disclose that the term Metabolomics applies to plants, animals, bacteria, and both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The metabolome for each organism is unique, but from an evolutionary perspective has metabolic pathways in common, and expressed in concert with the environment that these living creatures exist. The metabolome of each has adaptive accommodation with suppression and activation of pathways that are functional and necessary in balance, for its existence. Was it William Faulkner who said in his Nobel Prize acceptance that mankind shall not merely exist, but survive? That seems to be the overlying theme for all of life. If life cannot persist, a surviving “remnant” might continue. The history of life may well be etched into the genetic code, some of which is not expressed.
This work is apportioned into chapters in a sequence that is first directed at the major sources for the energy and the structure of life, in the carbohydrates, lipids, and fats, which are sourced from both plants and animals, and depending on their balance, results in an equilibrium, and a disequilibrium we refer to as disease. There is also a need to consider the nonorganic essentials which are derived from the soil, from water, and from the energy of the sun and the air we breathe, or in the case of water-bound metabolomes, dissolved gases.
In addition to the basic essential nutrients and their metabolic utilization, they are under cellular metabolic regulation that is tied to signaling pathways. In addition, the genetic expression of the organism is under regulatory control by the interaction of RNAs that interact with the chromatin genetic framework, with exosomes, and with protein modulators.This is referred to as epigenetics, but there are also drivers of metabolism that are shaped by the interactions between enzymes and substartes, and are related to the tertiary structure of a protein. The framework for diseases in a separate chapter. Pharmaceutical interventions that are designed to modulate specific metabolic targets are addressed as the pathways are unfolded. Neutraceuticals and plant based nutrition are covered in Chapter 8.
Chapter 1: Metabolic Pathways
Chapter 2. Lipid Metabolism
Chapter 3. Cell Signaling
Chapter 4. Protein Synthesis and Degradation
Chapter 5: Sub-cellular Structure
Chapter 6: Proteomics
Chapter 7: Metabolomics
Chapter 8. Impairments in Pathological States: Endocrine Disorders; Stress Hypermetabolism and Cancer
Metabolomics, Metabonomics and Functional Nutrition: the next step in nutritional metabolism and biotherapeutics
Reviewer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
The human genome is estimated to encode over 30,000 genes, and to be responsible for generating more than 100,000 functionally distinct proteins. Understanding the interrelationships among
genes,
gene products, and
dietary habits
is fundamental to identifying those who will benefit most from or be placed at risk by intervention strategies.
Unraveling the multitude of
nutrigenomic,
proteomic, and
metabolomic patterns
that arise from the ingestion of foods or their
bioactive food components
will not be simple but is likely to provide insights into a tailored approach to diet and health. The use of new and innovative technologies, such as
microarrays,
RNA interference, and
nanotechnologies,
will provide needed insights into molecular targets for specific bioactive food components and
how they harmonize to influence individual phenotypes(1).
Nutrigenetics asks the question how individual genetic disposition, manifesting as
single nucleotide polymorphisms,
copy-number polymorphisms and
epigenetic phenomena,
affects susceptibility to diet.
Nutrigenomics addresses the inverse relationship, that is how diet influences
gene transcription,
protein expression and
metabolism.
A major methodological challenge and first pre-requisite of nutrigenomics is integrating
genomics (gene analysis),
transcriptomics (gene expression analysis),
proteomics (protein expression analysis) and
metabonomics (metabolite profiling)
to define a “healthy” phenotype. The long-term deliverable of nutrigenomics is personalised nutrition (2).
Science is beginning to understand how genetic variation and epigenetic events
alter requirements for, and responses to, nutrients (nutrigenomics).
At the same time, methods for profiling almost all of the products of metabolism in a single sample of blood or urine are being developed (metabolomics). Relations between
diet and nutrigenomic and metabolomic profiles and
between those profiles and health
have become important components of research that could change clinical practice in nutrition.
Most nutrition studies assume that all persons have average dietary requirements, and the studies often
do not plan for a large subset of subjects who differ in requirements for a nutrient.
Large variances in responses that occur when such a population exists
can result in statistical analyses that argue for a null effect.
If nutrition studies could better identify responders and differentiate them from nonresponders on the basis of nutrigenomic or metabolomic profiles,
the sensitivity to detect differences between groups could be greatly increased, and
the resulting dietary recommendations could be appropriately targeted (3).
In recent years, nutrition research has moved from classical epidemiology and physiology to molecular biology and genetics. Following this trend,
Nutrigenomics has emerged as a novel and multidisciplinary research field in nutritional science that
aims to elucidate how diet can influence human health.
It is already well known that bioactive food compounds can interact with genes affecting
transcription factors,
protein expression and
metabolite production.
The study of these complex interactions requires the development of
advanced analytical approaches combined with bioinformatics.
Thus, to carry out these studies
Transcriptomics,
Proteomics and
Metabolomics
approaches are employed together with an adequate integration of the information that they provide(4).
Metabonomics is a diagnostic tool for metabolic classification of individuals with the asset of quantitative, non-invasive analysis of easily accessible human body fluids such as urine, blood and saliva. This feature also applies to some extent to Proteomics, with the constraint that
the latter discipline is more complex in terms of composition and dynamic range of the sample.
Apart from addressing the most complex “Ome”, Proteomics represents
the only platform that delivers not only markers for disposition and efficacy
but also targets of intervention.
Application of integrated Omic technologies will drive the understanding of
interrelated pathways in healthy and pathological conditions and
will help to define molecular ‘switchboards’,
necessary to develop disease related biomarkers.
This will contribute to the development of new preventive and therapeutic strategies for both pharmacological and nutritional interventions (5).
Human health is affected by many factors. Diet and inherited genes play an important role. Food constituents,
including secondary metabolites of fruits and vegetables, may
interact directly with DNA via methylation and changes in expression profiles (mRNA, proteins)
which results in metabolite content changes.
Many studies have shown that
food constituents may affect human health and
the exact knowledge of genotypes and food constituent interactions with
both genes and proteins may delay or prevent the onset of diseases.
Many high throughput methods have been employed to get some insight into the whole process and several examples of successful research, namely in the field of genomics and transcriptomics, exist. Studies on epigenetics and RNome significance have been launched. Proteomics and metabolomics need to encompass large numbers of experiments and linked data. Due to the nature of the proteins, as well as due to the properties of various metabolites, experimental approaches require the use of
comprehensive high throughput methods and a sufficiency of analysed tissue or body fluids (6).
New experimental tools that investigate gene function at the subcellular, cellular, organ, organismal, and ecosystem level need to be developed. New bioinformatics tools to analyze and extract meaning
from increasingly systems-based datasets will need to be developed.
These will require, in part, creation of entirely new tools. An important and revolutionary aspect of “The 2010 Project” is that it implicitly endorses
the allocation of resources to attempts to assign function to genes that have no known function.
This represents a significant departure from the common practice of defining and justifying a scientific goal based on the biological phenomena. The rationale for endorsing this radical change is that
for the first time it is feasible to envision a whole-systems approach to gene and protein function.
This whole-systems approach promises to be orders of magnitude more efficient than the conventional approach (7).
The Institute of Medicine recently convened a workshop to review the state of the various domains of nutritional genomics research and policy and to provide guidance for further development and translation of this knowledge into nutrition practice and policy (8). Nutritional genomics holds the promise to revolutionize both clinical and public health nutrition practice and facilitate the establishment of
(a) genome-informed nutrient and food-based dietary guidelines for disease prevention and healthful aging,
(b) individualized medical nutrition therapy for disease management, and
(c) better targeted public health nutrition interventions (including micronutrient fortification and supplementation) that
maximize benefit and minimize adverse outcomes within genetically diverse human populations.
As the field of nutritional genomics matures, which will include filling fundamental gaps in
knowledge of nutrient-genome interactions in health and disease and
demonstrating the potential benefits of customizing nutrition prescriptions based on genetics,
registered dietitians will be faced with the opportunity of making genetically driven dietary recommendations aimed at improving human health.
The new era of nutrition research translates empirical knowledge to evidence-based molecular science (9). Modern nutrition research focuses on
promoting health,
preventing or delaying the onset of disease,
optimizing performance, and
assessing risk.
Personalized nutrition is a conceptual analogue to personalized medicine and means adapting food to individual needs. Nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics
build the science foundation for understanding human variability in
preferences, requirements, and responses to diet and
may become the future tools for consumer assessment
motivated by personalized nutritional counseling for health maintenance and disease prevention.
The primary aim of ―omic‖ technologies is
the non-targeted identification of all gene products (transcripts, proteins, and metabolites) present in a specific biological sample.
By their nature, these technologies reveal unexpected properties of biological systems.
A second and more challenging aspect of ―omic‖ technologies is
the refined analysis of quantitative dynamics in biological systems (10).
For metabolomics, gas and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometryare well suited for coping with
high sample numbers in reliable measurement times with respect to
both technical accuracy and the identification and quantitation of small-molecular-weight metabolites.
This potential is a prerequisite for the analysis of dynamic systems. Thus, metabolomics is a key technology for systems biology.
In modern nutrition research, mass spectrometry has developed into a tool
to assess health, sensory as well as quality and safety aspects of food.
In this review, we focus on health-related benefits of food components and, accordingly,
on biomarkers of exposure (bioavailability) and bioefficacy.
Current nutrition research focuses on unraveling the link between
dietary patterns,
individual foods or
food constituents and
the physiological effects at cellular, tissue and whole body level
after acute and chronic uptake.
The bioavailability of bioactive food constituents as well as dose-effect correlations are key information to understand
the impact of food on defined health outcomes.
Both strongly depend on appropriate analytical tools
to identify and quantify minute amounts of individual compounds in highly complex matrices–food or biological fluids–and
to monitor molecular changes in the body in a highly specific and sensitive manner.
Based on these requirements,
mass spectrometry has become the analytical method of choice
with broad applications throughout all areas of nutrition research (11).
Recent advances in high data-density analytical techniques offer unrivaled promise for improved medical diagnostics in the coming decade. Genomics, proteomics and metabonomics (as well as a whole slew of less well known ―omics‖ technologies) provide a detailed descriptor of each individual. Relating the large quantity of data on many different individuals to their current (and possibly even future) phenotype is a task not well suited to classical multivariate statistics. The datasets generated by ―omics‖ techniques very often violate the requirements for multiple regression. However, another statistical approach exists, which is already well established in areas such as medicinal chemistry and process control, but which is new to medical diagnostics, that can overcome these problems. This approach, called megavariate analysis (MVA),
has the potential to revolutionise medical diagnostics in a broad range of diseases.
It opens up the possibility of expert systems that can diagnose the presence of many different diseases simultaneously, and
even make exacting predictions about the future diseases an individual is likely to suffer from (12).
Cardiovascular diseases
Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in Western countries. Although coronary thrombosis is the final event in acute coronary syndromes,
there is increasing evidence that inflammation also plays a role in development of atherosclerosis and its clinical manifestations, such as
myocardial infarction, stroke, and peripheral vascular disease.
The beneficial cardiovascular health effects of
diets rich in fruits and vegetables are in part mediated by their flavanol content.
This concept is supported by findings from small-scale intervention studies with surrogate endpoints including
endothelium-dependent vasodilation,
blood pressure,
platelet function, and
glucose tolerance.
Mechanistically, short term effects on endothelium-dependent vasodilation
following the consumption of flavanol-rich foods, as well as purified flavanols,
have been linked to an increased nitric oxide bioactivity.
The critical biological target(s) for flavanols have yet to be identified (13), but we are beginning to see over the horizon.
Nutritional sciences
Nutrition sciences apply
transcriptomics,
proteomics and
metabolomics
to molecularly assess nutritional adaptations.
Transcriptomics can generate a
holistic overview on molecular changes to dietary interventions.
Proteomics is most challenging because of the higher complexity of proteomes as compared to transcriptomes and metabolomes. However, it delivers
not only markers but also
targets of intervention, such as
enzymes or transporters, and
it is the platform of choice for discovering bioactive food proteins and peptides.
Metabolomics is a tool for metabolic characterization of individuals and
can deliver metabolic endpoints possibly related to health or disease.
Omics in nutrition should be deployed in an integrated fashion to elucidate biomarkers
for defining an individual’s susceptibility to diet in nutritional interventions and
for assessing food ingredient efficacy (14).
The more elaborate tools offered by metabolomics opened the door to exploring an active role played by adipose tissue that is affected by diet, race, sex, and probably age and activity. When the multifactorial is brought into play, and the effect of changes in diet and activities studied we leave the study of metabolomics and enter the world of ―metabonomics‖. Adiponectin and adipokines arrive (15-22). We shall discuss ―adiposity‖ later.
Potential Applications of Metabolomics
Either individually or grouped as a profile, metabolites are detected by either
nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy or mass spectrometry.
There is potential for a multitude of uses of metabolome research, including
the early detection and diagnosis of cancer and as
both a predictive and pharmacodynamic marker of drug effect.
However, the knowledge regarding metabolomics, its technical challenges, and clinical applications is unappreciated
even though when used as a translational research tool,
it can provide a link between the laboratory and clinic.
Precise numbers of human metabolites is unknown, with estimates ranging from the thousands to tens of thousands. Metabolomics is a term that encompasses several types of analyses, including
(a) metabolic fingerprinting, which measures a subset of the whole profile with little differentiation or quantitation of metabolites;
(b) metabolic profiling, the quantitative study of a group of metabolites, known or unknown, within or associated with a particular metabolic pathway; and
(c) target isotope-based analysis, which focuses on a particular segment of the metabolome by analyzing
only a few selected metabolites that comprise a specific biochemical pathway.
Dynamic Construct of the –Omics
Dynamic Construct of the –Omics
Iron metabolism – Anemia
Hepcidin is a key hormone governing mammalian iron homeostasis and may be directly or indirectly involved in the development of most iron deficiency/overload and inflammation-induced anemia. The anemia of chronic disease (ACD) is characterized by macrophage iron retention induced by cytokines and hepcidin regulation. Hepcidin controls cellular iron efflux on binding to the iron export protein ferroportin. While patients present with both ACD and iron deficiency anemia (ACD/IDA), the latter results from chronic blood loss. Iron retention during inflammation occurs in macrophages and the spleen, but not in the liver. In ACD, serum hepcidin concentrations are elevated, which is related to reduced duodenal and macrophage expression of ferroportin. Individuals with ACD/IDA have significantly lower hepcidin levels than ACD subjects. ACD/IDA patients, in contrast to ACD subjects, were able to absorb dietary iron from the gut and to mobilize iron from macrophages. Hepcidin elevation may affect iron transport in ACD and ACD/IDA and it is more responsive to iron demand with IDA than to inflammation. Hepcidin determination may aid in selecting appropriate therapy for these patients (23).
There is correlation between serum hepcidin, iron and inflammatory indicators associated with anemia of chronic disease (ACD), ACD, ACD concomitant iron-deficiency anemia (ACD/IDA), pure IDA and acute inflammation (AcI) patients. Hepcidin levels in anemia types were statistically different, from high to low: ACD, AcI > ACD/IDA > the control > IDA. Serum ferritin levels were significantly increased in ACD and AcI patients but were decreased significantly in ACD/IDA and IDA. Elevated serum EPO concentrations were found in ACD, ACD/IDA and IDA patients but not in AcI patients and the controls. A positive correlation exists between hepcidin and IL-6 levels only in ACD/IDA, AcI and the control groups. A positive correlation between hepcidin and ferritin was marked in the control group, while a negative correlation between hepcidin and ferritin was noted in IDA. The significant negative correlation between hepcidin expression and reticulocyte count was marked in both ACD/IDA and IDA groups. If the hepcidin role in pathogenesis of ACD, ACD/IDA and IDA, it could be a potential marker for detection and differentiation of these anemias (24).
Cancer
Because cancer cells are known to possess a highly unique metabolic phenotype, development of specific biomarkers in oncology is possible and might be used in identifying fingerprints, profiles, or signatures to detect the presence of cancer, determine prognosis, and/or assess the pharmacodynamic effects of therapy (25).
HDM2, a negative regulator of the tumor suppressor p53, is over-expressed in many cancers that retain wild-type p53. Consequently, the effectiveness of chemotherapies that induce p53 might be limited, and inhibitors of the HDM2–p53 interaction are being sought as tumor-selective drugs. A binding site within HDM2 has been dentified which can be blocked with peptides inducing p53 transcriptional activity. A recent report demonstrates the principle using drug-like small molecules that target HDM2 (26).
Obesity, CRP, interleukins, and chronic inflammatory disease
Elevated CRP levels and clinically raised CRP levels were present in 27.6% and 6.7% of the population, respectively. Both overweight (body mass index [BMI], 25-29.9 kg/m2) and obese (BMI, 30 kg/m2) persons were more likely to have elevated CRP levels than their normal-weight counterparts (BMI, <25 kg/m2). After adjusting for potential confounders, the odds ratio (OR) for elevated CRP was 2.13 for obese men and 6.21 for obese women. In addition, BMI was associated with clinically raised CRP levels in women, with an OR of 4.76 (95% CI, 3.42-6.61) for obese women. Waist-to-hip ratio was positively associated with both elevated and clinically raised CRP levels, independent of BMI. Restricting the analyses to young adults (aged 17-39 years) and excluding smokers, persons with inflammatory disease, cardiovascular disease, or diabetes mellitus and estrogen users did not change the main findings (27).
A study of C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 with measures of obesity and of chronic infection as their putative determinants related levels of C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 to markers of the insulin resistance syndrome and of endothelial dysfunction. Levels of C-reactive protein were significantly related to those of interleukin-6 (r=0.37, P<0.0005) and tumor necrosis factor-a (r=0.46, P<0.0001), and concentrations of C-reactive protein were related to insulin resistance as calculated from the homoeostasis model and to markers of endothelial dysfunction (plasma levels of von Willebrand factor, tissue plasminogen activator, and cellular fibronectin). A mean standard deviation score of levels of acute phase markers correlated closely with a similar score of insulin resistance syndrome variables (r=0.59, P<0.00005) and the data suggested that adipose tissue is an important determinant of a low level, chronic inflammatory state as reflected by levels of interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-a, and C-reactive protein (28).
A number of other studies have indicated the inflammatory ties of visceral obesity to adipose tissue metabolic profiles, suggesting a role in ―metabolic syndrome‖. There is now a concept of altered liver metabolism in ―non-alcoholic‖ fatty liver disease (NAFLD) progressing from steatosis to steatohepatitis (NASH) (31,32).
These unifying concepts were incomprehensible 50 years ago. It was only known that insulin is anabolic and that insulin deficiency (or resistance) would have consequences in the point of entry into the citric acid cycle, which generates 16 ATPs. In fat catabolism, triglycerides are hydrolyzed to break them into fatty acids and glycerol. In the liver the glycerol can be converted into glucose via dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate by way of gluconeogenesis. In the case of this cycle there is a tie in with both catabolism and anabolism.
For bypass of the Pyruvate Kinase reaction of Glycolysis, cleavage of 2 ~P bonds is required. The free energy change associated with cleavage of one ~P bond of ATP is insufficient to drive synthesis of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), since PEP has a higher negative G of phosphate hydrolysis than ATP.
The two enzymes that catalyze the reactions for bypass of the Pyruvate Kinase reaction are the following:
(b) PEP Carboxykinase (Gluconeogenesis) catalyzes:
oxaloacetate + GTP — phosphoenolpyruvate + GDP + CO2
The concept of anomalies in the pathways with respect to diabetes was sketchy then, and there was much to be filled in. This has been substantially done, and is by no means complete. However, one can see how this comes into play with diabetic ketoacidosis accompanied by gluconeogenesis and in severe injury or sepsis with peripheral proteolysis to provide gluconeogenic precursors. The reprioritization of liver synthetic processes is also brought into play with the conundrum of protein-energy malnutrition.
The picture began to be filled in with the improvements in technology that emerged at the end of the 1980s with the ability to profile tissue and body fluids by NMR and by MS. There was already a good inkling of a relationship of type 2 diabetes to major indicators of CVD (29,30). And a long suspected relationship between obesity and type 2 diabetes was evident. But how did it tie together?
End Stage Renal Disease and Cardiovascular Risk
Mortality is markedly elevated in patients with end-stage renal disease. The leading cause of death is cardiovascular disease.
As renal function declines,
the prevalence of both malnutrition and cardiovascular disease increase.
Malnutrition and vascular disease correlate with the levels of
markers of inflammation in patients treated with dialysis and in those not yet on dialysis.
The causes of inflammation are likely to be multifactorial. CRP levels are associated with cardio-vascular risk in the general population.
The changes in endothelial cell function,
in plasma proteins, and
in lpiids in inflammation
are likely to be atherogenic.
That cardiovascular risk is inversely correlated with serum cholesterol in dialysis patients, suggests that
hyperlipidemia plays a minor role in the incidence of cardiovascular disease.
Hypoalbuminemia, ascribed to malnutrition, has been one of the most powerful risk factors that predict all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in dialysis patients. The presence of inflammation, as evidenced by increased levels of specific cytokines (interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor a) or acute-phase proteins (C-reactive protein and serum amyloid A), however, has been found to be associated with vascular disease in the general population as well as in dialysis patients. Patients have
loss of muscle mass and changes in plasma composition—decreases in serum albumin, prealbumin, and transferrin levels, also associated with malnutrition.
Inflammation alters
lipoprotein structure and function as well as
endothelial structure and function
to favor atherogenesis and increases
the concentration of atherogenic proteins in serum.
In addition, proinflammatory compounds, such as
advanced glycation end products, accumulate in renal failure, and
defense mechanisms against oxidative injury are reduced,
contributing to inflammation and to its effect on the vascular endothelium (33,34).
Endogenous copper can play an important role in postischemic reperfusion injury, a condition associated with endothelial cell activation and increased interleukin 8 (IL-8) production. Excessive endothelial IL-8 secreted during trauma, major surgery, and sepsis may contribute to the development of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and multiple organ failure (MOF). No previous reports have indicated that copper has a direct role in stimulating human endothelial IL-8 secretion. Copper did not stimulate secretion of other cytokines. Cu(II) appeared to be the primary copper ion responsible for the observed increase in IL-8 because a specific high-affinity Cu(II)-binding peptide, d-Asp-d-Ala-d-Hisd-Lys (d-DAHK), completely abolished this effect in a dose-dependent manner. These results suggest that Cu(II) may induce endothelial IL-8 by a mechanism independent of known Cu(I) generation of reactive oxygen species (35).
Blood coagulation plays a key role among numerous mediating systems that are activated in inflammation. Receptors of the PAR family serve as sensors of serine proteinases of the blood clotting system in the target cells involved in inflammation. Activation of PAR_1 by thrombin and of PAR_2 by factor Xa leads to a rapid expression and exposure on the membrane of endothelial cells of both adhesive proteins that mediate an acute inflammatory reaction and of the tissue factor that initiates the blood coagulation cascade. Other receptors that can modulate responses of the cells activated by proteinases through PAR receptors are also involved in the association of coagulation and inflammation together with the receptors of the PAR family. The presence of PAR receptors on mast cells is responsible for their reactivity to thrombin and factor Xa , essential to the inflammation and blood clotting processes (36).
The understanding of regulation of the inflammatory process in chronic inflammatory diseases is advancing.
Evidence consistently indicates that T-cells play a key role in initiating and perpetuating inflammation, not only via the production of soluble mediators but also via cell/cell contact interactions with a variety of cell types through membrane receptors and their ligands. Signalling through CD40 and CD40 ligand is a versatile pathway that is potently involved in all these processes. Many inflammatory genes relevant to atherosclerosis are influenced by the transcriptional regulator nuclear factor κ B (NFκB). In these events T-cells become activated by dendritic cells or inflammatory cytokines, and these T-cells activate, in turn, monocytes / macrophages, endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts to produce pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, the coagulation cascade in vivo, and finally matrix metalloproteinases, responsible for tissue destruction. Moreover, CD40 ligand at inflammatory sites stimulates fibroblasts and tissue monocyte/macrophage production of VEGF, leading to angiogenesis, which promotes and maintains the chronic inflammatory process.
NFκB plays a pivotal role in co-ordinating the expression of genes involved in the immune and inflammatory response, evoking tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), chemokines such as monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and interleukin (IL)-8, matrix metalloproteinase enzymes (MMP), and genes involved in cell survival. A complex array of mechanisms, including T cell activation, leukocyte extravasation, tissue factor expression, MMP expression and activation, as well induction of cytokines and chemokines, implicated in atherosclerosis, are regulated by NFκB.
Expression of NFκB in the atherosclerotic milieu may have a number of potentially harmful consequences. IL-1 activates NFκB upregulating expression of MMP-1, -3, and -9. Oxidized LDL increases macrophage MMP-9, associated with increased nuclear binding of NFκB and AP-1. Expression of tissue factor, initiating the coagulation cascade, is regulated by NFκB. In atherosclerotic plaque cells, tissue factor antigen and activity were inhibited following over-expression of IκBα and dominant-negative IKK-2, but not by dominant negative IKK-1 or NIK. Tis supports the concept that activation of the ―canonical‖ pathway upregulates pro-thrombotic mediators involved in disease. Many of the cytokines and chemokines which have been detected in human atherosclerotic plaques are also regulated by NFκB. Over-expression of IκBα inhibits release of TNFα, IL-1, IL-6, and IL-8 in macrophages stimulated with LPS and CD40 ligand (CD40L). This report describes how NFκB activation upregulates major pro-inflammatory and pro-thrombotic mediators of atherosclerosis (37-41).
This review is both focused and comprehensive. The details of evolving methods are avoided in order to build the argument that a very rapid expansion of discovery has been evolving depicting disease, disease mechanisms, disease associations, metabolic biomarkers, study of effects of diet and diet modification, and opportunities for targeted drug development. The extent of future success will depend on the duration and strength of the developed interventions, and possibly the avoidance of dead end interventions that are unexpectedly bypassed. I anticipate the prospects for the interplay between genomics, metabolomics, metabonomics, and personalized medicine may be realized for several of the most common conditions worldwide within a few decades (42-44).
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This article presents Advances in the Treatment using Subcutaneous Erythropoietin (EPO) and Intravenous Iron (Fe) for IMPROVEMENT of Severe and Resistant Congestive Heart Failure and its resultant Anemia. The Leading Biomarker for Congestive Heart Failure is an Independent Predictor identified as an Elevated N-terminal proBNP.
FIRST ARTICLE
Anemia as an Independent Predictor of Elevated N-terminal proBNP
Salman A. Haq, MD1, Mohammad E. Alam2, Larry Bernstein, MD, FCAP3, LB Banko 1, Leonard Y. Lee, MD, FACS4, Barry I. Saul, MD, FACC5, Terrence J. Sacchi, MD, FACC6, John F. Heitner, MD, FACC7
1Cardiology Fellow, 2 Clinical Chemistry Laboratories, 3 Program Director, Cardiothoracic Surgery, 4 Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, New York Methodist Hospital-Weill Cornell, Brooklyn, NY
(Unpublished manuscript) Poster Presentation
SECOND ARTICLE
The effect of correction of mild anemia in severe, resistant congestive heart failure using subcutaneous erythropoietin and intravenous iron: a randomized controlled study
Donald S Silverberg, MDa; Dov Wexler, MDa; David Sheps, MDa; Miriam Blum, MDa; Gad Keren, MDa; Ron Baruch, MDa; Doron Schwartz, MDa; Tatyana Yachnin, MDa; Shoshana Steinbruch, RNa; Itzhak Shapira, MDa; Shlomo Laniado, MDa; Adrian Iaina, MDa
J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37(7):1775-1780. doi:10.1016/S0735-1097(01)01248-7
The use of subcutaneous erythropoietin and intravenous iron for the treatment of the anemia of severe, resistant congestive heart failure improves cardiac and renal function and functional cardiac class, and markedly reduces hospitalizations
Donald S Silverberg, MDa; Dov Wexler, MDa; Miriam Blum, MDa; Gad Keren, MDa; David Sheps, MDa; Eyal Leibovitch, MDa; David Brosh, MDa; Shlomo Laniado, MDa; Doron Schwartz, MDa; Tatyana Yachnin, MDa; Itzhak Shapira, MDa; Dov Gavish, MDa; Ron Baruch, MDa; Bella Koifman, MDa; Carl Kaplan, MDa; Shoshana Steinbruch, RNa; Adrian Iaina, MDa
J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;35(7):1737-1744. doi:10.1016/S0735-1097(00)00613-6
This THREE article sequence is related by investigations occurring by me, a very skilled cardiologist and his resident, and my premedical student at New York Methodist Hospital-Weill Cornell, in Brooklyn, NY, while a study had earlier been done applying the concordant discovery, which the team in Israel had though was knowledge neglected. There certainly was no interest in the problem of the effect of anemia on the patient with severe congestive heart failure, even though erythropoietin was used widely in patients with end-stage renal disease requiring dialysis, and also for patients with myelofibrosis. The high cost of EPO was only one factor, the other being a guideline to maintain the Hb concentration at or near 11 g/dl – not higher. In the first article, the authors sought to determine whether the amino terminal pro– brain type natriuretic peptide (NT-pro BNP) is affected by anemia, and to determine that they excluded all patients who had renal insufficiency and/or CHF, since these were associated with elevated NT-proBNP. It was already well established that this pro-peptide is secreted by the heart with the action as a urinary sodium retention hormone on the kidney nephron, the result being an increase in blood volume. Perhaps the adaptation would lead to increased stroke volume from increased venous return, but that is not conjectured. However, at equilibrium, one would expect there to be increased red cell production to maintain the cell to plasma volume ratio, thereby, resulting in adequate oxygen exchange to the tissues. Whether that is always possible is uncertain because any reduction in the number of functioning nephrons would make the kidney not fully responsive at the Na+ exchange level, and the NT-pro BNP would rise. This introduces complexity into the investigation, requiring a removal of confounders to establish the effect of anemia.
The other two articles are related studies by the same group in Israel. They surmised that there was evidence that was being ignored as to the effect of anemia, and the treatment of anemia was essential in addition to other treatments. They carried out a randomized trial to determine just that, a benefit to treating the anemia. But they also conjectured that an anemia with a Hb concentration below 12 g/dl has an deleterious effect on the targeted population. Treatment by intermittent transfusions could potentially provide the added oxygen-carrying capacity, but the fractionation of blood, the potential for transfusion-transmitted disease and transfusion-reactions, combined with the need for the blood for traumatic blood loss made EPO a more favorable alternative to packed RBCs. The proof-of-concept is told below. Patients randomized to receive EPO at a lower than standard dose + iron did better.
Introduction
In this article, Erythropoietin (EPO) and Intravenous Iron (Fe) as Therapeutics for Anemia in Severe and Resistant CHF: The Elevated N-terminal proBNP Biomarker we provides a summary of three articles on the topic and we shading new light on the role that Anemia Hb < 12 g% plays as a Biomarker for CHF and for
prediction of elevated BNP, known as an indicator for the following Clinical Uses:
Prognosis in newly diagnosed heart failure patients: prediction of mortality/survival1
BNP
98
22
42
94
NT-proBNP
95
37
47
93
Prognosis post myocardial infarction: prediction of mortality2
BNP
86
72
39
96
NT-proBNP
91
72
39
97
Prognosis post myocardial infarction: prediction of heart failure2
BNP
85
73
54
93
NT-proBNP
82
69
50
91
PPV, positive predictive value; NPV, negative predictive value; LVEF, left ventricular ejection fraction; NG, not given.
Reference Range
BNP:
< 100 pg/mL13
proBNP, N-terminal:
≤ 300 pg/mL
The NT-proBNP reference range is based on EDTA plasma. Other sample types will produce higher values.
Interpretive Information
Symptomatic patients who present with a BNP or NT-proBNP level within the normal reference range are highly unlikely to have CHF. Conversely, an elevated baseline level indicates the need for further cardiac assessment and indicates the patient is at increased risk for future heart failure and mortality.BNP levels increase with age in the general population, with the highest concentrations seen in those greater than 75 years of age.14 Heart failure is unlikely in individuals with a BNP level <100 pg/mL and proBNP level ≤300 pg/mL. Heart failure is very likely in individuals with a BNP level >500 pg/mL and proBNP level ≥450 pg/mL who are <50 years of age, or ≥900 pg/mL for patients ≥50 years of age. Patients in between are either hypertensive or have mild ischemic or valvular disease and should be observed closely.15BNP is increased in CHF, left ventricular hypertrophy, acute myocardial infarction, atrial fibrillation, cardiac amyloidosis, and essential hypertension. Elevations are also observed in right ventricular dysfunction, pulmonary hypertension, acute lung injury, subarachnoid hemorrhage, hypervolemic states, chronic renal failure, and cirrhosis.NT-proBNP levels are increased in CHF, left ventricular dysfunction, myocardial infarction, valvular disease, hypertensive pregnancy, and renal failure, even after hemodialysis.Although levels of BNP and NT-proBNP are similar in normal individuals, NT-proBNP levels are substantially greater than BNP levels in patients with cardiac disease due to increased stability (half-life) of NT-proBNP in circulation. Thus, results from the two tests are not interchangeable.
References
Cowie MR and Mendez GF. BNP and congestive heart failure. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2002;44:293-321.
Richards AM, Nicholls MG, Yandle TG, et al. Plasma N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide and adrenomedullin. New neurohormonal predictors of left ventricular function and prognosis after myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1998:97:1921-1929.
Hammerer-Lercher A, Neubauer E, Muller S, et al. Head-to-head comparison of N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide, brain natriuretic peptide and N-terminal pro-atrial natriuretic peptide in diagnosing left ventricular dysfunction. Clin Chim Acta. 2001;310:193-197.
McDonagh TA, Robb SD, Murdoch DR, et al. Biochemical detection of left-ventricular systolic dysfunction. Lancet. 1998;351:9-13.
Mukoyama Y, Nakao K, Hosoda K, et al. Brain natriuretic peptide as a novel cardiac hormone in humans: Evidence for an exquisite dual natriuretic peptide system, ANP and BNP. J Clin Invest. 1991;87:1402-1412.
Hunt PJ, Richards AM, Nicholls MG, et al. Immunoreactive amino-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-PROBNP): a new marker of cardiac impairment. Clin Endocrinol. 1997;47:287-296.
Davis M, Espiner E, Richards G, et al. Plasma brain natriuretic peptide in assessment of acute dyspnoea. Lancet. 1994;343:440-444.
Kohno M, Horio T, Yokokawa K, et al. Brain natriuretic peptide as a cardiac hormone in essential hypertension. Am J Med. 1992;92:29-34.
Bettencourt P, Ferreira A, Pardal-Oliveira N, et al. Clinical significance of brain natriuretic peptide in patients with postmyocardial infarction. Clin Cardiol. 2000;23:921-927.
Jernberg T, Stridsberg M, Venge P, et al. N-terminal pro brain natriuretic peptide on admission for early risk stratification of patients with chest pain and no ST-segment elevation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;40:437-445.
Richards AM, Troughton RW. Use of natriuretic peptides to guide and monitor heart failure therapy. Clin Chem. 2012;58:62-71.
Pfister R, Scholz M, Wielckens K, et al. The value of natriuretic peptides NT-pro-BNP and BNP for the assessment of left-ventricular volume and function. A prospective study of 150 patients.Dtsch Med Wochenschr. 2002;127:2605-2609.
Redfield MM, Rodeheffer RJ, Jacobsen SJ, et al. Plasma brain natriuretic peptide concentration: impact of age and gender. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;40:976-982.
Weber M, Hamm C. Role of B-type natriuretic peptid (BNP) and NT-proBNP in clinical routine.Heart. 2006;92:843-849.
Anemia as an Independent Predictor of Elevated N-terminal proBNP
Salman A. Haq, MD1, Mohammad E. Alam2, Larry Bernstein, MD, FCAP3, LB Banko 1, Leonard Y. Lee, MD, FACS4, Barry I. Saul, MD, FACC5, Terrence J. Sacchi, MD, FACC6, John F. Heitner, MD, FACC7
1Cardiology Fellow, 2 Clinical Chemistry Laboratories, 3 Program Director, Cardiothoracic Surgery, 4 Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, New York Methodist Hospital-Weill Cornell, Brooklyn, NY
(Unpublished manuscript) Poster Presentation:
Anemia as an Independent Predictor of Elevated N-Terminal proBNP Levels in
Patients without Evidence of Heart Failure and Normal Renal Function.
Haq SA, Alam ME, Bernstein L, Banko LB, Saul BI, Lee LY, Sacchi TJ, Heitner JF.
Table 1. Patient Characteristics
Variable
No Anemia(n=138)
Anemia(n=80)
Median Age (years)
63
76
Men (%)
35
33
Creatinine (mg/dl)
0.96
1.04
Hemoglobin (g/dl)
13.7
10.2
LVEF (%)
67
63
Median NT-proBNP (pg/ml)
321.6
1896.0
A series of slide showing the determination of the representation of normal NT-proBNP range
after removal of patient confounders.
ABSTRACT
Introduction
N-terminal proBNP (NT-proBNP) has emerged as a primary tool for diagnosing congestive heart failure (CHF). Studies have shown that the level of
NT-proBNP is affected by renal insufficiency (RI) and age, independent of the diagnosis of CHF.
There is some suggestion from recent studies that
anemia may also independently affect NT-proBNP levels.
Objective
To assess the affect of anemia on NT-proBNP independent of CHF, RI, and age.
Methods
We evaluated 746 consecutive patients presenting to the Emergency Department (ED) with shortness of breath and underwent evaluation with serum NT-proBNP.
All patients underwent a trans-thoracic echocardiogram (TTE) and clinical evaluation for CHF. Patients were included in this study if they had a normal TTE (normal systolic function, mitral inflow pattern and left ventricular (LV) wall thickness) and no evidence of CHF based on clinical evaluation. Patients were excluded if they had RI (creatinine > 2 mg/dl) or a diagnosis of sepsis. Anemia was defined using the World Health Organization (W.H.O.) definition of
hemoglobin (hgb) < 13 g/dl for males and hgb < 12 g/dl for females.
Results
Of the 746 consecutive patients, 218 patients (138 anemia, 80 no anemia) met the inclusion criteria. There was a markedly significant difference between
NT- proBNP levels based on the W.H.O. diagnosis of anemia.
Patients with anemia had a
mean NT- proBNP of 4,735 pg/ml compared to 1,230 pg/ml in patients without anemia (p=0.0001).
There was a markedly
significant difference in patients who had a hgb > 12 (median 295 pg/ml) when compared to
both patients with an hgb of 10.0 to 11.9 (median 2,102 pg/ml; p = 0.0001) and
those with a hgb < 10 (median 2,131 pg/ml; p = 0.001).
Linear regression analysis comparing hgb with log NT-proBNP was statistically significant (r = 0.395; p = 0.0001). MANOVA demonstrated that
elevated NT- proBNP levels in patients with anemia was independent of age.
Conclusion
This study shows that NT-proBNP is associated with anemia independent of CHF, renal insufficiency, sepsis or age.
INTRODUCTION
B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) is secreted from the myocardium in response to myocyte stretch. 1-2 BNP is released from the myocytes as a 76 aminoacid N-terminal fragment (NT-proBNP) and a 32-amino acid active hormone (BNP). 3 These peptides have emerged as a primary non-invasive modality for the diagnosis of congestive heart failure (CHF). 4- 7 In addition, these peptides have demonstrated prognostic significance in patients with invasive modality for the diagnosis of
congestive heart failure (CHF). 4- 7
heart failure 8-9,
stable coronary artery disease 10, and
in patients with acute coronary syndromes. 11-14
Studies have shown that the level of NT- proBNP is affected by
age and renal insufficiency (RI) independent of the diagnosis of CHF. 15,16
There is some suggestion from the literature that
anemia may also independently affect NT-proBNP levels. 17-20
Willis et al. demonstrated in a cohort of 209 patients without heart failure that anemia was associated with an elevated NT- proBNP. 17 Similarly, in 217 patients undergoing cardiac catheterization, blood samples were drawn from the descending aorta prior to contrast ventriculography for BNP measurements and
anemia was found to be an independent predictor of plasma BNP levels. 18
The objective of this study is to assess the effect of anemia on NT-proBNP independent of CHF, sepsis, age or renal insufficiency.
METHODS
Patient population
The study population consisted of 746 consecutive patients presenting to the emergency room who underwent NT-proBNP evaluation for the evaluation of dyspnea. Transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE) was available on 595 patients. Patients were included in this study if they had a normal TTE, which was defined as normal systolic function (left ventricular ejection fraction [LVEF] > 45%), normal mitral inflow pattern and normal LV wall thickness. CHF was excluded based on thorough clinical evaluation by the emergency department attending and the attending medical physician. Patients with disease states that may affect the NT- proBNP levels were also excluded:
left ventricular systolic dysfunction (LVEF < 45%),
renal insufficiency defined as a creatinine > 2 mg/dl and
sepsis (defined as positive blood cultures with two or more of the following systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) criteria: heart rate > 90 beats per minute;
body temperature < 36 (96.8 °F) or > 38 °C (100.4 °F);
hyperventilation (high respiratory rate) > 20 breaths per minute or, on blood gas, a PaCO2 less than 32 mm Hg;
white blood cell count < 4000 cells/mm3 or > 12000 cells/mm³ (< 4 x 109 or > 12 x 109 cells/L), or greater than 10% band forms (immature white blood cells). 21
The study population was then divided into two groups, anemic and non- anemic. Anemia was defined using the world health organization (W.H.O.) definition of hemoglobin (hgb) < 13 g/dl for males and < 12 g/dl for females.The data was also analyzed by dividing the patients into three groups based on hgb levels i.e. hgb > 12, hgb 10 to 11.9 and hgb < 10.
Baseline patient data
Patient’s baseline data including age, gender, ethnicity, hemoglobin (hgb), hematocrit (hct), creatinine, NT- proBNP were recorded from the electronic medical record system in our institution. Chemistry results were performed on the Roche Modular System (Indianapolis, IN), with the NT- proBNP done by chemiluminescence assay. The hemogram was performed on the Beckman Coulter GenS. All TTE’s were performed on Sonos 5500 machine. TTE data collected included LVEF, mitral inflow pattern and LV wall thickness assessment.
Statistical analysis
The results are reported in the means with p < 0.05 as the measure of significance for difference between means. Independent Student’s t-tests were done comparing NT proBNP and anemia. Univariate ANOVAs and multivariate ANOVA (MANOVA) with post hoc tests using the Bonferroni method were used to compare NT- proBNP levels with varying ranges of hgb and age using SPSS 13.0 (SPSS, Chicago, IL). A linear regression analysis was performed using SYSTAT. Calculations included Wilks’Lamda, Pillai trace and Hotelling-Lawley trace. A GOLDMineR® plot was constructed to estimate the effects of age and anemia on NT- proBNP levels. The GOLDMineR® effects plot displays the odds-ratios for predicted NT-proBNP elevation versus the predictor values. Unlike the logistic regression, the ordinal regression, which the plot is derived from, can have polychotomous as well as dichotomous values, as is the case for NT-proBNP.
RESULTS
Of the 746 consecutive patients, 218 patients met the inclusion criteria (fig 1). Baseline characteristics of patients are listed in table 1. The median age for anemic patients was 76 years and 63 years for patients without anemia. One third of patients in both groups were men. The mean hemoglobin for
anemic patients was 10.2 g/dl as compared to 13.7 g/dl for non-anemic patients.
The mean LVEF of patients with anemia was 64% as compared to 67% for non-anemic patients.
Based on the WHO definition of anemia, 138 patients were determined to be anemic while 80 patients were diagnosed as non-anemic. There was a markedly significant difference between NT-proBNP levels based on the WHO diagnosis of anemia.
Patients with anemia had a
mean NT-proBNP of 4,735 pg/ml compared to 1,230 pg/ml in patients without anemia (p = 0.0001).
Of the 218 patients in the study, 55 patients had a hgb of < 10 g/dl. Analysis using
hgb < 10 g/dl for anemia demonstrated a statistically significant difference in the NT-proBNP values.
Patients with a hgb < 10 g/dl had a mean NT- proBNP of 5,130 pg/ml
compared to 2,882 pg/ml in patients with a hgb of > 10 g/dl (p = 0.01)
The groups were also divided into three separate categories of hgb for subset analysis:
hgb > 12 g/dl,
hgb 10 to 11.9 g/dl and
hgb < 10 g/dl.
There was a markedly significant difference in
the NT- ProBNP levels of patients who had a hgb > 12 g/dl (median 295 pg/ml) when
compared to those with a hgb range of 10.0 g/dl to 11.9 g/dl (median 2,102 pg/ml) (p = 0.0001),
and also a significant difference in
NT- proBNP levels of patients with a hgb > 12 g/dl (median 295 pg/ml) when
compared to a hgb of < 10 g/dl (median 2,131 pg/ml) (p = 0.001).
However, there was no statistically significant difference in NT-proBNP levels of patients with hgb 10 g/dl to 11.9 g/dl
when compared to those with a hgb of < 10 g/dl (p = 1.0).
A scatter plot comparing hgb with log NT-proBNP and fitting of a line to the data by ordinary least squares regression was significant (p = 0.0001) and demonstrated
a correlation between anemia and NT-proBNP levels (r = 0.395) (fig. 2).
MANOVA demonstrated that elevated NT- proBNP levels in patients with anemia was independent of age (Wilks’ Lambda [p = 0.0001]). In addition, using GOLDMineR® plots (figure 3a and 3b) with a combination of age and hb scaled as predictors of elevated NT-proBNP,
both age and hgb were required as independent predictors.
What about the effect of anemia? The GOLDminer analysis of ordinal regression was carried out in a database from which renal insufficiency and CHF were removed. The anemia would appear to have an independent effect on renal insufficiency. Figure 4 is a boxplot comparison of NT – proBNP, the age normalized function NKLog (NT- proBNP)/eGFR formed from taking 1000*Log(NT- proBNP) divided by the MDRD at eGFR exceeding 60 ml/min/m2 and exceeding 30 ml/min/m2. The transformed variable substantially makes the test independent of age and renal function. The boxplot shows the medians, 97.5, 75, 25 and 2.5 percentiles. There appears to be no significance in the NKLog(NT pro-BNP)/MDRD plot. Table II compares the NT-proBNP by WHO criteria at eGFR 45, 60 and 75 ml/mln/m2 using the t-test with unequal variance assumed, and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for nonparametric measures of significance. The significance at 60 ml/min/m2 is marginal and nonexistent at 75 ml/min/m2. This suggests that the contribution from renal function at above 60 ml/min2 can be ignored. This is consistent with the findings using the smaller, trimmed database, but there is an interaction between
anemia, and
eGFR at levels below 60 ml/min/m2
DISCUSSION
The findings in this study indicate that
anemia was associated with elevated NT-proBNP levels independent of CHF, renal insufficiency, sepsis or age.
These findings have been demonstrated with NT-proBNP in only one previous study. Wallis et al. demonstrated that after adjusting for age, sex, BMI, GFR, LVH and valvular disease;
only age,
valvular disease and
low hemoglobin
were significantly associated with increased NT-proBNP. 18.
In our study, CHF was excluded based on both a normal TTE and a thorough clinical evaluation. In the only other study directly looking at NT- proBNP levels in anemic patients without heart failure
only 25% of patients had TTEs, with one patient having an LVEF of 40%. 17
BNP, the active molecule released after cleavage along with NT- proBNP, has also been studied in relation to blood hemoglobin levels. 18 In 263 patients undergoing cardiac catheterization blood samples were drawn from the descending aorta prior to contrast ventriculography to determine the value of BNP. Anemia was present in 217 patients. Multivariate linear regression model adjusting for
age,
gender,
body mass index,
history of myocardial infarction,
estimated creatinine clearance, and
LVEF
found hgb to be an independent predictor of BNP levels.
In our study, patients with anemia were slightly older than those without anemia. However, both MANOVA and GOLDMineR® plot demonstrated that
elevated NT-proBNP levels in patients with anemia was independent of age.
Other studies have found that BNP is dependent on renal insufficiency and age. Raymond et al. randomly selected patients to complete questionnaires regarding CHF and
then underwent pulse and blood pressure measurements,
electrocardiogram (ECG),
echocardiography and
blood sampling. 15
A total of 672 subjects were screened and 130 were determined to be normal, defined as
no CHF or ischemic heart disease,
normal LVEF,
no hypertension,
diabetes mellitus,
lung disease, and
not on any cardiovascular drugs.
They found
older age,
increasing dyspnea,
high plasma creatinine and a
LVEF < 45%
to be independently associated with an elevated NT-proBNP plasma level by multiple linear regression analysis. In another study, McCullough et al. evaluated the patients from the Breathing Not ProperlyMultinational Study
looking at the relationship between BNP and renal function in CHF. 16
Patients were excluded if they were on hemodialysis or had a estimated glomerular filteration rate (eGFR) of < 15 ml/min. They found that the BNP levels correlated significantly with the eGFR, especially in patients without CHF, suggesting
chronic increased blood volume and
increased left ventricular wall tension as a possible cause. 16
Our study was designed to exclude patients with known diseases such as CHF and renal insufficiency in order to demonstrate
the independent effect of anemia on elevated NT-proBNP levels.
The mechanism for elevated NT-proBNP levels in patients with anemia is unknown. Some possible mechanisms that have been reported in the literature include
hemodilution secondary to fluid retention in patients with CHF 18,
decreased oxygen carrying capacity with accompanying tissue hypoxia which
stimulates the cardio-renal compensatory mechanism leading to increased release of NT-proBNP. 17
The findings from our study suggest that
NT-proBNP values should not be interpreted in isolation of hemoglobin levels and
should be integrated with other important clinical findings for the diagnosis of CHF.
Further studies are warranted
to assess the relationship between anemia and plasma natriuretic peptides, and
possibly modify the NT-proBNP cutoff points for diagnosing acutely decompensated CHF in patients with anemia.
CONCLUSION
This study shows that elevated NT-proBNP levels are associated with anemia independent of
CHF,
renal insufficiency,
sepsis and
age.
NT-proBNP levels should be interpreted with caution in patients who have anemia.
REFERENCES
1. Brunea BG, Piazza LA, de Bold AJ. BNP gene expression is specifically modulated by stretch and ET-1 in a new model of isolated rat atria.Am J Physiol 1997; 273:H2678-86.
2. Wiese S, Breyer T, Dragu A, et al. Gene expression of brain natriuretic peptide in isolated atrial and ventricular human myocardium: influence of angiotensin II and diastolic fiber length. Circ 2000; 102:3074-79.
3. de Lemos JA, McGuire DK, Drazner MH. B-type natriuretic peptide in cardiovascular disease. Lancet 2003; 362:316-22.
4. Dao Q, Krishnaswamy P, Kazanegra R, et al. Utility of B-type natriuretic peptide in the diagnosis of congestive heart failure in an urgent care setting. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001; 37:379-85.
5. Morrison LK, Harrison A, Krishnaswamy P, Kazanegra R, Clopton P, Maisel A. Utility of rapid natriuretic peptide assay in differentiating congestive heart failure from lung disease in patients presenting with dyspnea.
J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 39:202-09.
6. Maisel AS, Krishnaswamy P, Nowak RM, et al. Rapid measurement of B-type natriuretic peptide in the emergency diagnosis of heart failure. N Engl J Med 2002; 347:161-67.
7. Januzzi JL, Camargo CA, Anwaruddin S, et al. The N-terminal Pro-BNP investigation of dyspnea in the emergency department (PRIDE) study. Am J Cardiol 2005; 95:948-954.
8. Tsutamoto T, Wada A, Meada K, et al. Attenuation of compensation of endogenous cardiac natriuretic peptide system in chronic heart failure: prognostic role of plasma brain natriuretic peptide concentration in patients with chronic symptomatic left ventricular dysfunction.
Circulation 1997; 96(2): 509-16.
9. Anand IS, Fisher LD, Chiang YT, et al. Changes in brain natriuretic peptide and norepinephrine over time and mortality and morbidity in the Valsartan Heart Failure Trial (Val-HEFT). Circulation 2003; 107:1278-1283.
10. Omland T, Richards AM, Wergeland R and Vik-Mo H. B-type natriuretic peptide and long term survival in patients with stable coronary artery disease.
Am J Cardiol 2005; 95:24-28.
11. Omland T, Aakvaag A, Bonarjee VV. et al. Plasma brain natriuretic peptide as an indicator of left ventricular systolic dysfunction and long term prognosis after acute myocardial infarction. Comparison with plasma atrial natriuretic peptide and N-terminal proatrial natriuretic peptide.
Circulation 1996; 93:1963-1969.
12. de Lemos JA, Morrow DA, Bently JH, et al. The prognostic value of B-type natriuretic peptide in patients with acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med 2001; 345:1014-1021.
13. Richards AM, Nicholls MG, Espiner EA, et al. B-type natriuretic peptides and ejection fraction for prognosis after myocardial infarction. Circulation 2003; 107:2786-2792.
14. Sabatine MS, Morrow DA, de Lemos JA, et al. Multimarker approach to risk stratification in non-ST elevation acute coronary syndromes: simultaneous assessment of troponin I, C-reactive protein and B-type natriuretic peptide.
Circulation 2002; 105:1760-1763.
15. Raymond I, Groenning BA, Hildebrandt PR, Nilsson JC, Baumann M, Trawinski J, Pedersen F. The influence of age, sex andother variables on the plasma level of N-terminal pro brain natriureticpeptide in a large sample of the general population. Heart 2003; 89:745-751.
16. McCollough PA, Duc P, Omland T, McCord J, Nowak RM, Hollander JE, et al. B-type natriuretic peptide and renal function in the diagnosis of heartfailure: an analysis from the Breathing Not Properly Multinational Study.
Am J Kidney Dis 2003; 41:571-579.
17. Willis MS, Lee ES, Grenache DG. Effect of anemia on plasma concentrations of NT-proBNP.
Clinica Chim Acta 2005; 358:175-181.
18. Wold Knudsen C, Vik-Mo H, Omland T. Blood hemoglobin is an independent predictor of B-type natriuretic peptide.
Clin Sci 2005; 109:69-74.
19. Tsuji H, Nishino N, Kimura Y, Yamada K, Nukui M, et al. Haemoglobin level influences plasma brain natriuretic peptide concentration. Acta Cardiol 2004;59:527-31.
20. Wu AH, Omland T, Wold KC, McCord J, Nowak RM, et al. Relationship of B-type natriuretic peptide and anemia in patients withand without heart failure: A substudy from the Breathing Not Properly(BNP) Multinational Study.
Am J Hematol 2005; 80:174-80.
22. Bone RC, Balk RA, Cerra FB, Dellinger RP, Fein AM, et al. Definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for theuse of innovative therapies in sepsis. The ACCP/SCCM Consensus Conference Committee. Chest. 1992;101(6):1644-55.
Table Legends
Table I. Clinical characteristics of the study population
Table II. Comparison of NT- proBNP means under WHO criteria at different GFR
*AF, valve disease and elevated troponin T included
r AF, valve disease and elevated troponin T removed
FIGURE LEGENDS
FIGURE 1. Study population flow chart. (see poster)
FIGURE 2. Relationship between proBNP and hemoglobin. (see above)
FIGURE 3. NT-proBNP levels in relation to anemia (see above)
Supplementary Material
Table based on LatentGOLD Statistical Innovations, Inc., Belmont, MA., 2000: Jeroen Vermunt & Jay Magidson)
4-Cluster Model
Number of cases 408
Number of parameters (Npar) 24
Chi-squared Statistics
Degrees of freedom (df) 71 p-value
L-squared (L²) 80.2033 0.21
X-squared 80.8313 0.20
Cressie-Read 76.6761 0.30
BIC (based on L²) -346.5966
AIC3 (based on L²) -132.7967
CAIC (based on L²) -417.5966
age < 51 0.0720 0.7458 0.0910 0.0912
51-70 0.3036 0.3084 0.2013 0.1867
over 70 0.3773 0.0409 0.3633 0.2186
WHO No anemia 0.4589 0.3957 0.1076 0.0378
Anemia 0.1342 0.1844 0.3742 0.3073
SECOND ARTICLE
The effect of correction of mild anemia in severe, resistant congestive heart failure using subcutaneous erythropoietin and intravenous iron: a randomized controlled study
Donald S Silverberg, MDa; Dov Wexler, MDa; David Sheps, MDa; Miriam Blum, MDa; Gad Keren, MDa; Ron Baruch, MDa; Doron Schwartz, MDa; Tatyana Yachnin, MDa; Shoshana Steinbruch, RNa; Itzhak Shapira, MDa; Shlomo Laniado, MDa; Adrian Iaina, MDa
J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37(7):1775-1780. doi:10.1016/S0735-1097(01)01248-7
This is a randomized controlled study of anemic patients with severe congestive heart failure (CHF) to assess the effect of correction of the anemia on cardiac and renal function and hospitalization.
BACKGROUND
Although mild anemia occurs frequently in patients with CHF, there is very little information about the effect of correcting it with erythropoietin (EPO) and intravenous iron.
METHODS
Thirty-two patients with moderate to severe CHF (New York Heart Association [NYHA] class III to IV)
who had a left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) of 40% despite maximally tolerated doses of CHF medications and
whosehemoglobin (Hb) levels were persistently between 10.0 and 11.5 g% were randomized into two groups.
Group A (16 patients) received subcutaneous EPO and IV iron to increase the level of Hb to at least 12.5 g%. In Group B (16 patients) the anemia was not treated. The doses of all the CHF medications were maintained at the maximally tolerated levels except for oral and intravenous (IV) furosemide, whose doses were increased or decreased according to the clinical need.
RESULTS
Over a mean of 8.2 +/- 2.6 months,
four patients in Group B andnone in Group A died of CHF-related illnesses.
The mean NYHA classimproved by 42.1% in A and worsened by 11.4% in B.
The LVEF increased by 5.5% in A and decreased by 5.4% in B.
The serum creatinine did not change in A andincreased by 28.6% in B.
The need for oral and IV furosemide decreased by 51.3% and 91.3% respectively in A and increased by 28.5% and 28.0% respectively in B.
The number of days spent in hospital compared with the same period of time before entering the studydecreased by 79.0% in A and increased by 57.6% in B.
CONCLUSIONS
When anemia in CHF is treated with EPO and IV iron, a marked improvement in cardiac and patient function is seen,
associated with less hospitalization and renal impairment and less need for diuretics. (J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;37:1775– 80)
Anemia of any cause is known to be capable of causing congestive heart failure (CHF) (1). In patients hospitalized with CHF the
mean hemoglobin (Hb) is about 12 g% (2,3),
which is considered the lower limit of normal in adults (4). Thus, anemia appears to be
common in CHF. Recently, in 142 patients in our special CHF outpatient clinic, we found that
as the CHF worsened, the mean Hb concentration decreased, from 13.7 g% in mild CHF (New York Heart Association [NYHA] class I) to 10.9 g% in severe CHF (NYHA 4), and
the prevalence of a Hb 12 g% increased from 9.1% in patients with NYHA 1 to 79.1% in those with NYHA 4 (5).
The Framingham Study has shown that anemia is an
independent risk factor for the production of CHF (6).
Despite this association of CHF with anemia,
its role is not mentioned in the 1999 U.S. guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of CHF (7), and
many studies consider anemia to be only a rare contributing cause of hospitalization for CHF (8,9).
Recently, we performed a study in which the anemia of severe CHF that was resistant to maximally tolerated doses of standard medications
was corrected with a combination of subcutaneous (sc) erythropoietin (EPO) and intravenous iron (IV Fe) (5).
We have found this combination to be safe, effective and additive
in the correction of the anemia of chronic renal failure (CRF)in both
the predialysis period (10) and the dialysis period (11).
The IV Fe appears to be more effective than oral iron (12,13). In our previous study of CHF patients (5), the treatment resulted in
improved cardiac function,
improved NYHA functional class,
increased glomerular filtration rate,
a marked reduction in the need for diuretics and
a 92% reduction in the hospitalization rate
compared with a similar time period before the intervention. In the light of these positive results, a prospective randomized study was undertaken
to determine the effects of the correction of anemia in severe symptomatic CHF resistant to maximally tolerated CHF medication.
Abbreviations and Acronyms
CABG
coronary artery bypass graft
CHF
congestive heart failure
CRF
chronic renal failure
EPO
erythropoietin
%Fe Sat
percent iron saturation
GFR
glomerular filtration rate
Hb
hemoglobin
Hct
hematocrit
IU
international units
IV
intravenous
LVEF
left ventricular ejection fraction
NYHA
New York Heart Association
PA
pulmonary artery
sc
subcutaneous
SOLVD
Studies Of Left Ventricular Dysfunction
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Patients.Thirty-two patients with CHF were studied. Before the study, the patients were treated for least six months in the CHF clinic with
maximally tolerated doses of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, the beta-blockers bisoprolol or carvedilol, aldospirone, long-acting nitrates, digoxin and oral and intravenous (IV) furosemide.
In some patients these agents could not be given because of contraindications and in others they had to be stopped because of side effects. Despite this maximal treatment
the patients still had severe CHF (NYHA classIII), with fatigue and/or shortness of breath on even mild exertion or at rest. All had levels of
Hb in the range of 10 to 11.5 g% on at least three consecutive visits over a three-week period.
All had a LVEF of 40%.
Secondary causes of anemia including hypothyroidism, and folic acid and vitamin B12 deficiency were ruled outand
there was no clinical evidence of gastrointestinal bleeding.
The patients were randomized consecutively into two groups:
Group A, 16 patients, was treated with sc EPO and IV Fe to achieve a target Hb of at least 12.5 g%.
Group B, 16 patients, did not receive the EPO and IV Fe.
Treatment protocol for correction of anemia.
All patients in Group A received the combination of sc EPO and IV Fe. The EPO was given once a week at a starting dose of 4,000 international units (IU) per week and
the dose was increased to two or three times a week or decreased to once every few weeks as necessary
to achieve and maintain a target Hb of 12.5 g%.
The IV Fe (Venofer-Vifor International, Switzerland), a ferric sucrose product, was given in a dose of 200 mg IV in 150 ml saline over 60 min every two weeks
until the serum ferritin reached 400 g/l or
the %Fe saturation (%Fe Sat is serum iron/total iron binding capacity 100) reached 40% or
the Hb reached 12.5g%.
The IV Fe was then given at longer intervals as needed to maintain these levels.
Investigations.
Visits to the clinic were at two- to three week intervals depending on the patient’s status. This was the same frequency of visits to the CHF clinic as before then,
potassium and ferritin and %Fe Sat were performed on every visit.
blood pressure was measured by an electronic device on every visit.
LVEF was measured initially and at four- to six-month intervals by MUGA radioisotope ventriculography.
This technique measures
the amount of blood in the ventricle at the end of systole and at the end of diastole, thus giving
a very accurate assessment of the ejection fraction.
It has been shown to be an accurate and reproducible method of measuring the ejection fraction (14). Hospital records were reviewed at the end of the intervention period to compare
the number of days hospitalized during the study with
the number of days hospitalized during a similar period
when the patients were treated in the CHF clinic before the initial randomization and entry into the study.
Clinic records were reviewed to evaluate the types and doses of CHF medications used before and during the study. The mean follow-up for patients was8.2 +/-2.7 months (range 5 to 12 months). The study was done with the approval of the local ethics committee.Statistical analysis.
An analysis of variance with repeated measures (over time) was performed tocomparethe two study groups (control vs. treatment) and
to assess time trend and the interactions between the two factors.
A separate analysis was carried out for each of the outcome parameters.
The Mann-Whitney test was used to compare the change in NYHA class between two groups.
All the statistical analysis was performed by SPSS (version 10).
RESULTS
The mean age in Group A (EPO and Fe) was 75.3 +/- 14.6 years and in group B was 72.2 +/- 9.9 years. There were 11 and 12 men in Groups A and B, respectively.
Before the study the two groups were similar in
cardiac function,
comorbidities,
laboratory investigations and
medications
(Tables 1, 2 and 3), except for IV furosemide (Table 3),
which was higher in the treatment group. The mean NYHA class of Group A before the study was 3.8 0.4 and was 3.5 0.5 in Group B. The contributing factors to CHF in Groups A and B, respectively, are seen in Table 1 and were similar.
Table 1. Medical Conditions and Contributing Factors to Congestive Heart Failure in the 16 Patients Treated for the Anemia and in the 16 Controls
Table 2. The Effect of Correction of Anemia by Intravenous Iron and Erythropoietin Therapy on Various Parameters in 16 Patients in the Treatment (A) and 16 in the Control (B) Group
p values are given for analysis of variance with repeated measures and for independent t tests for comparison of baseline levels between the two groups.
BP blood pressure; Fe Sat iron saturation; Hb hemoglobin; IV intravenous; NS not stated; Std Dev. standard deviation.
The main contributing factors to CHF were considered to be
ischemic heart disease (IHD) in 11 and 10 patients respectively,
hypertension in two and two patients,
valvular heart disease in twoand two patients, and
idiopathic cardiomyopathy in one and two patients, respectively.
A significant change after treatment was observed in the two groups in the following parameters:
IV furosemide,
days in hospital,
Hb,
ejection fraction,
serum creatinine and
serum ferritin.
In addition, the interaction between the study group and time trend was significant in all measurements except for blood pressure and %Fe Sat. This interaction indicates that
the change over time was significantly different in the two groups.
Table 3. The Effect of Correction of Anemia by Intravenous Iron and Erythropoietin Therapy on Various Parameters in 16 Patients in the Treatment (A) and 16 in the Control (B) Group
p values are given for analysis of variance with repeated measures and for independent t tests for comparison of baseline levels between the two groups.
BP blood pressure; Fe Sat iron saturation; Hb hemoglobin; IV intravenous; NS not stated; Std Dev. standard deviation.
We find in the comparisons of Tables 2 and 3:
before treatment the level of oral furosemide was higher in the control group (136.2 mg/day) compared with the treatment group (132.2 mg/day).
after treatment, while the dose of oral furosemide of the treated patients was reduced to 64.4 mg/day
the dose of the nontreated patients was increased to 175 mg/day.
The same results of improvement in the treated group and deterioration in the control group are expressed in the following parameters:
IV furosemide, days in hospital,
Hb,
ejection fraction and
serum creatinine.
The NYHA class was
3.8 +/- 0.4 before treatment and 2.2 +/- 0.7 after treatment in Group A (delta mean = –1.6) and
3.5 +/- 0.7 before treatment and 3.9 +/- 0.3 after treatment in Group B. (delta mean =0.4)
The improvement in NYHA class was significantly higher (p < 0.0001) in the treatment group compared with the control group (Table 4).
Table 4. Changes from Baseline to Final New York Heart Association (NYHA) Class
Initial minus final
The improvement in NYHA class was statistically higher (p < 0.0001) in the treatment group compared with control.
There were no deaths in Group A and four deaths in Group B.
Case 1: A 71-year-old woman with severe mitral insufficiency and severe pulmonary hypertension (a pulmonary artery [PA] pressure of 75 mm Hg) had persistent NYHA 4 CHF and died during mitral valve surgery seven months after onset of the study. She was hospitalized for 21 days in the seven months before randomization and for 28 days during the seven months after randomization.
Case 2:
A 62-year-old man with a longstanding history of hypertension complicated by IHD, coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) and atrial fibrillation had persistent NYHA 4 CHF and a PA pressure of 35 mm Hg, and died from pneumonia and septic shock eight months after onset of the study. He was hospitalized for seven days in the eight months before randomization and for 21 days during the eight months after
randomization.
Case 3: A 74-year old man with IHD, CABG, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, a history of heavy smoking and diabetes had persistent NYHA 4 CHF and a PA pressure of 28 mm Hg, and died of pulmonary edema and cardiogenic shock nine months after onset of the study. He was hospitalized for 14 days in the nine months before randomization and for 41 days during the nine months after randomization.
Case 4:
A 74-year-old man with a history of IHD, CABG, diabetes, dyslipidemia, hypertension and atrial fibrillation, had persistent NYHA 4 CHF and a PA pressure of 30 mm Hg, and died of pneumonia and septic shock six months after onset of the study. He was hospitalized for five days in the six months before randomization and for 16 days during the nine months after randomization.
DISCUSSION
Main findings.
The main finding of the present study is that the correction of
even mild anemia in patients with symptoms of very severe CHF despite being on maximally tolerated drug therapy
resulted in a significant improvement in their cardiac function and NYHA functional class.
There was also a large
reduction in the number of days of hospitalization compared with a similar period before the intervention.
all this was achieved despite a marked reduction in the dose of oral and IV furosemide.
In the group in whom the anemia was not treated, four patients died during the study. In all four cases
the CHF was unremitting and contributed to the deaths.
In addition, for the group as a whole,
the LVEF, the NYHA class and the renal function worsened.
There was also need for
increased oral and IV furosemide as well as increased hospitalization.
Study limitations.
The major limitations of this study are
the smallness of the sample size and
the fact that randomization and treatment were not done in a blinded fashion.
Nevertheless, the two groups were almost identical in
cardiac, renal and anemia status;
in the types and doses of medication they were taking before and during the intervention and
in the number of hospitalization days before the intervention.
Although the results of this study, like those of our previous uncontrolled study (5), suggest that
anemia may play an important role in the mortality and morbidity of CHF,
a far larger double-blinded controlled study should be carried out to verify our findings.
Anemia as a risk factor for hospitalization and death in CHF.
Our results are consistent with a recent analysis of 91,316 patients hospitalized with CHF (15).Anemiawas found to be a stronger predictor of
the need for early rehospitalization than was hypertension, IHD or the presence of a previous CABG.
A recent analysis of the Studies Of Left Ventricular Dysfunction (SOLVD) (16) showed that
the level of hematocrit (Hct) was an independent risk factor for mortality.
During a mean follow-up of 33 months the mortality was
22%, 27% and 34% for those with a Hct of 40, 35 to 40 and 35 respectively.
The striking response of our patients to
correction of mild anemia suggests that the failing heart may be very susceptible to anemia.
It has, in fact, been found in both animal (17) and human studies (17–19) that
the damaged heart is more vulnerable to anemia and/or ischemia than is the normal heart.
These stimuli may result in a more marked reduction in cardiac function than occurs in the normal heart and may explain why, in our study,
the patients were so resistant to high doses of CHF medications and
responded so well when the anemia was treated.
Our findings about the importance of anemia in CHF are not surprising when one considers that, in dialysis patients,
anemia has been shown to be associated with an increased prevalence and incidence of CHF (20) and that
correction of anemia in these patients is associated with improved
cardiac function (21,22),
less mortality (23,24) and
fewer hospitalizations (23,25).
Effect of improvement of CHF on CRF.
Congestive heart failure can cause progressive renal failure (26,27). Renal ischemia is found very early on
in patients with cardiac dysfunction (28,29), and
chronic ischemia may cause progression of renal failure (30). Indeed, the development of
CHF in patients with essential hypertension has been found to be one of the most powerful predictors of
the eventual development of end-stage renal disease (31).
Patients who develop CHF after a myocardial infarction experience a
fall in the glomerular filtration rate (GFR)of about 1 ml/min/month if the CHF is not treated (32).
In another recent analysis of the SOLVD study, treating the CHF with
both angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and beta-blockers resulted in better preservation of the renal function than did
suggesting that the more aggressive the treatment of the CHF, the better the renal function is preserved. In the present study, as in our previous one (5), we found that the deterioration of GFR was prevented with
successful treatment of the CHF, including correction of the anemia, whereas
the renal function worsened when the CHF remained severe.
All these findings suggest that early detection and treatment of CHF and systolic and/or diastolic dysfunction from whatever cause could prevent
the deterioration not only of the cardiac function
but of the renal function as well.
This finding has very broad implications in the prevention of CRF, because most patients with advanced CRF have
either clinical evidence of CHF or at least some degree of systolic dysfunction (33).
Systolic and/or diastolic dysfunctioncan occur early on in many conditions, such as
essential hypertension (34),
renal disease of any cause (35,36) or
IHD, especially after a myocardial infarction (37).
The early detection and adequate treatment of this cardiac dysfunction, including correction of the anemia, could prevent this cardiorenal insufficiency. To detect cardiac dysfunction early on, one would need at least an echocardiogram and MUGA radio-nucleotide ventriculography. These tests should probably be done not only in patients with signs and symptoms of CHF, but in all patients where CHF or systolic and/or diastolic dysfunction are suspected, such as those with a history of heart disease or suggestive changes of ischemia or hypertrophy on the electrocardiogram, or in patients with hypertension or renal disease.
Other positive cardiovascular effects of EPO treatment.
Another possible explanation for the improved cardiac function in this study may be the direct effect that EPO itself has on improving cardiac muscle function (38,39) and myocardial cell growth (39,40) unrelated to its effect of the anemia. In fact EPO may be crucial in the formation of the heart muscle in utero (40). It may also improve endothelial function (41). Erythropoietin may besuperior to blood transfusions not only because adverse reactions to EPO are infrequent, but also because
EPO causes the production and release of young cells from the bone marrow into the blood.
These cells have an oxygen dissociation curve that is shifted to the right of the normal curve, causing the release of
much greater amounts of oxygen into the tissues than occurs normally (42).
On the other hand, transfused blood consists of older red cells with an oxygen dissociation curve that is
shifted to the left, causing the release of much less oxygen into the tissues than occurs normally (42).
The combination of IV Fe and EPO. The use of IV Fe along with EPO has been found to have an additive effect,
increasing the Hb even more than would occur with EPO alone while at the same time
allowing the dose of EPO to be reduced (10 –13).
The lower dose of EPO will be cost-saving and also reduce the chances of hypertension developing (43).
We used iron sucrose (Venofer) as our IV Fe medication because, in our experience, it is extremely well tolerated (10,11) and
has not been associated with any serious side effects in more than 1,200 patients over six years.
Implications of treatment of anemia in CHF. The correction of anemia is not a substitute for the well-documented effective therapy of CHF but seems to be an important, if not vital, addition to the therapy. It is surprising, therefore, that judging from the literature on CHF,
such an obvious treatment for improving CHF is so rarely considered.
We believe that correction of the anemia will have an important role to play in
the amelioration of cardiorenal insufficiency, and that this improvement will have
significant economic implications as well.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Rina Issaky, Miriam Epstein, Hava Ehrenfeld and Hava Rapaport for their secretarial assistance.
Reprint requests and correspondence: Dr. D. S. Silverberg, Department of Nephrology, Tel Aviv Medical Center, Weizman 6, Tel Aviv, 64239, Israel.
THIRD ARTICLE
The use of subcutaneous erythropoietin and intravenous iron for the treatment of the anemia of severe, resistant congestive heart failure improves cardiac and renal function and functional cardiac class, and markedly reduces hospitalizations
Donald S Silverberg, MDa; Dov Wexler, MDa; Miriam Blum, MDa; Gad Keren, MDa; David Sheps, MDa; Eyal Leibovitch, MDa; David Brosh, MDa; Shlomo Laniado, MDa; Doron Schwartz, MDa; Tatyana Yachnin, MDa; Itzhak Shapira, MDa; Dov Gavish, MDa; Ron Baruch, MDa; Bella Koifman, MDa; Carl Kaplan, MDa; Shoshana Steinbruch, RNa; Adrian Iaina, MDa
J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;35(7):1737-1744. doi:10.1016/S0735-1097(00)00613-6
This study evaluated the prevalence and severity of anemia in patients with congestive heart failure (CHF) and
the effect of its correction on cardiac and renal function and hospitalization.
BACKGROUND
The prevalence and significance of mild anemia in patients with CHF is uncertain, and the role of erythropoietin with intravenous iron supplementation in treating this anemia is unknown.
METHODS
In a retrospective study, the records of the 142 patients in our CHF clinic were reviewed to find
the prevalence and severity of anemia (hemoglobin [Hb]12 g).
In an intervention study, 26 of these patients, despite maximally tolerated therapy of CHF for at least six months, still had had severe CHF and were also anemic. They were treated with
subcutaneous erythropoietin and intravenous iron sufficient to increase the Hb to 12 g%.
The doses of the CHF medications, except for diuretics, were not changed during the intervention period.
RESULTS
The prevalence of anemia in the 142 patients increased withthe severity of CHF,
reaching 79.1% in those with New York Heart Association class IV.
In the intervention study, the anemia of the 26 patients was treated for a mean of 7.2 5.5 months.
The mean Hb level and mean left ventricular ejection fraction increased significantly.
The mean number of hospitalizations fell by 91.9% compared with a similar period before the study.
The New York Heart Association class fell significantly,
as did the doses of oral and intravenous furosemide.
The rate of fall of the glomerular filtration rate slowed with the treatment.
CONCLUSIONS
Anemia is very common in CHF and its successful treatment is associated with a significant improvementin
cardiac function,
functional class,
renal function and
in a marked fall in the need for diuretics and hospitalization.
Abbreviations and Acronyms
ACE
Angiotensin-converting enzyme
CHF
congestive heart failure
COPD
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
CRF
chronic renal failure
CVA
cerebrovascular accident
EPO
erythropoietin
Fe
iron
g%
grams Hb /100 ml blood
GFR
glomerular filtration rate
Hb
hemoglobin
Hct
hematocrit
IV
intravenous
LVEF
left ventricular ejection fraction
LVH
left ventriculr hypertrophy
NYHA
New York Heart Association
%Fe Sat
percent iron saturation
sc
subcutaneous
TNF
tumor becrosis factor
ACE
Angiotensin-converting enzyme
CHF
congestive heart failure
COPD
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
CRF
chronic renal failure
CVA
cerebrovascular accident
EPO
erythropoietin
Fe
iron
g%
grams Hb /100 ml blood
GFR
glomerular filtration rate
Hb
hemoglobin
Hct
hematocrit
IV
intravenous
LVEF
left ventricular ejection fraction
LVH
left ventriculr hypertrophy
NYHA
New York Heart Association
%Fe Sat
percent iron saturation
sc
subcutaneous
TNF
tumor becrosis factor
The mean hemoglobin (Hb) in patients with congestive heart failure (CHF) is about 12 g Hb per 100 ml blood (g%) (1–3), which is considered to be the lower limit of normal in adult men and postmenopausal women (4). Thus, many patients with CHF are anemic, and
this anemia has been shown to worsen as the severity of the CHF progresses (5,6).
Severe anemia of any cause can produce CHF, and treatment of the anemia can improve it (7). In patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) who are anemic,
treatment of the anemia with erythropoietin (EPO) has improved many of the abnormalities seen in CHF,
reducing left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) (8 –10),
preventing left ventricular dilation (11) and,
in those with reduced cardiac function, increasing the left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF)(8 –10),
the stroke volume (12) and
the cardiac output (12).
In view of the high prevalence of anemia in CHF, it is surprising that we could find no studies in which EPO was used in the treatment of the anemia of CHF, and the use of EPO is not included in U.S. Public Health Service guide-lines of treatment of the anemia of CHF (13). In fact, anemia has been considered
only a rare contributing factor to the worsening of CHF, estimated as contributing to
no more than 0% to 1.5% of all cases (14 –16).
Perhaps for this reason, recent guidelines for the prevention and treatment of CHF do not mention treatment of anemia at all(17). If successful treatment of anemia could improve cardiac function and patient function in CHF,
this would have profound implications, because,
despite all the advances made in the treatment of CHF, it is still a major and steadily increasing cause of hospitalizations, morbidity and mortality (18 –20).
The purpose of this study is to examine
the prevalence of anemia (Hb 12 g%) in patients with different levels of severity of CHF and
to assess the effect of correction of this anemia in severe CHF patients
resistant to maximally tolerated doses of CHF medication.
A combination of subcutaneous (SC) EPO and intravenous (IV) iron (Fe) was used. We have found this combination to be additive in improving the anemia of CRF (21,22).
METHODS
Patients.
The medical records of the 142 CHF patients being treated in our special outpatient clinic devoted to CHF were reviewed to determine the prevalence and severity of anemia and CRF in these patients. These patients were referred to the clinic either from general practice or from the various wards in the hospital.
Intervention study.
Despite at least six months of treatment in the CHF clinic,
26 of the above patients had persistent, severe CHF (New York Heart Association [NYHA] class III),
had a Hb level of 12 g% and were on
angiotensin-converting enzyme [ACE] inhibitors, the
alpha-beta-blocker carvedilol,
long-acting nitrates,
digoxin,
aldactone and
oral and IV furosemide.
These 26 patients participated in an intervention study. The mean age was 71.76 8.12 years. There were 21 men and 5 women. They all had a
LVEF below 35%,
persistent fatigue and
shortness
of breath on mild to moderate exertion and often at rest, and had
required hospitalizations at least once during their follow-up in the CHF clinic for pulmonary edema.
In 18 of the 26 patients, the CHF was associated with ischemic heart disease either
alone in four patients, or
with hypertension in six,
diabetes in four,
the two together in three, or with
valvular heart disease in one.
Of the remaining eight patients,
four had valvular heart disease alone and
four had essential hypertension alone.
Secondary causes of anemia including
gastrointestinal blood loss (as assessed by history and by three negative stool occult blood examinations),
folic acid and vitamin B12 deficiency and
hypothyroidism were ruled out.
Routine gastrointestinal endoscopy was not carried out. The study passed an ethics committee.
Table 1. Initial Characteristics of the 142 Patients With CHFSeen in the CHF Clinic
CMP cardiomyopathy; LVEF left ventricular ejection fraction; NYHA New York Heart Association class.
Correction of the anemia.
All patients received the combination of SC EPO and IV Fe. The EPO was given once a week at a starting dose of 2,000 IU per week subcutaneously, and the dose was increased or decreased as necessary to achieve and maintain a target Hb of 12 g%. The IV Fe (Venofer-Vifor International, St. Gallen, Switzerland), a ferric sucrose product, was given in a dose of 200 mg IV in 150 ml saline over 60 min every week until the serum ferritin reached 400 g/liter or the percent Fe saturation (%Fe Sat: serum iron/total iron binding capacity 100) reached 40% or until the Hb reached 12 g%. The IV Fe was then given at longer intervals as needed to maintain these levels.
Medication dose.
Except for oral and IV furosemide therapy, the doses of all the other CHF medications, which were used in the maximum tolerated doses before the intervention, were kept unchanged during the intervention period.
Duration of the study.
The study lasted for a mean of 7.2 5.5 months (range four to 15 months).
Investigations.
Visits were at weekly intervals initially and then at two- to three-week intervals depending on the patient’s status. This was the same frequency of visits to the CHF clinic as before the intervention study.
A complete blood count, serum creatinine, serum ferritin and % Fe Sat were performed on every visit.
An electronic device measured the blood pressure on every visit.
The LVEF was measured by a multiple gated ventricular angiography heart scan initially and at four- to six-month intervals.
Hospital records were reviewed to compare the number of hospitalizations during the time the patients were treated for the anemia with the number of hospitalizations
during a similar period of time that they were treated in the CHF clinic
before the anemia was treated.
Clinic records were reviewed to evaluate the types and doses of CHF medications used
before and during the study.
Period of time that they were treated in the CHF clinic before the anemia was treated.
Clinic records were reviewed to evaluate the types and doses of CHF medications used before and during the study. The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) was calculated from the serum creatinine by the formula: 1/serum creatinine in mg% x 100 GFR in ml/min. The rate of change of the GFR before and during the intervention period was calculated by comparing the change in GFR per month in the year before the intervention with that during the intervention.
Statistical analysis.
Mean standard deviation was calculated. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to compare parameter levels between the four NYHA groups. Hochberg’s method of multiple comparisons (23) was used for pair-wise comparison between two groups. A p value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. In the intervention study, the significance of the difference between the initial values and those at the end of the study for the individual parameters in the 26 treated patients was assessed by paired student’s t test; p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. All the statistical analysis was performed by the SPSS program (Version 9, Chicago, Illinois).
RESULTS
CHF: the whole study group.
The clinical, biochemical and hematological characteristics of the 142 patients seen in the clinic are shown in Tables 1 and 2.
Sixty-seven patients (47%) had severe CHF as judged by a NYHA class of IV (Table 2).
Seventy- nine of the 142 patients (55.6%) were anemic (Hb 12 g%).
The mean Hb level fell progressively from 13.73 +/- 0.83 g% in class I NYHA to 10.90 +/- 1.70 g% in class IV NYHA (p 0.01). The percentage of patients with Hb 12 g% increased from 9.1% in class I to 79.1% in class IV.
Fifty eight patients (40.8%) had CRF as defined as a serum creatinine 1.5 mg%. The mean serum creatinine increased from 1.18 +/_ 0.38 mg% in class I NYHA, to 2.0 +/- 1.89 mg% in class IV NYHA, p 0.001. The percentage of patients with an elevated serum creatinine ( 1.5 mg%) increased from 18.2% in class I to 58.2% in class IV.
The mean ejection fraction fell from 37.67 +/- 15.74% in class I to 27.72 +/- 9.68% (p 0.005) in class IV.
Table 2. LVEF and Biochemical and Hematological Parameters by NYHA Class in 142 Patients With CHF
NYHA Class I II III IV Significantly Different Pairs*
*p 0.05 at least between the two groups by pair-wise comparison between groups.
†p 0.05 at least between the groups by ANOVA.
No. of patients
11
26
38
67
(total 142) (%)
(7.7)
(18.3)
(26.8)
(47.2)
Hb, g%†
13.73 (0.83)
13.38 (1.26)
11.95 (1.48)
10.90 (1.70)
1–3, 1–4, 2–3, 2–4
Serum creatinine,
1.18
1.22
1.32
2.00
1–2, 1–3, 1–4
mg%†
(0.38)
(0.29)
(0.38)
(1.89)
LVEF, %†
37.67 (15.74)
32.88 (12.41)
32.02 (10.99)
27.72 (9.68)
1–4, 2–4
Hb 12 g%, (%)
1 (9.1)
5 (19.2)
20 (52.6)
53 (79.1)
Serum creatinine
2
5
12
39
1.5 mg%, (%)
(18.2)
(19.2)
(31.6)
(58.2)
The intervention study: medications.
The percentage of patients receiving each CHF medication before and after the intervention period and the reasons for not receiving them are seen in Table 3.
Table 3. Number (%) of the 26 Patients Taking Each Type of Medication Before and During the Intervention Period and the Reason Why the Medication Was Not Used
Medication No. of Patients (%) Reason for Not Receiving the Medications (No. of Patients)
BP blood pressure; CRF chronic renal failure; IV intravenous.
The main reason for not receiving:
1) ACE inhibitors was the presence of reduced renal function;
2) carvedilol was the presence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD);
3) nitrates was low blood pressure and aortic stenosis and
4) aldactone was hyperkalemia.
Table 4. Mean Dose of Each Medication Initially and at the End of the Intervention Period in the 26 Patients
No. of Patients Initial Dose ^ Final Dose^
Carvedilol (mg/day) 20 26.9 15.5 28.8 14.5
Captopril (mg/day) 7 69.6 40.0 70.7 40.4
Enalapril (mg/day) 13 25.7 12.5 26.9 12.6
Digoxin (mg/day) 25 0.10 0.07 0.10 0.07
Aldactone (mg/day) 19 61.2 49.2 59.9 47.1
Long-acting nitrates 23 53.2 13.2 54.1 14.4
Oral furosemide (mg/day) 26 200.9 120.4 78.3 41.3*
IV furosemide (mg/month) 26 164.7 178.9 19.8 47.0*
*p 0.05 at least vs. before by paired Student’s t test.
^ +/-
The mean doses of the medications are shown in Table 4.
The mean dose of oral furosemide was 200.9 +/- 120.4 mg/day before and 78.3 +/- 41.3 mg/day after the intervention (p 0.05). The dose of IV furosemide was 164.7 +/- 19.8, 178.9 mg/month before and 7.0 mg/month after the intervention (p 0.05).
The doses of the other CHF medications were almost identical in the two periods.
Clinical results.
DEATHS.
There were three deaths during the intervention period. An 83-year-old man died after eight months of respiratory failure after many years of COPD, a 65-year-old man at eight months of a CVA with subsequent pneumonia and septic shock and a 70-year-old man at four months of septicemia related to an empyema that developed after aortic valve replacement.
HEMODIALYSIS.
Three patients, a 76-year-old man, an 85-year-old woman and a 72-year-old man, required chronic hemodialysis after six, 16 and 18 months, respectively. The serum creatinines of these three patients at onset of the anemia treatment were 4.2, 3.5 and 3.6 mg%, respectively. All three had improvement in their NYHA status but
their uremia worsened as the renal function deteriorated, demanding the initiation of dialysis.
In no cases, however, was pulmonary congestion an indication for starting dialysis.
Functional results (Table 5).
During the treatment period, the NYHA class fell from a mean of 3.66 +/- 0.47 to 2.66 +/- 0.70 (p 0.05), and
24 had some improvement in their functional class.
The mean LVEF increased from 27.7 +/- 4.8 to 35.4 +/- 7.6% (p 0.001), an increase of 27.8%.
Compared with a similar period of time before the onset of the anemia treatment, the mean number of hospitalizations fell from 2.72 +/- 1.21 to 0.22 +/- 0.65 per patient (p 0.05), a decrease of 91.9%.
No significant changes were found in the mean systolic/diastolic blood pressure.
Hematological results (Table 5).
The mean hematocrit (Hct) increased from 30.14 +/- 3.12%) to 35.9 +/- 4.22% (p < 0.001).
The mean Hb increased from 10.16 +/- 0.95 g%) to 12.10 +/- 1.21 g% (p < 0.001).
The mean serum ferritin increased from 177.07 +/- 113.80 g/liter to 346.73 +/- 207.40 g/liter (p 0.005).
The mean serum Fe increased from 60.4 +/- 19.0 g% to 74 +/- .80 20.7 g% (p 0.005).
The mean %Fe Sat increased from 20.05 6.04% to 26.14 =/- 5.23% (p 0.005).
The mean dose of EPO used throughout the treatment period was 5,227 +/- 455 IU per week, and
the mean dose of IV Fe used was 185.1 +/- 57.1 mg per month.
In four of the patients,the target Hb of 12 g% was maintained despite stopping the EPO for at least four months.
Renal results (Table 5).
The changes in serum creatinine were not significant. The estimated creatinine clearance fell at a rate of 0.95 + 1.31 ml/min/month before the onset of treatment of the anemia and increased at a rate of 0.85 + 2.77 ml/min/month during the treatment period.
Table 5. The Hematological and Clinical Data of the 26 CHF Patients at Onset and at the End of the Intervention Period
————– Initial ^ Final^
Hematocrit, vol% 30.14 3.12 35.90 4.22*
Hemoglobin, g% 10.16 0.95 2.10 1.21*
Serum ferritin, g/liter 177.07 113.80 346.73 207.40*
Serum iron, g% 60.4 19.0 74.8 20.7*
% iron saturation 20.5 6.04 26.14 5.23*
Serum creatinine, mg% 2.59 0.77 2.73 1.55
LVEF, % 27.7 4.8 35.4 7.6*
No. hospitalizations/patient 2.72 1.21 0.22 0.65*
Systolic BP, mm Hg 127.1 19.4 128.9 26.4
Diastolic BP, mm Hg 73.9 9.9 74.0 12.7
NYHA (0–4) 3.66 0.47 2.66 0.70*
*p 0.05 at least vs before by paired Student’s t test. ^ +/-
BP blood pressure; LVEF left ventricular ejection fraction; NYHA New York Heart Association.
DISCUSSION
The main findings in the present study are that anemia is common in CHF patients and becomes progressively more prevalent and severe as CHF progresses. In addition, for patients with resistant CHF, the treatment of the associated anemia causes a marked improvement in their
functional status,
ejection fraction and
GFR.
All these changes were associated with a markedly
reduced need for hospitalization and
for oral and IV furosemide.
The effect of anemia on the ischemic myocardium.
We used the IV Fe together with EPO to avoid the Fe deficiency caused by the use of EPO alone (38,39).
The Fe deficiency will cause
a resistance to EPO therapy and
increase the need for higher and higher doses to maintain the Hb level (39,40).
These high doses will not only be expensive but may increase the blood pressure excessively (41). The IV Fe reduces the dose of EPO needed to correct the anemia, because
the combination of SC EPO and IV Fe has been shown to have an additive effect on correction of the anemia of CRF (21,22,39,42).
Oral Fe, however, has no such additive effect (39,42). The relatively low dose of EPO needed to control the anemia in our study may explain why
the blood pressure did not increase significantly in any patient.
We used Venofer, an Fe sucrose product, as our IV Fe supplement because, in our experience (21,22,43), it has very few side effects and, indeed, no side effects with its use were encountered in this study.
The Effect of Anemia Correction on Renal Function.
Congestive heart failure is often associated with some degree of CRF (1–3,27–29), and
this is most likely due to renal vasoconstriction and ischemia (28,29).
When the anemia is treated and the cardiac function improves,
an increase in renal blood flow and glomerular filtration is seen (7,28).
In the present study, renal function decreased as the CHF functional class worsened (Table 2). The rate of deterioration of renal function was slower during the intervention period. Treatment of anemia in CRF has been associated with
a rate of progression of the CRF that is either unchanged (30) or is slowed (31–33).
It is possible, therefore, that adequate treatment of the anemia in CHF may, in the long term, help slow down the progression of CRF.
Possible Adverse Effects of Correction of the Anemia.
There has been concern, in view of the recent Amgen study (34), that correction of the Hct to a mean 42% in hemodialysis patients might increase cardiovascular events in those receiving EPO compared with those maintained at a Hct of 30%. Although there is much uncertainty about how to interpret this study (35), there is a substantial body of evidence that shows
correction of the anemia up to a Hb of 12 g% (Hct 36%) in CRF on dialysis is safe and desirable (35–38), and
results in a reduction in mortality, morbidity and in the number and length of hospitalizations.
The same likely holds true for the anemia of CHF with or without associated CRF. Certainly, our patients’ symptoms were strikingly improved, as was their cardiac function (LVEF) and need for hospitalization and diuretics. It remains to be established
if correction of the anemia up to a normal Hb level of 14 g% might be necessary in order to further improve the patient’s clinical state.
The Role of Fe Deficiency and its Treatment in the Anemia of CHF.
We used the IV Fe together with EPO to avoid the Fe deficiency caused by the use of EPO alone (38,39). The Fe deficiency will cause
a resistance to EPO therapy and increase the need for higher and higher doses to maintain the Hb level (39,40).
These high doses will not only be expensive but may
increase the blood pressure excessively (41).
The IV Fe reduces the dose of EPO needed to correct the anemia, because the combination of SC EPO and IV Fe has been shown to have an additive effect on correction of the anemia of CRF (21,22,39,42). Oral Fe, however, has no such additive effect (39,42). The relatively low dose of EPO needed to control the anemiain our study may explain
why the blood pressure did not increase significantly in any patient.
We used Venofer, an Fe sucrose product, as our IV Fe supplement because, in our experience (21,22,43), it has very few side effects and, indeed, no side effects with its use were encountered in this study.
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