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Protein Energy Malnutrition and Early Child Development
Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP
In the preceding articles we have seen that poverty and low social class combined with cultural strictures or dependence on a sulfur-poor diet results in childhood stunting and impaired brain development. This is a global health issue.
The World Health Organization (WHO)[1] defines malnutrition as “the cellular imbalance between the supply of nutrients and energy and the body’s demand for them to ensure growth, maintenance, and specific functions.” The term protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) applies to a group of related disorders that includemarasmus, kwashiorkor (see the images below), and intermediate states of marasmus-kwashiorkor. The term marasmus is derived from the Greek wordmarasmos, which means withering or wasting. Marasmus involves inadequate intake of protein and calories and is characterized by emaciation. The term kwashiorkor is taken from the Ga language of Ghana and means “the sickness of the weaning.” Williams first used the term in 1933, and it refers to an inadequate protein intake with reasonable caloric (energy) intake. Edema is characteristic of kwashiorkor but is absent in marasmus.
Studies suggest that marasmus represents an adaptive response to starvation, whereas kwashiorkor represents a maladaptive response to starvation. Children may present with a mixed picture of marasmus and kwashiorkor, and children may present with milder forms of malnutrition. For this reason, Jelliffe suggested the term protein-calorie (energy) malnutrition to include both entities.
Although protein-energy malnutrition affects virtually every organ system, this article primarily focuses on its cutaneous manifestations. Patients with protein-energy malnutrition may also have deficiencies of vitamins, essential fatty acids, and trace elements, all of which may contribute to their dermatosis.
In general, marasmus is an insufficient energy intake to match the body’s requirements. As a result, the body draws on its own stores, resulting in emaciation. In kwashiorkor, adequate carbohydrate consumption and decreased protein intake lead to decreased synthesis of visceral proteins. The resulting hypoalbuminemia contributes to extravascular fluid accumulation. Impaired synthesis of B-lipoprotein produces a fatty liver.
Protein-energy malnutrition also involves an inadequate intake of many essential nutrients. Low serum levels of zinc have been implicated as the cause of skin ulceration in many patients. In a 1979 study of 42 children with marasmus, investigators found that only those children with low serum levels of zinc developed skin ulceration. Serum levels of zinc correlated closely with the presence of edema, stunting of growth, and severe wasting. The classic “mosaic skin” and “flaky paint” dermatosis of kwashiorkor bears considerable resemblance to the skin changes of acrodermatitis enteropathica, the dermatosis of zinc deficiency.
In 2007, Lin et al[2] stated that “a prospective assessment of food and nutrient intake in a population of Malawian children at risk for kwashiorkor” found “no association between the development of kwashiorkor and the consumption of any food or nutrient.”
Marasmus and kwashiorkor can both be associated with impaired glucose clearance that relates to dysfunction of pancreatic beta-cells.[3] In utero, plastic mechanisms appear to operate, adjusting metabolic physiology and adapting postnatal undernutrition and malnutrition to define whether marasmus and kwashiorkor will develop.[4]
In 2012, a report from Texas noted an 18-month-old infant with type 1 glutaric acidemia who had extensive desquamative plaques, generalized nonpitting edema, and red-tinged sparse hair, with low levels of zinc, alkaline phosphatase, albumin, and iron. This patient has a variation on kwashiorkor, and the authors suggest that it be termed acrodermatitis dysmetabolica.[5] On the same note, a boy aged 18 months with type 1 glutaric acidemia suffered from zinc deficiency and acquired protein energy malnutrition.[6]
For complex reasons, sickle cell anemia can predispose suffers to protein malnutrition.[7]
Protein energy malnutrition ramps up arginase activity in macrophages and monocytes.[8]
Protein energy malnutrition (PEM), brain and various facets of child development.
Protein energy malnutrition (PEM) is a global problem. Nearly 150 million children under 5 years in the world and 70-80 million in India suffer from PEM, nearly 20 million in the world and 4 million in India suffer from severe forms of PEM, viz., marasmus, kwashiorkor and marasmic kwashiorkor. The studies in experimental animals in the west and children in developing countries have revealed the adverse effects of PEM on the biochemistry of developing brain which leads to tissue damage and tissue contents, growth arrest, developmental differentiation, myelination, reduction of synapses, synaptic transmitters and overall development of dendritic activity. Many of these adverse effects have been described in children in clinical data, biochemical studies, reduction in brain size, histology of the spinal cord, quantitative studies and electron microscopy of sural nerve, neuro -CT scan, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and morphological changes in the cerebellar cells. Longer the PEM, younger the child, poorer the maternal health and literacy, more adverse are the effects of PEM on the nervous system. Just like the importance of nutrients on the developing brain, so are the adverse effects on the child development of lack of environmental stimulation, emotional support and love and affection to the child. When both the adverse factors are combined, the impact is severe. Hence prevention of PEM in pregnant and lactating mothers, breast feeding, adequate home based supplements, family support and love will improve the physical growth, mental development, social competence and academic performance of the child. Hence nutritional rehabilitation, psychosocial and psychomotor development of the child should begin in infancy and continue throughout. It should be at all levels, most important being in family, school, community and various intervention programmes, local, regional and national. Moreover medical students, health personnel, all medical disciplines concerned with total health care and school teachers should learn and concentrate on the developmental stimulation and enrichment of the child.
Cognitive development in children with chronic protein energy malnutrition
Background: Malnutrition is associated with both structural and functional pathology of the brain. A wide range of cognitive deficits has been reported in malnourished children. Effect of chronic protein energy malnutrition (PEM) causing stunting and wasting in children could also affect the ongoing development of higher cognitive processes during childhood (>5 years of age). The present study examined the effect of stunted growth on the rate of development of cognitive processes using neuropsychological measures.
Methods: Twenty children identified as malnourished and twenty as adequately nourished in the age groups of 5–7 years and 8–10 years were examined. NIMHANS neuropsychological battery for children sensitive to the effects of brain dysfunction and age related improvement was employed. The battery consisted of tests of motor speed, attention, visuospatial ability, executive functions, comprehension and learning and memory
Results: Development of cognitive processes appeared to be governed by both age and nutritional status. Malnourished children performed poor on tests of attention, working memory, learning and memory and visuospatial ability except on the test of motor speed and coordination. Age related improvement was not observed on tests of design fluency, working memory, visual construction, learning and memory in malnourished children. However, age related improvement was observed on tests of attention, visual perception, and verbal comprehension in malnourished children even though the performance was deficient as compared to the performance level of adequately nourished children.
Conclusion: Chronic protein energy malnutrition (stunting) affects the ongoing development of higher cognitive processes during childhood years rather than merely showing a generalized cognitive impairment. Stunting could result in slowing in the age related improvement in certain and not all higher order cognitive processes and may also result in long lasting cognitive impairments.
Malnutrition is the consequence of a combination of inadequate intake of protein, carbohydrates, micronutrients and frequent infections [1]. In India malnutrition is rampant. WHO report states that for the years 1990–1997 52% of Indian children less than 5 years of age suffer from severe to moderate under nutrition [2]. About 35% of preschool children in sub-Saharan Africa are reported to be stunted [3]. Malnutrition is associated with both structural and functional pathology of the brain. Structurally malnutrition results in tissue damage, growth retardation, disorderly differentiation, reduction in synapses and synaptic neurotransmitters, delayed myelination and reduced overall development of dendritic arborization of the developing brain. There are deviations in the temporal sequences of brain maturation, which in turn disturb the formation of neuronal circuits [1]. Long term alterations in brain function have been reported which could be related to long lasting cognitive impairments associated with malnutrition [4]. A wide range of cognitive deficits has been observed in malnourished children in India. In a study, malnourished children were assessed on the Gessell’s developmental schedule from 4 to 52 weeks of age. Children with grades II and III malnutrition had poor development in all areas of behaviour i.e., motor, adaptive, language and personal social [5]. Rural children studying in primary school between the ages of 6–8 years were assessed on measures of social maturity (Vineland social maturity scale), visuomotor co-ordination (Bender gestalt test), and memory (free recall of words, pictures and objects). Malnutrition was associated with deficits of social competence, visuomotor coordination and memory. Malnutrition had a greater effect on the immediate memory of boys as compared with those of girls. Malnourished boys had greater impairment of immediate memory for words, pictures and objects, while malnourished girls had greater impairment of immediate memory for only pictures. Delayed recall of words and pictures of malnourished boys was impaired. Malnourished girls had an impairment of delayed recall of only words. The same authors measured the intelligence of malnourished children using Malin’s Indian adaptation of the Wechsler’s intelligence scale for children. IQ scores decreased with the severity of malnutrition. Significant decreases were observed in performance IQ, as well as on the subtests of information and digit span among the verbal subtests [6]. The above study has shown that though there is decrease in full scale IQ, yet performance on all the subtests was not affected. This suggests that malnutrition may affect different neuropsychological functions to different degrees. Studies done in Africa and South America have focused on the effect of stunted growth on cognitive abilities using verbal intelligence tests based on assessment of reasoning [7]. Such an assessment does not provide a comprehensive and specific assessment of cognitive processes like attention, memory, executive functions, visuo-spatial functions, comprehension as conducted in the present study. Information about the functional status of specific cognitive processes has implications for developing a cognitive rehabilitation program for malnourished children. A neuropsychological assessment would throw light on functional status of brain behaviour relationships affected by malnutrition. Deficits of cognitive, emotional and behavioural functioning are linked to structural abnormalities of different regions of the brain. Brain structures and brain circuits compute different components of cognitive processes [8]. Malnutrition has long lasting effects in the realm of cognition and behaviour, although the cognitive processes like executive functions have not been fully assessed [9]. The differential nature of cognitive deficits associated with malnutrition suggests that different areas of the brain are compromised to different degrees. A neuropsychological assessment would be able to delineate the pattern of brain dysfunction. Malnutrition is a grave problem in our country as 52% of our children are malnourished. Effects of protein-calorie malnutrition are inextricably blended with the effects of social cultural disadvantage; even within the disadvantaged class, literacy environment at home and parental expectation regarding children’s education are powerful variables. Perhaps membership in a higher caste confers some advantage in regard to home literacy, and parental expectation. Short and tall children do differ in some cognitive tests, but not in all as demonstrated in a study done in Orissa, India [10]. But whether or not stunted growth alone is the causative variable for cognitive weakness is not determined as yet. Moreover, the functional integrity of specific cognitive processes is less clear. Chronic PEM resulting in stunting and wasting could result in delay in the development of cognitive processes or in permanent cognitive impairments. Neuropsychological measures can demonstrate delay in normally developing cognitive processes as well as permanent cognitive deficits.
Children in the age range of 5–10 years attending a corporation school in the city of Bangalore participated in the study. Corporation schools in India are government schools with minimal fee attended by children from lowmiddle class. There were 20 children in adequately nourished group and 20 in the malnourished group. The gender distribution was equal. Children in both the groups were from the same ethnic/language background. They were natives of Karnataka living in Bangalore.
After identifying the malnourished and adequately nourished children the coloured progressive matrices test [12] was administered to rule out mental retardation. Children falling at or below the fifth percentile were excluded from the sample, as the 5th percentile is suggestive of intellectually defective range. The percentile points were calculated from the raw scores using Indian norms [13]. Mental retardation was ruled out as otherwise scores on neuropsychological tests would be uniformly depressed and a differentiation of deficits might not occur. Intelligence was not treated as a covariate in the study. The groups did not differ significantly in their scores on CPM (a screening instrument to rule out intellectual impairment in both the groups).
Table 1: Demographic details of the participants
Adequately nourished N = 20 Malnourished N = 20
Mean age 5–7 years 8–10 years 5–7 years 8–10 years
5.8 years 8.8 years 6.3 years 9.3 years
Gender Girls:10 Boys: 10 Girls:10 Boys: 10
Stunted %
(height for age -2 SD from the median) —- 70%
Stunted and wasted %
(height for age and
weight for height: -2 SD from the median) —- 30%
Exclusion of behaviour problems and history of neurological disorders The children’s behaviour questionnaire form B [14] was administered to the class teachers of the identified children. Children who scored above the cut off score of 9 were not included in the sample. The personal data sheet was filled in consultation with the parents and teachers to rule out any history of any neurological/psychiatric disorders including head injury and epilepsy and one child with epilepsy was excluded. This was one of the exclusion criteria.
Exclusion of behaviour problems and history of neurological disorders The children’s behaviour questionnaire form B [14] was administered to the class teachers of the identified children. Children who scored above the cut off score of 9 were not included in the sample. The personal data sheet was filled in consultation with the parents and teachers to rule out any history of any neurological/psychiatric disorders including head injury and epilepsy and one child with epilepsy was excluded. This was one of the exclusion criteria.
The tests have been grouped under specific cognitive domains on the basis of theoretical rationale and factor analysis. Factor analysis has been done for the battery and the grouping of tests under cognitive functions like executive functions, visuospatial functions, comprehension and learning and memory was done on the basis of the clustering observed in factor analysis as well as on theoretical grounds
The neuropsychological battery consisted of the following tests:
1. Motor speed Finger tapping test [15]
2. Expressive speech Expressive speech test was administered to rule out speech related deficits
3. Attention Color trails test [18] is a measure of focused attention and conceptual tracking.
4.Color cancellation test [21] is a measure of visual scanning/selective attention
5. Executive functions FAS phonemic fluency test is a measure of verbal fluency.
6. Design fluency test [24] is a measure of design fluency, cognitive flexibility and imaginative capacity.
7. Visuo-spatial working memory span task [23]: This test is a measure of visuo-spatial working memory (VSWM) span.
8. Visuospatial functions Motor-free visual perception test [29] is a measure of visuoperceptual ability, having 36 items for visual discrimination, visual closure, figure-ground, perceptual matching and visual memory. Since this test has been originally developed for children between 5–8 years of age, it was modified and items in increasing difficulty level were added by the authors to make it applicable for the children above 8 years. Number of correct responses comprises the score.
9. Picture completion test [30] is a measure of visuoconceptual ability, visual organization and visuo-conceptual reasoning.
10. Block design test [30] is a measure of visuoconstructive ability.
11. Comprehension, learning and memory Token test [31] is a measure of verbal comprehension of commands of increasing complexity.
12.Rey’s auditory verbal learning test (RAVLT) [32] is a measure of verbal learning and memory.
13.Memory for designs test [34] is a measure of visual learning and memory.
Comparison between the performance of adequately nourished children and malnourished children Table 2.0 shows that malnourished group differed significantly from the adequately nourished group on tests of phonemic fluency, design fluency, selective attention, visuospatial working memory, visuospatial functions, verbal comprehension and verbal learning and memory showing poor performance. The two groups did not differ on the test of finger tapping. Since expressive speech was a question answer type assessment looking at repetitive speech, nominative speech and narrative speech, which is like an initial screening for aphasia, like symptoms. Since it did not give a quantitative score, hence was not taken for analysis. As a descriptive account of expressive speech it was observed that malnourished children did not have any difficulty with respect to expressive speech.
Comparison of age related differences in cognitive functions between adequately nourished and malnourished children Data was further subjected to post hoc analysis to compare the two groups across the two age groups to study the rate of improvement with age (Table 2). In both the age groups of 5–7 years and 8–10 years the adequately nourished children performed better than the malnourished children. Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 indicate age related improvement in performance across different cognitive functions in adequately nourished children as compared to malnourished children. Motor speed and coordination was not significantly affected in malnourished children as compared to the adequately nourished children (figure 1). The rate of age related improvement across the two age groups was found rapid on certain functions like selective attention (figure 2) and verbal fluency (figure 3) in malnourished children. However, working memory, design fluency, visuospatial functions, comprehension, learning, and memory showed slowing in terms of age related improvement in malnourished children. Most of the cognitive functions like design fluency (figure 3), working memory (figure 3), Visual perception (figure 4), visuoconceptual reasoning (figure 4), visual construction (figure 4), verbal comprehension (figure 5), verbal and visual memory (figures 6) have shown a very slow rate of improvement with respect to the difference in performance between the two age groups of 5–7 and 8–10 years. On the contrary functions like verbal fluency (figure 3), motor speed (figures 1), and selective attention (figure 2) showed similar rates of improvement in adequately nourished children and malnourished children while comparing the two age groups.
Table 2: Mean comparisons for the cognitive functions across the two age groups of adequately nourished and malnourished children (not shown)
Table 3: Post-hoc comparisons between adequately nourished and malnourished groups across the two age groups (not shown)
Figure 1 Age related comparisons between adequately nourished and malnourished children on motor speed (right and left hand) Age related comparisons between adequately nourished and malnourished children on motor speed (right and left hand). (not shown)
Figure 2 Age related comparisons between adequately nourished and malnourished children on selective attention (color cancellation test). (not shown)
Post-hoc comparisons were computed with Tukey’s posthoc tests to compare the means across age groups between malnourished and adequately nourished children for those test scores that showed significant effects. Hence, post hoc tests were not computed for the finger tapping test scores assessing motor speed. Table 3 presents the post-hoc results with the significance (probability level) levels of the differences across age groups and between adequately nourished and malnourished children. Post hoc results have been done to support our theoretical claims about the lack of age related improvement in certain cognitive functions on one hand and the nature of cognitive impairments on the other in malnourished children. Four comparisons were interpreted i.e., comparing performance between the two age groups of adequately nourished and malnourished children separately. The other comparison was between the adequately nourished and malnourished children for the age group of 5–7 years and similarly for the age group of 8–10 years. Results indicate age related differences within each group as well as between the two groups. Age related differences were found significant for some of the test scores between 5–7 and 8–10 year old children in the adequately nourished group but not for most of the test scores for malnourished group indicative of a delay in development of certain cognitive functions. Differences were found significant between the adequately nourished and malnourished children for the same age group for most of the test scores indicative of a deficit in a particular cognitive function. In few of the tests, performance was not found to be significantly different between the two age groups for both adequately nourished and malnourished children.
Discussion The findings of the present study could be discussed in terms of the effect of chronic malnutrition on neuropsychological performance and with respect to the rate of development of cognitive processes.
Effect of malnutrition on neuropsychological performance Our study indicates that malnourished children perform poor on most of the neuropsychological tests except that of motor speed as compared to adequately nourished children. Malnourished children showed poor performance on tests of higher cognitive functions like cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, visual perception, verbal comprehension, and memory. These findings are supported by another study on Indian malnourished children, which reported memory impairments in undernourished children and spared fine motor coordination [36]. Malnourished children showed poor performance on novel tasks like tests of executive functions i.e., working memory spatial locations. Poor performance on the tests of fluency and working memory also coincides with very slow rate of improvement between the age groups of 5–7 years and 8–10 years. Poor performance on most of the neuropsychological tests indicated a diffuse impairment including attention, executive functions, visuospatial functions, comprehension and memory.
Effect of malnutrition on cognitive development Both the groups were tested on a neuropsychological battery, which has been found to be sensitive to age related differences in cognitive functions in children (5–15 years). The age trends reported in the present study are based on the assessment that employed the NIMHANS neuropsychological battery for children [13]. The test battery has been standardized based on the growth curve modeling approach for empirical validation of age-related differences in performance on neuropsychological tests. The tests in the battery were found sensitive to show age related differences.
Malnourished children showed poor performance with respect to age as compared to adequately nourished children. The performance of malnourished children in the 5–7 years age group was poor and much lower than the adequately nourished children and did not seem to show much improvement in the 8–10 years age group. The rate of cognitive development was found to be different for different cognitive functions. The rate of development was affected for some of the cognitive functions showing minimal age related improvement across the age range of 5–7 years and 8–10 years such as design fluency, working memory, visual construction, verbal comprehension, learning and memory for verbal and visual material. On the contrary, age related improvement was observed on certain other cognitive functions in malnourished children, where the level of performance was low for both the age groups but the rate of improvement between the two age groups was similar to adequately nourished children.
Not shown
Figure 3 Age related comparisons between adequately nourished and malnourished children on executive functions.
MN 5–7 vs 8–10 p > .05 5–7 years AN vs MN p > .05 8–10 years AN vs MN p < .05 Visual memory (memory for designs test) AN 5–7 vs 8–10 p > .05 MN 5–7 vs 8–10 p > .05 5–7 years AN vs MN p < .05 8–10 years AN vs MN p < .05
Figure 4 Age related comparisons between adequately nourished and malnourished children on visuospatial functions.
Figure 5 Age related comparisons between adequately nourished and malnourished children on verbal comprehension and verbal learning.
Motor speed (right and left hand) was not found impaired in malnourished children and the rate of development was also found similar to adequately nourished children.
Executive functions such as design fluency, selective attention and working memory were found deficient in malnourished children also showing poor rate of improvement between the two age groups. All the three tests of executive functions like fluency, selective attention and working memory for spatial locations involved novel stimuli and performance required cognitive flexibility as well as faster information processing which was affected in malnourished children. Results also indicate that malnourished children showed a very slow rate of improvement on these functions.
Visuo-spatial functions like visual perception, visual construction and visuo-conceptual reasoning showed significantly poor performance when compared to the adequately nourished children but showed a steep age related improvement in performance. Performance on functions like visual perception (visual discrimination, perceptual matching, visual closure and visuospatial relationships) and visual construction was severely affected in malnourished children and also showed poor rate of improvement with age.
Verbal comprehension, learning and memory for verbal and visual material was found poor as compared to adequately nourished children but the rate of improvement between 5–7 years age group and 8–10 years age group was similar to that of adequately nourished children. These results suggest that development of comprehension with age might not be affected in malnourished children. However, other than the poor performance on the AVLT test of verbal learning, malnourished children also showed minimal improvement between the two age groups as compared to the greater magnitude of difference between the two age groups in adequately nourished children. Visual memory was most severely affected in malnourished children in terms of the poor performance on delayed recall on design learning test as well as in terms of the difference between the two age groups.
Malnutrition affects brain growth and development and hence future behavioral outcomes [37]. School-age children who suffered from early childhood malnutrition have generally been found to have poorer IQ levels, cognitive function, school achievement and greater behavioral problems than matched controls and, to a lesser extent, siblings. The disadvantages last at least until adolescence. There is no consistent evidence of a specific cognitive deficit [38]. The functional integrity of specific cognitive processes is less clear. Stunting in early childhood is common in developing countries and is associated with poorer cognition and school achievement in later childhood [39]. Deficits in children’s scores have been reported to be smaller at age 11 years than at age 8 years in a longitudinal study on malnourished children stunted children suggesting that adverse effects may decline over time [7]. In our study also all the children in malnourished group were stunted and the cross sectional assessment of age related improvement has shown similar rate of improvement across 5–7 years to 8–10 years age groups as observed in adequately nourished children though the baseline performance was low in malnourished children. These results indicate that the adverse effects of malnutrition (stunting in particular) may decline with age only for certain cognitive functions but the rate of cognitive development for most of the cognitive processes particularly higher cognitive processes including executive processes and visuospatial perception could be severely affected during the childhood years. Decline in the effects of malnutrition overtime has been reported to be independent of differences in educational, socioeconomic and psychosocial resources [7]. Hence, malnutrition (particularly stunting) may result in delayed development of cognitive processes during childhood years rather than a permanent generalized cognitive impairment.
The neuropsychological interpretation of the cognitive processes more severely affected in malnourished children suggests a diffuse cortical involvement. This is with reference to deficits pertaining to functions mediated by dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (poor performance on tests of attention, fluency and working memory), right parietal (poor performance on tests of visuospatial functions) and bilateral temporal cortex (poor performance on tests of comprehension, verbal learning, and memory for verbal and visual material). The prefrontal cortex may be particularly vulnerable to malnutrition [4]. The adverse effects of malnutrition (PEM-stunting) on cognitive development could be related to the delay in certain processes of structural and functional maturation like delayed myelination and reduced overall development of dendritic arborization of the developing brain [1].
The present study highlights two ways in which malnutrition particularly stunting could affect cognitive functions. On one hand age related improvement in cognitive performance is compromised and on the other hand there could be long lasting cognitive impairments as well. However, the effect is nor specific to a particular cognitive domain and is rather more diffuse. Results of the study also indicate that: certain cognitive functions could be vulnerable to the effect of malnutrition in terms of showing impairment but the rate of development of these functions may not be affected. On the other hand, rate of development of certain cognitive functions may be affected and may also show impairment when compared with adequately nourished children.
Conclusion Chronic protein energy malnutrition (stunting) results in cognitive impairments as well as slowing in the rate of the development of cognitive processes. Rate of development of cognitive functions may follow different patterns in children with malnutrition. Chronic protein energy malnutrition affects the development of cognitive processes differently during childhood years rather than merely showing an overall cognitive dysfunction as compared to adequately nourished children. Stunting could result in delay in the development of cognitive functions as well as in permanent cognitive impairments which show minimal improvement with increase in age. Rate of development of attention, executive functions like cognitive flexibility, working memory, visuospatial functions like visual construction is more severely affected by protein energy malnutrition in childhood years, a period that is marked by rapid ongoing development of cognitive functions.
Three groups of Ugandan children (20 in each group) and one comparison group of 20 children were examined between 11 and 17 years of age. The first three groups had been admitted to hospital for treatment of protein energy malnutrition between the ages of eight to 15, 16 to 21 and 22 to 27 months, respectively. The comparison group had not been clinically malnourished throughout the whole period up to 27 months of age. All the children came from one tribe and were individually matched for sex, age, education and home environment. It was found that the three malnourished groups fell significantly below the comparison group in anthropometric measurements and in tests of intellectual and motor abilities. No evidence was found for a relationship between the deficit and age at admission. Further analysis among the 60 malnourished children revealed that anthropometry and intellectual and motor abilities are the more affected the greater the degree of ‘chronic undernutrition’ at admission, but no correlation was found with the severity of the ‘acute malnutrition’. The results show a general impairment of intellectual abilities, with reasoning and spatial abilities most affected, memory and rote learning intermediately and language ability least, if at all, affected. These findings are discussed in the context of a comprehensive and critical appraisal of the existing literature.
Quake-Hit Nepal Gears up to Tackle Stunting in Children
HECHO, Nepal (Thomson Reuters Foundation) – Shanti Maharjan, who gave birth to a baby girl 10 days ago, has spent the last two months living under corrugated iron sheets with her husband and five others after two major earthquakes reduced her mud-and-brick home to rubble.
Adequate food, drinking water and aid such as tents and blankets have been hard to come by, she says, though scores of aid agencies rushed to the Himalayan nation to help survivors.
What worries the 26-year-old mother most is her inability to produce breastmilk for her new-born daughter, who she fears is at serious risk of malnutrition in the aftermath of the 7.8 and 7.3 magnitude quakes in April and May.
“The earthquake destroyed everything, including our food reserves,” said Maharjan, sitting under the iron sheeting on farmland on the outskirts of the capital, Kathmandu.
“There is not enough food. Getting meat, oil and fruits to eat is difficult in this situation. I am worried about my daughter’s nourishment,” she said as the baby, wrapped in a green cloth, lay sleeping on a wooden bed.
The government, aware that disruption caused by the quakes could worsen the country’s already high rate of child malnutrition is sending out teams of community nurses to give advice and food supplements to women and children in the affected areas.
A 2011 government study showed that more than 40% of Napel’s under-five-year-olds were stunted, showing that the country’s child malnutrition rate was one of the world’s highest.
Experts say the two quakes, which killed 8,895 people and destroyed half a million houses, could make things worse as survivors have inadequate food, water, shelter, healthcare and sanitation.
United Nations officials warn that the rate of stunting among children in the South Asian nation could return to the 2001 level of 57%, if authorities and aid agencies do not respond effectively.
“The risk of malnutrition is high and requires the nutrition and other sectors like agriculture, health, water, sanitation, education and social protection to respond adequately,” said Stanley Chitekwe, UNICEF’s nutrition chief in Nepal.
DRIVE TO NOURISH
Child malnutrition is an underlying cause of death for 3 million children annually around the world – nearly half of all child deaths – most of whom die from preventable illnesses such as diarrhoea due to weak immune systems.
Those lucky enough to survive grow up without enough energy, protein, vitamins and minerals, causing their brains and bodies to be stunted, and they are often unable to fulfill their potential.
Government officials admit the challenges, citing data showing that almost 70% of Nepali children under the age of two suffer from anaemia caused by iron deficiency.
“This shows that (poor) nutrition is a very big problem. The earthquake will further worsen the situation because people simply don’t have enough to eat, let alone have a nutritious diet,” said Health Ministry official Krishna Prasad Paudel.
Supported by UNICEF, authorities have now launched a drive to reach out to more than 500,000 women and children who need supplementary food and medicines.
More than 10,000 female community volunteers will be fanning out across 14 districts affected by the earthquakes, visiting devastated towns and villages and speaking to new and expectant mothers about breast-feeding their infants.
The volunteers will also advise families on eating locally available nutritious foods such as green vegetables and meat and will distribute vitamin A, iron and folic acid, and other micronutrient supplements to pregnant and breastfeeding women.
In Imadole, a prosperous district on the outskirts of the ancient town of Patan, health volunteer Urmila Sharma Dahal found an extremely thin two-year-old boy weighing 7.5 kg (16.5 pounds) last week, suffering from severe acute malnutrition.
Dahal said she provided his family with sachets of ready-to-use therapeutic food – a paste of peanut, sugar, milk powder, vitamin and oil – and the child gained nearly a kilo (2.2 pounds) in weight in just seven days.
“It does not take much. It can be done with small but right interventions,” said Dahal as she sat next to the child in the family’s brick-and-cement home.
Protein-energy malnutrition occurs due to inadequate intake of food and is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in children in developing countries (Grover and Ee 2009).
Protein energy malnutrition (PEM) has significant negative impacts on children’s growth and development (Grover and Ee 2009). Chronic PEM causes children to have stunted growth (low height for age) and to be underweight (low weight for age); it is estimated that among children under age five, one in every four is stunted and one in every six is underweight. PEM also causes two specific conditions in children: marasmus, which is characterized by an emaciated appearance, and kwashiorkor, in which children develop swollen bellies due to edema (abnormal accumulation of fluid) and discoloration of the hair because of pigment loss among other symptoms (UNWFP 2013b, Ahmed et al. 2012). Countries in sub-Saharan Africa and south Asia have the highest proportions of children suffering from PEM (UNWFP 2013a).
PEM causes direct mortality in children and also increases vulnerability to other serious diseases including diarrhea, pneumonia, and malaria. Children suffering from PEM have compromised immune systems, making them particularly susceptible to infectious diseases. Furthermore, PEM has negative impacts on children’s brain development, resulting in issues with memory and delayed motor function; these children have decreased ability to learn and have lower productivity as adults. PEM also has serious and potentially long-term impacts on other organ systems including the cardiovascular, respiratory, and gastrointestinal systems (Grover and Ee 2009).
Many adults in developing countries also suffer from PEM, with women disproportionately impacted compared with men, particularly in south Asian countries (UNWFP 2013a). Pregnant women who are undernourished can fall even further behind in their nutritional status due to the increased demand for nutrients by the developing fetus. Women who don’t gain sufficient weight during pregnancy are at increased risk for complications including maternal morbidity and mortality, low birth weight, and neonatal mortality. These women can also have difficulty providing sufficient quantities of breast milk, leading to malnutrition among neonates (Ahmed et al. 2012).
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