Lipids | Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence Group, LLC, Doing Business As LPBI Group, Newton, MA

Archive for the ‘Lipids’ Category

Stress and Anxiety

Posted in Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Cognition, Curation, Disease Biology, Epigenetics and Cardiovascular Risks, Gastroenterology, HTN, Indigent Nutrition, Innovations in Neurophysiology & Neuropsychology, Lipids, Liver & Digestive Diseases Research, Neurological Diseases, Nitric Oxide in Health and Disease, Nutrition and Phytochemistry, Nutrition Disorders, Origins of Cardiovascular Disease, Population Health Management, Population Health Management, Nutrition and Phytochemistry, Prescription Drugs Costs, Uninsured and Underinsured, tagged adults, anxiety, behavioral treatments, geriatrics, pediatrics, psychosomatic illness, Stress on March 4, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Stress and Anxiety

Writer and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Introduction

This article follows immediately after two on diet and obesity and diet and exercise. The hypothalamus has been discussed in some detail, although There is more that needs to be said about glutamate receptors, which is a topic in itself. However, this material fits in place quite well. There is a considerable amount of obesity, and exercise is limited by time and commitment. The shrinking middle class and the working poor, and the unemployed poor as well, have a struggle to make ends meet, and with the divorce rates that we are seeing, it is stressful for a single mother to carry on a complete life as mother and caregiver, and it is not unusual to see one or both couples in a household, regardless of sex, to hold two jobs. Students enter colleges for higher education and leave with significant debts. Graduates with advanced degrees may have to compete with a crowd of qualified applicants for an academic position, or even for a job in technology. In addition, there is an increase in stress related disorders in the pre-school, elementary and middle school population. We no longer have to read the front pages to learn that a violent act has been carried out somewhere, in some neighborhood in our great nation that has experienced a great civil war, two world wars, the Mc Carthy hearings, the Cold War, and Vietnam, and the Iraq War, all of which was accompanied by migrations, immigration, and outsourcing of jobs. The following is another look at how we are adjusting.

Effectiveness of a meditation-based stress management program as an adjunct to pharmacotherapy in patients with anxiety disorder

Sang Hyuk Lee, Seung Chan Ahn, Yu Jin Lee, Tae Kyu Choi, et al.
J Psychosomatic Research 62 (2007) 189–195
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2006.09.009

Objective: The objective of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a meditation-based stress management program in patients with anxiety disorder.
Methods: Patients with anxiety disorder were randomly assigned to an 8-week clinical trial of either a meditation-based stress management program or an anxiety disorder education program. The Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A), the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D), the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Symptom Checklist- 90 — Revised (SCL-90-R) were used to measure outcome at 0, 2, 4, and 8 weeks of the program. Results: Compared to the education group, the meditation-based stress management group showed significant improvement in scores on all anxiety scales (HAM-A, P=.001; STAI state, P=.001; STAI trait, P=.001; anxiety subscale of SCL-90-R,P=.001) and in the SCL-90-R hostility subscale (P=.01). Findings on depression measures were inconsistent, with no significant improvement shown by subjects in the meditation-based stress management group compared to those in the education group. The meditation-based stress management group did not show significant improvement in somatization, obsessive–compulsive symptoms, and interpersonal sensitivity scores, or in the SCL-90-R phobic anxiety subscale compared to the education group. Conclusions: A meditation-based stress management program can be effective in relieving anxiety symptoms in patients with anxiety disorder. However, well-designed, randomized, and controlled trials are needed to scientifically prove the worth of this intervention prior to treatment.

Evidence and Potential Mechanisms for Mindfulness Practices and Energy Psychology for Obesity and Binge-Eating Disorder

Renee Sojcher, Susan Gould Fogerite, and Adam Perlman
Explore 2012; 8(5):271-276
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2012.06.003

Obesity is a growing epidemic. Chronic stress produces endocrine and immune factors that are contributors to obesity’s etiology. These biochemical alsocan affect appetite and eating behaviors that can lead to binge-eating disorder. The inadequacies of standard care and the problem of patient noncompliance have inspired a search for alternative treatments. Proposals in the literature have called for combination therapies involving behavioral or new biological therapies. This manuscript suggests that mindbody interventions would be ideal for such combinations. Two mind body modalities, energy psychology and mindfulness meditation, are reviewed for their potential in treating weight loss, stress, and behavior modiﬁcation related to binge-eating disorder.

Whereas mindfulness meditation and practices show more compelling evidence, energy psychology, in the infancy stages of elucidation, exhibits initially promising outcomes but requires further evidence-based trials. “Diets Don’t Work” has been a mantra repeated over and over in the media. In fact, in a 2006 study in which investigators compared several popular diets comprising either high carbohydrates, high protein, or high fat, they found a rapid regression of compliance after six months, to the extent that it did not matter which diet had initially been more effective. In another study, authors examined a combination of diet and exercise compared with diet alone and observed that 50% of their subjects in both groups regained the weight that they lost after one year, despite their having lost more weight with the combination therapy. Despite the failure of diet alone in most studies, strategies incorporating both diet and exercise can be effective: a Cochrane review on exercise for overweight or obesity concluded that exercise had a positive effect on body weight and cardiovascular risk factors and that this effect was enhanced by a combination of exercise with dietary interventions.

The authors of a more recent study found that the beneﬁts of exercise in inducing weight loss may come through psychological pathways rather than through actual energy expenditure. These factors include self-regulation and self-efﬁcacy, which may mediate the relationship between exercise and weight change. Psychological interventions, particularly behavioral therapy and CBT, have been shown to be effective, especially when combined with diet and exercise. However, these interventions are costly and require extensive clinical contact for long durations to achieve efﬁcacy. The authors of a recent randomized controlled trial (RCT) with a three-year follow-up period looked at a new form of CBT that addresses patients’ overeating and low level of activity, as well as factors that impede weight maintenance, and found that this form of therapy did not result in improved weight maintenance. These authors concluded that CBT is not sufﬁciently effective in helping patients maintain their weight loss in the long term. Although 20% of people will not change their eating behaviors under stress, most do; approximately 40% will increase and 40% will decrease their eating.

The emotional eaters, who tend to increase food intake, are more likely to crave high-fat/sweet and rewarding comfort foods. The basis for this behavior is becoming understood to entail brain pathways that involve learning and memory of reward and pleasure. Habit formation and decreased cognitive control are also involved. These habits form the basis of BED. Binge eating occurs when a person eats larger amounts of food than normal in a short amount of time. It therefore involves a loss of control and is often precipitated by a range of negative emotions, such as anxiety, depression, anger, and loneliness. Overweight subjects may or may not be characterized as binge eaters.

The stress response, also known as the “ﬁght or ﬂight response,” involves the interaction of the autonomic nervous system, which includes the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems, the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis and endocrine secretion. Together, these systems comprise neuro-endocrine pathways that collaborate to maintain the body’s regulation of homeostasis. This mechanism is very effective when stress is acute, but in the case of chronic stress, the effect can be injurious to one’s physiological state. Over time, chronic exposure to stress hormones contributes to“ allostatic load.” The stress hormones released by the body, mostly cortisol, can alter the body’s fuel metabolism, especially by adipose tissue, leading to an increase in upper-body obesity. Furthermore, hormones such as leptin, ghrelin, and neuropeptide Y can affect appetite and cause changes in fat mass storage. This results in the linking of stress and obesity.

Given the limited success of conventional approaches and the new information about the psychological and physiological mechanisms underlying obesity, we propose that a speciﬁc sub-group of mind-body therapies, including energy psychology and mindfulness-based approaches, could add an important new dimension to the integrative treatment of eating disorders. Energy psychology refers to a family of therapies that are used for treating physical disorders and psychological symptoms, which includes Thought Field Therapy, Emotional Freedom Techniques (EFT), Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing, and Tapas Acupressure Technique (TAT). These therapies incorporate concepts originating from non-Western healing and spiritual systems, including acupuncture, acupressure, yoga, meditation, and qigong, and they combine physical activity with mental activation on the basis of the premise that the body is composed of electrical signals or energy ﬁelds. Energy psychology has been quite controversial among psychotherapists and has been the subject of much heated debate in the literature. Nonetheless, the clinical application of these practices is growing and is beginning to be investigated for efﬁcacy. Mindfulness-Based Eating Awareness Training (ie,MB-EAT) involves the cultivation of mindfulness, mindful eating, emotional balance, and self-acceptance.

A pilot trial of a six-week group curriculum for providing mindfulness training to obese individuals, called Mindful Eating and Living (ie,MEAL), showed signiﬁcant increases in measures of mindfulness and cognitive restraint around eating and signiﬁcant decreases in weight, eating disinhibition, bingeeating, depression, perceived stress, physical symptoms, negative affect ,and C-reactive protein. In a recent systematic review of eight studies, authors examined a variety of mindfulness techniques in treating eating disorders, including anorexia, bulimia, and BED. Because trial quality varied and sample sizes were small, the researchers concluded that mindfulness may be effective in treating eating disorders but that further research was needed. The authors noted, however, that all of the articles that met the study’s criterion reported positive outcomes for the mindfulness intervention. Two additional studies recently addressed the treatment of obesity with a combination of mindfulness strategies and ACT. Lillis et al. conducted a RCT on 87 subjects who had all completed at least a six-month weight loss program. Using a wait list control against treatment of the experimental group through a one-day workshop, the authors found that, compared with the control group, the experimental group showed greater improvements in obesity-related stigma, quality of life, psychological distress, and reduction of body mass in a three-month follow-up. Alberts et al. conducted an RCT on 19 participants in a 10-week dietary group treatment that examined the effect of mindfulness plus ACT on food cravings. Experimental subjects underwent an additional seven-week, manual-based mindfulness/acceptance training. The control group received information on healthy food choices. The experimental group showed signiﬁcantly lower food cravings, a lower preoccupation with food in four subscales, less loss of control, and better positive outcome expectancy, as compared with the control group. There was no signiﬁcant effect observed for emotional craving. The authors of both of these studies conclude that mindfulness strategies combined with acceptance are effective in reducing the behaviors that lead many obese patients to overeat. With regards to stress, mindfulness can reduce psychological factors that have been shown to contribute to obesity.

In a recent well conducted systematic review, Mars and Abbey examined 22 studies with conditions ranging from participants with Axis I disorders, various diagnosed medical disorders, and healthy subjects. Axis I disorders include a range of psychopathologies such as childhood developmental and adjustment abnormalities, adult anxiety, and mood, sleep, and sexual disorders. Subjects with BED are known to have greater comorbidity forAxis I disorders. The authors report that ﬁve studies examining Axis I disorders showed statistically signiﬁcant results for an eight-week, two hours per week MBCT program in reducing psychological stress, recurring bouts of depression, and pain. They conclude that, despite some methodological difﬁculties in the trials, mindfulness therapy may have a positive impact on reducing stress and depression. Despite increasing public awareness of obesity’s detrimental effects on health, the conventional approaches to managing this condition have not been effective. The recommended standard care for overweight and obesity, namely diet and exercise, are for the most part ineffective in the long term. Behavioral therapy and CBT may have some effect but are costly and difﬁcult to implement. Issues with bariatric surgery and pharmacological therapies attributable to cost and the potential for harm, as well as lack of long-term efﬁcacy, have limited their utility.

The effectiveness of a stress coping program based on mindfulness meditation on the stress, anxiety, and depression experienced by nursing students in Korea

Yune Sik Kang, So Young Choi, Eunjung Ryu
Nurse Education Today 29 (2009) 538–543
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.nedt.2008.12.003

This study examined the effectiveness of a stress coping program based on mindfulness meditation on the stress, anxiety, and depression experienced by nursing students in Korea. A nonequivalent, control group, pre-posttest design was used. A convenience sample of 41 nursing students were randomly assigned to experimental (n=21) and control groups (n=20). Stress was measured with the PWI-SF(5-point) developed by Chang. Anxiety was measured with Spieberger’s state anxiety y inventory. Depression was measured with the Beck depression inventory. The experimental group attended 90-min sessions for eight weeks. No intervention was administered to the control group. Nine participants were excluded from the analysis because they did not complete the study due to personal circumstances, resulting in16 participants in each group for the ﬁnal analysis. Results for the two groups showed

(1) a signiﬁcant difference in stress scores (F=6.145,p=0.020),

(2) a signiﬁcant difference in anxiety scores (F=6.985,p=0.013), and

(3) no signiﬁcant difference in depression scores (t=1.986,p=0.056).

A stress coping program based on mindfulness meditation was an effective intervention for nursing students to decrease their stress and anxiety, and could be used to manage stress in student nurses. In the future, long-term studies should be pursued to standardize and detail the program, with particular emphasis on studies to conﬁrm the effects of the program in patients with diseases, such as cancer.

Meditation and Anxiety Reduction: A Literature Review

M. M. Delmonte Clin
Psychol Rev 1985; 5: 91-102
Meditation is increasingly being practiced as a therapeutic technique. The effects of practice on psychometrically assessed anxiety levels has been extensively researched. Prospective meditators tend to report above average anxiety. In general, high anxiety levels predict a subsequent low frequency of practice. However, the evidence suggests that those who practice regularly tend to show significant decreases in anxiety. Meditation does not appear to be more effective than comparative interventions in reducing anxiety. There is evidence to suggest that hypnotizability and expectancy may both play a role in reported anxiety decrease. Certain individuals with a capacity to engage in autonomous self-absorbed relaxation, may benefit most from meditation.

Meta-analysis on the effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction therapy on mental health of adults with a chronic disease: What should the reader not make of it?

Ernst Bohlmeijer, Rilana Prenger, ErikTaal
Letters to the Editor/J Psychosom Res 69 (2010) 613–615
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2010.09.005

In a letter to the editor, Nyklíček et al. discuss the study of Bohlmeijer et al. [1]on the meta-analysis on the effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) therapy on mental health of adults with a chronic disease. They claim that the effects of MBSR are underestimated in this meta-analysis due to the inclusion of a study using an active education support group as control group and to the omission of some subscales for which larger effect sizes have been found. We do not agree that the study using an active education support group as a control group should not have been included in the meta-analysis. It is a common procedure to include studies with various types of control groups, e.g., waiting-list, placebo, minimal interventions, or evidence-based treatment. Normally, subgroup analyses can be conducted, contrasting studies that use differen ttypes of control groups. As seven studies used a waiting-list control condition and only one study used an education support group, this subgroup comparison was not useful. However, when we conducted a meta-analysis of the seven RCTs using a waiting-list control group an overall effect size of 0.30 instead of 0.26 was found. In addition, it is often found in meta-analyses that the largest effect sizes are reported in studies that use waiting-list control groups, e.g. ,Refs.[2,3]. The fact that almost all studies included in our meta-analysis in fact used waiting-list control groups makes it unlikely that the effects of MBSR were underestimated. As to the second claim by Nyklíček e tal.that some outcomes were selectively omitted from the meta-analysis, we can state that the subscales of the POMS were included in the meta-analysis.The program that was used in our study, Comprehensive Meta-Analysis, combined the scales that measure the same outcome, e.g., anxiety in one study. So the larger effects sizes for the subscales of the POMS were included in the meta-analysis. Lastly, Nyklíčeketal. State that ‘decentering’ is not an exclusive process of MBCT but is a central feature of MBSR as well. MBCT was specifically developed for people with recurrent depression and on the basis of a thorough analysis of the role of specific cognitions in people with recurrent depression. In ouropinion, this may explain the large effect sizes that have been found in randomized controlled trials, e.g., [4]. In general, other studies have shown that integrating MBSR in behavioral therapy is a very promising strategy for enhancing the efficacy of treatments of psychological distress[5,6]. However, more studies with different target groups are needed to answer the question as to which mindfulness-based intervention is most effective for which target group in which setting. Overall, in response to the letter to the editor by Nyklíček et al. we cannot corroborate their claim that the effects of MBSR were underestimated and have to stand with our conclusion that, on the basis of current RCTs, MBSR has small leffects on depression and anxiety in people with chronic medical diseases.

[1] BohlmeijerET, PrengerR, TaalE, CuijpersP.
The effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction therapy on the mental health of adults with a chronic medical disease: A meta-analysis.
JPsychosom Res 2010; 68:539–44.

[2]Powers MB, Zum Vörde Sive Vörding MB, Emmelkamp PMG.
Acceptance and commitment therapy: A meta-analytic review.
Psychoth Psychosom 2009; 78:73–80.

Read Full Post »

Diet and Exercise

Posted in Curation, Health Economics and Outcomes Research, HealthCare IT, Innovations, Innovations in Neurophysiology & Neuropsychology, Lipids, Nutrition, Nutrition and Phytochemistry, Nutritional Supplements: Atherogenesis, lipid metabolism, Origins of Cardiovascular Disease, Population Health Management, Population Health Management, Nutrition and Phytochemistry, Social Development, Statistical Methods for Research Evaluation, Stress Disorders, Systemic Inflammatory Response Related Disorders, Translational Effectiveness, Translational Research, Translational Science, tagged adolescent habits, Aging, cardiovascular and lung disease, childhood development, diet, exercise, geriatrics, lipid disorders, Obesity, running, social contacts, swimming, theories of living habits, walkable neighborhoods, walking on March 4, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Diet and Exercise

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Introduction

In the last several decades there has been a transformation in the diet of Americans, and much debate about obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, and the transformation of medical practice to a greater emphasis on preventive medicine. This occurs at a time that the Western countries are experiencing a large portion of the obesity epidemic, which actually diverts attention from a larger share of malnutrition in parts of Africa, Asia, and to a greater extent in India. This does not mean that obesity or malnutrition is exclusively in any parts of the world. But there is a factor at play that involves social factors, poverty, education, cognition, anxiety, and eating behaviors, food preferences and food balance, and activities of daily living. The epidemic of obesity also involves the development of serious long term health problems, such as, type 2 diabetes mellitus, sarcopenia, fracture risk, pulmonary disease, sleep apnea in particular, and cardiovascular and stroke risk. Nevertheless, this generation of Western society is also experiencing a longer life span than its predecessors. In this article I shall explore the published work on diet and exercise.

‘‘Go4Life’’ exercise counseling, accelerometer feedback, and activity levels in older people

Warren G. Thompson, CL Kuhle, GA Koepp, SK McCrady-Spitzer, JA Levine
Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics 58 (2014) 314–319
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2014.01.004

Older people are more sedentary than other age groups. We sought to determine if providing an accelerometer with feedback about activity and counseling older subjects using Go4Life educational material would increase activity levels. Participants were recruited from independent living areas within assisted living facilities and the general public in the Rochester, MN area. 49 persons aged 65–95(79.5 + 7.0 years) who were ambulatory but sedentary and overweight participated in this randomized controlled crossover trial for one year. After a baseline period of 2 weeks, group 1 received an accelerometer and counseling using Go4Life educational material (www.Go4Life.nia.nih.gov) for 24 weeks and accelerometer alone for the next 24 weeks. Group 2 had no intervention for the ﬁrst 24 weeks and then received an accelerometer and Go4Life based counseling for 24 weeks. There were no signiﬁcant baseline differences between the two groups. The intervention was not associated with a signiﬁcant change inactivity, body weight, % body fat, or blood parameters (p > 0.05). Older (80–93) subjects were less active than younger (65–79) subjects (p = 0.003). Over the course of the 48 week study, an increase in activity level was associated with a decline in % body fat (p = 0.008). Increasing activity levels beneﬁts older patients. However, providing an accelerometer and a Go4Life based exercise counseling program did not result in a 15% improvement in activity levels in this elderly population. Alternate approaches to exercise counseling may be needed in elderly people of this age range.

It is generally recommended that older adults be moderately or vigorously active for 150 min each week. A systematic review demonstrated that only 20–60% of older people are achieving this goal. These studies determined adherence to physical activity recommendations by questionnaire. Using NHANES data, it has been demonstrated that older people meet activity recommendations 62% of the time using a self-report questionnaire compared to 9.6% of the time when measured by accelerometry. Thus, objective measures suggest that older people are falling even more short of the goal than previously thought. Most studies have measured moderate and vigorous activity. However, light activity or NEAT (non-exercise activity thermogenesis) also has an important effect on health. For example, increased energy expenditure was associated with lower mortality in community-dwelling older adults. More than half of the extra energy expenditure in the high energy expenditure group came from non-exercise (light) activity. In addition to reduced total mortality, increased light and moderate activity has been associated with better cognitive function, reduced fracture rate (Gregg et al., 1998), less cardiovascular disease, and weight loss in older people. A meta-analysis of middle-aged and older adults has demonstrated greater all-cause mortality with increased sitting time. Thus, any strategy which can increase activity (whether light or more vigorous) has the potential to save lives and improve quality of life for older adults. A variety of devices have been used to measure physical activity.

A tri-axial accelerometer measures movement in three dimensions. Studies comparing tri-axial accelerometers with uniaxial accelerometers and pedometers demonstrate that only certain tri-axial accelerometers provide a reliable assessment of energy expenditure. This is usually due to failure to detect light activity. Since light activity accounts for a substantial portion of older people’s energy expenditure, measuring activity with a questionnaire or measuring steps with a pedometer do not provide an accurate reﬂection of activity in older people.

A recent review concluded that there is only weak evidence that physical activity can be improved. Since increasing both light and moderate activity beneﬁt older people, studies demonstrating that physical activity can be improved are urgently needed. Since accelerometry is the best way to accurately assess light activity, we performed a study to determine if an activity counseling program and using an accelerometer which gives feedback on physical activity, can result in an increase in light and moderate activity in older people. We also sought to determine whether counseling and accelerometer feedback would result in weight loss, change in % body fat, glucose, hemoglobin A1c, insulin, and fasting lipid proﬁle.

The main results of the study are both the experimental and control group lost weight (about 1 kg) at 6months (p = 0.04 and 0.02, respectively). The experimental group was less active at 6 months but not signiﬁcantly while the control group was signiﬁcantly less active at 6 months (p = 0.006) than at baseline. The experimental group had a modest decline in cholesterol (p = 0.03) and an improvement in Get Up & go time (p = 0.03) while the control group had a slight improvement in HgbA1c (p = 0.01). However, the main ﬁnding of the study was that there were no differences between the two groups on any of these variables. Thus, providing this group of older participants with an accelerometer and Go4Life based counseling resulted in no increase in physical activity, weight loss or change in glucose, lipids, blood pressure, or body fat. There were no differences within either group or between groups from 6 to 12 months on any of the variables (data not shown). While age was correlated with baseline activity, it did not affect activity change indicating that younger participants did not respond to the program better than older participants. Performance on the Get Up and Go test and season of the year did not inﬂuence the change in activity. There were no differences in physical activity levels at 3 or 9 months.

There was a signiﬁcant correlation (r = -0.38, p = 0.006) between change in activity and change in body fat over the course of the study. Those subjects (whether in the experimental or control group) who increased their activity over the course of the year were likely to have a decline in % body fat over the year while those whose activity declined were likely to have increased %body fat. There was no correlation between change in activity and any of the other parameters including weight and waist circumference (data not shown).

Older adults are the fastest growing segment of the population in the US, but few meet the minimum recommended 30 min of moderate activity on 5 days or more per week (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2002). Our study found that within the geriatric population, activity declines as people age. We saw a 2.4% decline per year cross-sectionally. This ﬁnding agrees with a recent cohort study (Bachman et al., 2014). In that study, the annual decline accelerated with increasing age. Thus, there is a need to increase activity particularly in the oldest age groups. The United States Preventive Services Task Force concluded that the evidence that counseling improves physical activity is weak (Moyer and US Preventive Services Task Force, 2012). The American Heart Association reached similar conclusions (Artinian et al., 2010). Thus, new ways of counseling older patients to counter the natural decline in activity with age are urgently needed.

Applying health behavior theory to multiple behavior change: Considerations and approaches

Seth M. Noar, Melissa Chabot, Rick S. Zimmerman
Preventive Medicine 46 (2008) 275–280
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.ypmed.2007.08.001

Background.There has been a dearth of theorizing in the area of multiple behavior change. The purpose of the current article was to examine how health behavior theory might be applied to the growing research terrain of multiple behavior change. Methods. Three approaches to applying health behavior theory to multiple behavior change are advanced, including searching the literature for potential examples of such applications. Results. These three approaches to multiple behavior change include

(1) a behavior change principles approach;

(2) a global health/behavioral category approach, and

(3) a multiple behavioral approach.

Each approach is discussed and explicated and examples from this emerging literature are provided. Conclusions. Further study in this area has the potential to broaden our understanding of multiple behaviors and multiple behavior change. Implications for additional theory-testing and application of theory to interventions are discussed.

Many of the leading causes of death in the United States are behavior-related and thus preventable. While a number of health behaviors are a concern individually, increasingly the impact of multiple behavioral risks is being appreciated. As newer initiatives funded by the National Institutes of Health and Robert Wood Johnson Foundation begin to stimulate research in this important area, a critical question emerges: How can we understand multiple health behavior change from a theoretical standpoint? While multiple behavior change interventions are beginning to be developed and evaluated, to date there have been few efforts to garner a theory-based understanding of the process of multiple health behavior change. Given that so little theoretical work currently exists in this area, our main purpose is to advance the conversation on how health behavior theory can help us to achieve a greater understanding of multiple behavior change. The approaches discussed have implications for both theory-testing as well as intervention design.

A critical question that must be asked, is whether there is a common set of principles of health behavior change that transcend individual health behaviors. This is an area where much data already exists, as health behavior theories have been tested across numerous health behaviors.The integration of findings from studies across diverse behavioral areas, is not what it could be. Godin and Kok (1996) reviewed studies of the TPB applied to numerous health-related behaviors. Across seven categories of health behaviors, they found TPB components to offer similar prediction of intention but inconsistent prediction of behavior.They concluded that the nature of differing health behaviors may require additional constructs to be added to the TPB, such as actual (versus perceived) behavioral control. Prochaska et al. (1994) examined decisional balance across stages of change for 12 health-related behaviors. Similar patterns were found across nearly all of these health behaviors, with the “pros” of changing generally increasing across the stages, the “cons” decreasing, and a pro/con crossover occurring in the contemplation or preparation stages of change. Prochaska et al. (1994) concluded that clear commonalties exist across these differing health behaviors which were examined in differing samples. Finally, Rosen (2000) examined change processes from the TTM across six behavioral categories, examining whether the trajectory of change processes is similar or different across stages of change in those health areas. He found that for smoking cessation, cognitive change processes were used more in earlier stages of change than behavioral processes, while for physical activity and dietary change, both categories of change processes increased together.

A second approach is the following: Rather than applying theoretical concepts to specific behaviors, such concepts might be applied at the general or global level. A general orientation toward health may not lead directly to specific health behaviors, but it may increase the chances of particular health-related attitudes, which may in turn lead to specific health behaviors. In fact, although Ajzen and Timko (1986) found general health attitudes to be poor predictors of behavior, such attitudes were significantly related to specific health attitudes and perceived behavioral control over specific behaviors. It is likely that when we consider multiple behaviors that we may discover an entire network of health attitudes and beliefs that are interrelated. In fact, studies of single behaviors essentially take those behaviors out of the multi-attitude and multi-behavioral context in which they are embedded. For instance, although attitudes toward walking may be a better predictor of walking behavior than attitudes toward physical activity, walking behavior is part of a larger “physical activity” behavioral category. While predicting that particular behavior may be best served by the specific measure, the larger category is both relevant and of interest. Thus, it may be that there are higher order constructs to be understood here.

A third approach is a multiple behavioral approach, or one which focuses on the linkages among health behaviors. It shares some similarities to the approach just described. Here the focus is more strictly on how particular interventions were superior to comparison groups for 21 of 41 (51%) studies (3 physical activity, 7 diet, 11 weight loss/physical activity and diet). Twenty-four studies had indeterminate results, and in four studies the comparison conditions outperformed eHealth interventions. Conclusions: Published studies of eHealth interventions for physical activity and dietary behavior change are in their infancy. Results indicated mixed ﬁndings related to the effectiveness of eHealth interventions. Interventions that feature interactive technologies need to be reﬁned and more rigorously evaluated to fully determine their potential as tools to facilitate health behavior change.

A prospective evaluation of the Transtheoretical Model of Change applied to exercise in young people

Patrick Callaghan, Elizabeth Khalil, Ioannis Morres
Intl J Nursing Studies 47 (2010) 3–12
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2009.06.013

Objectives:To investigate the utility of the Transtheoretical Model of Change in predicting exercise in young people. Design: A prospective study: assessments were done at baseline and follow-up 6 months later. Method: Using stratiﬁed random sampling 1055 Chinese high school pupils living in Hong Kong, 533 of who were followed up at 6 months, completed measures of stage of change (SCQ), self-efﬁcacy (SEQ), perceptions of the pros and cons of exercising (DBQ) and processes of change (PCQ). Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA, repeated measures ANOVA and independent sample t tests.
Results:The utility of the TTM to predict exercise in this population is not strong; increases in self-efﬁcacy and decisional balance discriminated between those remaining active at baseline and follow-up, but not in changing from an inactive (e.g.,Precontemplation or Contemplation) to an active state (e.g.,Maintenance) as one would anticipate given the staging algorithm of the TTM.
Conclusion:The TTM is a modest predictor of future stage of change for exercise in young Chinese people. Where there is evidence that TTM variables may shape movement over time, self-efﬁcacy, pros and behavioral processes of change appear to be the strongest predictors

A retrospective study on changes in residents’ physical activities, social interactions, and neighborhood cohesion after moving to a walkable community

Xuemei Zhu,Chia-Yuan Yu, Chanam Lee, Zhipeng Lu, George Mann
Preventive Medicine 69 (2014) S93–S97
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.08.013

Objective. This study is to examine changes in residents’ physical activities, social interactions, andneighbor-hood cohesion after they moved to a walkable community in Austin, Texas.
Methods. Retrospective surveys (N=449) were administered in 2013–2014 to collect pre-and post-move data about the outcome variables and relevant personal, social, and physical environmental factors. Walkability of each resident’s pre-move community was measured using the Walk Score. T tests were used to examine the pre–post move differences in the outcomes in the whole sample and across subgroups with different physical activity levels, neighborhood conditions, and neighborhood preferences before the move. Results. After the move, total physical activity increased signiﬁcantly in the whole sample and all subgroups except those who were previously sufﬁciently active; lived in communities with high walkability, social interactions, or neighborhood cohesion; or had moderate preference for walkable neighborhoods. Walking in the community increased in the whole sample and all subgroups except those who were previously sufﬁciently active, moved from high-walkability communities, or had little to no preference for walkable neighborhoods. Social interactions and neighborhood cohesion increased signiﬁcantly after the move in the whole sample and all subgroups.
Conclusion.This study explored potential health beneﬁts of a walkable community in promoting physically and socially active lifestyles, especially for populations at higher risk of obesity. The initial result is promising, suggesting the need for more work to further examine the relationships between health and community design using pre–post assessments.

Application of the transtheoretical model to identify psychological constructs inﬂuencing exercise behavior: A questionnaire survey

Young-Ho Kim
Intl J Nursing Studies 44 (2007) 936–944
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2006.03.008

Background: Current research on exercise behavior has largely been attempted to identify the relationship between psychological attributes and the initiation or adherence of exercise behavior based on psychological theories. A limited data are available on the psychological predictors of exercise behavior in public health. Objectives: The present study examined the theorized association of TTM of behavior change constructs by stage of change for exercise behavior. Methods: A total of 228 college students selected from 2 universities in Seoul were surveyed. Four Korean-version questionnaires were used to identify the stage of exercise behavior and psychological attributes of adolescents. Data were analyzed by frequency analysis, MANOVA, correlation analysis, and discriminant function analysis.
Results: Multivariate F-test indicated that behavioral and cognitive processes of change, exercise efﬁcacy, and pros differentiated participants across the stages of exercise behavior. Furthermore, exercise behavior was signiﬁcantly correlated with the TTM constructs, and that overall classiﬁcation accuracy across the stages of change was 61.0%. Conclusions:The present study supports the internal and external validity of the Transtheoretical Model for explaining exercise behavior. As this study highlights, dissemination must increase awareness but also inﬂuences perceptions regarding theoretically based and practically important exercise strategies for public health professionals.

Does more education lead to better health habits? Evidence from the school reforms in Australia?

Jinhu Li, Nattavudh Powdthavee
Social Science & Medicine 127 (2015) 83-91
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.07.021

The current study provides new empirical evidence on the causal effect of education on health-related behaviors by exploiting historical changes in the compulsory schooling laws in Australia. Since World War II, Australian states increased the minimum school leaving age from 14 to 15 in different years. Using differences in the laws regarding minimum school leaving age across different cohorts and across different states as a source of exogenous variation in education, we show that more education improves people’s diets and their tendency to engage in more regular exercise and drinking moderately, but not necessarily their tendency to avoid smoking and to engage in more preventive health checks. The improvements in health behaviors are also reﬂected in the estimated positive effect of education on some health outcomes. Our results are robust to alternative measures of education and different estimation methods.

Read Full Post »

Diet and Diabetes

Posted in Amino acids, Atherogenic Processes & Pathology, Behavior, Biochemical pathways, Biological Networks, Biomarkers & Medical Diagnostics, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Curation, Diabetes Mellitus, Diagnostics and Lab Tests, Disease Biology, Endocrine Diseases, Fatty acids, Lipid metabolism, Lipids, Liver & Digestive Diseases Research, Metabolism, Metabolomics, Nephrology, Nutrition, Nutrition and Phytochemistry, Nutritional Supplements: Atherogenesis, Nutritional Supplements: Atherogenesis, lipid metabolism, Plant extract, Population Health Management, Nutrition and Phytochemistry, Proteomics, Signaling, tagged coronary heart disease, Curcumin, Diabetes Mellitus, diabetic nephropathy, fruits and vegetables, metabolic syndrome, neutraceuticals, Nutrition, pathophysiology on March 2, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Diet and Diabetes

Writer and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Bile acid signaling in lipid metabolism: Metabolomic and lipidomic analysis of lipid and bile acid markers linked to anti-obesity and anti-diabetes in mice

Yunpeng Qi, Changtao Jiang, Jie Cheng, Kristopher W. Krausz, et al.

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1851 (2015) 19–29

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.04.008

Bile acid synthesis is the major pathway for catabolism of cholesterol. Cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) is the rate-limiting enzyme in the bile acid biosynthetic pathway in the liver and plays an important role in regulating lipid, glucose and energy metabolism. Transgenic mice overexpressing CYP7A1 (CYP7A1-tg mice) were resistant to high fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity, fatty liver, and diabetes. However the mechanism of resistance to HFD-induced obesity of CYP7A1-tg mice has not been determined. In this study, metabolomic and lipidomic profiles of CYP7A1-tg mice were analyzed to explore the metabolic alterations in CYP7A1-tg mice that govern the protection against obesity and insulin resistance by using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-coupled with electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry combined with multivariate analyses. Lipidomics analysis identified seven lipid markers including lysophosphatidylcholines, phosphatidylcholines, sphingomyelins and ceramides that were significantly decreased in serum of HFD-fed CYP7A1-tgmice.Metabolomics analysis identified 13metabolites in bile acid synthesis including taurochenodeoxy-cholic acid, taurodeoxycholic acid, tauroursodeoxycholic acid, taurocholic acid, and tauro-β-muricholic acid (T-β-MCA) that differed between CYP7A1-tg and wild-type mice. Notably, T-β-MCA, an antagonist of the farnesoid X receptor (FXR) was significantly increased in intestine of CYP7A1-tg mice. This study suggests that reducing 12α-hydroxylated bile acids and increasing intestinal T-β-MCA may reduce high fat diet-induced increase of phospholipids, sphingomyelins and ceramides, and ameliorate diabetes and obesity. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Linking transcription to physiology in lipidomics.

Bile acid synthesis is the major pathway for catabolism of cholesterol to bile acids. In the liver, cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) is the first and rate-limiting enzyme of the bile acid biosynthetic pathway producing two primary bile acids, cholic acid (CA, 3α, 7α, 12α-OH) and chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA, 3α, 7α-OH) in humans. Sterol-12α hydroxylase (CYP8B1) catalyzes the synthesis of CA. In mice, CDCA is converted to α-muricholic acid (α-MCA: 3α, 6β, 7α-OH) and β-muricholic acid (β-MCA: 3α, 6β, 7β-OH). Bile acids are conjugated to taurine or glycine, secreted into the bile and stored in the gallbladder. After a meal, bile acids are released into the gastrointestinal tract. In the intestine, conjugated bile acids are first de-conjugated and then 7α-dehydroxylase activity in the gut flora converts CA to deoxycholic acid (DCA: 3α, 12α), and CDCA to lithocholic acid (LCA: 3α), two major secondary bile acids in humans.

In humans, most bile acids are glycine or taurine-conjugated and CA, CDCA and DCA are the most abundant bile acids. In mice, most bile acids are taurine-conjugated and CA and α- and β-MCAs are the most abundant bile acids. Bile acids facilitate absorption of dietary fats, steroids, and lipid soluble vitamins into enterocytes and are transported via portal circulation to the liver for metabolism and distribution to other tissues and organs. About 95% of bile acids are reabsorbed in the ileum and transported to the liver to inhibit CYP7A1 and bile acid synthesis. Enterohepatic circulation of bile acids provides a negative feedback mechanism to maintain bile acid homeostasis. Alteration of bile acid synthesis, secretion and transport causes cholestatic liver diseases, gallstone diseases, fatty liver disease, diabetes and obesity.

Bile acid synthesis. In the classic bile acid synthesis pathway, cholesterol is converted to cholic acid (CA, 3α, 7α, 12α) and chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA, 3α, 7α). CYP7A1 is the rate-limiting enzyme and CYP8B1 catalyzes the synthesis of CA. In mouse liver, CDCA is converted to α-muricholic acid (α-MCA, 3α, 6β, 7α) and β-MCA (3α, 6β, 7β). Most bile acids in mice are taurine (T)-conjugated and secreted into bile. In the intestine, gut bacteria de-conjugate bile acids and then remove the 7α-hydroxyl group from CA and CDCA to form secondary bile acids deoxycholic acid (DCA, 3α, 12α) and lithocholic acid (LCA, 3α), respectively. T-α-MCA and T-β-MCA are converted to T-hyodeoxycholic acid (THDCA, 3α, 6α), T-ursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA, 3α, 7β), T-hyocholic acid (THCA, 3α, 6α, 7α) and T-murideoxycholic acid (TMDCA, 3α, 6β). These secondary bile acids are reabsorbed and circulated to liver to contribute to the bile acid pool. Secondary bile acids ω-MCA (3α, 6α, 7β) and LCA are excreted into feces.

Two FXR-dependent mechanisms are known to inhibit bile acid synthesis. In the liver bile acid-activated FXR induces a negative receptor small heterodimer partner (SHP) to inhibit trans-activation activity of hepatic nuclear factor 4α(HNF4α) and liver receptor homologue-1 (LRH-1) that bind to the bile acid response element in the CYP7A1 and CYP8B1 gene promoters (Fig. 2, Pathway 1). In the intestine, bile acids activate FXR to induce fibroblast growth factor (mouse FGF15, or human FGF19), which activates hepatic FGF receptor 4 (FGFR4) and cJun N-terminal kinase 1/2 (JNK1/2) and extracellular-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) signaling of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways to inhibit trans-activation of CYP7A1/CYP8B1 gene by HNF4α (Pathway 2). Several FXR-independent cell-signaling pathways have been reported and are shown as Pathway 3 (Fig. 2). Conjugated bile acids are known to activate several protein kinase Cs (PKC) and growth factor receptors, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and insulin receptor (IR) signaling to inhibit CYP7A1/CYP8B1 and bile acid synthesis via activating the ERK1/2, p38 and JNK1/2 pathways.

Bile acid signaling pathways. Bile acids activate FXR, TGR5 and cell signaling pathways to inhibit CYP7A1 and CYP8B1 gene transcription.

1) Hepatic FXR/SHP pathway: bile acid activated-FXR induces SHP, which inhibits HNF4α and LRH-1 trans-activation of CYP7A1 and CYP8B1 gene transcription in hepatocytes. Bile acid response element binds HNF4α and LRH-1.

2) Intestinal FXR/FGF19/FGFR4 pathway: in the intestine, FXR induces FGF15 (mouse)/FGF19 (human), which is secreted into portal circulation to activate FGF receptor 4 (FGFR4) in hepatocytes. FGFR4 signaling stimulates JNK1/2 and ERK1/2 pathways of MAPK signaling to inhibit CYP7A1 gene transcription by phosphorylation and inhibition of HNF4α binding activity.

3) FXR-independent signaling pathways: Conjugated bile acids activate PKCs,which activate the MAPK pathways to inhibit CYP7A1. Bile acids also activate insulin receptor (IR) signaling IRS/PI3K/PDK1/AKT, possibly via activation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling, MAPKs (MEK, MEKK), to inhibit CYP7A1 gene transcription. The secondary bile acid TLCA activates TGR5 signaling in Kupffer cells. TGR5 signaling may regulate CYP7A1 by an unknown mechanism. TCA activates sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) receptor 2 (S1PR2), which may activate AKT and ERK1/2 to inhibit CYP7A1. S1P kinase 1 (Sphk1) phosphorylates sphingosine (Sph) to S-1-P, which activates S1PR2. On the other hand, nuclear SphK2 interacts with and inhibits histone deacetylase (HDAC1/2) and may induce CYP7A1. The role of S1P, SphK2, and S1PR2 signaling in regulation of bile acid synthesis is not known.

When challenged with an HFD, CYP7A1-tg mice had lower body fat mass and higher lean mass compared to wild-type mice. As a platform for comprehensive and quantitative description of the set of lipid species, lipidomics was used to investigate the mechanism of this phenotype. By use of an unsupervised PCA model with the cumulative R2X 0.677 for serum and 0.593 for liver, CYP7A1-tg and wild-type mice were clearly separated based on the scores plot (Supplementary Fig. S2), indicating that these two groups have distinct lipidomic profiles. Supervised PLS-DA models were then established to maximize the difference of metabolic profiles between CYP7A1-tg and wild-type groups as well as to facilitate the screening of lipid marker metabolites (Fig. 3).

PLS-DA analysis of CYP7A1-tg and wild-type (WT)mice challenged with HFD. Based on the score plots, distinct lipidomic profiles of male CYP7A1-tg and wild-type groups were shown for serum (A) and liver samples (B). Based on the loading plots (C for serum and D for liver) the most significant ions that led to the separation between CYP7A1-tg and wild-type groups were obtained and identified as follows: 1. LPC16:0; 2. LPC18:0; 3. LPC18:1; 4. LPC 18:2; 5. PC16:0-20:4; 6. PC16:0-22:6; 7. SM16:0. (not shown)

Fig. 5. OPLS-DA highlighted thirteen markers in bile acid pathway that contribute significantly to the clustering of CYP7A1-tg and wild-type (WT) mice. Ileum bile acids are shown. (not shown)

(A) In the score plot, female CYP7A1-tg andWTmicewere well separated;

(B) using a statistically significant thresholds of variable confidence approximately 0.75 in the S-plot, a number of ions were screened out as potential markers, which were later identified as 13 bile acid metabolites, including α-MCA, TCA, CDCA, and TCDCA etc.

Our recent study of CYP7A1-tg mice revealed that increased CYP7A1 expression and enlarged bile acid pool resulted in significant improvement of lipid homeostasis and resistance to high-fed diet-induced hepatic steatosis, insulin resistance, and obesity in CYP7A1-tg mice. In this study, metabolomics and lipidomics were employed to characterize the metabolic profiles of CYP7A1-tg mice and to provide new insights into the critical role of bile acids in regulation of lipid metabolism and metabolic diseases. Lipidomics analysis of serum lipid profiles of high fat diet-fed CYP7A1-tg identified 7 lipidomic markers that were reduced in CYP7A1-tg mice compared to wild type mice. Metabolomics analysis identified 13 bile acid metabolites that were altered in CYP7A1-tg mice. In CYP7A1-tg mice, TCA and TDCA were reduced, whereas T-β-MCA was increased in the intestine compared to that of wild type mice. The decrease of serum LPC, PC, SM and CER, and 12α-hydroxylated bile acids, and increase of T-β-MCA may contribute to the resistance to diet-induced obesity and diabetes in CYP7A1-tg mice (Fig. 8).

The present metabolomics and lipidomics analysis revealed that even upon challenging with HFD, CYP7A1-tg mice had reduced lipid levels including LPC, PC, SM and CER. Metabolomics studies of human steatotic liver tissues and HFD-fed mice showed that serum and liver LPC and PC and other lipids levels were increased compared with non-steatotic livers, suggesting altered lipid metabolism contributes to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). In HFD-fed CYP7A1-tg mice, reduced serum PC, LPC, SM and CER levels suggest a role for bile acids in maintaining phospholipid homeostasis to prevent NAFLD. SMs are important membrane phospholipids that interact with cholesterol in membrane rafts and regulate cholesterol distribution and homeostasis. A role for SM and CER in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance, diabetes and obesity and development of atherosclerosis has been reported. CER has a wide range of biological functions in cellular signaling such as activating protein kinase C and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), induction of β-cell apoptosis and insulin resistance. CER increases reactive oxidizing species and activates the NF-κB pathway, which induces proinflammatory cytokines, diabetes and insulin resistance. CER is synthesized from serine and palmitoyl-CoA or hydrolysis of SM by acid sphingomyelinase (ASM). HFD is known to increase CER and SM in liver. The present observation of decreased SM and CER levels in HFD-fed CYP7A1-tg mice indicated that bile acids might reduce HFD-induced increase of SM and CER. DCA activates an ASM to convert SM to CER, and Asm−/− hepatocytes are resistant to DCA induction of CER and activation of the JNK pathway [65]. In CYP7A1-tg mice, enlarged bile acid pool inhibits CYP8B1 and reduces CA and DCA levels. Thus, decreasing DCA may reduce ASM activity and SM and CER levels, and contribute to reducing inflammation and improving insulin sensitivity in CYP7A1-tg mice. It has been reported recently that in diabetic patients, serum 12α-hydroxylated bile acids are increased and correlated to insulin resistance [66].

Fig. 8. Mechanisms of anti-diabetic and anti-obesity function of bile acids in CYP7A1-tg mice. In CYP7A1-tg mice, overexpressing CYP7A1 increases bile acid pool size and reduces cholic acid by inhibiting CYP8B1. Lipidomics analysis revealed decreased serum LPC, PC, SM and CER. These lipidomic markers are increased in hepatic steatosis and NAFLD. Bile acids may reduce LPC, PC, SM and CER levels and protect against high fat diet-induced insulin resistance and obesity in CYP7A1-tgmice. Metabolomics analysis showed decreased intestinal TCA and TDCA and increased intestinal T-β-MCA in CYP7A1-tgmice.High fat diets are known to increase CA synthesis and intestinal inflammation. It is proposed that decreasing CA and DCA synthesis may increase intestinal T-β-MCA,which antagonizes FXR signaling to increase bile acid synthesis and prevent high fat diet-induced insulin resistance and obesity. (not shown)

In conclusion,metabolomics and lipidomicswere employed to characterize the metabolic profiles of CYP7A1-tg mice, aiming to provide new insights into the mechanism of bile acid signaling in regulation of lipid metabolism and maintain lipid homeostasis. A number of lipid and bile acid markers were unveiled in this study. Decreasing of lipid markers, especially SM and CER may explain the improved insulin sensitivity and obesity in CYP7A1-tg mice. Furthermore, this study uncovered that enlarged bile acid pool size and altered bile acid composition may reduce de-conjugation by gut microbiota and increase tauroconjugated muricholic acids, which partially inhibit intestinal FXR signaling without affecting hepatic FXR signaling. This study is significant in applying metabolomics for diagnosis of lipid biomarkers for fatty liver diseases, obesity and diabetes. Increasing CYP7A1 activity and bile acid synthesis coupled to decreasing CYP8B1 and 12α-hydroxylated bile acids may be a therapeutic strategy for treating diabetes and obesity.

Bile acids are nutrient signaling hormones

Huiping Zhou, Phillip B. Hylemon
Steroids 86 (2014) 62–68
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.steroids.2014.04.016

Bile salts play crucial roles in allowing the gastrointestinal system to digest, transport and metabolize nutrients. They function as nutrient signaling hormones by activating specific nuclear receptors (FXR, PXR, Vitamin D) and G-protein coupled receptors [TGR5, sphingosine-1 phosphate receptor 2 (S1PR2), muscarinic receptors]. Bile acids and insulin appear to collaborate in regulating the metabolism of nutrients in the liver. They both activate the AKT and ERK1/2 signaling pathways. Bile acid induction of the FXR-a target gene, small heterodimer partner (SHP), is highly dependent on the activation PKCf, a branch of the insulin signaling pathway. SHP is an important regulator of glucose and lipid metabolism in the liver. One might hypothesize that chronic low grade inflammation which is associated with insulin resistance, may inhibit bile acid signaling and disrupt lipid metabolism. The disruption of these signaling pathways may increase the risk of fatty liver and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Finally, conjugated bile acids appear to promote cholangiocarcinoma growth via the activation of S1PR2.

In the past, bile salts were considered to be just detergent molecules that were required for the solubilization of cholesterol in the gall bladder, promoting the digestion of dietary lipids and stimulating the absorption of lipids, cholesterol and fat-soluble vitamins in the intestines. Bile salts were also known to stimulate bile flow, promote cholesterol secretion from the liver, and have antibacterial properties. However, in 1999, three independent laboratories reported that bile acids were natural ligands for the farnesoid X receptor (FXR-α) . The recognition that bile acids activated specific nuclear receptors started a renaissance in the field of bile acid research. Since 1999, bile acids have been reported to activate other nuclear receptors (pregnane X receptor, vitamin D receptor), G protein coupled receptors [TGR5, sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 (S1PR2), muscarinic receptor 2 (M2)] and cell signaling pathways (JNK1/2, AKT, and ERK1/2). Deoxycholic acid (DCA), a secondary bile acid, has also been reported to activate the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). It is now clear that bile acids function as hormones or nutrient signaling molecules that help to regulate glucose, lipid, lipoprotein, and energy metabolism as well as inflammatory responses.

Bile acids are synthesized from cholesterol in liver hepatocytes, conjugated to either glycine or taurine and actively secreted via ABC transporters on the canalicular membrane into biliary bile. Conjugated bile acids are often referred to as bile salts. Bile acid synthesis represents a major output pathway of cholesterol from the body. Bile acids are actively secreted from hepatocytes via the bile salt export protein (BSEP, ABCB11) along with phospholipids by ABCB4 and cholesterol by ABCG5/ABCG8 in a fairly constant ratio under normal conditions. Bile acids are detergent molecules and form mixed micelles with cholesterol and phospholipids, which help to keep cholesterol in solution in the gall bladder. Eating stimulates the gall bladder to contract, emptying its contents into the small intestines. Bile salts are crucial for the solubilization and absorption of cholesterol and lipids as well as lipid soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K). They activate pancreatic enzymes and form mixed micelles with lipids in the small intestines, promoting their absorption. Bile acids are efficiently recovered from the intestines, primarily the ileum, by the apical sodium dependent transporter (ASBT). Bile acids are secreted from ileocytes, on the basolateral side, by the organic solute OSTα/OSTβ transporter. Secondary bile acids, formed by 7α-dehydroxylation of primary bile acids by anaerobic gut bacteria, can be passively absorbed from the large bowel or secreted in the feces. Absorbed bile acids return to the liver via the portal blood where they are actively transported into hepatocytes primarily via the sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide (NTCP, SLC10A1). Bile acids are again actively secreted from the hepatocytes into the bile, stimulating bile flow and the secretion of cholesterol and phospholipids. Bile acids undergo enterohepatic circulation several times each day (Fig. 1). During their enterohepatic circulation approximately 500–600 mg/day are lost via fecal excretion and must be replaced by new bile acid synthesis in the liver. The bile acid pool size is tightly regulated as excess bile acids can be highly toxic to mammalian cells.

Enterohepatic circulation of bile acids. Bile acids are synthesized and conjugated mainly to glycine or taurine in hepatocytes. Bile acids travel to the gall bladder for storage during the fasting state. During digestion, bile acids travel to the duodenum via the common bile duct. 95% of the bile acids delivered to the duodenum are absorbed back into blood within the ileum and circulate back to the liver through the portal vein. 5% of bile acids are lost in feces.

There are two pathways of bile acid synthesis in the liver, the neutral pathway and the acidic pathway (Fig. 2). The neutral pathway is believed to be the major pathway of bile acid synthesis in humans under normal physiological conditions. The neutral pathway is initiated by cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1), which is the rate-limiting step in this biochemical pathway. CYP7A1 is a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase, and the gene encoding this enzyme is highly regulated by a feed-back repressive mechanism involving the FXR-dependent induction of fibroblast growth factor 15/19 (FGF15/19) by bile acids in the intestines. FGF15/19 binds to the fibroblast growth factor receptor 4 (FGFR4)/β-Klotho complex in hepatocytes activating both the JNK1/2 and ERK1/2 signaling cascades. Activation of the JNK1/2 pathway has been reported to down-regulate CYP7A1 mRNA in hepatocytes. FGFR4 and β-Klotho mice have increased levels of CYP7A1 and upregulated bile acid synthesis. Moreover, treatment of FXR mice with a specific FXR agonist failed to repress CYP7A1 in the liver. These results support an important role of FGF15, synthesized in the intestines by activation of FXR, in the regulation of CYP7A1 and bile acid synthesis in the liver. CYP7A1 has also been reported to be down-regulated by glucagon and pro-inflammatory cytokines and up-regulated by glucose and insulin during the postprandial period.

Fig. 2. (not shown) Biosynthetic pathways of bile acids. Two major pathways are involved in bile acid synthesis. The neutral (or classic) pathway is controlled by cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) in the endoplasmic reticulum. The acidic (or alternative) pathway is controlled by sterol 27-hydroxylase (CYP27A1) in mitochondria. The sterol 12α-hydroxylase (CYP8B1) is required to synthesis of cholic acid (CA). The oxysterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7B1) is involved in the formation of chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA) in acidic pathway. The neutral pathway is also able to form CDCA by CYP27A1.

The neutral pathway of bile acid synthesis produces both cholic acid (CA) and chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA) (Fig. 2). The ratio of CA and CDCA is primarily determined by the activity of sterol 12α-hydroxylase (CYP8B1). The gene encoding CYP8B1 is also highly regulated by bile acids. Bile acids induce the gene encoding small heterodimer partner (SHP) in the liver via activation of the farnesoid X receptor (FXR-α). SHP is an orphan nuclear receptor without a DNA binding domain. It interacts with several transcription factors, including hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 (HNF4α) and liver-related homolog-1 (LRH-1), and acts as a dominant negative protein to inhibit transcription. In this regard, a liver specific knockout of LRH-1 completely abolished the expression of CYP8B1, but had little effect on CYP7A1. These results suggest that the interaction of SHP with LRH-1, caused by bile acids, may be the key regulator of hepatic CYP8B1 and the ratio of CA/CDCA. The acidic or alternative pathway of bile acid synthesis is initiated in the inner membrane of mitochondria by sterol 27-hydroxylase (CYP27A1). This enzyme also has low sterol 25-hydroxylase activity. CYP27A1 is capable of further oxidizing the 27-hydroxy group to a carboxylic acid. Unlike, CYP7A1, CYP27A1 is widely expressed in various tissues in the body where it may produce regulatory oxysterols. Even though CYP27A1 is the initial enzyme in the acidic pathway of bile acid synthesis, it may not be the rate limiting step. The inner mitochondrial membrane is very low in cholesterol content. Hence, cholesterol transport into the mitochondria appears to be the rate limiting step.

The acidic pathway of bile acid synthesis is now being viewed as an important pathway for generating regulatory oxysterols. For example, 25-hydroxy-cholesterol and 27-hydroxycholesterol are natural ligands for the liver X receptor (LXR), which is involved in regulating cholesterol and lipid metabolism. Moreover, recent studies report that 25-hydroxycholesterol, formed by CYP27A1, can be converted into 5-cholesten-3β-25-diol-3-sulfate in the liver. The sulfated 25-hydroxycholesterol is a regulator of inflammatory responses, lipid metabolism and cell proliferation, and is located in the liver. Recent evidence suggests that sulfated 25-hydroxycholesterol is a ligand for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARc), which is a major regulator of inflammation and lipid metabolism. The 7α-hydroxylation of oxysterols is catalyzed by oxysterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7B1). This biotransformation allows some of these oxysterols to be converted to bile acids. Finally, oxysterols generated in extrahepatic tissues can be transported to the liver and metabolized into bile acids.

Bile acids can activate several different nuclear receptors (FXR, PXR and Vitamin D) and GPCRs (TGR5, S1PR2, and [M2] Muscarinic receptor). The ability of different bile acids to activate FXR-α occurs in the following order CDCA > LCA = DCA > CA; for the pregnane X receptor (PXR) LCA > DCA > CA and the vitamin D receptor, 3-oxo-LCA > LCA > DCA > CA. LCA is the best activator of PXR and the vitamin D receptor which correlates with the hydrophobicity and toxicity of this bile acid toward mammalian cells. Activation of PXR and the vitamin D receptor induces genes encoding enzymes which metabolize LCA into a more hydrophilic and less toxic metabolite. These nuclear receptors appear to function in the protection of cells from hydrophobic bile acids. In contrast, FXR-α appears to play a much more extensive role in the body by regulating bile acid synthesis, transport, and enterohepatic circulation. Moreover, FXR-α also participates in the regulation of glucose, lipoprotein and lipid metabolism in the liver as well as a suppressor of inflammation in the liver and intestines.

TGR5, also referred to as membrane-type bile acid receptor (MBAR), was the first GPCR to be reported to be activated by bile acids in the order LCA > DCA > CDCA > CA. TGR5 is a Gas type receptor which activates adenyl cyclase activity increasing the rate of the synthesis of c-AMP. TGR5 is widely expressed in human tissues, including: intestinal neuroendocrine cells, gall bladder, spleen, brown adipose tissue, macrophages and cholangiocytes, but not hepatocytes. TGR5 may play a role in various physiological processes in the body. TGR5 appears to be important in regulating energy metabolism. It has been postulated that bile acids may activate TGR5 in brown adipose tissue, activating type 2-iodothyroxine deiodinase and leading to increased levels of thyroid hormone and stimulation of energy metabolism. Moreover, TGR5 has been reported to promote the release of glucagon-like peptide-1 release from neuroendocrine cells, which increases insulin release in the pancreas. These results suggest that TGR5 may play a role in glucose homeostasis in the body. TGR5 is a potential target for drug development for treating type 2 diabetes and other metabolic disorders.

Interrelationship between sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 2 and the insulin signaling pathway in regulating hepatic nutrient metabolism. S1PR2, sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 2; Src, Src Kinase; EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor; PPARa, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha; NTCP, Na+/taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide; BSEP, bile salt export pump; PC, phosphotidylcholine; PECK, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase; G6Pase, glucose-6-phosphatase; PDK1, phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1; AKT, protein kinase B; SREBP, sterol regulatory element-binding protein; PKCf, protein kinase C zeta; FXR, farnesoid X receptor; SHP, small heterodimeric partner; MDR3, phospholipid transporter (ABCB4); GSK3b, glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta.

Both unconjugated and conjugated bile acids activate the insulin signaling (AKT) and ERK1/2 pathways in hepatocytes. Interesting, insulin and bile acids both activated glycogen synthase activity to a similar extent in primary rat hepatocytes. Moreover, the addition of both insulin and bile acids to the culture medium resulted in an additive effect on activation of glycogen synthase activity in primary hepatocytes. Infusion of taurocholate (TCA) into the chronic bile fistula rat rapidly activated the AKT and ERK1/2 signaling pathway and glycogen synthase activity. In addition, there was a rapid down-regulation of the gluconeogenic genes, PEP carboxykinase (PEPCK) and glucose-6-phophatase (G-6-Pase) and a marked up-regulation of SHP mRNA in these sample livers. These results suggest that TCA functions much like insulin to regulate hepatic glucose metabolism both in vitro and in vivo.

It has been reported that PKCζ phosphorylates FXR-α and may allow for its activation of target gene expression. In contrast, phosphorylation of FXR-α by AMPK inhibits the ability of FXR to induce target genes. PKCζ has been reported to be important for the translocation of the bile acid transporters NTCP (SLC10A1) and BSEP (ABC B11) to the basolateral and canalicular membranes, respectively. Finally, it has been recently reported that PKCζ phosphorylates SHP allowing both to translocate to the nucleus and down-regulate genes via epigenetic mechanisms. In total, these results all suggest that the insulin signaling pathway is an important regulator of FXR-α activation and bile acid signaling in the liver.

The activation of the insulin signaling pathway and FXR-α appear to collaborate in the coordinate regulation of glucose, bile acid and lipid metabolism in the liver. SHP, an FXR target gene, is an important pleotropic regulator of multiple metabolic pathways in the liver (Fig. 3). The S1PR2 appears to be an important regulator of hepatic lipid metabolism as S1PR2 mice rapidly (2 weeks) develop overt fatty livers on a high fat diet as compared to wild type mice (unpublished data). It is well established that inflammation and the synthesis of inflammatory cytokines i.e. TNFα inhibit insulin signaling by activation of the JNK1/2 signaling pathway, which phosphorylates insulin receptor substrate 1. Inflammation is believed to be an important factor in the development of type 2 diabetes and fatty liver disease. A Western diet is correlated with low grade chronic inflammation and insulin resistance. Inhibition of the insulin signaling pathway may decrease the ability of bile acids to activate FXR-α, induce SHP and other FXR target genes, leading to an increased risk of fatty liver and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

There appears to be extensive interplay between bile salts and insulin signaling in the regulation of nutrient metabolism in both the intestines and liver. Bile salts play a key role in the solubilization and absorption of nutrients from the intestines. The absorption of nutrients stimulates the secretion of insulin from the pancreas. Moreover, bile acids may also stimulate the secretion of insulin by activating TGR5 in intestinal neuroendocrine cells resulting in the secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1. In the liver, bile salts and insulin both activate the AKT and ERK1/2 signaling pathways which yields a stronger signal than either alone. The activation of PKCζ, a branch of the insulin signaling pathway, is required for the optimal induction of FXR target genes and the regulation of the cellular location of bile acid transporters

Fruit and vegetable consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: A dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies

Wu, D. Zhang, X. Jiang, W. Jiang
Nutrition, Metabolism & Cardiovascular Diseases (2015) 25, 140-147
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.numecd.2014.10.004

Background and aims: We conducted a dose-response meta-analysis to summarize the evidence from prospective cohort studies regarding the association of fruit and vegetable consumption with risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Methods and results: Pertinent studies were identified by searching Embase and PubMed through June 2014. Study-specific results were pooled using a random-effect model. The dose-response relationship was assessed by the restricted cubic spline model and the multivariate random-effect meta-regression. We standardized all data using a standard portion size of 106 g. The Relative Risk (95% confidence interval) [RR (95% CI)] of T2DM was 0.99 (0.98-1.00) for every 1 serving/day increment in fruit and vegetable (FV) (P < 0.18), 0.98 (0.95-1.01) for vegetable (P < 0.12), and 0.99 (0.97-1.00) for fruit (P < 0.05). The RR (95%CI) of T2DM was 0.99 (0.97-1.01), 0.98 (0.96-1.01), 0.97 (0.93-1.01), 0.96 (0.92-1.01), 0.96 (0.91-1.01) and 0.96 (0.91-1.01) for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 servings/day of FV (P for non-linearity < 0.44). The T2DM risk was 0.96 (0.95-0.99), 0.94 (0.90-0.98), 0.94 (0.89-0.98), 0.96 (0.91-1.01), 0.98 (0.92-1.05) and 1.00 (0.93-1.08) for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 servings/day of vegetable (P for non-linearity < 0.01). The T2DM risk was 0.95 (0.93-0.97), 0.91 (0.89-0.94), 0.88 (0.85-0.92), 0.92 (0.88-0.96) and 0.96 (0.92-1.01) for 0.5, 1, 2, 3 and 4 servings/day of fruit (P for non-linearity < 0.01). Conclusions: Two-three servings/day of vegetable and 2 servings/day of fruit conferred a lower risk of T2DM than other levels of vegetable and fruit consumption, respectively.

The dose-response analysis between total fruit and vegetable consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. The solid line and the long dash line represent the estimated relative risk and its 95% confidence interval.

Healthy behaviours and 10-year incidence of diabetes: A population cohort study

G.H. Long , I. Johansson , O. Rolandsson , …, E. Fhärm, L.Weinehall, et al.
Preventive Medicine 71 (2015) 121–127
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.12.013

Objective. To examine the association between meeting behavioral goals and diabetes incidence over 10 years in a large, representative Swedish population. Methods. Population-based prospective cohort study of 32,120 individuals aged 35 to 55 years participating in a health promotion intervention in Västerbotten County, Sweden (1990 to 2013). Participants underwent an oral glucose tolerance test, clinical measures, and completed diet and activity questionnaires. Poisson regression quantified the association between achieving six behavioral goals at baseline – body mass index (BMI) < 25 kg/m2, moderate physical activity, non-smoker, fat intake < 30% of energy, fibre intake ≥15 g/4184 kJ and alcohol intake ≤ 20 g/day – and diabetes incidence over 10 years. Results. Median interquartile range (IQR) follow-up time was 9.9 (0.3) years; 2211 individuals (7%) developed diabetes. Only 4.4% of participants met all 6 goals (n = 1245) and compared to these individuals, participants meeting 0/1 goals had a 3.74 times higher diabetes incidence (95% confidence interval (CI) = 2.50 to 5.59), adjusting for sex, age, calendar period, education, family history of diabetes, history of myocardial infarction and long-term illness. If everyone achieved at least four behavioral goals, 14.1% (95% CI: 11.7 to 16.5%) of incident diabetes cases might be avoided. Conclusion. Interventions promoting the achievement of behavioral goals in the general population could significantly reduce diabetes incidence.

Long term nutritional intake and the risk for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD): A population based study

Shira Zelber-Sagi, Dorit Nitzan-Kaluski, Rebecca Goldsmith, et al.
Journal of Hepatology 47 (2007) 711–717
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.jhep.2007.06.020

Background/Aims: Weight loss is considered therapeutic for patients with NAFLD. However, there is no epidemiological evidence that dietary habits are associated with NAFLD. Dietary patterns associated with primary NAFLD were investigated. Methods: A cross-sectional study of a sub-sample (n = 375) of the Israeli National Health and Nutrition Survey. Exclusion criteria were any known etiology for secondary NAFLD. Participants underwent an abdominal ultrasound, biochemical tests, dietary and anthropometric evaluations. A semi-quantitative food-frequency questionnaire was administered. Results: After exclusion, 349 volunteers (52.7% male, mean age 50.7 ± 10.4, 30.9% primary NAFLD) were included. The NAFLD group consumed almost twice the amount of soft drinks (P = 0.03) and 27% more meat (P < 0.001). In contrast, the NAFLD group consumed somewhat less fish rich in omega-3 (P = 0.056). Adjusting for age, gender, BMI and total calories, intake of soft drinks and meat was significantly associated with an increased risk for NAFLD (OR = 1.45, 1.13–1.85 95% CI and OR = 1.37, 1.04–1.83 95% CI, respectively). Conclusions: NAFLD patients have a higher intake of soft drinks and meat and a tendency towards a lower intake of fish rich in omega-3. Moreover, a higher intake of soft drinks and meat is associated with an increased risk of NAFLD, independently of age, gender, BMI and total calories.

The association between types of eating behavior and dispositional mindfulness in adults with diabetes. Results from Diabetes MILES. The Netherlands

Sanne R. Tak, Christel Hendrieckx, Giesje Nefs, Ivan Nyklícek, et al.
Appetite 87 (2015) 288–295
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2015.01.006

Although healthy food choices are important in the management of diabetes, making dietary adaptations is often challenging. Previous research has shown that people with type 2 diabetes are less likely to benefit from dietary advice if they tend to eat in response to emotions or external cues. Since high levels of dispositional mindfulness have been associated with greater awareness of healthy dietary practices in students and in the general population, it is relevant to study the association between dispositional mindfulness and eating behavior in people with type 1 or 2 diabetes. We analyzed data from Diabetes MILES – The Netherlands, a national observational survey in which 634 adults with type 1 or 2 diabetes completed the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire (to assess restrained, external and emotional eating behavior) and the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire-Short Form (to assess dispositional mindfulness), in addition to other psychosocial measures. After controlling for potential confounders, including demographics, clinical variables and emotional distress, hierarchical linear regression analyses showed that higher levels of dispositional mindfulness were associated with eating behaviors that were more restrained (β = 0.10) and less external (β = −0.11) and emotional (β = −0.20). The mindfulness subscale ‘acting with awareness’ was the strongest predictor of both external and emotional eating behavior, whereas for emotional eating, ‘describing’ and ‘being non-judgmental’ were also predictive. These findings suggest that there is an association between dispositional mindfulness and eating behavior in adults with type 1 or 2 diabetes. Since mindfulness interventions increase levels of dispositional mindfulness, future studies could examine if these interventions are also effective in helping people with diabetes to reduce emotional or external eating behavior, and to improve the quality of their diet.

Soft drink consumption is associated with fatty liver disease independent of metabolic syndrome

Ali Abid, Ola Taha, William Nseir, Raymond Farah, Maria Grosovski, Nimer Assy
Journal of Hepatology 51 (2009) 918–924
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.jhep.2009.05.033

Background/Aims: The independent role of soft drink consumption in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) patients remains unclear. We aimed to assess the association between consumption of soft drinks and fatty liver in patients with or without metabolic syndrome. Methods: We recruited 31 patients (age: 43 ± 12 years) with NAFLD and risk factors for metabolic syndrome, 29 patients with NAFLD and without risk factors for metabolic syndrome, and 30 gender- and age-matched individuals without NAFLD. The degree of fatty infiltration was measured by ultrasound. Data on physical activity and intake of food and soft drinks were collected during two 7-day periods over 6 months using a food questionnaire. Insulin resistance, inflammation, and oxidant–antioxidant markers were measured.
Results: We found that 80% of patients with NAFLD had excessive intake of soft drink beverages (>500 cm3/day) compared to 17% of healthy controls (p < 0.001). The NAFLD group consumed five times more carbohydrates from soft drinks compared to healthy controls (40% vs. 8%, p < 0.001). Seven percent of patients consumed one soft drink per day, 55% consumed two or three soft drinks per day, and 38% consumed more than four soft drinks per day for most days and for the 6-month period. The most common soft drinks were Coca-Cola (regular: 32%; diet: 21%) followed by fruit juices (47%). Patients with NAFLD with metabolic syndrome had similar malonyldialdehyde, paraoxonase, and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels but higher homeostasis model assessment (HOMA) and higher ferritin than NAFLD patients without metabolic syndrome (HOMA: 8.3 ± 8 vs. 3.7 ± 3.7 mg/dL, p < 0.001; ferritin: 186 ± 192 vs. 87 ± 84 mg/dL, p < 0.01). Logistic regression analysis showed that soft drink consumption is a strong predictor of fatty liver (odds ratio: 2.0; p < 0.04) independent of metabolic syndrome and CRP level. Conclusions: NAFLD patients display higher soft drink consumption independent of metabolic syndrome diagnosis. These findings might optimize NAFLD risk stratification.

Dietary predictors of arterial stiffness in a cohort with type 1 and type 2 diabetes

K.S. Petersen, J.B. Keogh, P.J. Meikle, M.L. Garg, P.M. Clifton
Atherosclerosis 238 (2015) 175-181
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.12.012

Objective: To determine the dietary predictors of central blood pressure, augmentation index and pulse wave velocity (PWV) in subjects with type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Methods: Participants were diagnosed with type 1 or type 2 diabetes and had PWV and/or pulse wave analysis performed. Dietary intake was measured using the Dietary Questionnaire for Epidemiological Studies Version 2 Food Frequency Questionnaire. Serum lipid species and carotenoids were measured, using liquid chromatography electrospray ionization- tandem mass spectrometry and high performance liquid chromatography, as biomarkers of dairy and vegetable intake, respectively. Associations were determined using linear regression adjusted for potential confounders. Results: PWV (n = 95) was inversely associated with reduced fat dairy intake (β = -0.01; 95% CI -0.02, -0.01; p = 0 < 0.05) in particular yoghurt consumption (β = 0.04; 95% CI -0.09, -0.01; p = 0 < 0.05) after multivariate adjustment. Total vegetable consumption was negatively associated with PWV in the whole cohort after full adjustment (β =0.04; 95% CI -0.07, -0.01; p < 0.05). Individual lipid species, particularly those containing 14:0, 15:0, 16:0, 17:0 and 17:1 fatty acids, known to be of ruminant origin, in lysophosphatidylcholine, cholesterol ester, diacylglycerol, phosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin and triacylglycerol classes were positively associated with intake of full fat dairy, after adjustment for multiple comparisons. However, there was no association between serum lipid species and PWV. There were no dietary predictors of central blood pressure or augmentation index after multivariate adjustment. Conclusion: In this cohort of subjects with diabetes reduced fat dairy intake and vegetable consumption were inversely associated with PWV. The lack of a relationship between serum lipid species and PWV suggests that the fatty acid composition of dairy may not explain the beneficial effect.

In this cohort with type 1 and type 2 diabetes there was an inverse association between reduced fat dairy intake, in particular yoghurt consumption, and PWV, which persisted after multivariate adjustment. Serum lipid species, known to be of ruminant origin, were positively associated with full fat dairy consumption; however there was no association between these lipid species and PWV. In addition, higher vegetable intake was also associated with lower PWV. There were no dietary predictors of central blood pressure or augmentation index identified in this cohort.

In this study there was no relationship between augmentation index and PWV, which has been previously reported. Augmentation index is not a direct measure of arterial stiffness and is influenced by the timing and magnitude of the wave reflection. In contrast, PWV is a robust measure of arterial stiffness as it is determined by measuring the velocity of the waveform between the carotid and femoral arteries. Previously, it has been shown that in a population with diabetes PWV was elevated compared with healthy controls, however augmentation index was not different. Lacy et al. concluded that augmentation index is not a reliable measure of arterial stiffness in people with diabetes. This may explain why we did not see an association between augmentation index and dietary intake, despite seeing correlations with PWV.

Curcumin ameliorates diabetic nephropathy by inhibiting the activation of the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway

Juan Huang, Kaipeng Huang, Tian Lan, Xi Xie, .., Peiqing Liu, Heqing Huang
Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 365 (2013) 231–240
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2012.10.024

Curcumin, a major polyphenol from the golden spice Curcuma longa commonly known as turmeric, has been recently discovered to have renoprotective effects on diabetic nephropathy (DN). However, the mechanisms underlying these effects remain unclear. We previously demonstrated that the sphingosine kinase 1-sphingosine 1-phosphate (SphK1-S1P) signaling pathway plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of DN. This study aims to investigate whether the renoprotective effects of curcumin on DN are associated with its inhibitory effects on the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway. Our results demonstrated that the expression and activity of SphK1 and the production of S1P were significantly down-regulated by curcumin in diabetic rat kidneys and glomerular mesangial cells (GMCs) exposed to high glucose (HG). Simultaneously, SphK1-S1P-mediated fibronectin (FN) and transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-b1) overproduction were inhibited. In addition, curcumin dose dependently reduced SphK1 expression and activity in GMCs transfected with SphKWT and significantly suppressed the increase in SphK1-mediated FN levels. Furthermore, curcumin inhibited the DNA-binding activity of activator protein 1 (AP-1), and c-Jun small interference RNA (c-Jun-siRNA) reversed the HG-induced up-regulation of SphK1. These findings suggested that down-regulation of the SphK1-S1P pathway is probably a novel mechanism by which curcumin improves the progression of DN. Inhibiting AP-1 activation is one of the therapeutic targets of curcumin to modulate the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway, thereby preventing diabetic renal fibrosis.

The creation of the STZ-induced DN model relies on the level and continuous cycle of high blood glucose in vivo. Long-term hyperglycemia induces significant structural changes in the kidney, including glomerular hypertrophy, GBM thickening, and later glomerulosclerosis and tubulointerstitial fibrosis, leading to microalbuminuria and elevated Cr levels. These effects usually occur at around 8–12 weeks after diabetes formation. In the current study, the experimental diabetic model was induced by a single intraperitoneal injection of STZ (60 mg/kg). When the experiment was terminated at 12 weeks, FBG, KW/BW, BUN, Cr, and UP 24 h were significantly increased and body weight was remarkably decreased in the STZ-induced diabetic rats compared with those in the normal control group. Furthermore, PAS staining of the kidneys revealed the induction of glomerular hypertrophy, mesangial matrix expansion, and increased regional adhesion of the glomerular tuft to the Bowman’s capsule in the diabetic rats. This finding indicated the emergence of the diabetic renal injury model characterized by renal hypertrophy, glomerulus damage, and renal dysfunction. As the limited water solubility of curcumin, various methods such as heat treatment, mild alkali and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose are used to increase the solubility of curcumin before administration. Based on our previous study, we employed 1% sodium carboxymethyl cellulose as the vehicle to solubilize curcumin. Compared with the diabetic group, curcumin treatment slightly reduced FBG level and significantly decreased KW/BW, BUN, Cr, and UP 24 h. Moreover, curcumin remarkably improved glomerular pathological changes in the diabetic kidneys. Consistent with previous studies, the current results demonstrated that curcumin prominently ameliorated renal function and renal parenchymal alterations in the diabetic renal injury model. Previous studies revealed that the amelioration of renal dysfunction in diabetes by curcumin was partly related to its function in inhibiting inflammatory injury. Based on these findings, the current experiment further explored whether the renoprotective effects of curcumin are associated with the regulation of the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway.

S1P is a polar sphingolipid metabolite acting as an extracellular mediator and an intracellular second messenger. Ample evidence proves that S1P participates in cell growth, proliferation, migration, adhesion, molecule expression, and angiogenesis. The formation of S1P is catalyzed by SphK1. Recently, the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway has gained considerable attention because of its potential involvement in the progression of DN. Hyperglycemia, AGE, and oxidative stress can activate SphK1 and can increase the intracellular level of S1P. Geoffroy et al. (2004) reported that the treatment of cells with low AGE concentration increases SphK activity and S1P production, thereby and S1P content were significantly increased simultaneously with the up-regulated expression of FN and TGF-β1 (mRNA and protein) in the diabetic rat kidneys. These findings indicated the activation of the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway and the appearance of pathological alterations, including ECM accumulation. After curcumin treatment for 12 weeks, elevations of the said indexes were significantly inhibited. HG remarkably activated the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway and increased FN and TGF-β1 expressions in GMCs. Curcumin dramatically suppressed the SphK1-S1P pathway as well as FN and TGF-β1 levels in a dose-dependent manner. Overall, these results indicated that curcumin ameliorated the pathogenic progression of DN by inhibiting the activation of the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway, resulting in the down-regulation of TGF-β1 and the subsequent reduction of ECM accumulation.

SphK1 expression is mediated by a novel AP-1 element located within the first intron of the human SphK1 gene. AP-1 sites are also found in rat SphK1 promoter from NCBI. Numerous studies indicated that curcumin can inhibit the activity of AP-1 and is widely used as an AP-1 inhibitor. Therefore, further elucidating the link between the inhibition of the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway by curcumin and the suppression of AP-1 activity is important. The data showed that treatment with c-Jun-siRNA significantly down-regulated the basal levels of SphK1 expression. Thus, inhibiting AP-1 activity is one of the therapeutic targets of curcumin in modulating the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway, thereby inhibiting diabetic renal fibrosis.

In summary, curcumin inhibited SphK1 expression and activity, reduced S1P content, and effectively inhibited increased FN and TGF-β1 expressions mediated by the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway. Moreover, the inhibitory effect of curcumin on SphK1-S1P was independent of its hypoglycemic and anti-oxidant roles and might be closely related to the inhibition of AP-1 activity. Our findings suggested that the SphK1-S1P pathway might be a novel mechanism by which curcumin attenuates renal fibrosis and ameliorates DN. In addition, the present study provides further experimental evidence for the clinical application and new drug exploration of curcumin.

Antidiabetic Activity of Hydroalcoholic Extracts of Nardostachys jatamansi in Alloxan-induced Diabetic Rats

A. Aleem, B. Syed Asad, Tasneem Mohammed, et al.
British Journal of Medicine & Medical Research 4(28): 4665-4673, 2014

A review of literature indicates that diabetes mellitus was fairly well known and well conceived as an entity in India with complications like angiopathy, retinopathy, nephropathy, and causing neurological disorders. The antidiabetic study was carried out to estimate the anti-hyperglycemic potential of Nardostachys Jatamansi rhizome’s hydroalcoholic extracts in alloxan induced diabetic rats over a period of two weeks. The hydroalcoholic extract HAE1 at a dose (500mg/kg) exhibited significant antihyperglycemic activity than extract HAE2 at a dose (500mg/kg) in diabetic rats. The hydroalcoholic extracts showed improvement in different parameters associated with diabetes, like body weight, lipid profile and biochemical parameters. Extracts also showed improvement in regeneration of β-cells of pancreas in diabetic rats. Histopath-ological studies strengthen the healing of pancreas by hydroalcoholic extracts (HAE1& HAE2) of Nardostachys Jatamansi, as a probable mechanism of their antidiabetic activity.
Metabolic syndrome and serum carotenoids : findings of a cross-sectional study in Queensland, Australia

Coyne, T, Ibiebele, T,… McClintock, C and Shaw, J
Brit J Nutrition: Int J Nutr Sci 2009; 102(11). pp. 1668-1677
Several components of the metabolic syndrome, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease, are known to be oxidative stress-related conditions and there is research to suggest that antioxidant nutrients may play a protective role in these conditions. Carotenoids are compounds derived primarily from plants and several have been shown to be potent antioxidant nutrients. The aim of this study was to examine the associations between metabolic syndrome status and major serum carotenoids in adult Australians. Data on the presence of the metabolic syndrome, based on International Diabetes Federation criteria, were collected from 1523 adults aged 25 years and over in six randomly selected urban centers in Queensland, Australia, using a cross sectional study design. Weight, height, BMI, waist circumference, blood pressure, fasting and 2-hour blood glucose and lipids were determined, as well as five serum carotenoids. Mean serum alpha-carotene, beta-carotene and the sum of the five carotenoid concentrations were significantly lower (p<0.05) in persons with the metabolic syndrome (after adjusting for age, sex, education, BMI status, alcohol intake, smoking, physical activity status and vitamin/mineral use) than persons without the syndrome. Alpha, beta and total carotenoids also decreased significantly (p<0.05) with increased number of components of the metabolic syndrome, after adjusting for these confounders. These differences were significant among former smokers and non-smokers, but not in current smokers. Low concentrations of serum alpha-carotene, beta carotene and the sum of five carotenoids appear to be associated with metabolic syndrome status. Additional research, particularly longitudinal studies, may help to determine if these associations are causally related to the metabolic syndrome, or are a result of the pathologies of the syndrome.

Although there is no universal definition of the metabolic syndrome, it is generally described as a constellation of pathologies or anthropometric conditions, which include central obesity, glucose intolerance, lipid abnormalities, and hypertension. It is, however, universally accepted that the presence of the metabolic syndrome is associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. The prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in developed countries varies widely depending upon definitions used and age ranges included, but is estimated to be 24% among adults 20 years and over in the US. Given the impending worldwide epidemic of obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular disease, strategies aimed at greater understanding of the pathology of the syndrome, as well as strategies aimed at preventing or treating persons with the syndrome are urgently required.

Few studies have investigated associations of antioxidant nutrients and the metabolic syndrome. Ford and colleagues reported lower levels of several carotenoids and vitamins C and E among those with metabolic syndrome present compared with those without the syndrome in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Sugiura et al. suggested that several carotenoids may exert a protective effect against the development of the metabolic syndrome, especially among current smokers. Confirming these findings in another population may add strength to these associations.

Our study showed significantly lower concentrations of β-carotene, α-carotene and the sum of the five carotenoids among those with the metabolic syndrome present compared to those without. We also found decreasing concentrations of all the carotenoids tested as the number of the metabolic syndrome components increased. These findings are consistent with data reported by Ford et al. from the third 262 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). In the NHANES III study, significantly lower concentrations of all the carotenoids, except lycopene, were found among persons with the metabolic syndrome compared with those without, after adjusting for confounding factors similar to those in our study.

Related references in Pharmaceutical Intelligence:

EU approves Lilly diabetes drug Trulicity, dulaglutide

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/11/26/eu-approves-lilly-diabetes-drug-trulicity-dulaglutide/

Metformin, thyroid-pituitary axis, diabetes mellitus, and metabolism

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/09/28/metformin-thyroid-pituitary-axis-diabetes-mellitus-and-metabolism/

Study suggests consuming whey protein before meals could help improve blood glucose control in people with diabetes

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/12/study-suggests-consuming-whey-protein-before-meals-could-help-improve-blood-glucose-control-in-people-with-diabetes/

It may take guts to cure diabetes: Human GI cells retrained to produce insulin

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/07/02/it-may-take-guts-to-cure-diabetes-human-gi-cells-retrained-to-produce-insulin/

Discovery of Imigliptin, a Novel Selective DPP-4 Inhibitor for the Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/25/discovery-of-imigliptin-a-novel-selective-dpp-4-inhibitor-for-the-treatment-of-type-2-diabetes/

Endothelial Cell Dysfunction plays a role in the Pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s Disease, Atherosclerosis, Diabetes, and Pulmonary Hypertension: New Research @Cleveland Clinic

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/02/endothelial-cell-dysfunction-plays-a-role-in-the-pathogenesis-of-alzheimers-disease-atherosclerosis-diabetes-and-pulmonary-hypertension-new-research-cleveland-clinic/

Molecule as a Switchpoint discovered @ETH: Catalyst for Adult-onset diabetes (DM2) Decoded

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD,RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/05/06/molecule-as-a-switchpoint-discovered-etz-catalyst-for-adult-onset-diabetes-dm2-decoded/

Use of Exenatide Once Weekly in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: The Pathophysiological and Pharmacological Rationale

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/02/20/use-of-exenatide-once-weekly-in-patients-with-type-2-diabetes-the-pathophysiological-and-pharmacological-rationale/

Daily Sugar Intake: Diet Soft Drinks – Weight Gain and Diabetes

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/01/21/daily-sugar-intake-diet-soft-drinks-weight-gain-and-diabetes/

Cardiovascular Risk Reduction in Diabetes in Sub-Saharan Africa

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/01/13/cardiovascular-risk-reduction-in-diabetes-in-sub-saharan-africa/

Developments in the Genomics and Proteomics of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Treatment Targets

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/08/developments-in-the-genomics-and-proteomics-of-type-2-diabetes-mellitus-and-treatment-targets/

Human Stem Cells Elucidate the Mechanisms of Beta-Cell Failure in Diabetes

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/05/human-stem-cells-elucidate-the-mechanisms-of-beta-cell-failure-in-diabetes/

Brown Fat Stem Cells for Treating Diabetes and Obesity

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/02/brown-fat-stem-cells-for-treating-diabetes-and-obesity/

Tackling diabetes treatment from a different angle

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/13/tackling-diabetes-treatment-from-a-different-angle/

Exercising with diabetes – Statesman Journal

Scoop.it – Cardiovascular Disease: PHARMACO-THERAPY

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/10/21/exercising-with-diabetes-statesman-journal/

Protein Target for Controlling Diabetes, Fractalkine: Mediator cell-to-cell Adhesion though CX3CR1 Receptor, Released from cells Stimulate Insulin Secretion

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/16/protein-target-for-controlling-diabetes-fractalkine-mediator-cell-to-cell-adhesion-though-cx3cr1-receptor-released-from-cells-stimulate-insulin-secretion/

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR-gamma) Receptors Activation: PPARγ transrepression for Angiogenesis in Cardiovascular Disease and PPARγ transactivation for Treatment of Diabetes

The research is presented in the following three parts. References for each part are at the end.
Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN
PART I: Genetics and Biochemistry of Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

PART II: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors as stimulants of angiogenesis in cardiovascular disease and diabetes

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

PART III: PPAR-gamma Role in Activation of eNOS: The Cardiovascular Benefit

Author and Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/13/peroxisome-proliferator-activated-receptor-ppar-gamma-receptors-activation-ppar%CE%B3-transrepression-for-angiogenesis-in-cardiovascular-disease-and-ppar%CE%B3-transactivation-for-treatment-of-dia/

Commentary on Dr. Baker’s post “Junk DNA codes for valuable miRNAs: non-coding DNA controls Diabetes” Author and Curator: Ritu Saxena, Ph.D.

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/03/commentary-on-dr-bakers-post-junk-dna-codes-for-valuable-mirnas-non-coding-dna-controls-diabetes/

Junk DNA codes for valuable miRNAs: non-coding DNA controls Diabetes

Author: Margaret Baker, PhD, Registered Patent Agent

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/24/junk-dna-codes-for-valuable-mirnas/

Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes: Is Bariatric Surgery the Solution?

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/23/prevention-of-type-2-diabetes-is-bariatric-surgery-the-solution/

Therapeutic Targets for Diabetes and Related Metabolic Disorders

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/20/therapeutic-targets-for-diabetes-and-related-metabolic-disorders/

Pathophysiology of GLP-1 in Type 2 Diabetes

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN By Mark Abrahams, MD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/17/pathophysiology-of-glp-1-in-type-2-diabetes/

Mitochondrial Mechanisms of Disease in Diabetes Mellitus

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN By Mark Abrahams, MD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/01/mitochondrial-mechanisms-of-disease-in-diabetes-mellitus/

Action of Hormones on the Circulation

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/02/17/action-of-hormones-on-the-circulation/

Gastrointestinal Endocrinology

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/02/10/gastrointestinal-endocrinology/

Pancreatic Islets

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/02/08/pancreatic-islets/

Pituitary Neuroendocrine Axis

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/02/04/pituitary-neuroendocrine-axis/

Natural Products Chemistry

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/01/27/natural-products-chemistry/

Outline of Medical Discoveries between 1880 and 1980

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/12/03/outline-of-medical-discoveries-between-1880-and-1980/

Summary and Perspectives: Impairments in Pathological States: Endocrine Disorders, Stress Hypermetabolism and Cancer

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/11/09/summary-and-perspectives-impairments-in-pathological-states-endocrine-disorders-stress-hypermetabolism-cancer/

Summary of Metabolomics

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/11/08/summary-of-metabolomics/

Summary of Signaling and Signaling Pathways

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/11/01/summary-of-signaling-and-signaling-pathways/

Complex Models of Signaling: Therapeutic Implications

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/10/31/complex-models-of-signaling-therapeutic-implications/

more…

Read Full Post »

Diet and Cholesterol

Posted in Amino acids, Atherogenic Processes & Pathology, Bio Instrumentation in Experimental Life Sciences Research, Biological Networks, Cell Biology, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Curation, Diabetes Mellitus, Disease Biology, Drug Toxicity, Fatty acids, Frontiers in Cardiology and Cardiovascular Disorders, Kinase, Lipid metabolism, Lipids, Metabolism, Metabolomics, Nitric Oxide in Health and Disease, Nutrition, Nutrition and Phytochemistry, Nutritional Supplements: Atherogenesis, Origins of Cardiovascular Disease, Pharmaceutical Drug Discovery, Pharmacotherapy of Cardiovascular Disease, Phosphorylase, Plant extract, Population Health Management, Pre-Clinical Animal Model Development, Proteins, Proteomics, Signaling & Cell Circuits, tagged atheromatous plaque, atherosclerosis models, black vinegar, Cholesterol, diet, fecal fat, high fat diet, LDL cholesterol, LDL receptor, macrophage activity, mediteranean diet, Metabolomics, monounsaturated fatty acids, n-3 fatty acids, neutraceuticals, Nutrition, oleic acid, PUFA, saturated fatty acids on March 2, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Diet and Cholesterol

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Introduction

We are all familiar with the conundrum of diet and cholesterol. As previously described, cholesterol is made by the liver. It is the backbone for the synthesis of sex hormones, corticosteroids, bile, and vitamin D. It is also under regulatory control, and that is not fully worked out, but it has health consequences. The liver is a synthetic organ that is involved with glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, cholesterol synthesis, and unlike the heart and skeletal muscles – which are energy transducers – the liver is anabolic, largely dependent on NADPH. The mitochondria, which are associated with aerobic metabolism, respiration, are also rich in the liver. The other part of this story is the utilization of lipids synthesized by the liver in the vascular endothelium. The vascular endothelium takes up and utilizes/transforms cholesterol, which is involved in the degenerative development of pathogenic plaque. Plaque is associated with vascular rigidity, rupture and hemorrhage, essential in myocardial inmfarction. What about steroid hormones? There is some evidence that sex hormone differences may be a factor in coronary vascular disease and cardiac dysfunction. The evidence that exercise is beneficial is well established, but acute coronary events can occur during exercise. WE need food, and food is at the center of the discussion – diet and cholesterol. The utilization of food varies regionally, and is dependent on habitat. But it is also strongly influence by culture. We explore this further in what follows.

A high fat, high cholesterol diet leads to changes in metabolite patterns in pigs – A metabolomic study

Jianghao Sun, Maria Monagas, Saebyeol Jang, Aleksey Molokin, et al.
Food Chemistry 173 (2015) 171–178
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.09.161

Non-targeted metabolite profiling can identify biological markers of dietary exposure that lead to a better understanding of interactions between diet and health. In this study, pigs were used as an animal model to discover changes in metabolic profiles between regular basal and high fat/high cholesterol diets. Extracts of plasma, fecal and urine samples from pigs fed high fat or basal regular diets for 11 weeks were analysed using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC–HRMS) and chemometric analysis. Cloud plots from XCMS online were used for class separation of the most discriminatory metabolites. The major metabolites contributing to the discrimination were identified as bile acids (BAs), lipid metabolites, fatty acids, amino acids and phosphatidic acid (PAs), phosphatidylglycerol (PGs), glycerophospholipids (PI), phosphatidylcholines (PCs) and tripeptides. These results suggest the developed approach can be used to identify biomarkers associated with specific feeding diets and possible metabolic disorders related to diet.

Nutritional metabolomics is a rapidly developing sub-branch of metabolomics, used to profile small-molecules to support integration of diet and nutrition in complex bio-systems research. Recently, the concept of ‘‘food metabolome’’ was introduced and defined as all metabolites derived from food products. Chemical components in foods are absorbed either directly or after digestion, undergo extensive metabolic modification in the gastrointestinal tract and liver and then appear in the urine and feces as final metabolic products. It is well known that diet has a close relationship with the long-term health and well-being of individuals. Hence, investigation of the ‘‘food metabolome’’ in biological samples, after feeding specific diets, has the potential to give objective information about the short- and long-term dietary intake of individuals, and to identify potential biomarkers of certain dietary patterns. Previous studies have identified potential biomarkers after consumption of specific fruits, vegetables, cocoa, and juices. More metabolites were revealed by using metabolomic approaches compared with the detection of pre-defined chemicals found in those foods.

Eating a high-fat and high cholesterol diet is strongly associated with conditions of obesity, diabetes and metabolic syndrome, that are increasingly recognized as worldwide health concerns. For example, a high fat diet is a major risk factor for childhood obesity, cardiovascular diseases and hyperlipidemia. Little is known on the extent to which changes in nutrient content of the human diet elicit changes in metabolic profiles. There are several reports of metabolomic profiling studies on plasma, serum, urine and liver from high fat-diet induced obese mice, rats and humans. Several potential biomarkers of obesity and related diseases, including lysophosphatidylcholines (lysoPCs), fatty acids and branched-amino acids (BCAAs) have been reported.

To model the metabolite response to diet in humans, pigs were fed a high fat diet for 11 weeks and the metabolite profiles in plasma, urine and feces were analyzed. Non-targeted ultra high performance liquid chromatography tandem with high resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC–MS) was utilized for metabolomics profiling. Bile acids (BAs), lipid metabolites, fatty acids, amino acids and phosphatidic acid (PAs), phosphatidylglycerol (PGs), glycerophospholipids (PI), phosphatidylcholines (PCs), tripeptides and isoflavone conjugates were found to be the final dietary metabolites that differentiated pigs fed a high-fat and high cholesterol diet versus a basal diet. The results of this study illustrate the capacity of this metabolomic profiling approach to identify new metabolites and to recognize different metabolic patterns associated with diet.

Body weight, cholesterol and triglycerides were measured for all the pigs studied. There was no significant body weight gain between pigs fed diet A and diet B after 11 weeks of treatment. The serum cholesterol and triglyceride levels were significantly higher in pigs fed with diet B compared with the control group at the end of experiment.

Plasma, urine and fecal samples were analyzed in both positive and negative ionization mode. To obtain reliable and high-quality metabolomic data, a pooled sample was used as a quality control (QC) sample to monitor the run. The QC sample (a composite of equal volume from 10 real samples) was processed as real samples and placed in the sample queue to monitor the stability of the system. All the samples were submitted in random for analysis. The quantitative variation of the ion features across the QC samples was less than 15%. The ion features from each possible metabolite were annotated by XCMS online to confirm the possible fragment ions, isotopic ions and possible adduct ions. The reproducibility of the chromatography was determined by the retention time variation profiles that were generated by XCMS. The retention time deviation was less than 0.3 min for plasma samples, less than 0.3 min for fecal samples, and less than 0.2 min for urine samples, respectively. On the basis of these results of data quality assessment, the differences between the test samples from different pigs proved more likely to reflect varied metabolite profiles rather than analytical variation. The multivariate analysis results from the QC sample showed the deviation of the analytical system was acceptable.
Good separation can be observed between pigs on the two diets, which is also reflected in the goodness of prediction (Q2), of 0.64 using data from the positive ionization mode. For negative ionization mode data, better separation appears with a Q2of 0.73.

Cloud plot is a new multidimensional data visualization method for global metabolomic data (Patti et al., 2013). Data characteristics, such as the p-value, fold change, retention time, mass-to-charge ratio and signal intensity of features, can be presented simultaneously using the cloud plot. In this study, the cloud plot was used to illustrate the ion features causing the group separation. In Fig. 2 and 82 features with p < 0.05 and fold change >2, including visualisation of the p-value, the directional fold change, the retention time and the mass to charge ratio of features, are shown. Also, the total ion chromato-grams for each sample were shown. The upper panel in (2A) shows the chromatograms of plasma samples from pigs fed the high fat diet, while the lower panel shows the chromatograms of samples from pigs fed the regular diet. Features whose intensity is increased are shown in green, whereas features whose intensity is decreased are shown in pink (2A). The size of each bubble corresponds to the log fold change of the feature: the larger the bubble, the larger the fold changes. The statistical significance of the fold change, as calculated by a Welch t-test with unequal variances, is represented by the intensity of the feature’s color where features with low p-values are brighter compared to features with high p-values. The Y coordinate for each feature corresponds to the mass-to-charge ratio of the compound, as determined by mass spectrometry. Each feature is also color coded, such as features that are shown with a black outline have database hits in METLIN, whereas features shown without a black outline do not have any database hits.

From the cloud plot (Fig. 2A), 82 discriminating ion features from positive data and 48 discriminating ions features from negative data were considered as of great importance for class separation. After filtering out the fragment ions, isotope annotations, and adduct ions, thirty-one metabolites were tentatively assigned using a Metlin library search (Table S4).

Among the assigned metabolites detected, five of the highest abundant metabolites were identified as bile acid and bile acid conjugates (Fig. 2B). This series of compounds shared the following characteristics; the unconjugated bile acids showed [M-H]^– ion as base peak in the negative mode.

The characteristic consistent with bile acid hyodeoxycholic acid (HDCA) was confirmed with a reference standard. For the conjugated bile acids (usually with glycine and taurine), the [M-H]^– and [M+H]⁺ are always observed as the base peaks. For example, the ion feature m/z 448.3065 at 21.18 min was identified as chenodeoxycholic acid glycine conjugate. The neutral loss of 62 amu (H₂O + CO₂) was considered as a characteristic fragmentation pathway for bile acid glycine conjugates. This above mentioned characteristic can easily identify a series of bile acids compounds. The five metabolite ions detected in plasma were significantly different between pigs fed the high fat diet (Fig. 2B, red bars) and regular diet (Fig. 2B, blue bars) for 11 weeks, and were identified as chenodeoxycholic acid glycine conjugate, tauroursodeoxycholic acid, hyodeoxycholic acid, deoxycholic acid glycine conjugate and glycocholic acid; chenodeoxycholic acid glycine and hyodeoxycholic acid.

Figures 1-4 , not shown.
Fig 1. The PCA score plot of plasma (A) (+)ESI data with all the ion features; (B) (+)ESI data with selected ion features; (C) (-)ESI data with all ion features; (D) (-)ESI data with selected ion features. Samples were taken from pigs fed diet A (BS, blue) and diet B (HF, red). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig 2. Cloud plot showing 82 discriminatory ion features (negative ion data) in plasma, and (B) box-plot of data set of the five most abundant bile acids identified in plasma (negative ion data) samples.

Fig. 3. PCA score plot of fecal samples from pigs fed diet A (BS, blue) and diet B (HF, red) (A) week 0, (B) week 2, (C) week 4 (D) week 6, (E) week 11 for distal samples (F) week 11 for proximal colon samples. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 4. PCA and PLS-DA score plot of urine samples from (+)ESI-data (A and C) and (-)ESI-data (B and D) taken at the end of the study (week 11) from pigs fed diet A (BS, blue) and diet B (HF, red). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Plasma, fecal and urine metabolites from pigs fed either a high fat or regular diet were investigated using a UHPLC–HRMS based metabolomic approach. Their metabolic profiles were compared by multivariate statistical analysis.
Diet is logically believed to have a close relationship with metabolic profiles. Feeding a high fat and high cholesterol diet to pigs for 11 weeks resulted in
an increase in bile acids and their derivatives in plasma, fecal and urine samples, though at this stage, there was no significant weight gain observed.

In a previous study, a significantly higher level of muricholic acid, but not cholic acid, was found in pigs fed a high fat diet. The gut microbiota of these pigs were altered by diet and considered to regulate bile acid metabolism by reducing the levels of tauro-beta-muricholic acid. In our study, the unconjugated bile acids, hyodeoxycholic acid and deoxycholic acid were found to be significantly higher in the fecal samples of pigs fed a high-fat diet.

Chenodeoxycholic acid glycine was 8.6 times higher in pigs fed a high fat and high cholesterol diet compared to those fed a regular diet. These results confirm that feeding a high fat and high cholesterol diet leads to a changing metabolomic pattern over time, represented by excretion of certain bile acids in the feces. We also found that several metabolites associated with lipid metabolism were increased in the feces of pigs fed the high-fat diet. Feeding the high fat diet to pigs for 11 weeks did not induce any overt expression of disease, except for significantly higher levels of circulating cholesterol and triglycerides in the blood. It is likely, however, that longer periods of feeding would increase expression of metabolic syndrome disorders and features of cardiovascular disease in pigs, as have been previously demonstrated. Products of lipid metabolism that changed early in the dietary treatment could be useful as biomarkers. This may be important because the composition of the fats in the diet, used in this study, was complex and from multiple sources including lard, soybean oil and coconut oil.

In summary, a number of metabolite differences were detected in the plasma, urine and feces of pigs fed a high fat and high cholesterol diet versus a regular diet that significantly increased over time. PCA showed a clear separation of metabolites in all biological samples tested from pigs fed the different diets. This methodology could be used to associate metabolic profiles with early markers of disease expression or the responsiveness of metabolic profiles to alterations in the diet. The ability to identify metabolites from bio-fluids, feces, and tissues that change with alterations in the diet has the potential to identify new biomarkers and to better understand mechanisms related to diet and health.

Amino acid, mineral, and polyphenolic profiles of black vinegar, and its lipid lowering and antioxidant effects in vivo

Chung-Hsi Chou, Cheng-Wei Liu, Deng-Jye Yang, Yi-Hsieng S Wuf, Yi-Chen Chen
Food Chemistry 168 (2015) 63–69
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.07.035

Black vinegar (BV) contains abundant essential and hydrophobic amino acids, and polyphenolic contents, especially catechin and chlorogenic acid via chemical analyses. K and Mg are the major minerals in BV, and Ca, Fe, Mn, and Se are also measured. After a 9-week experiment, high-fat/cholesterol-diet (HFCD) fed hamsters had higher (p < 0.05) weight gains, relative visceral-fat sizes, serum/liver lipids, and serum cardiac indices than low-fat/cholesterol diet (LFCD) fed ones, but BV supplementation decreased (p < 0.05) them which may resulted from the higher (p < 0.05) fecal TAG and TC contents. Serum ALT value, and hepatic thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), and hepatic TNF-α and IL-1β contents in HFCD-fed hamsters were reduced (p < 0.05) by supplementing BV due to increased (p < 0.05) hepatic glutathione (GSH) and trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) levels, and catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities. Taken together, the component profiles of BV contributed the lipid lowering and antioxidant effects on HFCD fed hamsters.

World Health Organization (WHO) reported that more than 1.4 billion adults were overweight (WHO, 2013). As we know, imbalanced fat or excess energy intake is one of the most important environmental factors resulted in not only increased serum/liver lipids but also oxidative stress, further leading cardiovascular disorders and inflammatory responses. Food scientists strive to improve serum lipid profile and increase serum antioxidant capacity via medical foods or functional supplementation.

Vinegar is not only used as an acidic seasoning but also is shown to have some beneficial effects, such as digestive, appetite stimulation, antioxidant, exhaustion recovering effects, lipid lowering effects, and regulations of blood pressure. Polyphenols exist in several food categories, such as vegetable, fruits, tea, wine, juice, and vinegar that have effects against lipid peroxidation, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, inflammation, DNA damage, and. Black vinegar (BV) (Kurosu) is produced from unpolished rice with rice germ and bran through a stationary surface fermentation and contains higher amounts of amino acids and organic acids than other vinegars. Black vinegar is also characterised as a health food rather than only an acidic seasoning because it was reported to own a DPPH radical scavenging ability and decrease the adipocyte size in rat models. Moreover, the extract of BV shows the highest radical scavenging activity in a DPPH radical system than rice, grain, apple, and wine vinegars. The extract suppresses increased lipid peroxidation in mouse skin treated with 12-o-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate.

This study focused on the nutritional compositions in BV, and the in-vivo lipid lowering and antioxidant effects. First, the amino acid, mineral, and polyphenolic profile of BV were identified. Hypolipidemic hamsters induced by a high-fat/cholesterol diet (HFCD) were orally administered with different doses of BV. Serum lipid profile and liver damage indices liver and fecal lipid contents, as well as hepatic antioxidant capacities [thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), glutathione (GSH), trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), and activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx)] and hepatic cytokine levels were assayed to demonstrated physiological functions of BV.

Higher serum AST, ALT, and free fatty acids, as well as hepatic cholesterol, triacylglycerol, MDA, hydroperoxide, and cytokine (IL-1β and TNF-α) levels were easily observed in a high-fat-consumption rodent. Several reports indicated some amino acids antioxidant activities in vitro and in vivo. Acidic amino acids, such as Asp and Glu and hydrophobic amino acids, such as Ile, Leu, and Val display high antioxidant properties. Recently, an in vivo study indicated that a pepsin hydrolyzation significantly enhanced Asp, Glu, Leu, and Val contents in chicken livers; meanwhile, chicken-liver hydrolysates showed an antioxidant capacity in brain and liver of D-galactose treated mice. In addition, it was also reported that Mg and Se play important roles in SOD and GPx activities, respectively. Uzun and Kalender (2013) used chlorpyrifos, an organophosphorus insecticide, to induce hepatotoxic and hematologic changes in rats, but they observed that catechin can attenuate the chlorpyrifos-induced hepatotoxicity by increasing GPx and glutathione-S-transferase activities and decreasing MDA contents. Meanwhile, chlorogenic acid elevated SOD, CAT, and GPx activities with concomitantly decreased lipid peroxidation of liver and kidney in streptozotocin-nicotinamide induced type-2 diabetic rats. Hence, it is reasonable to assume that increased antioxidant capacities and decreased damage in livers of HFCD fed hamsters supplemented with BV should be highly related to the components, i.e. amino acid profile, mineral profile, and polyphenol contents, as well as the lowered liver lipid accumulations.

In analyses of amino acids, minerals and polyphenols, BV contained abundant essential amino acids and hydrophobic amino acids. Mg, K, Ca, Fe, Mn, and Se were measured in BV where K and Mg were major. Gallic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, p-hydroxybezoic acid, p-cumeric acid, ferulic acid, and sinapic acid were also identified in BV where catechin and chlorogenic acid were the majorities. Meanwhile, the lipid-lowering and antioxidant effects of BV were also investigated via a hamster model. BV supplementation apparently decreased weight gain (g and %), relative size of visceral fat, serum/liver TC levels, serum cardiac index, and hepatic TBARS values and damage indices (serum ALT and hepatic TNF-α and IL-1β) but increased fecal lipid contents and hepatic antioxidant capacities (GSH level, TEAC level, CAT activity, and GPx activity) in HFCD fed hamsters. To sum up, those benefits could be attributed to a synergetic effect of compounds in BV.

Analysis of pecan nut (Carya illinoinensis) unsaponifiable fraction – Effect of ripening stage on phytosterols and phytostanols composition

Intidhar Bouali, Hajer Trabelsi, Wahid Herchi, Lucy Martine, et al.
Food Chemistry 164 (2014) 309–316
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.05.029

Changes in 4-desmethylsterol, 4-monomethylsterol, 4,4-dimethylsterol and phytostanol composition were quantitatively and qualitatively investigated during the ripening of three varieties of Tunisian grown pecan nuts. These components have many health benefits, especially in lowering LDL-cholesterol and preventing heart disease. The phytosterol composition of whole pecan kernel was quantified by Gas Chromatography–Flame Ionization Detection (GC–FID) and identified by Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS). Fifteen phytosterols and one phytostanol were quantified. The greatest amount of phytosterols (2852.5 mg/100 g of oil) was detected in Mahan variety at 20 weeks after the flowering date (WAFD). Moore had the highest level of phytostanols (7.3 mg/100 g of oil) at 20 WAFD. Phytosterol and phytostanol contents showed a steep decrease during pecan nut development. Results from the quantitative characterization of pecan nut oils revealed that β-sitosterol, D5-avenasterol, and campesterol were the most abundant phytosterol compounds at all ripening stages.

Association between HMW adiponectin, HMW-total adiponectin ratio and early-onset coronary artery disease in Chinese population

Ying Wang, Aihua Zheng, Yunsheng Yan, Fei Song, et al.
Atherosclerosis 235 (2014) 392-397
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.05.910

Objective: Adiponectin is an adipose-secreting protein that shows atheroprotective property and has inverse relation with coronary artery disease (CAD). High-molecular weight (HMW) adiponectin is reported as the active form of adiponectin. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the association between total adiponectin, HMW adiponectin, HMW-total adiponectin ratio and the severity of coronary atherosclerosis, and to compare their evaluative power for the risk of CAD. Methods: Serum levels of total and HMW adiponectin were measured in 382 early-onset CAD (EOCAD) patients and 305 matched controls undergoing coronary angiography by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Gensini score was used to evaluate the severity of coronary atherosclerosis. Results: CAD onset age was positively correlated with HMW adiponectin (r = 0.383, P < 0.001) and HMW-total adiponectin ratio (r = 0.429, P < 0.001) in EOCAD patients. Total and HMW adiponectin and HMW-total adiponectin ratio were all inversely correlated with Gensini score (r=0.417, r=0.637, r=0.578, respectively; all P < 0.001). Multivariate binary logistic regression analysis demonstrated that HMW adiponectin and HMW-total adiponectin ratio were both inversely correlated with the risk of CAD (P < 0.05). ROC analysis indicated that areas under the ROC curves of HMW adiponectin and HMW-total adiponectin ratio were larger than that of total adiponectin (P < 0.05). Conclusions: Adiponectin is cardioprotective against coronary atherosclerosis onset in EOCAD patients. HMW adiponectin and HMW-total adiponectin ratio show stronger negative associations with the severity of coronary atherosclerosis than total adiponectin does. HMW adiponectin and HMW-total adiponectin ratio are effective biomarkers for the risk of CAD in Chinese population.

Gender and age were well matched between patients and controls. EOCAD patients were tended to have a history of diabetes or hypertension, more current smoking, and more use of lipid lowering drugs. Levels of total cholesterol, LDL-c, FPG, HbA1c and triglycerides were significantly higher in the patients than in controls, while HDL-cholesterol, total adiponectin, HMW adiponectin, and HMW-total adiponectin ratio were significantly lower in the patients. EOCAD patients developed different degrees of coronary atherosclerosis, and had significantly higher levels of high-sensitivity CRP and larger circumferences of waist and hip than controls.

Spearman correlation coefficients between selected cardiovascular risk factors, Gensini score and adiponectin were significant. Total and HMW adiponectin and HMW-total adiponectin ratio were all inversely correlated with Gensini score, BMI and pack years of cigarette smoking. Total and HMW adiponectin were negatively associated with triglycerides and circumference of waist and hip. LDL-cholesterol and high-sensitivity CRP were inversely correlated with HMW adiponectin and HMW-total adiponectin ratio, while HDL-cholesterol and age were positively correlated with them. FPG was only inversely associated with HMW-total adiponectin ratio.

All participants were divided into four groups according to their Gensini score, group A (control, n = 305), group B (<20, n = 154), group C (20-40, n = 121) and group D (>40, n = 105). With the increasing of Gensini score, a stepwise downward trend was observed in levels of total and HMW adiponectin and HMW-total adiponectin ratio (P < 0.001). Specifically, total adiponectin of four groups were 1.58 (0.61-4.36) mg/ml, 1.21 (0.70-2.83) mg/ml, 1.00 (0.73-1.88) mg/ml, and 0.76 (0.37-1.19) mg/ml, respectively. Except group A with B and group B with C, the differences of pairwise comparisons among all the other groups were statistically significant (all P < 0.05). HMW adiponectin of four groups were 0.91 (0.39-3.26) mg/ml, 0.55 (0.32-1.49) mg/ml, 0.46 (0.21-0.876) mg/ml, and 0.23 (0.14-0.39) mg/ml, respectively. The differences of pairwise comparisons among all the other groups were statistically significant (all P < 0.05) except group B with C. HMW-total adiponectin ratio of four groups were 0.58 (0.31-0.81), 0.47 (0.26-0.69), 0.41 (0.24-0.57), and 0.36 (0.21-0.42), respectively. The differences of pairwise comparisons among all the other groups were statistically significant (all P < 0.05) except group B with C. In the model of multivariate binary logistic regression analysis, after adjustment for conventional cardiovascular risk factors, HMW adiponectin (OR = 0.234, P < 0.011) and HMW-total adiponectin ratio (OR = 0.138, P < 0.005) remained inversely correlated with the risk of CAD, while no significant association was observed between total adiponectin and CAD

Areas under the ROC curves were compared pairwise to identify the diagnostic power for CAD among total adiponectin, HMW adiponectin, and HMW-total adiponectin ratio. HMW adiponectin and HMW-total adiponectin ratio showed greater capability for identifying CAD than total adiponectin did (0.797 vs. 0.674, 0.806 vs. 0.674; respectively, all P < 0.05); however, no significant difference was observed between HMW and HMW-total ratio (P > 0.05).

Associations between total adiponectin, HMW adiponectin, HMW-total adiponectin ratio and the severity of coronary atherosclerosis in EOCAD patients (evaluated by Gensini score). *P < 0.05; **P < 0.001; ***P < 0.005 by Mann-Whitney U test.

Compares diagnostic power

Fig. Compares diagnostic power among total adiponectin, HMW adiponectin and HMW-total adiponectin ratio for CAD by ROC curves. Diagnostic power for CAD was based on discriminating patients with or without coronary atherosclerosis. The area under the curve for HMW-total adiponectin ratio (dotted black line) was larger than that for total adiponectin (fine black line) (0.806 [95%CI 0.708-0.903] vs. 0.674 [95%CI 0.552-0.797], P < 0.05) and HMW adiponectin (bold black line) (0.806 [95%CI 0.708-0.903] vs. 0.797 [95%CI 0.706-0.888], no statistically difference). Sensitivity, specificity and optimal cut off value for them were total adiponectin (57.38%, 75.86%, 1.11 mg/ml), HMW (55.74%, 93.1%, 0.49 mg/ml) and H/T (78.69%, 75.86%, 0.52), respectively.

There are two strengths in our study. One is the precise Gensini scoring system to carefully evaluate stenosis of coronary artery or branches > 0% diameter as coronary lesion, another is the specific study subjects of EOCAD in a Chinese Han population that is particularly genetically determined and not influenced by racial/ethnic disparities. The limitations of our study lie in the interference of medications such as the effect of lipid lowering drugs on the levels of adiponectin, and cardiovascular risk factors. Smoking is a conventional cardiovascular risk factor, whose interaction with HMW adiponectin level is rarely investigated, but it has been revealed to be associated with HMW adiponectin level in men according to the study from Kawamoto R et al. We did not adjust the result for the pack/year variable in the multivariate logistic regression analysis for the limitation of small sample size of male subjects in our study. The relatively small study sample also restrained our conclusion generalizable to all populations. Future researches in larger study samples and different populations are in need to validate our findings, and to explore the association of smoking with adiponectin in male subgroup analysis, and to investigate the potential mechanisms by which adiponectin affects the progression of coronary atherosclerosis.

In summary, the present study has demonstrated that adiponectin is protective against coronary atherosclerosis onset in EOCAD patients. HMW adiponectin and HMW-total adiponectin ratio show stronger negative associations with the severity of coronary atherosclerosis than total adiponectin does. HMW adiponectin and HMW-total adiponectin ratio are more effective biomarkers for the risk of CAD than total adiponectin.

Berberis aristata combined with Silybum marianum on lipid profile in patients not tolerating statins at high doses

Giuseppe Derosa, Davide Romano, Angela D’Angelo, Pamela Maffioli
Atherosclerosis 239 (2015) 87-92
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.12.043

Aim: To evaluate the effects of Berberis aristata combined with Silybum marianum in dyslipidemic patients intolerant to statins at high doses.
Methods: 137 euglycemic, dyslipidemic subjects, with previous adverse events to statins at high doses, were enrolled. Statins were stopped for 1 month (run-in), then they were re-introduced at the half of the previously taken dose. At randomization, patients tolerating the half dose of statin, were assigned to
add placebo or B. aristata/S. marianum 588/105 mg, 1 tablet during the lunch and 1 tablet during the dinner, for six months. We evaluated lipid profile and safety parameters variation at randomization, and after 3, and 6 months.
Results: B. aristata/S. marianum reduced fasting plasma glucose (-9 mg/dl), insulin (-0.7 mU/ml), and HOMA-index (-0.35) levels compared to baseline and also to placebo. Lipid profile did not significantly change after 6 months since the reduction of statin dosage and the introduction of B. aristata/S. marianum, while it worsened in the placebo group both compared to placebo and with active treatment (+23.4 mg/dl for total cholesterol, +19.6 mg/dl for LDL-cholesterol, +23.1 mg/dl for triglycerides with placebo compared to B. aristata/S. marianum). We did not record any variations of safety parameters
in either group. Conclusions: B. aristata/S. marianum can be considered as addition to statins in patients not tolerating high dose of these drugs.

Statins, also known as 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors, are effective medications for reducing the risk of death and future cardiovascular disease. In the latest years, however, statin intolerance (including adverse effects related to quality of life, leading to decisions to decrease or stop the use of an otherwise-beneficial drug) has come to the forefront of clinical concern, whereas the safety of statins has come to be regarded as largely favorable. Statin intolerance is defined as any adverse symptoms, signs, or laboratory abnormalities attributed by the patient or physician to the statin and in most cases perceived by the patient to interfere unacceptably with activities of daily living, leading to a decision to stop or reduce statin therapy. The physician might also decide to stop or reduce statin therapy on the basis of clinical/laboratory assessment [abnormal liver function tests, creatine phosphokinase values (CPK)] suggesting undue risk. Adverse events are more common at higher doses of statins, and often contribute to patients low adherence to treatment. For this reason, researchers are testing alternative strategies for lipid treatment when statin intolerance is recognized. One strategy to reduce the risk of statin-induced adverse events includes using a low-dose of statin combined with nonstatin drugs in order to achieve the goals of therapy. Nonstatin drugs include nutraceuticals; in the latest years relatively large number of dietary supplements and nutraceuticals have been studied for their supposed or demonstrated ability to reduce cholesterolemia in humans, in particular Berberis Aristata, has been studied in randomized clinical trials and proved to be effective in improving lipid profile. In particular, B. aristata acts up-regulating LDL-receptor (LDL-R) expression independent of sterol regulatory element binding proteins, but dependent on extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activation leading to total cholesterol (TC) and LDL-C reduction of about 30 and 25%, respectively. Hwever, B. aristata is a problem in terms of oral bioavailability, affected by a P-glycoprotein (P-gp) mediated gut extrusion process. P-gp seems to reduce by about 90% the amount of B. aristata able to cross the enterocytes, but the use of a potential P-gp inhibitor could ameliorate its oral poor bioavailability improving its effectiveness. Among the potential Pgp inhibitors, silymarin from S. marianum, an herbal drug used as liver protectant, could be considered a good candidate due to its high safety profile.

Analyzing the results of our study, it can appear, at a first glance, that B. aristata/S. marianum has a neutral effect of lipid profile that did not change during the study after the addition of the nutraceutical combination. This lack of effect, however, is only apparent, because, when we analyzed what happens in placebo group, we observed a worsening of lipid profile after statin dose reduction. In other words, the addition of B. aristata/S. marianum neutralized the worsening of lipid profile observed with placebo after statins dose reduction. These results are in line with what was reported by Kong et al., who evaluated the effects of a combination of berberine and simvastatin in sixty-three outpatients diagnosed with hypercholesterolemia. As compared with monotherapies, the combination showed an improved lipid lowering effect with 31.8% reduction of serum LDL-C, and similar efficacies were observed in the reduction of TC as well as Tg in patients. Considering the results of this study, B. aristata/S. marianum can be considered as addition to statins in patients not tolerating high dose of these drugs.

CETP inhibitors downregulate hepatic LDL receptor and PCSK9 expression in vitro and in vivo through a SREBP2 dependent mechanism

Bin Dong, Amar Bahadur Singh, Chin Fung, Kelvin Kan, Jingwen Liu
Atherosclerosis 235 (2014) 449-462
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.05.931

Background: CETP inhibitors block the transfer of cholesteryl ester from HDL-C to VLDL-C and LDL-C, thereby raising HDL-C and lowering LDL-C. In this study, we explored the effect of CETP inhibitors on hepatic LDL receptor (LDLR) and PCSK9 expression and further elucidated the underlying regulatory mechanism. Results: We first examined the effect of anacetrapib (ANA) and dalcetrapib (DAL) on LDLR and PCSK9 expression in hepatic cells in vitro. ANA exhibited a dose-dependent inhibition on both LDLR and PCSK9 expression in CETP-positive HepG2 cells and human primary hepatocytes as well as CETP-negative mouse primary hepatocytes (MPH). Moreover, the induction of LDLR protein expression by rosuvastatin in MPH was blunted by cotreatment with ANA. In both HepG2 and MPH ANA treatment reduced the amount of mature form of SREBP2 (SREBP2-M). In vivo, oral administration of ANA to dyslipidemic C57BL/6J mice at a daily dose of 50 mg/kg for 1 week elevated serum total cholesterol by approximately 24.5% (p < 0.05%) and VLDL-C by 70% (p < 0.05%) with concomitant reductions of serum PCSK9 and liver LDLR/SREBP2-M protein. Finally, we examined the in vitro effect of two other strong CETP inhibitors evacetrapib and torcetrapib on LDLR/PCSK9 expression and observed a similar inhibitory effect as ANA in a concentration range of 1-10 µM. Conclusion: Our study revealed an unexpected off-target effect of CETP inhibitors that reduce the mature form of SREBP2, leading to attenuated transcription of hepatic LDLR and PCSK9. This negative regulation of SREBP pathway by ANA manifested in mice where CETP activity was absent and affected serum cholesterol metabolism.

Effect of Eclipta prostrata on lipid metabolism in hyperlipidemic animals

Yun Zhao, Lu Peng, Wei Lu, Yiqing Wang, Xuefeng Huang, et al.
Experimental Gerontology 62 (2015) 37–44
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.exger.2014.12.017

Eclipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn. is a traditional Chinese medicine and has previously been reported to have hypolipidemic effects. However, its mechanism of action is not well understood. This study was conducted to identify the active fraction of Eclipta, its toxicity, its effect on hyperlipidemia, and its mechanism of action. The ethanol extract (EP) of Eclipta and fractions EPF1–EPF4, obtained by eluting with different concentrations of ethanol from a HPD-450 macroporous resin column chromatography of the EP, were screened in hyperlipidemic mice for lipid lowering activity, and EPF3 was the most active fraction. The LD50 of EPF3 was undetectable because no mice died with administration of EPF3 at 10.4 g/kg. Then, 48 male hamsters were used and randomly assigned to normal chow diet, high-fat diet, high-fat diet with Xuezhikang (positive control) or EPF3 (75, 150 and 250 mg/kg) groups. We evaluated the effects of EPF3 on body weight gain, liver weight gain, serum lipid concentration, antioxidant enzyme activity, and the expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism in hyperlipidemic hamsters. The results showed that EPF3 significantly decreased body-weight gain and liver-weight gain and reduced the serum lipid levels in hyperlipidemic hamsters. EPF3 also increased the activities of antioxidant enzymes; upregulated the mRNA expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα), low density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR), lecithin-cholesterol transferase (LCAT) and scavenger receptor class B type Ι receptor (SR-BI); and down-regulated the mRNA expression of 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGR) in the liver. These results indicate that EPF3 ameliorates hyperlipidemia, in part, by reducing oxidative stress and modulating the transcription of genes involved in lipid metabolism.

Although Eclipta has long been used as a food additive, no studies or reports have clearly shown any liver or kidney toxicity from its use. Therefore, E. prostrata is safe and beneficial for preventing hyperlipidemia in experimental animals and can be used as an alternative medicine for the regulation of dyslipidemia.

Effect of high fiber products on blood lipids and lipoproteins in hamsters

HE Martinez-Floresa, Y Kil Chang, F Martinez-Bustosc, V Sgarbieri
Nutrition Research 24 (2004) 85–93
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/S0271-5317(03)00206-9

Serum and liver lipidemic responses in hamsters fed diets containing 2% cholesterol and different dietary fiber sources were studied. The following diets were made from: a) the control diet made from extruded cassava starch (CSH) contained 9.3% cellulose, b) cassava starch extruded with 9.7% resistant starch (CS-RS), c) cassava starch extruded with 9.9% oat fiber (CS-OF), d) the reference diet contained 9.5% cellulose, and no cholesterol was added. Total cholesterol, LDLVLDL-cholesterol and triglycerides were significantly lower (P < 0.05) in serum of hamsters fed on the CS-RS (17.87%, 62.92% and 9.17%, respectively) and CS-OF (15.12%, 67.41% and 18.35%, respectively) diets, as compared to hamster fed with the CSH diet. Similar results were found in the livers of hamsters fed on the CS-RS and CS-OF diets, as compared to hamsters fed with the CSH diet. The diets containing these fibers could be used as active ingredients in human diets to improve the human health.

A new piece in the puzzling effect of n-3 fatty acids on atherosclerosis?

Wilfried Le Goff
Atherosclerosis 235 (2014) 358-362
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.03.038

Omega-3 fatty acids (ω-3) FA are reported to be protective against cardiovascular disease (CVD), notably through their beneficial action on atherosclerosis development. In this context dietary intake of long chain marine eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is recommended and randomised trials largely support that EPA and DHA intake is associated with a reduction of CVD. However, mechanisms governing the atheroprotective action of ω-3 FA are still unclear and numerous studies using mouse models conducted so far do not allow to reach a precise view of the cellular and molecular effects of ω-3 FA on atherosclerosis. In the current issue of Atherosclerosis, Chang et al. provide important new information on the anti-atherogenic properties of ω-3 FA by analyzing the incremental replacement of saturated FA by pure fish oil as a source of EPA and DHA in Ldlr ^-/- mice fed a high fat/high cholesterol diet.

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading causes of death in the world and is frequently associated with atherosclerosis, a pathology characterized by the accumulation of lipids, mainly cholesterol in the arterial wall. Among major risk factors for CVD, circulating levels of lipids and more especially those originating from diets are closely linked to development of atherosclerosis. In this context, not only cholesterol, but also dietary fatty acids (FA) may appear particularly deleterious in regards to atherosclerosis and associated CVD. However, although saturated fats are proatherogenic, omega-3 fatty acids (ω-3 FA), and more especially long-chain marine eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), exert atheroprotective properties through several potential underlying mechanisms. Therefore, the intake of EPA and DHA is recommended around the world and randomised trials with ω-3 FA confirmed that EPA and DHA intake reduced risk for CVD events. However benefits of ω-3 FA intake were challenged by recent clinical trials that failed to replicate protective effects of EPA + DHA on CVD, raising the controversy on the healthy side of marine ω-3 FA.

Animal models are commonly employed in order to decipher mechanisms by which ω-3 FA exert their beneficial actions regarding lipid metabolism and atherosclerosis. Since the last past 20 years, mouse models, and more especially genetically modified mouse models, became the reference model to evaluate the effects of dietary fatty acids, especially ω-3 FA, on atherosclerosis development [7-20]. However, the use of different mouse models of atherosclerosis (Apoe-/-, Ldlr-/-, double Apoe-/- x Ldlr-/- , Ldlr-/- x hApoB mice), as well as diet composition (chow, high cholesterol, high fat, high cholesterol/high fat), source of ω-3 FA supplementation (fish oil, perilla seed oil, flaxseed, pure ALA, EPA or DHA), duration of the diet (from 4 to 32 weeks), size of atherosclerotic lesions in control animals (from 51 to 700.103 mm2) in

those studies led to heterogeneous results and therefore to a partial understanding of the effects of ω-3 FA on atherosclerosis.

Contrary to what observed in Apoe-/- mice, dietary supplementation of Ldlr-/- mice with ω-3 FA led to a reproducible reduction of aortic atherosclerosis, although to various degrees, confirming that Ldlr-/- mice constitute the most appropriate model for studying the atheroprotective effects of ω-3 FA. When evaluated, the decrease of atherosclerosis upon ω-3 FA-rich diet was accompanied by a reduction in the macrophage content as well as inflammation in aortic lesions highlighting the major impact of ω-3 FA on monocyte recruitment and subsequent macrophage accumulation in the arterial wall. However, although supplementation with ω-3 FA allows an efficacious lowering of plasma lipid levels in humans, studies in mouse models suggest that the antiatherogenic action of ω-3 FA is independent of any effects on plasma cholesterol or triglyceride levels. However, that must be asserted with caution as lipid metabolism is quite different in mouse in comparison to humans, highlighting the need to study in the future the effects of ω-3 FA on atherosclerosis in a mouse model exhibiting a more “humanized” lipid metabolism as achieved in hApoB/CETP mice.

In a previous issue of Atherosclerosis, Chang et al. reevaluate the impact of fish oil ω-3 FA on atherosclerosis development by operating an incremental replacement of saturated fats (SAT) by ω-3 FA (pure fish oil, EPA- and DHA-rich) in Ldlr-/- mice fed a high-fat (21%, w/w)/high-cholesterol (0.2%, w/w) diet for a 12-week period. This experimental approach is quite pertinent as dietary fat intake in developed countries, as in United States, derived mostly from saturated FA and is poor in ω-3 FA. Then, using this strategy the authors were able to evaluate the potential beneficial effects of a supplementation with fish oil ω-3 FA in a dietary context for which ω-3 FA intake is relevant.

Here, Chang et al. demonstrated that the progressive increase of dietary intake of fish oil ω-3 FA (EPA and DHA) abrogated the deleterious effects of a SAT diet, thereby suggesting that a dietary ω-3 FA intake on a SAT background is potentially efficient to decrease CVD in humans. Indeed, replacement of SAT by fish oil ω-3 FA markedly reduced plasma cholesterol and triglycerides levels and abolished diet-induced atherosclerosis mediated by SAT in Ldlr-/-mice. To note that in the present study, Ldlr-/- mice only developed small atherosclerosic lesions (~100.103 mm2) after 12 weeks of diet with SAT.

As previously reported, decreased atherosclerotic lesions were accompanied by a reduced content of aortic macrophages and inflammation. Based on their previous works, the authors proposed that the reduction of atherosclerosis upon ω-3 FA resulted from an impairment of cholesterol uptake by arterial macrophages consecutive to the decrease of Lipoprotein Lipase (LPL) expression in those cells. Indeed, beyond its lipolysis action on triglycerides, LPL was reported to promote lipid accumulation, in particular in macrophages, by binding to lipoproteins and cell surface proteoglycans and then acting as a bridging molecule that facilitates cellular lipid uptake. Coherent with this mechanism, macrophage LPL expression was reported to promote foam cell formation and atherosclerosis. In the present study, replacement of SAT by ω-3 FA both decreased expression and altered distribution of arterial LPL. Such a mechanism for ω-3 FA (EPA and DHA) was proposed by this group in earlier studies to favor reduction of arterial LDL-cholesterol. It is noteworthy that lipid rafts alter distribution of LPL at the cell surface and subsequently the LPL dependent accumulation of lipids in macrophages and foam cell formation. As incorporation of ω-3 FA, such as DHA, into cell membrane phospholipids disrupts lipid rafts organization, it cannot be exclude that reduction of lipid accumulation in arterial macrophages upon addition of ω-3 FA results in part from an impairment of the localization and of the anchoring function of LPL at the cell surface of macrophages. Indeed Chang et al. observed that progressive replacement of SAT by ω-3 FA affected aortic FA composition leading to a pronounced increase of arterial EPA and DHA, then suggesting that content of ω-3 FA in macrophage membrane may be equally altered. However, the implication of LPL in the atheroprotective effects of ω-3 FA need to be validated using an appropriate mouse model for which LPL expression may be controlled.

Among the various mechanisms by which ω-3 FA exert anti-inflammatory properties, EPA and DHA repressed inflammation by shutting down NF-kB activation in macrophages. Since expression of TLR-4 and NF-kB target genes, IL-6 and TNFα, in aorta from mice fed diets containing ω-3 FA were decreased when compared to SAT, those results strongly support the contention that ω-3 FA repress inflammation by inhibiting the TLR4/NF-kB signaling cascade likely through the macrophage ω-3 FA receptor GPR120.

Although further studies are needed to explore the complete spectrum of actions of ω-3 FA on atherosclerosis development and CVD, this study provides important information that supports that ω-3 FA intake is a pertinent strategy to reduce risk of CVD.

Effects of dietary hull-less barley β-glucan on the cholesterol metabolism of hypercholesterolemic hamsters

Li-Tao Tong, Kui Zhong, Liya Liu, Xianrong Zhou, Ju Qiu, Sumei Zhou
Food Chemistry 169 (2015) 344–349
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.07.157

The aim of the present study is to investigate the hypocholesterolemic effects of dietary hull-less barley β-glucan (HBG) on cholesterol metabolism in hamsters which were fed a hypercholesterolemic diet. The hamsters were divided into 3 groups and fed experimental diets, containing 5‰ HBG or 5‰ oat β-glucan (OG), for 30 days. The HBG, as well as OG, lowered the concentration of plasma LDL-cholesterol significantly. The excretion of total lipids and cholesterol in feces were increased in HBG and OG groups compared with the control group. The activity of 3-hydroxy-3-methyl glutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase in liver was reduced significantly in the HBG group compared with the control and OG groups. The activity of cholesterol 7-α hydroxylase (CYP7A1) in the liver, in the HBG and OG groups, was significantly increased compared with the control group. The concentrations of acetate, propionate and total short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) were not significantly different between the HBG and control groups. These results indicate that dietary HBG reduces the concentration of plasma LDL cholesterol by promoting the excretion of fecal lipids, and regulating the activities of HMG-CoA reductase and CYP7A1 in hypercholesterolemic hamsters.

Effects of dietary wheat bran arabinoxylans on cholesterolmetabolism of hypercholesterolemic hamsters

Li-Tao Tong, Kui Zhong, Liya Liu, Ju Qiu, Lina Guo, et al.
Carbohydrate Polymers 112 (2014) 1–5
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.05.061

The aim of the present study is to investigate the effects of dietary wheat bran arabinoxylans (AXs) on cholesterol metabolism in hypercholesterolemic hamsters. The hamsters were divided into 3 groups and fed the experimental diets containing AXs or oat β-glucan at a dose of 5 g/kg for 30 days. As the results,the AXs lowered plasma total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol concentrations, and increased excretions of total lipids, cholesterol and bile acids, as well as oat β-glucan. The AXs reduced the activity of 3-hydroxy-3-methyl glutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, and increased the activity of cholesterol 7-α hydroxylase (CYP7A1) in liver. Moreover, the AXs increased propionate and the total short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) concentrations. These results indicated that dietary AXs reduced the plasma total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol concentrations by promoting the excretion of fecal lipids, regulating the activities of HMG-CoA reductase and CYP7A1, and increasing colonic SCFAs in hamsters.

High-fructose feeding promotes accelerated degradation of hepatic LDL receptor and hypercholesterolemia in hamsters via elevated circulating PCSK9 levels

Bin Dong, Amar Bahadur Singh, Salman Azhar, Nabil G. Seidah, Jingwen Liu
Atherosclerosis 239 (2015) 364-374
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2015.01.013

Background: High fructose diet (HFD) induces dyslipidemia and insulin resistance in experimental animals and humans with incomplete mechanistic understanding. By utilizing mice and hamsters as in vivo models, we investigated whether high fructose consumption affects serum PCSK9 and liver LDL receptor (LDLR) protein levels. Results: Feeding mice with an HFD increased serum cholesterol and reduced serum PCSK9 levels as compared with the mice fed a normal chow diet (NCD). In contrast to the inverse relationship in mice, serum PCSK9 and cholesterol levels were co-elevated in HFD-fed hamsters. Liver tissue analysis revealed that PCSK9 mRNA and protein levels were both reduced in mice and hamsters by HFD feeding, however, liver LDLR protein levels were markedly reduced by HFD in hamsters but not in mice. We further showed that circulating PCSK9 clearance rates were significantly lower in hamsters fed an HFD as compared with the hamsters fed NCD, providing additional evidence for the reduced hepatic LDLR function by HFD consumption. The majority of PCSK9 in hamster serum was detected as a 53 kDa N-terminus cleaved protein. By conducting in vitro studies, we demonstrate that this 53 kDa truncated hamster PCSK9 is functionally active in promoting hepatic LDLR degradation. Conclusion: Our studies for the first time demonstrate that high fructose consumption increases serum PCSK9 concentrations and reduces liver LDLR protein levels in hyper-lipidemic hamsters. The positive correlation between circulating cholesterol and PCSK9 and the reduction of liver LDLR protein in HFD-fed hamsters suggest that hamster is a better animal model than mouse to study the modulation of PCSK9/LDLR pathway by atherogenic diets.

High-oleic canola oil consumption enriches LDL particle cholesteryl oleate content and reduces LDL proteoglycan binding in humans

Peter J.H. Jones, Dylan S. MacKay, Vijitha K. Senanayake, Shuaihua Pu, et al.
Atherosclerosis 238 (2015) 231-238
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.12.010

Oleic acid consumption is considered cardio-protective according to studies conducted examining effects of the Mediterranean diet. However, animal models have shown that oleic acid consumption increases LDL particle cholesteryl oleate content which is associated with increased LDL-proteoglycan binding and atherosclerosis. The objective was to examine effects of varying oleic, linoleic and docosahexaenoic acid consumption on human LDL-proteoglycan binding in a non-random subset of the Canola Oil Multi-center Intervention Trial (COMIT) participants. COMIT employed a randomized, double-blind, five-period, crossover trial design. Three of the treatment oil diets: 1) a blend of corn/safflower oil (25:75); 2) high oleic canola oil; and 3) DHA-enriched high oleic canola oil were selected for analysis of LDL-proteoglycan binding in 50 participants exhibiting good compliance. LDL particles were isolated from frozen plasma by gel filtration chromatography and LDL cholesteryl esters quantified by mass-spectrometry. LDL-proteoglycan binding was assessed using surface plasmon resonance. LDL particle cholesterol ester fatty acid composition was sensitive to the treatment fatty acid compositions, with the main fatty acids in the treatments increasing in the LDL cholesterol esters. The corn/safflower oil and high-oleic canola oil diets lowered LDL-proteoglycan binding relative to their baseline values (p < 0.0005 and p < 0.0012, respectively). At endpoint, high-oleic canola oil feeding resulted in lower LDL-proteoglycan binding than corn/safflower oil (p < 0.0243) and DHA-enriched high oleic canola oil (p < 0.0249), although high-oleic canola oil had the lowest binding at baseline (p < 0.0344). Our findings suggest that high-oleic canola oil consumption in humans increases cholesteryl oleate percentage in LDL, but in a manner not associated with a rise in LDL-proteoglycan binding.

Read Full Post »

Pancreatic Islets

Posted in Curation, Diabetes Mellitus, Diagnostics and Lab Tests, Disease Biology, Endocrine Diseases, Epigenetics and Cardiovascular Risks, Fatty acids, Frontiers in Cardiology and Cardiovascular Disorders, Gene Regulation, Genomic Endocrinology, Lipid metabolism, Lipids, Metabolism, Nephrology, Neurodegenerative Diseases, Nitric Oxide in Health and Disease, Nutrition, Nutritional Supplements: Atherogenesis, Origins of Cardiovascular Disease, tagged alpha cell, Apoptosis, Beta cell, beta cell amyloid, endocrinology, insulin and glucagon, oligomerization, Pancreas, peptides on February 8, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Pancreatic Islets

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Part I. Endocrine Pancreas

The eclipse and rehabilitation of JJR Macleod, Scotland’s insulin laureate

Bliss, M
Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh 2013; 43(4): 1-8

John JR Macleod (1876-1935,) an Aberdonian Scot who had emigrated to North America, shared the 1923 Nobel Prize with Frederick Banting for their discovery of insulin at the University of Toronto in 1921-22. Macleod finished his career as Regius Professor of Physiology at the University of Aberdeen from 1928 to 1935.Macleod’s posthumous reputation was deeply tarnished by the campaigns against him carried out by his fellow laureate, Banting, and by Banting’s student assistant during the insulin research, Charles Best. Banting’s denigration of Macleod was based on their almost total personality conflict; Best’s was based on a hunger for personal recognition. New research indicates how scarred both men were in their obsessions.The rehabilitation of Macleod’s reputation, begun in 1982 with my book, The Discovery of Insulin, has continued in both scholarly and popular circles. By 2012, the ninetieth anniversary of the discovery of insulin, it had become complete both at the University of Toronto and in Canada.

Almost famous: E. Clark Noble, the common thread in the discovery of insulin and vinblastine

Wright Jr., J.R.
CMAJ 2002; 167 (12), pp. 1391-1396

CLARK NOBLE WAS ONE OF THE FIRST members of the University of Toronto insulin team and came within a coin toss of replacing Charles Best as Frederick Banting’s assistant during the summer of 1921. Noble performed important early studies helping to characterize insulin’s action, and he co-authored many of the original papers describing insulin. Because mass production of insulin from livestock pancreata had proved elusive throughout 1922, J.J.R. Macleod hired Noble during the summer of 1923 to help him test and develop a new method for producing commercial quantities of insulin that Macleod believed would revolutionize insulin production. However, commercial production of insulin from fish proved impractical and was dropped by 1924, as methods to produce large quantities of mammalian insulin had improved very rapidly. Noble later played a small but critical role in the most important Canadian contribution to cancer chemotherapy research: the discovery of vinca alkaloids by his brother Robert Laing Noble. Although one might expect that a physician involved in 2 of Canada’s most important medical discoveries during the 20th century must be famous, such was not Clark Noble’s fate. He died without so much as an obituary in CMAJ.

The Pathophysiology of Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/01/15/pathophysiological-effects-of-diabetes-on-ischemic-cardiovascular-disease-and-on-chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-copd/

This is a multipart article that develops the pathological effects of type-2 diabetes in the progression of a systemic inflammatory disease with a development of neuropathy, and fully developing into cardiovascular disease. It also identifies a systemic relationship to the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. In medical school we were taught that syphilis is the great masquerader. The more we learn about diabetes, we learn about its generalized systemic effects.

Part 1. Role of Autonomic Cardiovascular Neuropathy in Pathogenesis

This article is an abstract only of a related publication of the pathogenesis of autonomic neuropathy in diabetics leading to ischemic heart disease.

The role of autonomic cardiovascular neuropathy in pathogenesis of ischemic heart disease in patients with diabetes mellitus

Subjects: Medicine (General), Medicine, Medicine (General), Health Sciences
Authors: Popović-Pejičić Snježana, Todorović-Đilas Ljiljana, Pantelinac Pavle
Publisher: Društvo lekara Vojvodine Srpskog lekarskog društva
Publication: Medicinski Pregled 2006; 59(3-4): Pp 118-123 (2006)
http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/MPNS0604118P

http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0025-8105/2006/0025-81050604118P.pdf

Keywords: diabetes mellitus, autonomic nervous system diseases, heart diseases, myocardial ischemia, comorbidity

Introduction. Diabetes is strongly associated with macrovascular complications, among which ischemic heart disease is the major cause of mortality. Autonomic neuropathy increases the risk of complications, which calls for an early diagnosis. The aim of this study was to determine both presence and extent of cardiac autonomic neuropathy, in regard to the type of diabetes mellitus, as well as its correlation with coronary disease and major cardiovascular risk factors. Material and methods. We have examined 90 subjects, classified into three groups, with 30 patients each: those with type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes and control group of healthy subjects. All patients underwent cardiovascular tests (Valsalva maneuver, deep breathing test, response to standing, blood pressure response to standing sustained, handgrip test), electrocardiogram, treadmill exercise test and filled out a questionnaire referring to major cardiovascular risk factors: smoking, obesity, hypertension, and dyslipidemia. Results. Our results showed that cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy was more frequent in type 2 diabetes, manifesting as autonomic neuropathy. In patients with autonomic neuropathy, regardless of the type of diabetes, the treadmill test was positive, i.e. strongly correlating with coronary disease. In regard to coronary disease risk factors, the most frequent correlation was found for obesity and hypertension. Discussion. Cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy is considered to be the principal cause of arteriosclerosis and coronary disease. Our results showed that the occurrence of cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy increases the risk of coronary disease due to dysfunction of autonomic nervous system. Conclusions. Cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy is a common complication of diabetes that significantly correlates with coronary disease. Early diagnosis of cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy points to increased cardiovascular risk, providing a basis for preventive and therapeutic measures.

Part 2. a longitudinal cohort study of the cardiovascular experience of individuals at high risk for diabetes

Protocol for ADDITION-PRO: a longitudinal cohort study of the cardiovascular experience of individuals at high risk for diabetes recruited from Danish primary care

Subjects: Public aspects of medicine, Medicine, Public Health, Health Sciences
Authors: Johansen Nanna B, Hansen Anne-Louise S, Jensen Troels M, Philipsen Annelotte, Rasmussen Signe S, Jørgensen Marit E, Simmons Rebecca K, Lauritzen Torsten, Sandbæk Annelli, Witte Daniel R
Publisher: BioMed Central Date of publication: 2012 December
Published in: BMC Public Health 2012; 12(1): 1078
ISSN(s): 1471-2458 Added to DOAJ: 2013-03-12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-1078 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/12/1078

Keywords: Diabetes, Cardiovascular disease, Primary care, Complications, Microvascular, Impaired fasting glucose, Impaired glucose intolerance, Aortic stiffness, Physical activity, Body composition.

Background: Screening programmes for type 2 diabetes inevitably find more individuals at high risk for diabetes than people with undiagnosed prevalent disease. While well established guidelines for the treatment of diabetes exist, less is known about treatment or prevention strategies for individuals found at high risk following screening. In order to make better use of the opportunities for primary prevention of diabetes and its complications among this high risk group, it is important to quantify diabetes progression rates and to examine the development of early markers of cardiovascular disease and microvascular diabetic complications. We also require a better understanding of the mechanisms that underlie and drive early changes in cardiometabolic physiology. The ADDITION-PRO study was designed to address these issues among individuals at different levels of diabetes risk recruited from Danish primary care. Methods/Design: ADDITION-PRO is a population-based, longitudinal cohort study of individuals at high risk for diabetes. 16,136 eligible individuals were identified at high risk following participation in a stepwise screening programme in Danish general practice between 2001 and 2006. All individuals with impaired glucose regulation at screening, those who developed diabetes following screening, and a random sub-sample of those at lower levels of diabetes risk were invited to attend a follow-up health assessment in 2009–2011 (n = 4,188), of whom 2,082 (50%) attended. The health assessment included detailed measurement of anthropometry, body composition, biochemistry, physical activity and cardiovascular risk factors including aortic stiffness and central blood pressure. All ADDITION-PRO participants are being followed for incident cardiovascular disease and death. Discussion: The ADDITION-PRO study is designed to increase understanding of cardiovascular risk and its underlying mechanisms among individuals at high risk of diabetes. Key features of this study include (i) a carefully characterised cohort at different levels of diabetes risk; (ii) detailed measurement of cardiovascular and metabolic risk factors; (iii) objective measurement of physical activity behaviour; and (iv) long-term follow-up of hard clinical outcomes including mortality and cardiovascular disease. Results will inform policy recommendations concerning cardiovascular risk reduction and treatment among individuals at high risk for diabetes. The detailed phenotyping of this cohort will also allow a number of research questions concerning early changes in cardiometabolic physiology to be addressed.

Part 3. Clinical significance of cardiovascular dysmetabolic syndrome

This third part is a description of a longitudinal cohort study of individuals at high-risk for diabetes. Unlike the SSA study, the study is not focused on protein-energy malnutrition. This study also addresses the issue of diabetes insulin resistance leading to cardiovascular dysmetabolic syndrome.

Subjects: Diseases of the circulatory (Cardiovascular) system, Specialties of internal medicine, Internal medicine, Medicine, Cardiovascular, Medicine (General), Health Sciences
Authors: Deedwania Prakash C
Publisher: BioMed Central Date of publication: 2002 January
Published in: Trials 2002; 3: 1(2)
ISSN(s): 1468-6708
Added to DOAJ: 2004-06-03
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1468-6708-3-2
Full text: http://cvm.controlled-trials.com/content/3/1/2

Keywords: cardiovascular dysmetabolic syndrome, coronary heart disease, diabetes mellitus, hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance

Although diabetes mellitus is predominantly a metabolic disorder, recent data suggest that it is as much a vascular disorder. Cardiovascular complications are the leading cause of death and disability in patients with diabetes mellitus. A number of recent reports have emphasized that many patients already have atherosclerosis in progression by the time they are diagnosed with clinical evidence of diabetes mellitus. The increased risk of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular complications in diabetic patients is related to the frequently associated dyslipidemia, hypertension, hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, and endothelial dysfunction.

The evolving knowledge regarding the variety of metabolic, hormonal, and hemodynamic abnormalities in patients with diabetes mellitus has led to efforts designed for early identification of individuals at risk of subsequent disease. It has been suggested that insulin resistance, the key abnormality in type II diabetes, often precedes clinical features of diabetes by 5–6 years.

Careful attention to the criteria described for the cardiovascular dysmetabolic syndrome should help identify those at risk at an early stage. The application of nonpharmacologic as well as newer emerging pharmacologic therapies can have beneficial effects in individuals with cardiovascular dysmetabolic syndrome and/or diabetes mellitus by improving insulin sensitivity and related abnormalities. Early identification and implementation of appropriate therapeutic strategies would be necessary to contain the emerging new epidemic of cardiovascular disease related to diabetes.

Part 4. Waist circumference a good indicator of future risk for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease

Subjects: Public aspects of medicine, Medicine, Public Health, Health Sciences Authors: Siren Reijo, Eriksson Johan G, Vanhanen Hannu
Publisher: BioMed Central Date of publication: 2012 August
Published in: BMC Public Health 2012; 12: 1(631)
ISSN(s): 1471-2458
Added to DOAJ: 2013-03-12
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-631
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/12/631

Keywords: Waist circumference, Type 2 diabetes, Cardiovascular disease, Middle-aged men.

Background: Abdominal obesity is a more important risk factor than overall obesity in predicting the development of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. From a preventive and public health point of view it is crucial that risk factors are identified at an early stage, in order to change and modify behaviour and lifestyle in high risk individuals. Methods: Data from a community based study was used to assess the risk for type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and prevalence of metabolic syndrome in middle-aged men. In order to identify those with increased risk for type 2 diabetes and/or cardiovascular disease sensitivity and specificity analysis were performed, including calculation of positive and negative predictive values, and corresponding 95% CI for eleven different cut-off points, with 1 cm intervals (92 to 102 cm), for waist circumference. Results: A waist circumference ≥94 cm in middle-aged men, identified those with increased risk for type 2 diabetes and/or for cardiovascular disease with a sensitivity of 84.4% (95% CI 76.4% to 90.0%), and a specificity of 78.2% (95% CI 68.4% to 85.5%). The positive predictive value was 82.9% (95% CI 74.8% to 88.8%), and negative predictive value 80.0%, respectively (95% CI 70.3% to 87.1%). Conclusions: Measurement of waist circumference in middle-aged men is a reliable test to identify individuals at increased risk for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. This measurement should be used more frequently in daily practice in primary care in order to identify individuals at risk and when planning health counselling and interventions.

Part 5. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and glucose metabolism: a bitter sweet symphony

Subjects: Diseases of the circulatory (Cardiovascular) system, Specialties of internal medicine, Internal medicine, Medicine, Cardiovascular, Medicine (General), Health Sciences
Authors: Mirrakhimov Aibek E
Publisher: BioMed Central
Date of publication: Oct 2012
ISSN(s): 1475-2840
ADDED to DOAJ: 2013-03-12
Published in: Cardiovascular Diabetology 2012; 11(1):132
Journal Language(s): English Country of publication: United Kingdom
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1186/1475-2840-11-132
Full text: http://www.cardiab.com/content/11/1/132

Keywords: COPD, Dysglycemia, Insulin resistance, Obesity, Metabolic syndrome, Diabetes mellitus endothelial dysfunction, Vasculopathy

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, metabolic syndrome and diabetes mellitus are common and underdiagnosed medical conditions. It was predicted that chronic obstructive pulmonary disease will be the third leading cause of death worldwide by 2020. The healthcare burden of this disease is even greater if we consider the significant impact of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on the cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease may be considered as a novel risk factor for new onset type 2 diabetes mellitus via multiple pathophysiological alterations such as: inflammation and oxidative stress, insulin resistance, weight gain and alterations in metabolism of adipokines.

On the other hand, diabetes may act as an independent factor, negatively affecting pulmonary structure and function. Diabetes is associated with an increased risk of pulmonary infections, disease exacerbations and worsened COPD outcomes. On the top of that, coexistent OSA may increase the risk for type 2 DM in some individuals.

The current scientific data necessitate a greater outlook on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease may be viewed as a risk factor for the new onset type 2 diabetes mellitus. Conversely, both types of diabetes mellitus should be viewed as strong contributing factors for the development of obstructive lung disease. Such approach can potentially improve the outcomes and medical control for both conditions, and, thus, decrease the healthcare burden of these major medical problems.

The Economic Costs of Diabetes: Is It Time for a New Treatment Paradigm?

Commentary: William H. Herman
Diabetes Care Apr 2013; 36: 775-776

In a series of rigorous and exhaustive descriptive cost analyses conducted over the past decade, the American Diabetes Association (ADA) has documented an inexorable increase in the cost of diabetes in the U.S. and its detrimental impact on productivity. For the 2012 study, the ADA estimated that there were 22.3 million Americans diagnosed with diabetes. These patients incurred $306 billion in direct medical costs, more than 1 of 5 dollars spent on medical care in the U.S. The direct medical costs attributed to diabetes, that is, the costs of medical care for people with diabetes in excess of those that would be expected in the absence of diabetes, were $176 billion or approximately 1 of 8 dollars spent on medical care in the U.S. Americans with diagnosed diabetes have annual medical expenditures that are $7,900 or approximately 2.3 times higher than they would be in the absence of diabetes ($13,700 vs. $5,800). Americans with diabetes also incur $69 billion in costs related to absenteeism, reduced productivity while at work or at home, diabetes-related disability, and premature mortality. The increasing economic burden of diabetes is due in large part to the increase in the number of people with diagnosed diabetes.

Randomized controlled clinical trials have demonstrated that intensive glycemic management can delay the onset of microvascular, neuropathic, and cardiovascular complications in people with both type 1 and type 2 diabetes, and that the benefits of early intensive treatment persist over time. Randomized controlled clinical trials have also demonstrated that blood pressure management (target blood pressure 135/80 mmHg) and lipid management using statin medications can delay or prevent the development of adverse cardiovascular outcomes.

The growing economic and societal burden of diabetes as documented by the ADA in this issue of Diabetes Care highlights the urgent need to implement interventions to delay the development of type 2 diabetes. Both intensive lifestyle and pharmacologic interventions are proven effective and cost-effective. Health policy should support their implementation.

Complimentary societal interventions to delay the onset of type 2 diabetes include school-based health promotion programs and interventions that address advertising, food availability and price, the built and workplace environment, and even tax policy. In addition, early aggressive management of glycemia and cardiovascular risk factors must be implemented for persons diagnosed with diabetes. Increasing access to care, including self management education and nutritional counseling, and ensuring access to necessary treatments and supplies are critical, especially in light of the proven value of early intensive treatment in preventing chronic complications. The cost estimates provided by the ADA from 2002, 2007, and 2012 show that the economic and societal burden of diabetes is growing in the U.S. This trend underscores the importance of prevention and interventions to mitigate the complications of diabetes.

Insulin regulates carboxypeptidase E by modulating translation initiation scaffolding protein eIF4G1 in pancreatic β cells

Liew, C.W., Assmann, A., Templin, A.T., (…), Urano, F., Kulkarni, R.N
2014 Proc National Academy of Sciences USA 111 (22), pp. E2319-E2328

Insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia, and hyperproinsulinemia occur early in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes (T2D). Elevated levels of proinsulin and proinsulin intermediates are markers of β-cell dysfunction and are strongly associated with development of T2D in humans. However, the mechanism(s) underlying β-cell dysfunction leading to hyperproinsulinemia is poorly understood. Here, we show that disruption of insulin receptor (IR) expression in β cells has a direct impact on the expression of the convertase enzyme carboxypeptidase E (CPE) by inhibition of the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4 gamma 1 translation initiation complex scaffolding protein that is mediated by the key transcription factors pancreatic and duodenal homeobox 1 and sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1, together leading to poor proinsulin processing. Reexpression of IR or restoring CPE expression each independently reverses the phenotype. Our results reveal the identity of key players that establish a previously unknown link between insulin signaling, translation initiation, and proinsulin processing, and provide previously unidentified mechanistic insight into the development of hyperproinsulinemia in insulin-resistant states.

Disruption of growth factor receptor-binding protein 10 in the pancreas enhances β-cell proliferation and protects mice from streptozotocin-induced β-cell apoptosis

Zhang, J., Zhang, N., Liu, M., (…), Lu, X.-Y., Liu, F.
2014 Environmental Science and Technology 48 (9), pp. 5179-5186

It has been reported that organotin compounds such as triphenyltin or tributyltin (TBT) induce diabetes and insulin resistance. However, histopathological effects of organotin compounds on the Islets of Langerhans and exocrine pancreas are still unclear. In the present study, male KM mice were orally administered with TBT (0.5, 5, and 50 µg/kg) once every 3 days. The fasting plasma glucose levels significantly elevated, and the levels of serum insulin or glucagon decreased in the animals treated with TBT for 60 days. In animals treated for 45 days, the number of apoptotic cells in the islets and exocrine pancreas was elevated in a dose-dependent manner. The percentage of proliferating (PCNA-positive) cells was decreased in the islets, while it was increased in exocrine acinar cells. Immunohistochemistry analysis showed that estrogen receptor (ER) and androgen receptor (AR) were present in vascular endothelium, ductal cells, and islet cells, but absent from pancreatic exocrine cells. TBT exposure decreased the production of estradiol and triiodothyronine and elevated the concentration of testosterone, and resulted in a decrease of ERβ expression and an elevation of AR in the pancreas measured by Western blotting. The results suggested that TBT inhibited the proliferation and induced the apoptosis of islet cells via multipathways, causing a decrease of relative islet area in the animals treated for 60 days, which could result in a disruption of glucose homeostasis. The different presence of ERs and AR between the islets and exocrine pancreas might be one of reasons causing different effects on cell proliferation

Pancreatic alpha-cell dysfunction contributes to the disruption of glucose homeostasis and compensatory insulin hypersecretion in glucocorticoid-treated rats

Rafacho, A., Gonçalves-Neto, L.M., Santos-Silva, J.C., (…), Nadal, A., Quesada, I.
2014 Journal of Biological Chemistry 289 (9), pp. 6028-604

In α-cells, syntaxin (Syn)-1A interacts with SUR1 to inhibit ATP-sensitive potassium channels (KATP channels). PIP2 binds the Kir6.2 subunit to open KATP channels. PIP2 also modifies Syn-1A clustering in plasma membrane (PM) that may alter Syn-1A actions on PM proteins like SUR1. Here, we assessed whether the actions of PIP 2 on activating KATP channels is contributed by sequestering Syn-1A from binding SUR1. In vitro binding showed that PIP 2 dose-dependently disrupted Syn-1A·SUR1 complexes, corroborated by an in vivo Forster resonance energy transfer assay showing disruption of SUR1-(-EGFP)/Syn-1A(-mCherry) interaction along with increased Syn-1A cluster formation. Electrophysiological studies of rat α-cells, INS-1, and SUR1/Kir6.2-expressing HEK293 cells showed that PIP2 dose-dependent activation of KATP currents was uniformly reduced by Syn-1A. To unequivocally distinguish between PIP2 actions on Syn-1A and Kir6.2, we employed several strategies. First, we showed that PIP 2-insensitive Syn-1A-5RK/A mutant complex with SUR1 could not be disrupted by PIP2, consequently reducing PIP2 activation of KATP channels. Next, Syn-1A·SUR1 complex modulation of KATP channels could be observed at a physiologically low PIP 2 concentration that did not disrupt the Syn-1A·SUR1 complex, compared with higher PIP2 concentrations acting directly on Kir6.2. These effects were specific to PIP2 and not observed with physiologic concentrations of other phospholipids. Finally, depleting endogenous PIP 2 with polyphosphoinositide phosphatase synaptojanin-1, known to disperse Syn-1A clusters, freed Syn-1A from Syn-1A clusters to bind SUR1, causing inhibition of KATP channels that could no longer be further inhibited by exogenous Syn-1A. These results taken together indicate that PIP2 affects islet β-cell KATP channels not only by its actions on Kir6.2 but also by sequestering Syn-1A to modulate Syn-1A availability and its interactions with SUR1 on PM.

Aging and sleep deprivation induce the unfolded protein response in the pancreas: Implications for metabolism

Naidoo, N., Davis, J.G., Zhu, J., (…), Agarwal, B., Baur, J.A.
2014 Aging Cell 13 (1), pp. 131-141

Sleep disruption has detrimental effects on glucose metabolism through pathways that remain poorly defined. Although numerous studies have examined the consequences of sleep deprivation (SD) in the brain, few have directly tested its effects on peripheral organs. We examined several tissues in mice for induction of the unfolded protein response (UPR) following acute SD. In young animals, we found a robust induction of BiP in the pancreas, indicating an active UPR. At baseline, pancreata from aged animals exhibited a marked increase in a pro-apoptotic transcription factor, CHOP, that was amplified by SD, whereas BiP induction was not observed, suggesting a maladaptive response to cellular stress with age. Acute SD increased plasma glucose levels in both young and old animals. However, this change was not overtly related to stress in the pancreatic beta cells, as plasma insulin levels were not lower following acute SD. Accordingly, animals subjected to acute SD remained tolerant to a glucose challenge. In a chronic SD experiment, young mice were found to be sensitized to insulin and have improved glycemic control, whereas aged animals became hyperglycemic and failed to maintain appropriate plasma insulin concentrations. Our results show that both age and SD cooperate to induce the UPR in pancreatic tissue. While changes in insulin secretion are unlikely to play a major role in the acute effects of SD, CHOP induction in pancreatic tissues suggests that chronic SD may contribute to the loss or dysfunction of endocrine cells and that these effects may be exacerbated by normal aging

Bayesian total internal reflection fluorescence correlation spectroscopy reveals hIAPP-induced plasma membrane domain organization in live cells

Guo, S.-M., Bag, N., Mishra, A., Wohland, T., Bathe, M.
2014 Biophysical Journal 106 (1), pp. 190-200

Amyloid fibril deposition of human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP) in pancreatic islet cells is implicated in the pathogenesis of type II diabetes. A growing number of studies suggest that small peptide aggregates are cytotoxic via their interaction with the plasma membrane, which leads to membrane permeabilization or disruption. A recent study using imaging total internal reflection-fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (ITIR-FCS) showed that monomeric hIAPP induced the formation of cellular plasma membrane microdomains containing dense lipids, in addition to the modulation of membrane fluidity. However, the spatial organization of microdomains and their temporal evolution were only partially characterized due to limitations in the conventional analysis and interpretation of imaging FCS datasets. Here, we apply a previously developed Bayesian analysis procedure to ITIR-FCS data to resolve hIAPP-induced microdomain spatial organization and temporal dynamics. Our analysis enables the visualization of the temporal evolution of multiple diffusing species in the spatially heterogeneous cell membrane, lending support to the carpet model for the association mode of hIAPP aggregates with the plasma membrane. The presented Bayesian analysis procedure provides an automated and general approach to unbiased model-based interpretation of imaging FCS data, with broad applicability to resolving the heterogeneous spatial-temporal organization of biological membrane systems.

SMAD2 disruption in mouse pancreatic beta cells leads to islet hyperplasia and impaired insulin secretion due to the attenuation of ATP-sensitive K + channel activity

Nomura, M., Zhu, H.-L., Wang, L., (…), Takayanagi, R., Teramoto, N.
2014 Diabetologia 57 (1), pp. 157-166

Aims/hypothesis: The TGF-β superfamily of ligands provides important signals for the development of pancreas islets. However, it is not yet known whether the TGF-β family signalling pathway is required for essential islet functions in the adult pancreas. Methods: To identify distinct roles for the downstream components of the canonical TGF-β signalling pathway, a Cre-loxP system was used to disrupt SMAD2, an intracellular transducer of TGF-β signals, in pancreatic beta cells (i.e. Smad2-β- knockout [KO] mice). The activity of ATP-sensitive K+ channels (KATP channels) was recorded in mutant beta cells using patch-clamp techniques. Results: The Smad2-β-KO mice exhibited defective insulin secretion in response to glucose and overt diabetes. Interestingly, disruption of SMAD2 in β-cells was associated with a striking islet hyperplasia and increased pancreatic insulin content, together with defective glucose-responsive insulin secretion. The activity of KATP channels was decreased in mutant β-cells. Conclusions/interpretation: These results suggest that in the adult pancreas, TGF-β signalling through SMAD2 is crucial for not only the determination of beta cell mass but also the maintenance of defining features of mature pancreatic beta cells, and that this involves modulation of KATP channel activity.

Disruption of protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1B expression in the pancreas affects β-cell function

Liu, S., Xi, Y., Bettaieb, A., (…), Kulkarni, R.N., Haj, F.G.
2014 Endocrinology 155 (9), pp. 3329-3338

Protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) is a physiological regulator of glucose homeostasis and energy balance. However, the role of PTP1B in pancreatic endocrine function remains largely unknown. To investigate the metabolic role of pancreatic PTP1B, we generated mice with pancreas PTP1B deletion (panc-PTP1B KO). Mice were fed regular chow or a high-fat diet, and metabolic parameters, insulin secretion and glucose tolerance were determined. On regular chow, panc-PTP1B KO and control mice exhibited comparable glucose tolerance whereas aged panc-PTP1B KO exhibited mild glucose intolerance. Furthermore, high-fat feeding promoted earlier impairment of glucose tolerance and attenuated glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in panc-PTP1B KO mice. The secretory defect in glucose-stimulated insulin secretion was recapitulated in primary islets ex vivo, suggesting that the effects were likely cell-autonomous. At the molecular level, PTP1B deficiency in vivo enhanced basal and glucose-stimulated tyrosyl phosphorylation of EphA5 in islets. Consistently, PTP1B overexpression in the glucose-responsive MIN6 β-cell line attenuated EphA5 tyrosyl phosphorylation, and substrate trapping identified EphA5 as a PTP1B substrate. In summary, these studies identify a novel role forPTP1Bin pancreatic endocrine function.

Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching reveals regulation and distribution of connexin36 gap junction coupling within mouse islets of Langerhans

Farnsworth, N.L., Hemmati, A., Pozzoli, M., Benninger, R.K.P.
2014 Journal of Physiology 592 (20), pp. 4431-4446

Key points: Gap junctions provide electrical coupling that is critical to the function of pancreatic islets. Disruptions to connexin36 (Cx36) have been suggested to occur in diabetes. No accurate and non-invasive technique has yet been established to quantify changes in Cx36 gap junction coupling in the intact islet. This study developed fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) as a non-invasive technique for quantifying Cx36 gap junction coupling in living islets. The study identified treatments that modulate gap junction coupling, confirmed that the cellular distribution of coupling throughout the islet is highly heterogeneous and confirmed that β-cells and β-cells do not form functional Cx36 gap junctions. This technique will enable future studies to examine the regulation of Cx36 gap junction coupling and its disruption in diabetes, and to uncover potential novel therapeutic targets associated with gap junction coupling. The pancreatic islets are central to the maintenance of glucose homeostasis through insulin secretion. Glucose-stimulated insulin secretion is tightly linked to electrical activity in β-cells within the islet. Gap junctions, composed of connexin36 (Cx36), form intercellular channels between β-cells, synchronizing electrical activity and insulin secretion. Loss of gap junction coupling leads to altered insulin secretion dynamics and disrupted glucose homeostasis. Gap junction coupling is known to be disrupted in mouse models of pre-diabetes. Although approaches to measure gap junction coupling have been devised, they either lack cell specificity, suitable quantification of coupling or spatial resolution, or are invasive. The purpose of this study was to develop fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) as a technique to accurately and robustly measure gap junction coupling in the islet. The cationic dye Rhodamine 123 was used with FRAP to quantify dye diffusion between islet β-cells as a measure of Cx36 gap junction coupling. Measurements in islets with reduced Cx36 verified the accuracy of this technique in distinguishing between distinct levels of gap junction coupling. Analysis of individual cells revealed that the distribution of coupling across the islet is highly heterogeneous. Analysis of several modulators of gap junction coupling revealed glucose- and cAMP-dependent modulation of gap junction coupling in islets. Finally, FRAP was used to determine cell population specific coupling, where no functional gap junction coupling was observed between β-cells and β-cells in the islet. The results of this study show FRAP to be a robust technique which provides the cellular resolution to quantify the distribution and regulation of Cx36 gap junction coupling in specific cell populations within the islet. Future studies utilizing this technique may elucidate the role of gap junction coupling in the progression of diabetes and identify mechanisms of gap junction regulation for potential therapies.

Glucocorticoid treatment and endocrine pancreas function: Implications for glucose homeostasis, insulin resistance and diabetes

Rafacho, A., Ortsäter, H., Nadal, A., Quesada, I.
2014 Journal of Endocrinology 223 (3), pp. R49-R62

Glucocorticoids (GCs) are broadly prescribed for numerous pathological conditions because of their anti-inflammatory, antiallergic and immunosuppressive effects, among other actions. Nevertheless, GCs can produce undesired diabetogenic side effects through interactions with the regulation of glucose homeostasis. Under conditions of excess and/or long-term treatment, GCs can induce peripheral insulin resistance (IR) by impairing insulin signalling, which results in reduced glucose disposal and augmented endogenous glucose production. In addition, GCs can promote abdominal obesity, elevate plasma fatty acids and triglycerides, and suppress osteocalcin synthesis in bone tissue. In response to GC-induced peripheral IR and in an attempt to maintain normoglycaemia, pancreatic β-cells undergo several morphofunctional adaptations that result in hyperinsulinaemia. Failure of β-cells to compensate for this situation favours glucose homeostasis disruption, which can result in hyperglycaemia, particularly in susceptible individuals. GC treatment does not only alter pancreatic β-cell function but also affect them by their actions that can lead to hyperglucagonaemia, further contributing to glucose homeostasis imbalance and hyperglycaemia. In addition, the release of other islet hormones, such as somatostatin, amylin and ghrelin, is also affected by GC administration. These undesired GC actions merit further consideration for the design of improved GC therapies without diabetogenic effects. In summary, in this review, we consider the implication of GC treatment on peripheral IR, islet function and glucose homeostasis.

β-Cell failure in type 2 diabetes: Postulated mechanisms and prospects for prevention and treatment

Halban, P.A., Polonsky, K.S., Bowden, D.W., (…), Sussel, L., Weir, G.C.
2014 Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 99 (6), pp. 1983-1992

OBJECTIVE: This article examines the foundation of β-cell failure in type 2 diabetes (T2D) and suggests areas for future research on the underlying mechanisms that may lead to improved prevention and treatment. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A group of experts participated in a conference on 14-16 October 2013 cosponsored by the Endocrine Society and the American Diabetes Association. A writing group prepared this summary and recommendations. RESULTS: The writing group based this article on conference presentations, discussion, and debate. Topics covered include genetic predisposition, foundations of β-cell failure, natural history of β-cell failure, and impact of therapeutic interventions. CONCLUSIONS: β-Cell failure is central to the development and progression of T2D. It antedates and predicts diabetes onset and progression, is in part genetically determined, and often can be identified with accuracy even though current tests are cumbersome and not well standardized. Multiple pathways underlie decreased β-cell function and mass, some of which may be shared and may also be a consequence of processes that initially caused dysfunction. Goals for future research include to 1) impact the natural history of β-cell failure; 2) identify and characterize genetic loci for T2D; 3) target β-cell signaling, metabolic, and genetic pathways to improve function/mass; 4) develop alternative sources of β-cells for cell-based therapy; 5) focus on metabolic environment to provide indirect benefit to β-cells; 6) improve understanding of the physiology of responses to bypass surgery; and 7) identify circulating factors and neuronal circuits underlying the axis of communication between the brain and β-cells.

Metabolic effects of sleep disruption, links to obesity and diabetes

Nedeltcheva, A.V., Scheer, F.A.J.L
2014 Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity 21 (4), pp. 293-298

Purpose of Review: To highlight the adverse metabolic effects of sleep disruption and to open ground for research aimed at preventive measures. This area of research is especially relevant given the increasing prevalence of voluntary sleep curtailment, sleep disorders, diabetes, and obesity. Recent Findings: Epidemiological studies have established an association between decreased self-reported sleep duration and an increased incidence of type 2 diabetes (T2D), obesity, and cardiovascular disease. Experimental laboratory studies have demonstrated that decreasing either the amount or quality of sleep decreases insulin sensitivity and decreases glucose tolerance. Experimental sleep restriction also causes physiological and behavioral changes that promote a positive energy balance. Although sleep restriction increases energy expenditure because of increased wakefulness, it can lead to a disproportionate increase in food intake, decrease in physical activity, and weight gain. SUMMARY: Sleep disruption has detrimental effects on metabolic health. These insights may help in the development of new preventive and therapeutic approaches against obesity and T2D based on increasing the quality and/or quantity of sleep. Video abstract http://links.lww.com/COE/A6.

Impaired proteostasis: Role in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus

Jaisson, S., Gillery, P.
2014 Diabetologia 57 (8), pp. 1517-1527

In living organisms, proteins are regularly exposed to ‘molecular ageing’, which corresponds to a set of non-enzymatic modifications that progressively cause irreversible damage to proteins. This phenomenon is greatly amplified under pathological conditions, such as diabetes mellitus. For their survival and optimal functioning, cells have to maintain protein homeostasis, also called ‘proteostasis’. This process acts to maintain a high proportion of functional and undamaged proteins. Different mechanisms are involved in proteostasis, among them degradation systems (the main intracellular proteolytic systems being proteasome and lysosomes), folding systems (including molecular chaperones), and enzymatic mechanisms of protein repair. There is growing evidence that the disruption of proteostasis may constitute a determining event in pathophysiology. The aim of this review is to demonstrate how such a dysregulation may be involved in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus and in the onset of its long-term complications.

Influence of miRNA in insulin signaling pathway and insulin resistance: Micro-molecules with a major role in type-2 diabetes

Chakraborty, C., Doss, C.G.P., Bandyopadhyay, S., Agoramoorthy, G.
2014 Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: RNA 5 (5), pp. 697-712

The prevalence of type-2 diabetes (T2D) is increasing significantly throughout the globe since the last decade. This heterogeneous and multifactorial disease, also known as insulin resistance, is caused by the disruption of the insulin signaling pathway. In this review, we discuss the existence of various miRNAs involved in regulating the main protein cascades in the insulin signaling pathway that affect insulin resistance. The influence of miRNAs (miR-7, miR-124α, miR-9, miR-96, miR-15α/β, miR-34α, miR-195, miR-376, miR-103, miR-107, and miR-146) in insulin secretion and beta (β) cell development has been well discussed. Here, we highlight the role of miRNAs in different significant protein cascades within the insulin signaling pathway such as miR-320, miR-383, miR-181β with IGF-1, and its receptor (IGF1R); miR-128α, miR-96, miR-126 with insulin receptor substrate (IRS) proteins; miR-29, miR-384-5p, miR-1 with phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K); miR-143, miR-145, miR-29, miR-383, miR-33α/β miR-21 with AKT/protein kinase B (PKB) and miR-133α/β, miR-223, miR-143 with glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4). Insulin resistance, obesity, and hyperlipidemia (high lipid levels in the blood) have a strong connection with T2D and several miRNAs influence these clinical outcomes such as miR-143, miR-103, and miR-107, miR-29α, and miR-27β. We also corroborate from previous evidence how these interactions are related to insulin resistance and T2D. The insights highlighted in this review will provide a better understanding on the impact of miRNA in the insulin signaling pathway and insulin resistance-associated diagnostics and therapeutics for T2D

Genetic disruption of sod1 gene causes glucose intolerance and impairs β-cell function

Muscogiuri, G., Salmon, A.B., Aguayo-Mazzucato, C., (…), Van Remmen, H., Musi, N.
2013 Diabetes 62 (12), pp. 4201-4207

Oxidative stress has been associated with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. However, it is not clear whether oxidative damage is a cause or a consequence of the metabolic abnormalities present in diabetic subjects. The goal of this study was to determine whether inducing oxidative damage through genetic ablation of superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) leads to abnormalities in glucose homeostasis. We studied SOD1-null mice and wild-type (WT) littermates. Glucose tolerance was evaluated with intraperitoneal glucose tolerance tests. Peripheral and hepatic insulin sensitivity was quantitated with the euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamp. β-Cell function was determined with the hyperglycemic clamp and morphometric analysis of pancreatic islets. Genetic ablation of SOD1 caused glucose intolerance, which was associated with reduced in vivo β-cell insulin secretion and decreased b-cell volume. Peripheral and hepatic insulin sensitivity were not significantly altered in SOD1-null mice. High-fat diet caused glucose intolerance in WT mice but did not further worsen the glucose intolerance observed in standard chow-fed SOD1-null mice. Our findings suggest that oxidative stress per se does not play a major role in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance and demonstrate that oxidative stress caused by SOD1 ablation leads to glucose intolerance secondary to β-cell dysfunction.

VHL-mediated disruption of Sox9 activity compromises β-cell identity and results in diabetes mellitus

Puri, S., Akiyama, H., Hebrok, M.
2013 Genes and Development 27 (23), pp. 2563-2575

Precise functioning of the pancreatic β cell is paramount to whole-body glucose homeostasis, and β-cell dysfunction contributes significantly to diabetes mellitus. Using transgenic mouse models, we demonstrate that deletion of the von Hippel-Lindau (Vhlh) gene (encoding an E3 ubiquitin ligase implicated in, among other functions, oxygen sensing in pancreatic β cells) is deleterious to canonical β-cell gene expression. This triggers erroneous expression of factors normally active in progenitor cells, including effectors of the Notch, Wnt, and Hedgehog signaling cascades. Significantly, an up-regulation of the transcription factor Sox9, normally excluded from functional β cells, occurs upon deletion of Vhlh. Sox9 plays important roles during pancreas development but does not have a described role in the adult β cell. β-Cell-specific ectopic expression of Sox9 results in diabetes mellitus from similar perturbations in β-cell identity. These findings reveal that assaults on the β cell that impact the differentiation state of the cell have clear implications toward our understanding of diabetes mellitus

Second generation antipsychotic-induced type 2 diabetes: A role for the muscarinic M3 receptor

Weston-Green, K., Huang, X.-F., Deng, C.
2013 CNS Drugs 27 (12), pp. 1069-1080

Second generation antipsychotics (SGAs) are widely prescribed to treat various disorders, most notably schizophrenia and bipolar disorder; however, SGAs can cause abnormal glucose metabolism that can lead to insulin-resistance and type 2 diabetes mellitus side-effects by largely unknown mechanisms. This review explores the potential candidature of the acetylcholine (ACh) muscarinic M3 receptor (M3R) as a prime mechanistic and possible therapeutic target of interest in SGA-induced insulin dysregulation. Studies have identified that SGA binding affinity to the M3R is a predictor of diabetes risk; indeed, olanzapine and clozapine, SGAs with the highest clinical incidence of diabetes side-effects, are potent M3R antagonists. Pancreatic M3Rs regulate the glucose-stimulated cholinergic pathway of insulin secretion; their activation on β-cells stimulates insulin secretion, while M3R blockade decreases insulin secretion. Genetic modification of M3Rs causes robust alterations in insulin levels and glucose tolerance in mice. Olanzapine alters M3R density in discrete nuclei of the hypothalamus and caudal brainstem, regions that regulate glucose homeostasis and insulin secretion through vagal innervation of the pancreas. Furthermore, studies have demonstrated a dynamic sensitivity of hypothalamic and brainstem M3Rs to altered glucometabolic status of the body. Therefore, the M3R is in a prime position to influence glucose homeostasis through direct effects on pancreatic β-cells and by potentially altering signaling in the hypothalamus and brainstem. SGA-induced insulin dysregulation may be partly due to blockade of central and peripheral M3Rs, causing an initial disruption to insulin secretion and glucose homeostasis that can progressively lead to insulin resistance and diabetes during chronic treatment.

Islet amyloid polypeptide toxicity and membrane interactions

Cao, P., Abedini, A., Wang, H., (…), Schmidt, A.M., Raleigh, D.P.
2013 Proc National Academy of Sciences USA 110 (48), pp. 19279-19284

Islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) is responsible for amyloid formation in type 2 diabetes and contributes to the failure of islet cell transplants, however the mechanisms of IAPP-induced cytotoxicity are not known. Interactions with model anionic membranes are known to catalyze IAPP amyloid formation in vitro. Human IAPP damages anionic membranes, promoting vesicle leakage, but the features that control IAPP-membrane interactions and the connection with cellular toxicity are not clear. Kinetic studies with wild type IAPP and IAPP mutants demonstrate that membrane leakage is induced by prefibrillar IAPP species and continues over the course of amyloid formation, correlating additional membrane disruption with fibril growth. Analyses of a set of designed mutants reveal that membrane leakage does not require the formation of α-sheet or α-helical structures. A His-18 to Arg substitution enhances leakage, whereas replacement of all of the aromatic residues via a triple leucine mutant has no effect. Biophysical measurements in conjunction with cytotoxicity studies show that nonamyloidogenic rat IAPP is as effective as human IAPP at disrupting standard anionic model membranes under conditions where rat IAPP does not induce cellular toxicity. Similar results are obtained with more complex model membranes, including ternary systems that contain cholesterol and are capable of forming lipid rafts. A designed point mutant, I26P-IAPP; a designed double mutant, G24P, I26P-IAPP; a double N-methylated variant; and pramlintide, a US Food and Drug Administration-approved IAPP variant all induce membrane leakage, but are not cytotoxic, showing that there is no one-to-one relationship between disruption of model membranes and induction of cellular toxicity.

Diabetes and beta cell function: From mechanisms to evaluation and clinical implications

Cernea, S., Dobreanu, M.
2013 Biochemia Medica 23 (3), pp. 266-280

Diabetes is a complex, heterogeneous condition that has beta cell dysfunction at its core. Many factors (e.g. hyperglycemia/glucotoxicity, lipotoxicity, autoimmunity, inflammation, adipokines, islet amyloid, incretins and insulin resistance) influence the function of pancreatic beta cells. Chronic hyperglycemia may result in detrimental effects on insulin synthesis/secretion, cell survival and insulin sensitivity through multiple mechanisms: gradual loss of insulin gene expression and other beta-cell specific genes; chronic endoplasmic reticulum stress and oxidative stress; changes in mitochondrial number, morphology and function; disruption in calcium homeostasis. In the presence of hyperglycemia, prolonged exposure to increased free fatty acids result in accumulation of toxic metabolites in the cells (“lipotoxicity”), finally causing decreased insulin gene expression and impairment of insulin secretion. The rest of the factors/mechanisms which impact on the course of the disease are also discusses in detail. The correct assessment of beta cell function requires a concomitant quantification of insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity, because the two variables are closely interrelated. In order to better understand the fundamental pathogenetic mechanisms that contribute to disease development in a certain individual with diabetes, additional markers could be used, apart from those that evaluate beta cell function. The aim of the paper was to overview the relevant mechanisms/factors that influence beta cell function and to discuss the available methods of its assessment. In addition, clinical considerations are made regarding the therapeutical options that have potential protective effects on beta cell function/mass by targeting various underlying factors and mechanisms with a role in disease progression.

The PACAP-regulated gene selenoprotein T is abundantly expressed in mouse and human β-cells and its targeted inactivation impairs glucose tolerance

Prevost, G., Arabo, A., Jian, L., (…), Pattou, F., Anouar, Y
2013 Endocrinology 154 (10), pp. 3796-3806

Selenoproteins are involved in the regulation of redox status, which affects several cellular processes, including cell survival and homeostasis. Considerable interest has arisen recently concerning the role of selenoproteins in the regulation of glucose metabolism. Here, we found that selenoprotein T (SelT), a new thioredoxin-like protein of the endoplasmic reticulum, is present at high levels in human and mouse pancreas as revealed by immunofluorescence and quantitative PCR. Confocal immunohistochemistry studies revealed that SelT is mostly confined to insulin- and somatostatin-producing cells in mouse and human islets. To elucidate the role of SelT in β-cells, we generated, using a Cre-Lox strategy, a conditional pancreatic β-cell SelT-knockout C57BL/6J mice (SelT-insKO) in which SelT gene disruption is under the control of the rat insulin promoter Cre gene. Glucose administration revealed that male SelT-insKO mice display impaired glucose tolerance. Although insulin sensitivity was not modified in the mutant mice, the ratio of glucose to insulin was significantly higher in the SelT-insKO mice compared with wild-type littermates, pointing to a deficit in insulin production/secretion in mutant mice. In addition, morphometric analysis showed that islets from SelT-insKO mice were smaller and that their number was significantly increased compared with islets from their wild-type littermates. Finally, we found that SelT is up-regulated by pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) in β-pancreatic cells and that SelT could act by facilitating a feed-forward mechanism to potentiate insulin secretion induced by the neuropeptide. Our findings are the first to show that the PACAP-regulated SelT is localized in pancreatic α- and β-cells and is involved in the control of glucose homeostasis

SIRT1 deacetylates FOXA2 and is critical for Pdx1 transcription and β-cell formation

Wang, R.-H., Xu, X., Kim, H.-S., Xiao, Z., Deng, C.-X.
2013 International Journal of Biological Sciences 9 (9), pp. 934-946

Pancreas duodenum homeobox 1 (PDX1) is essential for pancreas development and β-cell formation; however more studies are needed to clearly illustrate the precise mechanism regarding spatiotemporal regulation of Pdx1 expression during β-cell formation and development. Here, we demonstrate that SIRT1, FOXA2 and a number of proteins form a protein complex on the promoter of the Pdx1 gene. SIRT1 and PDX1 are expressed in the same set of cells during β-cell differentiation and maturation. Pancreas-specific disruption of SIRT1 diminished PDX1 expression and impaired islet development. Consequently, SIRT1 mutant mice develop progressive hyperglycemia, glucose intolerance, and insulin insufficiency, which directly correlate with the extent of SIRT1 deletion. We further show that SIRT1 interacts with and deacetylates FOXA2 on the promoter of the Pdx1gene, and positively regulates its transcription. These results uncover an essential role of SIRT1 in β-cell formation by maintaining expression of PDX1 and its downstream genes, and identify pancreas-specific SIRT1 mutant mice as a relevant model for studying insulin insufficiency.

NOX, NOX who is there? The contribution of NADPH oxidase one to beta cell dysfunction

Taylor-Fishwick, D.A.
2013 Frontiers in Endocrinology 4 (APR), Article 40

Predictions of diabetes prevalence over the next decades warrant the aggressive discovery of new approaches to stop or reverse loss of functional beta cell mass. Beta cells are recognized to have a relatively high sensitivity to reactive oxygen species (ROS) and become dysfunctional under oxidative stress conditions. New discoveries have identified NADPH oxidases in beta cells as contributors to elevated cellular ROS. Reviewed are recent reports that evidence a role for NADPH oxidase-1 (NOX-1) in β-cell dysfunction. NOX-1 is stimulated by inflammatory cytokines that are elevated in diabetes. First, regulation of cytokine-stimulated NOX-1 expression has been linked to inflammatory lipid mediators derived from 12-lipoxygenase activity. For the first time in beta cells these data integrate distinct pathways associated with beta cell dysfunction. Second, regulation of NOX-1 in
β-cells involves feed-forward control linked to elevated ROS and Src-kinase activation. This potentially results in unbridled ROS generation and identifies candidate targets for pharmacologic intervention. Third, consideration is provided of new, first-in-class, selective inhibitors of NOX-1. These compounds could have an important role in assessing a disruption of NOX-1/ROS signaling as a new approach to preserve and protect beta cell mass in diabetes.

Retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein in pancreatic progenitors controls α- and β-cell fate

Cai, E.P., Wu, X., Schroer, S.A., (…), Zacksenhaus, E., Woo, M.
2013 Proc National Academy of Sciences USA 110 (36), pp. 14723-14728

Pancreatic endocrine cells expand rapidly during embryogenesis by neogenesis and proliferation, but during adulthood, islet cells have a very slow turnover. Disruption of murine retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein (Rb) in mature pancreatic β-cells has a limited effect on cell proliferation. Here we show that deletion of Rb during embryogenesis in islet progenitors leads to an increase in the neurogenin 3-expressing precursor cell population, which persists in the postnatal period and is associated with increased β-cell mass in adults. In contrast, Rb-deficient islet precursors, through repression of the cell fate factor aristaless related homeobox, result in decreased β-cell mass. The opposing effect on survival of Rb-deficient β- and β-cells was a result of opposing effects on p53 in these cell types. As a consequence, loss of Rb in islet precursors led to a reduced α- to β-cell ratio, leading to improved glucose homeostasis and protection against diabetes.

Statin therapy and new-onset diabetes: Molecular mechanisms and clinical relevance

Banach, M., Malodobra-Mazur, M., Gluba, A., (…), Rysz, J., Dobrzyn, A.
2013 Current Pharmaceutical Design 19 (27), pp. 4904-4912

Despite positive effects on the plasma lipid profile and vascular events, statin use is associated with various side effects. Among these, statins might cause a disruption of a number of regulatory pathways including insulin signaling. This may affect insulin sensitivity, pancreatic beta-cell function and adipokine secretion. The statin-associated risk of new-onset diabetes (NOD) appears to be a dose-dependent class effect. It still remains unclear whether statin treatment is associated with increased risk of NOD in the general population or if there are groups of individuals at particular risk. However, according to the available data it seems that cardiovascular (CV) benefits in high-risk individuals strongly favor statin therapy since it outweighs other risks. Whether statins should be used for primary prevention among patients with a relatively low baseline CV risk is still questionable, however the results of primary prevention trials have shown reductions in mortality in this population. Thus, there is a need for randomized, placebo-controlled statin studies with carefully selected groups of patients and NOD as a key end point in order to resolve queries concerning this issue.

Basement membrane extract preserves islet viability and activity in vitro by up-regulating α3 integrin and its signal

Miao, G., Zhao, Y., Li, Y., (…), Li, J., Wei, J
2013 Pancreas 42 (6), pp. 971-976

OBJECTIVE: Survival of transplanted islets is limited partly because of the disruption of the islet basement membrane (BM) occurring during isolation. We hypothesized that the embedment of BM extract (BME) could induce a viable cell mass and prolong islet functionality before transplantation. METHODS: A special reconstituted BME that solidifies into a gel at 37 C was used to embed isolated islets in this study. The strategy was used to re-establish the interaction between the islets and peri-islet BM. RESULTS: Islets embedded in BME showed lower caspase-3 levels and higher Akt activity than those in suspension. Moreover, we found for the first time that the expression of β3 integrin and focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and FAK activity was up-regulated in islets after BME embedment. The reverse effect was observed on islet apoptosis when islets rescued from a 24-hour suspension culture were embedded in BME for the next 24 hours. In addition, expression of pancreatic duodenal homeobox factor-1 and phospho-extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 was partially preserved, suggesting the positive effect of BME on islet development. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that BME embedment of islets can up-regulate the expression of β3 integrin and its signal transduction, which may improve islet viability.

Involvement of the Clock Gene Rev-erb alpha in the Regulation of Glucagon Secretion in Pancreatic Alpha-Cells

Vieira, E., Marroquí, L., Figueroa, A.C., (…), Gomis, R., Quesada, I.
2013 PLoS ONE 8 (7), e6993

Disruption of pancreatic clock genes impairs pancreatic β-cell function, leading to the onset of diabetes. Despite the importance of pancreatic α-cells in the regulation of glucose homeostasis and in diabetes pathophysiology, nothing is known about the role of clock genes in these cells. Here, we identify the clock gene Rev-erbα as a new intracellular regulator of glucagon secretion. Rev-erbα down-regulation by siRNA (60-70% inhibition) in alphaTC1-9 cells inhibited low-glucose induced glucagon secretion (p<0.05) and led to a decrease in key genes of the exocytotic machinery. The Rev-erbα agonist GSK4112 increased glucagon secretion (1.6 fold) and intracellular calcium signals in αTC1-9 cells and mouse primary alpha-cells, whereas the Rev-erbα antagonist SR8278 produced the opposite effect. At 0.5 mM glucose, alphaTC1-9 cells exhibited intrinsic circadian Rev-erbα expression oscillations that were inhibited by 11 mM glucose. In mouse primary alpha-cells, glucose induced similar effects (p<0.001). High glucose inhibited key genes controlled by AMPK such as Nampt, Sirt1 and PGC-1 alpha in alphaTC1-9 cells (p<0.05). AMPK activation by metformin completely reversed the inhibitory effect of glucose on Nampt-Sirt1-PGC-1 alpha and Rev-erb alpha. Nampt inhibition decreased Sirt1, PGC-1 alpha and Rev-erb alpha mRNA expression (p<0.01) and glucagon release (p<0.05). These findings identify Rev-erb alpha as a new intracellular regulator of glucagon secretion via AMPK/Nampt/Sirt1 pathway.

Bmal1 and β-cell clock are required for adaptation to circadian disruption, and their loss of function leads to oxidative stress- induced β-cell failure in mice

Lee, J., Moulik, M., Fang, Z., (…), Moore, D.D., Yechoor, V.K.
2013 Molecular and Cellular Biology 33 (11), pp. 2327-2338

Circadian disruption has deleterious effects on metabolism. Global deletion of Bmal1, a core clock gene, results in β-cell dysfunction and diabetes. But it is unknown if this is due to loss of cell-autonomous function of Bmal1 in β cells. To address this, we generated mice with β-cell clock disruption by deleting Bmal1 in β cells (β-Bmal1-/-). β-Bmal1-/- mice develop diabetes due to loss of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). This loss of GSIS is due to the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and consequent mitochondrial uncoupling, as it is fully rescued by scavenging of the ROS or by inhibition of uncoupling protein 2. The expression of the master antioxidant regulatory factor Nrf2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2) and its targets, Sesn2, Prdx3, Gclc, and Gclm, was decreased in β-Bmal1-/- islets, which may contribute to the observed increase in ROS accumulation. In addition, by chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments, we show that Nrf2 is a direct transcriptional target of Bmal1. Interestingly, simulation of shift work-induced circadian misalignment in mice recapitulates many of the defects seen in Bmal1-deficient islets.

Thus, the cell-autonomous function of Bmal1 is required for normal β-cell function by mitigating oxidative stress and serves to preserve β-cell function in the face of circadian misalignment.

A common landscape for membraneactive peptides

Last, N.B., Schlamadinger, D.E., Miranker, A.D.
2013 Protein Science 22 (7), pp. 870-882

Three families of membrane-active peptides are commonly found in nature and are classified according to their initial apparent activity. Antimicrobial peptides are ancient components of the innate immune system and typically act by disruption of microbial membranes leading to cell death. Amyloid peptides contribute to the pathology of diverse diseases from Alzheimer’s to type II diabetes. Preamyloid states of these peptides can act as toxins by binding to and permeabilizing cellular membranes. Cell-penetrating peptides are natural or engineered short sequences that can spontaneously translocate across a membrane. Despite these differences in classification, many similarities in sequence, structure, and activity suggest that peptides from all three classes act through a small, common set of physical principles. Namely, these peptides alter the Brownian properties of phospholipid bilayers, enhancing the sampling of intrinsic fluctuations that include membrane defects. A complete energy landscape for such systems can be described by the innate membrane properties, differential partition, and the associated kinetics of peptides dividing between surface and defect regions of the bilayer. The goal of this review is to argue that the activities of these membrane-active families of peptides simply represent different facets of what is a shared energy landscape.

Membrane disordering is not sufficient for membrane permeabilization by islet amyloid polypeptide: Studies of IAPP(20-29) fragments

Brender, J.R., Heyl, D.L., Samisetti, S., (…), Pesaru, R.R., Ramamoorthy, A.
2013 Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 15 (23), pp. 8908-8915

A key factor in the development of type II diabetes is the loss of insulin-producing beta-cells. Human islet amyloid polypeptide protein (human-IAPP) is believed to play a crucial role in this process by forming small aggregates that exhibit toxicity by disrupting the cell membrane. The actual mechanism of membrane disruption is complex and appears to involve an early component before fiber formation and a later component associated with fiber formation on the membrane. By comparing the peptide-lipid interactions derived from solid-state NMR experiments of two IAPP fragments that cause membrane disordering to IAPP derived peptides known to cause significant early membrane permeabilization, we show here that membrane disordering is not likely to be sufficient by itself to cause the early membrane permeabilization observed by IAPP, and may play a lesser role in IAPP membrane disruption than expected.
Downregulation of Fas activity rescues early onset of diabetes in c-KitWv/+ mice

Feng, Z.-C., Riopel, M., Li, J., Donnelly, L., Wang, R.
2013 American Journal of Physiology – Endocrinology and Metabolism 304 (6), pp. E557-E565

c-Kit and its ligand stem cell factor (SCF) are important for β-cell survival and maturation; meanwhile, interactions between the Fas receptor (Fas) and Fas ligand are capable of triggering β-cell apoptosis. Disruption of c-Kit signaling leads to severe loss of β-cell mass and function with upregulation of Fas expression in c-KitWv/++ mouse islets, suggesting that there is a critical balance between c-Kit and Fas activation in β-cells. In the present study, we investigated the interrelationship between c-Kit and Fas activation that mediates β-cell survival and function. We generated double mutant, c-KitWv/++;Faslpr/lpr (Wv-/-), mice to study the physiological and functional role of Fas with respect to β-cell function in c-KitWv/++ mice. Isolated islets from these mice and the INS-1 cell line were used. We observed that islets in c-KitWv/++ mice showed a significant increase in β-cell apoptosis along with upregulated p53 and Fas expression. These results were verified in vitro in INS-1 cells treated with SCF or c-Kit siRNA combined with a p53 inhibitor and Fas siRNA. In vivo, Wv-/- mice displayed improved β-cell function, with significantly enhanced insulin secretion and increased β-cell mass and proliferation compared with Wv+/+ mice. This improvement was associated with downregulation of the Fas-mediated caspase-dependent apoptotic pathway and upregulation of the cFlip/NF-?B pathway. These findings demonstrate that a balance between the c-Kit and Fas signaling pathways is critical in the regulation of β-cell survival and function.
Study Suggests Genetic Susceptibility to T2D May Have Shifted with Human Migration

May 24, 2013 By a GenomeWeb staff reporter

NEW YORK (GenomeWeb News) – The apparent genetic risk for type 2 diabetes seems to vary between human populations from different parts of the world, new research suggests, with populations in Africa and East Asia showing particularly pronounced differences in T2D susceptibility.

A pair of papers appearing online — both led by investigators at Stanford University — outline the approaches and analyses used to reach that conclusion.

For the first study, published in PLOS Genetics, researchers trolled through data on more than 1,000 individuals from around the world who’d been genotyped for the Human Genome Diversity Panel project. Patterns in that data revealed geography or population-related differentiation in the genetic risk associated with certain diseases.

“We demonstrated that differences in genetic risk for multiple diseases go well beyond what is expected by genetic drift,” the study authors noted. “In addition, using a human population phylogenetic tree allowed us to elucidate a substructure of worldwide relationships.”

In the East Asian population, for instance, the team saw diminished genetic risk for both T2D and pancreatic cancer. On the other hand, individuals of African ancestry appeared to be more apt to carry T2D risk alleles, results of the analysis suggest, pointing to possible migration-related shifts in genetic susceptibility to T2D.

For their PLOS Genetics analysis, the researchers used data for 1,043 individuals genotyped for the HGDP to delve into the genetic risk associated with more than 100 diseases, including T2D.

Because the individuals hailed from 51 different populations around the world, the group was able to get a glimpse at relationships between these genetic risk contributors and human migration and population patterns.

From that data, investigators saw at least 11 conditions for which risk variant profiles differed across human populations, researchers reported, including ulcerative colitis, bladder cancer, lupus, and inflammatory bowel disease.

For T2D, that genetic differentiation appeared to correspond with population patterns stemming from human migrations out of Africa and into other parts of the world. For instance, the analysis indicated that genetic risk for T2D dips in East Asian populations but tends to be elevated in populations from Africa — particularly the Mandinka population, which appeared to be at highest genetic risk of T2D.

“East Asians definitely get diabetes,” Stanford University’s Atul Butte, senior author on the study, said in a statement.

Nevertheless, he added, it’s possible that there are population-specific differences in the risk alleles and genetic pathways involved, potentially producing somewhat distinct forms of the disease.

Those involved in the study noted that additional, follow-up research is needed, including whole-genome sequencing analysis, which can offer a look at larger structural variants contributing to disease risk in different populations, for instance.

But if findings from the current analysis hold in future studies, that may ultimately prompt a shift in researchers’ understanding of T2D and the factors contributing to it.

“Other fields of medicine have undergone a radical rethinking in disease taxonomy,” Butte said in a statement, “but this has not happened yet for diabetes, one of the world’s public health menaces.”

“If these are separate diseases at a molecular level, we need to try to understand that,” he added.

A related study in the journal Diabetes Care, also by Stanford’s Butte and his colleagues, touched on the consequences of such genetic differences. That work highlighted apparent clinical differences in T2D-related traits — particularly in insulin resistance and insulin response — in African, East Asian, and Caucasian populations.

More generally, Butte and his colleagues put together a so-called “Genetic Risk World Map” to tie together the information generated from their study of disease risk genetics in the context of human migration. The resource is available online through a Stanford website.
Use of pioglitazone in the treatment of diabetes: effect on cardiovascular risk

Authors: Zou C, Hu H
Published Date: 25 July 2013; 9: 429 – 433
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/VHRM.S34421

Pioglitazone and other thiazolidinediones (TZDs) initially showed great promise as unique receptor-mediated oral therapy for type 2 diabetes, but a host of serious side effects, primarily cardiovascular, have limited their utility. It is crucial at this point to perform a risk–benefit analysis to determine what role pioglitazone should play in our current treatment of type 2 diabetes and where the future of this class of drugs is headed. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the present literature. Clinical data currently available indicate that pioglitazone is an effective and generally well-tolerated treatment option for use in patients with type 2 diabetes. Pioglitazone can still reduce adverse cardiovascular risk.

Glucophage, Glucophage XR

In a US double-blind clinical study of GLUCOPHAGE in patients with type 2 diabetes, a total of 141 patients received GLUCOPHAGE therapy (up to 2550 mg per day) and 145 patients received placebo. Adverse reactions reported in greater than 5% of the GLUCOPHAGE patients, and that were more common in GLUCOPHAGE- than placebo-treated patients are reported.

The following adverse reactions were reported in ≥ 1.0% to ≤ 5.0% of GLUCOPHAGE patients and were more commonly reported with GLUCOPHAGE than placebo:

abnormal stools, – myalgia, – lightheaded, – dyspnea,

the following adverse reactions were reported in ≥ 1.0% to ≤ 5.0% of GLUCOPHAGE XR patients and were more commonly reported with GLUCOPHAGE XR than placebo

dizziness, – More common

Metabolic side effects have included lactic acidosis, which is a potentially fatal metabolic complication. The incidence of lactic acidosis has been about 1.5 cases per 10,000 patient years. The risk of lactic acidosis has been particularly high in patients with underlying renal insufficiency. Cases of lactic acidosis occurring in patients with normal renal function have been rarely reported.

Signs and symptoms of severe acidosis may include bradycardia (lactic acidosis)
lactic acid concentration, serum electrolytes, blood pH

High-Fructose Corn Syrup Linked to Diabetes

By Brenda Goodman, MA WebMD Health News
Reviewed By Louise Chang, MD

In a study published in the journal Global Health, researchers compared the average availability of high-fructose corn syrup to rates of diabetes in 43 countries.

About half the countries in the study had little or no high-fructose corn syrup in their food supply. In the other 20 countries, high-fructose corn syrup in foods ranged from about a pound a year per person in Germany to about 55 pounds each year per person in the United States.

The researchers found that countries using high-fructose corn syrup had rates of diabetes that were about 20% higher than countries that didn’t mix the sweetener into foods. Those differences remained even after researchers took into account data for differences in body size, population, and wealth.

But couldn’t that mean that people in countries that used more high-fructose corn syrup were just eating more sugar or more total calories?

The researchers say no: There were no overall differences in total sugars or total calories between countries that did and didn’t use high-fructose corn syrup, suggesting that there’s an independent relationship between high-fructose corn syrup and diabetes.

“It raises a lot of questions about fructose,” says researcher Michael I. Goran, PhD, co-director of the Diabetes and Obesity Research Institute at the Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, in Los Angeles. Although the study found an association, it doesn’t establish a cause/effect relationship.
Genetic association of ADIPOQ gene variants with type 2 diabetes, obesity and serum adiponectin levels in south Indian population.

Ramya K; Ayyappa KA; Ghosh S; Mohan V; Radha V
Gene 2013 Dec 15;532(2):253-62 (ISSN: 1879-0038)

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the genetic association of eight variants of the adiponectin gene with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), obesity and serum adiponectin level in the south Indian population. METHODS: The study comprised of 1100 normal glucose tolerant (NGT) and 1100 type 2 diabetic, unrelated subjects randomly selected from the Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiology Study (CURES), in southern India. Fasting serum adiponectin
levels were measured by radioimmunoassay. The variants were screened by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism. Linkage disequilibrium was estimated from the estimates of haplotype frequencies. RESULTS: Of the 8 variants, four SNPs namely, +276 G/T (rs1501299), -4522 C/T (rs822393), -11365 C/G (rs266729), and +712 G/A (rs3774261) were significantly associated with T2DM in our study population. The -3971 A/G (rs822396) and -11391 G/A (rs17300539) SNPs’ association with T2DM diabetes was mediated through obesity (where the association with type 2 diabetes was lost after adjusting for BMI). There was an independent
association of +276 G/T (rs1501299) and -3971 A/G (rs822396) SNPs with generalized obesity and +349 A/G (rs2241767) with central obesity. Four SNPs, -3971 A/G (rs822396), +276 G/T (rs1501299), -4522 C/T (rs822393) and Y111H T/C (rs17366743) were significantly associated with hypoadiponectinemia. The haplotypes GCCATGAAT and AGCGTGGGT conferred lower risk of T2DM in this south Indian population. CONCLUSION: The adiponectin gene variants and haplotype contribute to the genetic risk towards the development of type 2 diabetes, obesity and hypoadiponectinemia in the south Indianpopulation. [ 2013.].

Association of family history of type 2 diabetes mellitus with markers of endothelial dysfunction in South Indian population.

Dhananjayan R; Malati T; Brindha G; Kutala VK
Indian J Biochem Biophys 2013 Apr;50(2):93-8 (ISSN: 0301-1208)

Studies indicate that risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) or cardiovascular disease is detectable in childhood, though these disorders may not emerge until adulthood. This study was aimed to assess the markers of endothelial dysfunction in patients with the family history of T2D from South Indian population. A total of 450 subjects were included in the study comprising Group I (n = 200) of T2D, Group II (n = 200) of age- and sex-matched healthy controls, Group III (n = 25) of children of T2D patients and Group IV (n = 25) of children of healthy controls. Results showed that intimal medial thickening (IMT) was significantly higher in T2D patients, compared with control subjects with no family history of diabetes. The fasting plasma glucose, glycated hemoglobin, serum total cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL-cholesterol, apolipoprotein B (ApoB) and high-sensitive C-reactive protein (hsCRP) levels were significantly increased, whereas HDL-cholesterol and serum nitrite levels were significantly decreased in T2D patients. However, children of T2D patients who were not diabetic did not show significant increase in the IMT, as compared to those of healthy controls. In conclusion, the present study demonstrate that IMT was significantly higher in the T2D patients and increased with age and family history. The increased levels of lipids, hsCRP, IMT and decreased nitrite levels might contribute to the risk of endothelial dysfunction in patients with T2D. However, further studies are warranted with other biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction in T2D patients with increased sample size.

Hemoglobin A1c variability as an independent correlate of cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes: a cross-sectional analysis of the renal insufficiency and cardiovascular events (RIACE) Italian multicenter study.

Penno G; Solini A; Zoppini G; Orsi E; Fondelli C; Zerbini G; Morano S; and
Renal Insufficiency and Cardiovascular Events (RIACE) Study Group.
Cardiovasc Diabetol 2013;12:98 (ISSN: 1475-2840)

BACKGROUND: Previous reports have clearly indicated a significant relationship between hemoglobin (Hb) A1c change from one visit to the next and microvascular complications, especially nephropathy (albuminuria and albuminuric chronic kidney disease, CKD). In contrast, data on macrovascular disease are less clear. This study was aimed at examining the association of HbA1c variability with cardiovascular disease (CVD) in the large cohort of subjects with type 2 diabetes from the Renal Insufficiency and Cardiovascular Events (RIACE) Italian Multicenter Study. METHODS: Serial (3-5) HbA1c values obtained during the 2-year period preceding recruitment, including that obtained at the enrolment, were available from 8,290 subjects from 9 centers (out of 15,773 patients from 19 centers). Average HbA1c and HbA1c variability were calculated as the intra-individual mean (HbA1c-MEAN) and standard deviation (HbA1c-SD), respectively, of 4.52 0.76 values. Prevalent CVD, total and by vascular bed, was assessed from medical history by recording previous documented major acute events. Diabetic retinopathy (DR) was assessed by dilated fundoscopy. CKD was defined based on albuminuria, as measured by immunonephelometry or immunoturbidimetry, and estimated glomerular filtration rate, as calculated from serum creatinine. RESULTS: HbA1c-MEAN, but not HbA1c-SD, was significantly higher (P <0.0001) in subjects with history of any CVD (n. 2,133, 25.7%) than in those without CVD (n. 6,157, 74.3%). Median and interquartile range were 7.78 (7.04-8.56) and 7.49 (6.81-8.31), respectively, for HbA1c-MEAN, and 0.47 (0.29-0.75) and 0.46 (0.28-0.73), respectively, for HbA1c-SD. Logistic regression analyses showed that HbA1c-MEAN, but not HbA1c-SD (and independent of it), was a significant correlate of any CVD. Similar findings were observed in subjects with versus those without any coronary or cerebrovascular event or myocardial infarction. Conversely, none of these measures were associated with stroke, whereas both correlated with any lower limb vascular event and HbA1c-SD alone with ulceration/gangrene. All these associations were independent of known CVD risk factors and microvascular complications (DR and CKD). CONCLUSIONS: In patients with type 2 diabetes, HbA1c variability has not a major impact on macrovascular complications, at variance with average HbA1c, an opposite finding as compared with microvascular disease, and particularly nephropathy. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.Gov NCT00715481.

Genetic association of adiponectin gene polymorphisms (+45T/G and +10211T/G) with type 2 diabetes in North Indians.

Saxena M; Srivastava N; Banerjee M
Diabetes Metab Syndr 2012 Apr-Jun;6(2):65-9 (ISSN: 1878-0334)

Adiponectin (ADIPOQ) is an abundant protein hormone which belongs to a family of so-called adipokines. It is expressed mostly by adipocytes and is an important regulator of lipid and glucose metabolism. It was shown that decreased serum adiponectin concentration indicated insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes (T2DM) with the risk of cardiovascular complications. The fact that adiponectin is an insulin-sensitizing hormone with anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory and anti-atherogenic properties, we proposed to study the association of ADIPOQ gene polymorphisms in subjects with T2DM. DNA was isolated from venous blood samples, quantified and subjected to Polymerase Chain Reaction-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) using suitable primers and restriction endonucleases. Adiponectin levels were measured in serum using ELISA. The genotypic, allelic and carriage rate frequencies distribution in patients and controls were analyzed by PSAW software (ver. 17.0). Odd ratios (OR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) were determined to describe the strength of association by logistic regression model. Out of the two polymorphisms studied, +10211T/G showed significant association (P=0.042), the ‘G’ allele association being highly significant (P=0.022). Further analysis showed that individuals with ‘GG’ haplotype were at increased risk of T2DM up to 15.5 times [P=0.015, OR (95% CI); 15.558 (1.690-143.174)]. The present study showed that the ‘G’ allele of ADIPOQ gene (+10211T/G) plays a prominent role with respect to T2DM susceptibility in North-Indian population. [Copyright 2012 Diabetes India. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.].

Association of RAGE gene polymorphism with vascular complications in Indian type 2 diabetes mellitus patients [In Process Citation]

Tripathi AK; Chawla D; Bansal S; Banerjee BD; Madhu SV; Kalra OP
Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2014 Mar;103(3):474-81 (ISSN: 1872-8227)

AIMS: The study was designed to evaluate the association of -374T/A and -429T/C polymorphism in the promoter region and Gly82Ser polymorphism in exon 3 region of RAGE gene with diabetic vascular complications in Indian population. METHODS: We screened 603 subjects which includes 176 healthy controls, 140 type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) subjects without any vascular complications (DM), 152 T2DM subjects with microvascular complications (DM-micro) and 135 T2DM subjects with macrovascular complications (DM-macro) for -374T/A, -429T/C and Gly82Ser polymorphisms of RAGE gene. DNA isolated from the enrolled subjects were genotyped by PCR-RFLP. Logistic regression analysis was used to evaluate the association of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). RESULTS: The -429 T/C and Gly82Ser RAGE polymorphisms were found to be significantly associated with the development of macrovascular and microvascular complications, respectively, in T2DM subjects while -374A allele showed reduced risk towards the development of macrovascular complications. Further, -429T/C, -374T/A and Gly82Ser haplotype analysis revealed association of CTG haplotype with development of macrovascular complications while haplotype TAG was observed to be significantly protective towards development of macrovascular complications in T2DM subjects (OR=0.617, p=0.0202). CONCLUSIONS: Our data indicates significant association of RAGE SNPs and haplotypes with vascular complications in North Indian T2DM subjects.
Clinical profile and complications of childhood- and adolescent-onset type 2 diabetes seen at a diabetes center in south India.

Amutha A; Datta M; Unnikrishnan R; Anjana RM; Mohan V
Diabetes Technol Ther 2012 Jun;14(6):497-504 (ISSN: 1557-8593)

OBJECTIVE: This study describes the clinical characteristics of childhood- and adolescent-onset type 2 diabetes mellitus (CAT2DM) seen at a diabetes center in southern India. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Between January 1992 and December 2009, 368 CAT2DM patients were registered. Anthropometric measurements were done using standardized techniques. Biochemical investigations included C-peptide measurements and glutamic acid decarboxylase antibody assay wherever feasible. Retinopathy was diagnosed by retinal photography; microalbuminuria, if urinary albumin excretion was between 30 and 299vmg/1/4g of creatinine; nephropathy, if urinary albumin excretion was (yen)300vmg/1/4g; and neuropathy, if vibration perception threshold on biothesiometry was (yen)20vV. RESULTS: The proportion of CAT2DM patients, expressed as percentage of total patients registered at our center, rose from 0.01% in 1992 to 0.35% in 2009 (P <0.001). Among the 368 cases of CAT2DM, 96 (26%) were diagnosed before the age of 15 years. The mean age at first visit and age at diagnosis of the CAT2DM subjects were 22.29.7 and 16.12.5 years, respectively. Using World Health Organization growth reference charts, 56% of boys and 50.4% of girls were > 85(th) percentile of body mass index for age. Prevalence rates of retinopathy, microalbuminuria, nephropathy, and neuropathy were 26.7%, 14.7%, 8.4%, and 14.2%, respectively. Regression analysis revealed female gender, body mass index > 85(th) percentile, parental history of diabetes, serum cholesterol, and blood pressure to be associated with earlier age at onset of CAT2DM. CONCLUSIONS: CAT2DM appears to be increasing in urban India, and the prevalence of microvascular complications is high. Female predominance is seen at younger ages.

Variants of the adiponectin gene and diabetic microvascular complications in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Choe EY; Wang HJ; Kwon O; Kim KJ; Kim BS; Lee BW; Ahn CW; et al.
Metabolism 2013 May;62(5):677-85 (ISSN: 1532-8600)

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to examine the association between common polymorphisms of the adiponectin gene (ADIPOQ) and microvascular complications in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Rs2241766 and rs1501299 of ADIPOQ were genotyped in 708 patients with T2DM. Fundus photography, nerve conducting velocity, and urine analysis were performed to check for the presence of microvascular complications including diabetic nephropathy, retinopathy and neuropathy. RESULTS: The prevalence of diabetic nephropathy tended to be different according to rs2241766 genotype (p=0.057) and the GG genotype of rs2241766 was associated with diabetic nephropathy [urine albumin/creatinine ratio (UACR) greater than 30 mg/g] after adjusting for age, sex, body mass index, duration of diabetes, HDL-cholesterol, smoking status, and blood pressure (odds ratio=1.96; 95% confidence interval=1.01-3.82, p=0.049). Also, the G allele of rs2241766 demonstrated a trend to be associated with an increase in UACR (p=0.087). Rs2241766 genotype was not associated with diabetic retinopathy (p=0.955) and neuropathy (p=0.104) or any diabetic microvascular complications (p=0.104). There was no significant association between the rs1501299 genotype of ADIPOQ and the prevalence of diabetic retinopathy and neuropathy or any diabetic microvascular complications even after adjustment. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that the GG genotype at rs2241766 is implicated in the pathogenesis of risk for diabetic nephropathy defined as UACR greater than 30 mg/day in patients with T2DM. [Copyright 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.].

The prevalence of presarcopenia in Asian Indian individuals with and without type 2 diabetes.

Anbalagan VP; Venkataraman V; Pradeepa R; Deepa M; Anjana RM; Mohan V
Diabetes Technol Ther 2013 Sep;15(9):768-75 (ISSN: 1557-8593)

OBJECTIVE: This study compared the skeletal muscle mass and prevalence of presarcopenia between Asian Indian individuals with and without type 2 diabetes. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Participants with type 2 diabetes (n=76) and age- and sex-matched controls without diabetes (n=76) were drawn from the Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiological Study (CURES), which was carried out on a representative sample of Chennai City in South India. Skeletal muscle mass was estimated by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, and skeletal muscle mass index (SMI) was calculated by dividing the appendicular skeletal muscle mass by the square of the individual’s height in meters and expressed as kg/m. Presarcopenia was defined as an SMI of 7.26 kg/m² for males and 5.5 kg/m² for females. Biochemical and anthropometric measurements were done using standardized procedures. RESULTS: The 152 participants included 68 women (44.7%). Mean age was 449 years (range, 28-67 years), and the mean body mass index (BMI) was 25.73.8 kg/m². The prevalence rates of presarcopenia among individuals with and without diabetes were 39.5% and 15.8%, respectively (P=0.001). The mean SMI values were significantly lower in those with diabetes (6.841.02 kg/m² compared with participants without diabetes (7.281.01 kg/m²) (P=0.009). SMI showed a positive correlation with BMI and waist circumference but a negative correlation with age, fasting plasma glucose, glycated hemoglobin, and low-density lipoprotien cholesterol in the total study population. Logistic regression analysis showed that diabetes was independently associated with presarcopenia (P=0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Prevalence of presarcopenia is higher among Asian Indian subjects with type 2 diabetes compared with age- and sex-matched participants without diabetes.

Increased risk of type 2 diabetes with ascending social class in urban South Indians is explained by obesity: The Chennai urban rural epidemiology study (CURES-116).

Skar M; Villumsen AB; Christensen DL; Petersen JH; Deepa M; Anjana RM; et al.
Indian J Endocrinol Metab 2013 Nov;17(6):1084-9 (ISSN: 2230-8210)

AIM: The aim of this study is to determine the factors responsible for differences in the prevalence of diabetes mellitus (DM) in subjects of different social class in an urban South Indian population. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Analyses were based on the cross-sectional data from the Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiology Study of 1989 individuals, aged (yen)20 years. Entered in the analyses were information obtained by self-report on (1) household income; (2) family history of diabetes; (3) physical activity; (4) smoking status; (5) alcohol consumption. Biochemical, clinical and anthropometrical measurements were performed and included in the analyses. Social class was classified based on income as low (Rs. <2000) intermediate (Rs. 2000-5000`) and high (Rs. 5000-20000). RESULTS: The prevalence rates of DM were 12.0%, 18.4% and 21.7% in low, intermediate and high social class, respectively (P < 0.001). A significant increase in the risk of diabetes was found with ascending social class (Intermediate class: Odds ratio [OR], 1.7 [confidence interval [CI], 1.2-2.3]; High class: OR, 2.0 [CI-1.4-2.9]). The multivariable adjusted logistic regression analysis revealed that the effect of social class on the risk of diabetes remained significant (P = 0.016) when age, family history of diabetesand blood pressure were included. However, with the inclusion of abdominal obesity in the model, the significant effect of social class disappeared (P = 0.087). CONCLUSION: An increased prevalence of DM was found in the higher social class in this urban South Indian population, which is explained by obesity.

Prevalence of inflammatory markers (high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, nuclear factor-(ordM)B, and adiponectin) in Indian patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus with and without macrovascular complications.

Misra DP; Das S; Sahu PK
Metab Syndr Relat Disord 2012 Jun;10(3):209-13 (ISSN: 1557-8518)

BACKGROUND: Atherosclerosis is more prevalent in subjects with diabetes mellitus. Recent evidence suggests that diabetic atherosclerosis is not simply a disease of hyperlipidemia, but is also an inflammatory disorder. Our aim was to study the prevalence of inflammatory markers such as high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), adiponectin, and nuclear factor-(ordM)B (NF-(ordM)B) expression, in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in Indian patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) with and without macrovascular disease (MVD). METHODS: A total of 29 consecutive cases of T2DM with proven MVD (group A), 28 matched cases without MVD (group B), and 14 healthy controls (group C) were evaluated for the clinical parameters fasting blood glucose (FBG), 2-h postprandial blood glucose (PPBG), glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c), lipid profile, and the above-mentioned inflammatory markers. RESULTS: Diabetic subjects with T2DM had higher hsCRP and NF-(ordM)B expression and lower values of adiponectin compared to healthy controls. Group A had significantly higher serum hsCRP than group B (P=0.0001) despite comparable values of BMI, FBG, 2-h PPBG, HbA1c, and lipid parameters. Group A had significantly higher serum hsCRP and NF-(ordM)B expression and significantly lower levels of adiponectin than group C (P=0.0001, 0.007, and 0.02, respectively). In Group A, serum adiponectin negatively correlated with NF-(ordM)B expression. In Group B, adiponectin values correlated negatively with both FBG and 2-h PPBG. CONCLUSIONS: Indian subjects with T2DM with or without MVD had higher hsCRP and lower adiponectin values as compared to healthy controls, whereas hsCRP was significantly higher in those with MVD, suggesting that our patients with T2DM were in a proinflammatory state.

Adiponectin G276T gene polymorphism is associated with cardiovascular disease in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes.

Katakami N; Kaneto H; Matsuoka TA; Takahara M; Maeda N; Shimizu I; et al.
Atherosclerosis 2012 Feb;220(2):437-42 (ISSN: 1879-1484)

OBJECTIVE: Adiponectin has anti-atherogenic properties and reduced serum adiponectin levels are associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD). In this study, we examined the relationship between CVD and adiponectin (ADIPOQ) gene G276T polymorphism that is associated with serum adiponectin level in a large cohort of type 2 diabetic patients. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We enrolled 2637 Japanese type 2 diabetic subjects (males, 61.1%; age, 54.97.9 years old), determined their genotypes regarding ADIPOQ G276T polymorphisms, and evaluated the association between this polymorphism and the prevalence of CVD (myocardial infarction and/or cerebral infarction). RESULTS: The prevalence of CVD tended to be higher as the number of G alleles increased [GG (9.5%), GT (6.8%), TT (5.6%), p value for trend=0.0059] and was significantly higher in the subjects with GG genotype compared to those with GT or TT genotype (9.5% vs. 6.6%, p=0.0060). Multiple logistic regression analyses revealed that the number of G alleles (Odds ratio (OR)=1.49 with 95%CI 1.09-2.05, p=0.0125) and GG genotype (OR=1.66 with 95%CI 1.13-2.43, p=0.0098) were significantly associated with CVD even after adjustment for conventional risk factors. Interestingly, the presence of obesity further and significantly increased the risk of CVD in the subjects with GG genotype (OR=1.67 with 95%CI 1.14-2.44, p=0.0090) but not in the subjects with TT or GT genotype (OR=1.17 with 95%CI 0.73-1.89, NS). CONCLUSIONS: It is likely that the G allele of the ADIPOQ G276T polymorphism is a susceptibility allele for CVD in Japanese type 2 diabetic patients, especially when they accompany obesity. [Copyright 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.].

A comprehensive investigation of variants in genes encoding adiponectin (ADIPOQ) and its receptors (ADIPOR1/R2), and their association with serum adiponectin, type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance and the metabolic syndrome.

Peters KE; Beilby J; Cadby G; Warrington NM; Bruce DG; Davis WA; et al.
BMC Med Genet 2013;14:15 (ISSN: 1471-2350)

BACKGROUND: Low levels of serum adiponectin have been linked to central obesity, insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes. Variants in ADIPOQ, the gene encoding adiponectin, have been shown to influence serum adiponectin concentration, and along with variants in theadiponectin receptors (ADIPOR1 and ADIPOR2) have been implicated in metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes. This study aimed to comprehensively investigate the association of common variants in ADIPOQ, ADIPOR1 and ADIPOR2 with serum adiponectin and insulin resistance syndromes in a large cohort of European-Australian individuals. METHODS: Sixty-four tagging single nucleotide polymorphisms in ADIPOQ, ADIPOR1 and ADIPOR2 were genotyped in two general population cohorts consisting of 2,355 subjects, and one cohort of 967 subjects with type 2 diabetes. The association of tagSNPs with outcomes were evaluated using linear or logistic modelling. Meta-analysis of the three cohorts was performed by random-effects modelling. RESULTS: Meta-analysis revealed nine genotyped tagSNPs in ADIPOQ significantly associated with serum adiponectinacross all cohorts after adjustment for age, gender and BMI, including rs10937273, rs12637534, rs1648707, rs16861209, rs822395, rs17366568, rs3774261, rs6444175 and rs17373414. The results of haplotype-based analyses were also consistent. Overall, the variants in the ADIPOQ gene explained <5% of the variance in serum adiponectin concentration. None of the ADIPOR1/R2 tagSNPs were associated with serum adiponectin. There was no association between any of the genetic variants and insulin resistance or metabolic syndrome. A multi-SNP genotypic risk score for ADIPOQ alleles revealed an association with 3 independent SNPs, rs12637534, rs16861209, rs17366568 and type 2 diabetes after adjusting foradiponectin levels (OR=0.86, 95% CI=(0.75, 0.99), P=0.0134). CONCLUSIONS: Genetic variation in ADIPOQ, but not its receptors, was associated with altered serum adiponectin. However, genetic variation in ADIPOQ and its receptors does not appear to contribute to the risk of insulin resistance or metabolic syndrome but did for type 2
diabetes in a European-Australian population.
Autophagy: Protection Against T2D?

By Salynn Boyles, Contributing Writer,
MedPage Today Published: Jul 27, 2014 | Updated: Jul 28, 2014

The cellular regulatory system known as autophagy appeared to play a key role in preventing type 2 diabetes by protecting insulin-secreting beta cells from the accumulation of toxic amylin oligomers, researchers reported.

Findings from three independent research teams, published online in the Journal of Clinical Investigation, suggested autophagy boosting therapies could prove to be a novel approach for type 2 diabetes prevention.

Autophagy — derived from the Greek words for “self” (auto) and “to eat” (phagein) — describes the controlled disposal of damaged organelles within the cell. This cell-cleaning process is increasingly being recognized as a potential protective mechanism against many diseases, including Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Alzheimer’s disease.

Earlier studies found autophagy to be important for normal beta-cell functionand autophage activity to be increased in beta cells from patients with type 2 diabetes.

The studies provide new insight into how beta cells are normally protected against amylin (IAPP) toxic oligomers, wrote Dhananjay Gupta, PhD, and Jack L. Leahy, MD, of the University of Vermont in Burlington in an accompanying editorial.

Action Points:

Autophagy appeared to play a key role in preventing type 2 diabetes by protecting insulin-secreting beta cells from the accumulation of toxic amylin oligomers.
Note that the studies suggest that autophagy — controlled disposal of damaged organelles within the cell — boosting therapies could prove to be a novel approach for type 2 diabetes prevention.

Autophagy – continued

IAPP: Co-Expressed With Insulin

Type 2 diabetes is characterized by loss of beta-cell, beta-cell dysfunction, and increased beta-cell apoptosis. Islet pathology in type 2 diabetes is also characterized by accumulation of extracellular islet amyloid derived from islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP).

“IAPP is a 37-amino acid protein co-expressed and secreted by pancreatic [beta cells] along with insulin,” wrote Peter Butler, MD, from the University of California Los Angeles, and colleagues. “While the extracellular islet amyloid is relatively inert, intracellular membrane-permeant toxic oligomers of IAPP that form within [beta cells in type 2 diabetes] are thought to induce [beta-cell dysfunction and apoptosis].”

In contrast to the human form of IAPP (h-IAPP), which forms toxic membrane-permeant oligomers, the rodent form of IAPP (r-IAPP) is nonamyloidogenic and nontoxic due to proline substitutions. Transgenic expression of h-IAPP in [beta cells] of rodents may lead to development of diabetes as a consequence of [beta-cell] apoptosis and formation of intracellular IAPP oligomers comparable to those found in humans with type 2 diabetes.

In earlier in vitro studies, the authors reported that enhancement of autophagy was protective while attenuated lysosomal degradation rendered beta cells more vulnerable to h-IAPP-induced apoptosis.

In the current study, the researchers determined that beta-cell IAPP content is regulated by autophagy through p62-dependent lysosomal degradation.

“Induction of high levels of human IAPP in mouse [beta cells] resulted in accumulation of this amyloidogenic protein as relatively inert fibrils with cytosolic p62-positive inclusions, which temporarily averts formation of toxic oligomers,” they wrote.

Mice hemizygous for transgenic expression of human IAPP did not develop diabetes. But the loss of beta cell-specific autophagy in the mice induced diabetes as a result of the accumulation of toxic human IAPP oligomers and loss of beta-cell mass, the researchers noted.

“In human IAPP-expressing mice that lack [beta-cell] autophagy, increased oxidative damage and loss of an antioxidant-protective pathway appeared to contribute to increased [beta- cell] apoptosis,” they wrote. “These findings indicate that autophagy/lysosomal degradation defends [beta cells] against proteotoxicity induced by oligomerization-prone human IAPP.”

‘Enhance the Toxic Potential of h-IAPP’

In a separate study, Yoshio Fujitani, PhD, of Juntendo University, Tokyo, and colleagues, examined the pathogenic role of human-IAPP and its relation to autophagy in h-IAPP-knock-in mice.

In animals fed a standard diet, h-IAPP had no toxic effects on beta-cell function. However, h-IAPP-knock-in mice did not exhibit a high-fat diet-induced compensatory increase in beta-cell mass, which was due to limited beta-cell proliferation and enhanced beta-cell apoptosis, the researchers wrote.

Expression of h-IAPP in mice with a beta-cell-specific autophagy defect resulted in substantial deterioration of glucose tolerance and dispersed cytoplasmic expression of p62-associated toxic oligomers, which were otherwise sequestrated within p62-positive inclusions.

“Together, our results indicate that increased insulin resistance in combination with reduced autophagy may enhance the toxic potential of h-IAPP and enhance [beta-cell] dysfunction and progression of type 2 diabetes,” the researchers noted.

Autophagy Enhancers

In the third paper, Myung-Shik Lee, MD, PhD, of the Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine in Seoul, and colleagues, studied transgenic mice with beta cell-specific expression of h-IAPP to evaluate the contribution of autophagy in type 2 diabetes-associated accumulation of h-IAPP.

In mice with beta-cell-specific expression of h-IAPP, a deficiency in autophagy resulted in development of overt diabetes, which was not observed in mice expressing h-IAPP alone or lacking autophagy alone. Lack of autophagy in h-IAPP-expressing animals also resulted in h-IAPP oligomer and amyloid accumulation in pancreatic islets, leading to increased death and decreased mass of beta cells.

“Expression of h-IAPP in purified monkey islet cells or a murine [beta cell] line resulted in pro-h-IAPP dimer formation, while dimer formation was absent or reduced dramatically in cells expressing either nonamyloidogenic mouse-IAPP or nonfibrillar mutant h-IAPP,” the researchers wrote. “In autophagy-deficient cells, accumulation of pro-h-IAPP dimers increased markedly, and pro-h-IAPP trimers were detected in the detergent-insoluble fraction.”

Enhancement of autophagy also improved the metabolic profile of h-IAPP-expressing mice fed a high-fat diet.

“These results suggest that autophagy promotes clearance of amyloidogenic h-IAPP, autophagy deficiency exacerbates pathogenesis of human [type 2 diabetes], and autophagy enhancers have therapeutic potential for islet amyloid accumulation-associated human [type 2 diabetes],” the researchers concluded.

Building on Previous Work

Gupta and Leahy noted that all three research teams generated human IAPP-expressing mice with a beta-cell-specific deficiency of the autophagy indicator ATG7, and all three found that autophagy-dependent packaging of monomeric or unprocessed IAPP dimers or trimers into p62-associated vacuoles allowed autophagosomes to dispose of these molecules, keeping them nontoxic.

Each team showed the activity of this detoxification system to be increased when a high-fat diet was fed to the mice with hyperexpression of h-IAPP.

The studies build on previous work and the findings that don’t discern – “how and when during the course of type 2 diabetes development this autophagy-dependent detoxification system might be overcome, allowing toxic IAPP oligomers to form.”

“There are many additional mechanisms that have been proposed for [beta-cell] dysfunction and death in type 2 diabetes, including ER stress, oxidative stress, and autoimmune damage, all of which have been linked to IAPP toxicity,” they wrote. “While it is tempting to try and connect the dots through a single, unified mechanism, all of these proposed pathways of [beta-cell] dysfunction have been recapitulated and extensively studied in rodent models of diabetogenic systems, such as high-fat feeding and partial pancreatectomy, or through genetic modification.”

Given the absence of rodent IAPP oligomerization, these mechanisms of reduced beta-cell function clearly do not require IAPP activation, they noted.

These papers have implications for the study of target therapies for type 2 diabetes based on the common link to T2D and IAPP oligomerization.

“Patients with type 2 diabetes have an increased risk of Alzheimer’s disease, suggesting a common pathogenesis,” they wrote. Disordered neuronal autophagy, described in Alzheimer’s, with alteration in the clearance of amyloidogenic proteins may be a tie between these two diseases

They concluded that acceptance of the hypothesis that IAPP oligomer formation and subsequent plaque development are a major cause of type 2 diabetes will require a better understanding of

when this mechanism is activated and
what modulates its destructive potential.

“These current studies may shift the focus away from

the biology of how IAPP oligomers cause [beta cell] destruction
to probing for defects within the protective system against the formation of toxic IAPP oligomers,” they wrote.

Part 2. Pancreatic Islet Cell Dysfunction
N-terminal fragment of probrain natriuretic peptide is associated with diabetes microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes

Kumiko Hamano, Ikue Nakadaira, Jun Suzuki, Megumi Gonai
Vascular Health and Risk Management 2014:10 585–589
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/VHRM.S67753

Aim/introduction: Circulating levels of N-terminal fragment of probrain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) are established as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and mortality in patients with diabetes, as well as in the general population. We sought to examine the possibility of NT-proBNP as a biomarker of microvascular complications in patients with type 2 diabetes. Materials and methods: In total, 277 outpatients with type 2 diabetes were consecutively enrolled as a hospital cohort. Two hundred and seventeen of these patients (132 males; mean age, 63.4 years) were designated as cases with any of the diabetic complications (retinopathy, neuropathy, nephropathy, ischemic heart disease, strokes, peripheral artery disease), and 60 (42 males; mean age, 54.1 years) were set as controls without clinical evidence of diabetic complications. Diabetic complications were evaluated by medical record and routine laboratory examinations. NT-proBNP was measured and investigated with regard to the associations with diabetic complications. Results: Mean NT-proBNP levels were significantly higher in patients with any of the diabetic complications (59 versus 33 pg/mL; P,0.0001). In logistic regression analysis, NT-proBNP levels .79 pg/mL, which was the highest tertile, were independently associated with a 5.04 fold increased risk of all complications (P,0.0051) compared to the lowest tertile (NT-proBNP levels ,31 pg/mL). Odd ratios of cardiovascular disease and nephropathy, neuropathy, and retinopathy were 9.33, 6.23, 6.6 and 13.78 respectively, in patients with NT-proBNP values in the highest tertile (.79 pg/mL), independently of age, sex, duration of diabetes or other risk factors, such as body mass index or hemoglobin A1c. In addition, NT-proBNP levels were associated with surrogate markers of atherosclerosis, such as brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity (r=0.449, P,0.0001) and left ventricular hypertrophy (r=0.212, P,0.001). Conclusion: In this hospital-based cohort of type 2 diabetes, the NT-proBNP levels were associated with systemic atherosclerosis and comorbid diabetic microvascular as well as macrovascular complications. It is useful to stratify high-risk diabetic patients by measuring NT-proBNP and to start comprehensive care for preventing the progression of diabetic complications. It is necessary to elucidate the underlying mechanism for the progression of diabetic complications represented by an elevation of NT-proBNP and to demonstrate the ability of NT-proBNP as a predictive global biomarker for diabetic complications in Japanese type 2 diabetic patients.
How are patients with type 2 diabetes and renal disease monitored and managed? Insights from the observational OREDIA study

Alfred Penfornis, J F Blicklé, B Fiquet, S Quéré, S Dejager
Vascular Health and Risk Management 2014:10 341–352
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/VHRM.S60312

Background and aim: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is frequent in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), and therapeutic management of diabetes is more challenging in patients with renal impairment (RI). The place of metformin is of particular interest since most scientific societies now recommend using half the dosage in moderate RI and abstaining from use in severe RI, while the classic contraindication with RI has not been removed from the label. This study aimed to assess the therapeutic management, in particular the use of metformin, of T2DM patients with CKD in real life. Methods: This was a French cross-sectional observational study: 3,704 patients with T2DM diagnosed for over 1 year and pharmacologically treated were recruited in two cohorts (two-thirds were considered to have renal disease [CKD patients] and one-third were not [non-CKD patients]) by 968 physicians (81% general practitioners) in 2012. Results: CKD versus non-CKD patients were significantly older with longer diabetes history, more diabetic complications, and less strict glycemic control (mean glycated hemoglobin [HbA1c] 7.5% versus 7.1%; 25% of CKD patients had HbA1c $8% versus 15% of non-CKD patients). Fifteen percent of CKD patients had severe RI, and 66% moderate RI. Therapeutic management of T2DM was clearly distinct in CKD, with less use of metformin (62% versus 86%) but at similar mean daily doses (∼2 g/d). Of patients with severe RI, 33% were still treated with metformin, at similar doses. For other oral anti-diabetics, a distinct pattern of use was seen across renal function (RF): use of sulfonylureas (32%, 31%, and 20% in normal RF, moderate RI, and severe RI, respectively) and DPP4-i (dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors) (41%, 36%, and 25%, respectively) decreased with RF, while that of glinides increased (8%, 14%, and 18%, respectively). CKD patients were more frequently treated with insulin (40% versus 16% of non-CKD patients), and use of insulin increased with deterioration of RF (19%, 39%, and 61% of patients with normal RF, moderate RI, and severe RI, respectively). Treatment was modified at the end of the study-visit in 34% of CKD patients, primarily to stop or reduce metformin. However, metformin was stopped in only 40% of the severe RI patients. Conclusion: Despite a fairly good detection of CKD in patients with T2DM, RI was insufficiently taken into account for adjusting anti-diabetic treatment.

Efficacy and safety of insulin glargine added to a fixed-dose combination of metformin and a dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor: results of the GOLD observational study

Jochen Seufert, Katrin Pegelow, Peter Bramlage
Vascular Health and Risk Management 2013:9 711–717
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/VHRM.S54362

Background: For patients with type 2 diabetes who are uncontrolled on a combination of two oral antidiabetic agents, addition of the long-acting basal insulin glargine is a well established treatment option. However, data on the efficacy and safety of a combination of metformin, a dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor, and insulin glargine are limited in real-world settings. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze blood glucose control, rates of hypoglycemia and body weight in a large cohort of patients with type 2 diabetes treated with this combination therapy in real practice. Methods: This noninterventional, multicenter, prospective, observational trial with a follow-up of 20 weeks enrolled insulin-naïve patients who had been on a stable fixed dose of metformin and a DPP-4 inhibitor for at least 3 months, and had a glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) between 7.5% and 10%. Patients were selected at the investigators’ discretion for initiation of insulin glargine at baseline. A total of 1,483 patients were included, of whom 1,262 were considered to be the efficacy set. Primary efficacy parameters were HbA1c and fasting plasma glucose. Secondary outcome measures included achievement of glycemic targets, body weight, rates of hypoglycemia, and other safety parameters, as well as resource consumption. Results: Upon initiation of insulin glargine, mean HbA1c decreased from 8.51% to 7.36% (−1.15%±0.91%; 95% confidence interval [CI] −1.20 to −1.10). An HbA1c level ,6.5% was achieved in 8.2% of patients and a level ,7.0% in 31.5%. Mean fasting plasma glucose decreased from 174±47 mg/dL to 127±31 mg/dL (−47.3±44.1 mg/dL; 95% CI −49.8 to −44.8). In 11.9% of patients, a fasting plasma glucose level ,100 mg/dL was achieved. Bodyweight decreased on average by 0.98±3.90 kg (95% CI 1.19–0.76). Hypoglycemia (blood glucose #70 mg/dL) was observed in 29 patients (2.30%), of whom six (0.48%) had nocturnal hypoglycemia and four (0.32%) had documented severe events (blood glucose ,56 mg/dL). Conclusion: The results of this observational study show that insulin glargine, when added to a fixed-dose combination of metformin and a DPP-4 inhibitor, resulted in a significant and clinically relevant improvement of glycemic control. Importantly, this intervention did not interfere with the action of the DPP-4 inhibitors, resulting in neutral effects on weight and low rates of hypoglycemia. We conclude that this treatment intensification approach may be useful, efficient, and safe in daily clinical practice for patients with type 2 diabetes.

Long-term insulin glargine therapy in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a focus on cardiovascular outcomes

Joshua J Joseph, Thomas W Donner
Vascular Health and Risk Management 2015:11 107–116
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/VHRM.S50286

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of mortality in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Hyperinsulinemia is associated with increased cardiovascular risk, but the effects of exogenous insulin on cardiovascular disease progression have been less well studied. Insulin has been shown to have both cardioprotective and atherosclerosis-promoting effects in laboratory animal studies. Long-term clinical trials using insulin to attain improved diabetes control in younger type 1 and type 2 diabetes patients have shown improved cardiovascular outcomes. Shorter trials of intensive diabetes control with high insulin use in higher risk patients with type 2 diabetes have shown either no cardiovascular benefit or increased all cause and cardiovascular mortality. Glargine insulin is a basal insulin analog widely used to treat patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes. This review focuses on the effects of glargine on cardiovascular outcomes. Glargine lowers triglycerides, leads to a modest weight gain, causes less hypoglycemia when compared with intermediate-acting insulin, and has a neutral effect on blood pressure. The Outcome Reduction With Initial Glargine Intervention (ORIGIN trial), a 6.2 year dedicated cardiovascular outcomes trial of glargine demonstrated no increased cardiovascular risk.

Visceral obesity is not an independent risk factor of mortality in subjects over 65 years

Frédérique Thomas, Bruno Pannier, Athanase Benetos, Ulrich M Vischer
Vascular Health and Risk Management 2013:9 739–745
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/VHRM.S49922

The aim of the study was to determine the role of obesity evaluated by body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), and their combined effect on all-cause mortality according to age and related risk factors. This study included 119,090 subjects (79,325 men and 39,765 women), aged from 17 years to 85 years, who had a general health checkup at the Centre d’Investigations Préventives et Cliniques, Paris, France. The mean follow-up was 5.6±2.4 years. The prevalence of obesity, defined by WC and BMI categories, was determined according to age groups (< 55, 55–65, > 65 years). All-cause mortality according to obesity and age was determined using Cox regression analysis, adjusted for related risk factors and previous cardiovascular events.
For the entire population, WC adjusted for BMI, an index of central obesity, was strongly associated with mortality, even after adjustment for hypertension, dyslipidemia, and diabetes. The prevalence of obesity increased with age, notably when defined by WC. Nonetheless, the association between WC adjusted for BMI and mortality was not observed in subjects .65 years old (hazard ratio [HR] =1.010, P=NS) but was found in subjects < 55 (HR =1.030,
P < 0.0001) and 55–65 years old (HR =1.023, P,0.05). By contrast, hypertension
(HR =1.31, P < 0.05), previous cardiovascular events (HR =1.98, P < 0.05), and smoking (HR =1.33, P < 0.05) remained associated with mortality even after
age 65.
In conclusion, WC adjusted for BMI is strongly and independently associated with all-cause mortality before 65 years of age, after taking into account the associated risk factors. This relationship disappears in subjects
> 65 years of age, suggesting a differential impact of visceral fat deposition according to age.

Insulin degludec/insulin aspart combination for the treatment of type 1 and type 2 diabetes

Angela Dardano, Cristina Bianchi, Stefano Del Prato, Roberto Miccoli
Vascular Health and Risk Management 2014:10 465–475
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/VHRM.S40097

Glycemic control remains the major therapeutic objective to prevent or delay the onset and progression of complications related to diabetes mellitus. Insulin therapy represents a cornerstone in the treatment of diabetes and has been used widely for achieving glycemic goals. Nevertheless, a large portion of the population with diabetes does not meet the internationally agreed glycemic targets. Moreover, insulin treatment, especially if intensive, may be associated with emergency room visits and hospitalization due to hypoglycemic events. Therefore, fear of hypoglycemia or hypoglycemic events represents the main barriers to the attainment of glycemic targets. The burden associated with multiple daily injections also remains a significant obstacle to initiating and maintaining insulin therapy. The most attractive insulin treatment approach should meet the patients’ preference, rather than demanding patients to change or adapt their lifestyle. Insulin degludec/insulin aspart (IDegAsp) is a new combination, formulated with ultra-long-acting insulin degludec and rapid-acting insulin aspart, with peculiar pharmacological features, clinical efficacy, safety, and tolerability. IDegAsp provides similar, noninferior glycemic control to a standard basal–bolus regimen in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus, with additional benefits of significantly lower episodes of hypoglycemia (particularly nocturnal) and fewer daily insulin injections. Moreover, although treatment strategy and patients’ viewpoint are different in type 1 and type 2 diabetes, trial results suggest that IDegAsp may be an appropriate and reasonable option for initiating insulin therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled on maximal doses of conventional oral agents. This paper will discuss the role of IDegAsp combination as a novel treatment option in diabetic patients.

UCP2 Regulates the Glucagon Response to Fasting and Starvation

Emma M. Allister, Christine A. Robson-Doucette, Kacey J. Prentice, et al.
Diabetes Feb 22, 2013; p 1-11. http://dx.doi.org:/10.2337/db12-0981
http://diabetes.diabetesjournals.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.2337/db12-0981/-/DC1

Glucagon is important for maintaining euglycemia during fasting/starvation, and abnormal glucagon secretion is associated with type 1 and type 2 diabetes; however, the mechanisms of hypoglycemia-induced glucagon secretion are poorly understood. We previously demonstrated that global deletion of mitochondrial uncoupling protein 2 (UCP22/2) in mice impaired glucagon secretion from isolated islets. Therefore, UCP2 may contribute to the regulation of hypoglycemia-induced glucagon secretion, which is supported by our current finding that UCP2 expression is increased in nutrient-deprived murine and human islets. Further to this, we created a-cell–specific UCP2 knockout (UCP2AKO) mice, which we used to demonstrate that blood glucose recovery in response to hypoglycemia is impaired owing to attenuated glucagon secretion. UCP2-deleted a-cells have higher levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), due to enhanced mitochondrial coupling, which translated into defective stimulus/secretion coupling. The effects of UCP2 deletion were mimicked by the UCP2 inhibitor genipin on both murine and human islets and also by application of exogenous ROS, confirming that changes in oxidative status and electrical activity directly reduce glucagon secretion. Therefore, a-cell UCP2 deletion perturbs the fasting/hypoglycemic glucagon response and shows that UCP2 is necessary for normal a-cell glucose sensing and the maintenance of euglycemia.

Main points:

UCP2 is efficiently deleted specifically from islet a-cells of UCP2AKO mice.
α-Cell UCP2 deletion reduces glucagon secretion in vivo
UCP2AKO mice display normal glucose tolerance and GLP-1 secretion
α-Cell UCP2 deletion reduces the gluconeogenic response of the liver and switches fatty acid usage during a prolonged fast
UCP2 expression is increased after nutrient depletion and glucagon secretion from UCP2AKO islets was impaired.
UCP2AKO α-cells display enhanced hyperpolarization of ΔψC_m and increased superoxide levels
UCP2AKO α-cells have more depolarized plasma membranes and reduced intracellular calcium
UCP2 is required for normal glucagon secretion in response to hypoglycemia

Management of Diabetes Mellitus: Could Simultaneous Targeting of Hyperglycemia and Oxidative Stress Be a Better Panacea?

Omotayo O. Erejuwa

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2012, 13, 2965-2972; http://dx.doi.org:/10.3390/ijms13032965

Oxidative stress is defined as an “imbalance between oxidants and antioxidants in favor of the oxidants, potentially leading to damage”. It is implicated in the pathogenesis and complications of diabetes mellitus. The role of oxidative stress is more definite in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus than in type 1 diabetes mellitus. In regard to diabetic complications, there is compelling evidence in support of the role of oxidative stress in both types of diabetes mellitus. Evidence suggests that elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS), which causes oxidative stress, accumulate in certain micro milieu or tissues (such as retina and kidney) where they cause damage or toxicity. In diabetes mellitus, oxidative stress is enhanced through various sources such as hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance, impaired antioxidant defense network, uncoupling of ROS-generating enzymes, elevated level of leptin and sedentary lifestyle.

A number of mechanisms or pathways by which hyperglycemia, the major contributing factor of increased ROS production, causes tissue damage or diabetic complications have been identified. These include: hyperglycemia-enhanced polyol pathway; hyperglycemia-enhanced formation of advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs); hyperglycemia-activated protein kinase C (PKC) pathway; hyperglycemia-enhanced hexosamine pathway; and hyperglycemia-activated Poly-ADP ribose polymerase (PARP) pathway. These pathways are activated or enhanced by hyperglycemia-driven mitochondrial superoxide overproduction. Even though oxidative stress plays an important role in its pathogenesis and complications, unlike other diseases characterized by oxidative stress, diabetes mellitus is unique. Its cure (restoration of euglycemia, e.g., via pancreas transplants) does not prevent oxidative stress and diabetic complications. This is very important because hyperglycemia exacerbates oxidative stress which is linked to diabetic complications]. Theoretically, restoration of euglycemia should prevent oxidative stress and diabetic complications. However, this is not the case.

The primary aim of the current management of diabetes mellitus is to achieve and/or maintain a glycated hemoglobin level of ≤6.5%. However, recent evidence indicates that intensive treatment of hyperglycemia is characterized by increased weight gain, severe hypoglycemia and higher mortality. Besides, evidence suggests that it is difficult to achieve and/or maintain optimal glycemic control in many diabetic patients; and that the benefits of intensively-treated hyperglycemia are restricted to microvascular complications only. In view of these adverse effects and limitations of intensive treatment of hyperglycemia in preventing diabetic complications, which is linked to oxidative stress, this commentary proposes a hypothesis that “simultaneous targeting of hyperglycemia and oxidative stress” could be more effective than “intensive treatment of hyperglycemia” in the management of diabetes mellitus.

The Relationship between Inflammation, Oxidative Stress, and Metabolic Risk Factors in Type 2 Diabetic Patients

Fatemeh Azizi Soleiman, N Pahlavani, H Rasad, O Sadeghi, MR Gohari
Iranian Journal Of Diabetes And Obesity 2013; 5(4): 151-156

Increased production of free radicals due to the imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants load may reduce antioxidants levels, partial clearing of free radicals, and cause oxidation of lipids, sugars, proteins and nucleic acids which eventually leads to widespread pathological consequences of diabetes. One of the factors that facilitate formation of atherosclerosis in diabetes is oxidative stress.

Objective: Globally, 3-5.2 percent of people suffer from diabetes which is one of the most serious metabolic disorders resulting in an increase in inflammatory biomarkers e.g. interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and C-reactive protein. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between inflammation, oxidative stress and fasting blood glucose, lipid profile and anthropometric parameters in patients with type 2 diabetes. Material and methods: This study was conducted as a cross sectional study in Tehran through 2009-2010 on 45 men and women aged 35-65 years old with type 2 diabetes. Blood glucose, lipid profile, C-reactive protein, and malonedialdehyde were measured. Independent sample T-test and linear regression analysis were used. Results: Fasting blood glucose, malonedialdehyde, total cholesterol and body mass index were higher in women than in men; but there was no difference between two sexes in other factors. Malonedialdehyde, neither directly or after adjustment for sex was related to fasting blood glucose, total cholesterol, triglycerides and anthropometric indices (weight, body mass index, and body fat mass). Conclusion: This study showed that oxidative stress had no relationship with blood glucose, lipid profile, and anthropometric index, but inflammation was related to glycemia, body mass index, and fat mass. Control of inflammation and oxidative stress is necessary for accelerating treatment process and preventing complications due to them.

This study showed that in diabetic patients, oxidative stress which was measured by MDA, was not significantly associated with fasting blood glucose, lipid profile and anthropometric parameters. However, fasting plasma glucose, body mass index and body fat mass were significant predictors of the inflammatory factor, CRP.

Oxidative Stress as an Underlying Contributor in the Development of Chronic Complications in Diabetes Mellitus

Suziy de M. Bandeira, Lucas José S. da Fonseca, Glaucevane da S. Guedes, et al.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14, 3265-3284; http://dx.doi.doi:/10.3390/ijms14023265

The high prevalence of diabetes mellitus and its increasing incidence worldwide, coupled with several complications observed in its carriers, have become a public health issue of great relevance. Chronic hyperglycemia is the main feature of such a disease, being considered the responsible for the establishment of micro and macrovascular complications observed in diabetes. Several efforts have been directed in order to better comprehend the pathophysiological mechanisms involved in the course of this endocrine disease. Recently, numerous authors have suggested that excess generation of highly reactive oxygen and nitrogen species is a key component in the development of complications invoked by hyperglycemia. Overproduction and/or insufficient removal of these reactive species result in vascular dysfunction, damage to cellular proteins, membrane lipids and nucleic acids, leading different research groups to search for biomarkers which would be capable of a proper and accurate measurement of the oxidative stress (OS) in diabetic patients, especially in the presence of chronic complications.
In the face of this scenario, the present review briefly addresses the role of hyperglycemia in OS, considering basic mechanisms and their effects in diabetes mellitus, describes some of the more commonly used biomarkers of oxidative/nitrosative damage and includes selected examples of studies which evaluated OS biomarkers in patients with diabetes, pointing to the relevance of such biological components in general oxidative stress status of diabetes mellitus carriers.
The role of FOXO1 in β‑cell failure and type 2 diabetes mellitus

Tadahiro Kitamura
Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 2013; 9, 615–623
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nrendo.2013.157

Over the past two decades, insulin resistance has been considered essential to the etiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). However, insulin resistance does not lead to T2DM unless it is accompanied by pancreatic β‑cell dysfunction, because healthy β cells can compensate for insulin resistance by increasing in number and functional output. Furthermore, β‑cell mass is decreased in patients with diabetes mellitus, suggesting a primary role for β‑cell dysfunction in the pathogenesis of T2DM. The dysfunction of β cells can develop through various mechanisms, including oxidative, endoplasmic reticulum or hypoxic stress, as well as via induction of cytokines; these processes lead to apoptosis, uncontrolled autophagy and failure to proliferate. Transdifferentiation between β cells and α cells occurs under certain pathological conditions, and emerging evidence suggests that β‑cell dedifferentiation or transdifferentiation might account for the reduction in β‑cell mass observed in patients with severe T2DM. FOXO1, a key transcription factor in insulin signaling, is implicated in these mechanisms. This Review discusses advances in our understanding of the contribution of FOXO1 signaling to the development of β‑cell failure in T2DM.

Selective peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor g (PPARg) modulation as a strategy for safer therapeutic PPARg activation

Linda Slanec Higgins and Alex M DePaoli
Am J Clin Nutr 2010;91(suppl):267S–72S.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.3945/ajcn.2009.28449E

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor c (PPARc) is a clinically validated target for treatment of insulin resistance. PPARc activation by full agonists such as thiazolidinediones has shown potent and durable glucose-lowering activity in patients with type 2 diabetes without the concern for hypoglycemia or gastrointestinal toxicities associated with some other medications used to treat this disease. However, thiazolidinediones are linked to safety and tolerability issues such as weight gain, fluid retention, edema, congestive heart failure, and bone fracture. Distinctive properties of PPARc provide the opportunity for selective modulation of the receptor such that desirable therapeutic effects may be attained without the unwanted effects of full activation. PPARc is a nuclear receptor that forms a complex with coreceptor RXR and a cell type– and cell state– specific array of coregulators to control gene transcription. PPARc affinity for these components, and hence transcriptional response, is determined by the conformational changes induced by ligand binding within a complex pocket with multiple interaction points. This molecular mechanism thereby offers the opportunity for selective modulation. A desirable selective PPARc modulator profile would include high-affinity interaction with the PPARc-binding pocket in a manner that leads to retention of the insulin-sensitizing activity that is characteristic of full agonists as well as mitigation of the effects leading to increased adiposity, fluid retention, congestive heart failure, and bone fracture. Examples of endogenous and synthetic selective PPARc modulator (SPPARM) ligands have been identified. SPPARM drug candidates are being tested clinically and provide support for this strategy.

Predicting response to incretin-based therapy

Sanjay Kalra, Bharti Kalra, Rakesh Sahay, Navneet Agrawal
Research and Reports in Endocrine Disorders 2011:1 11–19
http://dx.doi.org:/10.2147/RRED.S16282

There are two important incretin hormones, glucose-dependent insulin tropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1). The biological activities of GLP-1 include stimulation of glucose-dependent insulin secretion and insulin biosynthesis, inhibition of glucagon secretion and gastric emptying, and inhibition of food intake. GLP-1 appears to have a number of additional effects in the gastrointestinal tract and central nervous system. Incretin based therapy includes GLP-1 receptor agonists like human GLP-1 analogs (liraglutide) and exendin-4 based molecules (exenatide), as well as DPP-4 inhibitors like sitagliptin, vildagliptin and saxagliptin. Most of the published studies showed a significant reduction in HbA1c using these drugs. A critical analysis of reported data shows that the response rate in terms of target achievers of these drugs is average. One of the first actions identified for GLP-1 was the glucose-dependent stimulation of insulin secretion from islet cell lines. Following the detection of GLP-1 receptors on islet beta cells, a large body of evidence has accumulated illustrating that GLP-1 exerts multiple actions on various signaling pathways and gene products in the β cell. GLP-1 controls glucose homeostasis through well-defined actions on the islet β cell via stimulation of insulin secretion and preservation and expansion of β cell mass. In summary, there are several factors determining the response rate to incretin therapy. Currently minimal clinical data is available to make a conclusion. Key factors appear to be duration of diabetes, obesity, presence of autonomic neuropathy, resting energy expenditure, plasma glucagon levels and plasma free fatty acid levels. More clinical evidence is required to identify the factors affecting response rate to incretin therapy.

Regulation of Large Conductance Ca2⁺-activated K⁺ (BK) Channel β1 Subunit Expression by Muscle RING Finger Protein 1 in Diabetic Vessels

Fu Yi, Huan Wang, Qiang Chai, Xiaoli Wang, et al.
J. Biol. Chem. 2014, 289: 10853-10864
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1074/jbc.M113.520940

Background: Impaired BK channel function in diabetic vessels is associated with decreased BK channel[1]1 subunit (BK-β1) expression. Results: Muscle RING finger protein 1 (MuRF1) physically interacts with BK-β1 and accelerates BK-β1 proteolysis. Conclusion: Increased MuRF1 expression is a novel mechanism underlying diabetic BK channelopathy and vasculopathy. Significance: MuRF1 is a potential therapeutic target of BK channel dysfunction and vascular complications in diabetes.

The large conductance Ca2⁺-activated K⁺ (BK) channel, expressed abundantly in vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs), is a key determinant of vascular tone. BK channel activity is tightly regulated by its accessory β1 subunit (BK-β1). However, BK channel function is impaired in diabetic vessels by increased ubiquitin/proteasome-dependent BK-β1 protein degradation. Muscle RING finger protein 1 (MuRF1), a muscle-specific ubiquitin ligase, is implicated in many cardiac and skeletal muscle diseases. However, the role of MuRF1 in the regulation of vascular BK channel and coronary function has not been examined. In this study, we hypothesized that MuRF1 participated in BK-β1 proteolysis, leading to the down-regulation of BK channel activation and impaired coronary function in diabetes. Combining patch clamp and molecular biological approaches, we found that MuRF1 expression was enhanced, accompanied by reduced BK-β1 expression, in high glucose-cultured human

coronary SMCs and in diabetic vessels. Knockdown of MuRF1 by siRNA in cultured human SMCs attenuated BK-β1 ubiquitination and increased BK-β1 expression, whereas adenoviral expression of MuRF1 in mouse coronary arteries reduced BK-β1 expression and diminished BK channel-mediated vasodilation. Physical interaction between the N terminus of BK-β1 and the coiled-coil domain of MuRF1 was demonstrated by pulldown assay. Moreover, MuRF1 expression was regulated by NF-κB. Most importantly, pharmacological inhibition of proteasome and NF-κB activities preserved BK-β1 expression and BK-channel-mediated coronary vasodilation in diabetic mice. Hence, our results provide the first evidence that the up-regulation of NF-κB-dependent MuRF1 expression is a novel mechanism that leads to BK channelopathy and vasculopathy in diabetes.
The origin of circulating CD36 in type 2 diabetes

MJ Alkhatatbeh, AK Enjeti, S Acharya, RF Thorne, and LF Lincz
Nutrition and Diabetes (2013) 3, e59; http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nutd.2013.1

Objective: Elevated plasma levels of the fatty acid transporter, CD36, have been shown to constitute a novel biomarker for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). We recently reported such circulating CD36 to be entirely associated with cellular microparticles (MPs) and aim here to determine the absolute levels and cellular origin(s) of these CD36 + MPs in persons with T2DM. Design: An ex vivo case-control study was conducted using plasma samples from 33 obese individuals with T2DM (body mass index (BMI) =39.9±6.4 kgm²; age=57±9 years; 18 male:15 female) and age- and gender-matched lean and obese non-T2DM controls (BMI =23.6±1.8 kgm² and 33.5±5.9 kgm², respectively). Flow cytometry was used to analyse surface expression of CD36 together with tissue-specific markers: CD41, CD235α, CD14, CD105 and phosphatidyl serine on plasma MPs. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to quantify absolute CD36 protein concentrations. Results: CD36 + MP levels were significantly higher in obese people with T2DM (P<0.00001) and were primarily derived from erythrocytes (CD235α + = 35.8±14.6%); although this did not correlate with hemoglobin A1c. By contrast, the main source of CD36 + MPs in non-T2DM individuals was endothelial cells (CD105 + = 40.9±8.3% and 33.9±8.3% for lean and obese controls, respectively). Across the entire cohort, plasma CD36 protein concentration varied from undetectable to 22.9 µgml^-1 and was positively correlated with CD36 +MPs measured by flow cytometry (P=0.0006) but only weakly associated with the distribution of controls and T2DM (P=0.021). Multivariate analysis confirmed that plasma CD36 + MP levels were a much better biomarker for diabetes than CD36 protein concentration (P=0.009 vs P=0.398, respectively). Conclusions: Both the levels and cellular profile of CD36 + MPs differ in T2DM compared with controls, suggesting that these specific vesicles could represent distinct biological vectors contributing to the pathology of the disease.
A Novel High-Throughput Assay for Islet Respiration Reveals Uncoupling of Rodent and Human Islets

Jakob D. Wikstrom, Samuel B. Sereda, Linsey Stiles, Alvaro Elorza, et al.
PLoS ONE 7(5): e33023. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1371/journal.pone.0033023

Background: The pancreatic beta cell is unique in its response to nutrient by increased fuel oxidation. Recent studies have demonstrated that oxygen consumption rate (OCR) may be a valuable predictor of islet quality and long term nutrient responsiveness. To date, high-throughput and user-friendly assays for islet respiration are lacking. The aim of this study was to develop such an assay and to examine bioenergetic efficiency of rodent and human islets. Methodology/Principal Findings: The XF24 respirometer platform was adapted to islets by the development of a 24-well plate specifically designed to confine islets. The islet plate generated data with low inter-well variability and enabled stable measurement of oxygen consumption for hours. The F1F0 ATP synthase blocker oligomycin was used to assess uncoupling while rotenone together with myxothiazol/antimycin was used to measure the level of non-mitochondrial respiration. The use of oligomycin in islets was validated by reversing its effect in the presence of the uncoupler FCCP. Respiratory leak averaged to 59% and 49% of basal OCR in islets from C57Bl6/J and FVB/N mice, respectively. In comparison, respiratory leak of INS-1 cells and C2C12 myotubes was measured to 38% and 23% respectively. Islets from a cohort of human donors showed a respiratory leak of 38%, significantly lower than mouse islets. Conclusions/Significance: The assay for islet respiration presented here provides a novel tool that can be used to study islet mitochondrial function in a relatively high-throughput manner. The data obtained in this study shows that rodent islets are less bioenergetically efficient than human islets as well as INS1 cells.

Refeeding and metabolic syndromes: two sides of the same coin

OA Obeid, DH Hachem and JJ Ayoub
Nutrition & Diabetes (2014) 4, e120; http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nutd.2014.21

Refeeding syndrome describes the metabolic and clinical changes attributed to aggressive rehabilitation of malnourished subjects. The metabolic changes of refeeding are related to hypophosphatemia, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, sodium retention and hyperglycemia, and these are believed to be mainly the result of increased insulin secretion following high carbohydrate intake. In the past few decades, increased consumption of processed food (refined cereals, oils, sugar and sweeteners, and so on) lowered the intake of several macrominerals (mainly phosphorus, potassium and magnesium). This seems to have compromised the postprandial status of these macrominerals, in a manner that mimics low grade refeeding syndrome status. At the pathophysiological level, this condition favored the development of the different components of the metabolic syndrome. Thus, it is reasonable to postulate that metabolic syndrome is the result of long term exposure to a mild refeeding syndrome.

HSP72 protects against obesity-induced insulin resistance

Jason Chung, Anh-Khoi Nguyen, Darren C. Henstridge, Anna G. Holmes, et al.
PNAS Feb 5, 2008; 105(5): 1739–1744
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.0705799105

Patients with type 2 diabetes have reduced gene expression of heat shock protein (HSP) 72, which correlates with reduced insulin sensitivity. Heat therapy, which activates HSP72, improves clinical parameters in these patients. Activation of several inflammatory signaling proteins such as c-jun amino terminal kinase (JNK), inhibitor of B kinase, and tumor necrosis factor-β, can induce insulin resistance, but HSP 72 can block the induction of these molecules in vitro. Accordingly, we examined whether activation of HSP72 can protect against the development of insulin resistance. First, we show that obese, insulin resistant humans have reduced HSP72 protein expression and increased JNK phosphorylation in skeletal muscle. We next used heat shock therapy, transgenic overexpression, and pharmacologic means to overexpress HSP72 either specifically in skeletal muscle or globally in mice. Herein, we show that regardless of the means used to achieve an elevation in HSP72 protein, protection against diet- or obesity induced hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, glucose intolerance, and insulin resistance was observed. This protection was tightly associated with the prevention of JNK phosphorylation. These findings identify an essential role for HSP72 in blocking inflammation and preventing insulin resistance in the context of genetic obesity or high-fat feeding.

pH-responsive modulation of insulin aggregation and structural transformation of the aggregates

Ekaterina Smirnova, I Safenkova, V Stein-Margolina, V Shubin, et al.
Biochimie 109 (2015) 49e59
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biochi.2014.12.006

Over the past two decades, much information has appeared on electrostatically driven molecular mechanisms of protein self-assembly and formation of aggregates of different morphology, varying from soluble amorphous structures to highly-ordered amyloid-like fibrils. Protein aggregation represents a special tool in biomedicine and biotechnology to produce biological materials for a wide range of applications. This has awakened interest in identification of pH-triggered regulators of transformation of aggregation-prone proteins into structures of higher order. The objective of the present study is to elucidate the effects of low-molecular-weight biogenic agents on aggregation and formation of supramolecular structures of human recombinant insulin, as a model therapeutic protein. Using dynamic light scattering, turbidimetry, circular dichroism, fluorescence spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance, we have demonstrated that the amino acid L-arginine (Arg) has the striking potential to influence insulin aggregation propensity. It was shown that modification of the net charge of insulin induced by changes in the pH level of the incubation medium results in dramatic changes in the interaction of the protein with Arg. We have revealed the dual effects of Arg, highly dependent on the pH level of the solution e suppression or acceleration of the aggregation of insulin at pH 7.0 or 8.0, respectively. These effects can be regulated by manipulating the pH of the environment. The results of this study may be of interest for development of appropriate drug formulations and for the more general insight into the functioning of insulin in living systems, as the protein is known to release by exocytosis from pancreatic beta cells in a pH-dependent manner.
Human β-cell proliferation by promoting Wnt signaling

Carol Wilson
Original article Aly, H. et al. A novel strategy to increase the proliferative potential of adult human β-cells while maintaining their differentiated phenotype. PLoS ONE 2013; 8, e66131
Nature Reviews Endocrinology 2013; 9, 502
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nrendo.2013.130

Islet transplantation for patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus typically requires 2–4 donors for one recipient, whereas use of one donor would minimize the risk of immune rejection. Proliferation of adult β cells in vitro could hold the key to providing one donor for one recipient.

“In previous studies, we found that activation of the Wnt/GSK-3/β-catenin pathway by pharmacologic inhibition of GSK-3 in combination with nutrient activation of mTOR, modestly enhanced human β-cell proliferation in vitro,” says lead researcher Haytham Aly of the Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, MO, USA. “However, expansion of human islets was associated with a loss of insulin content and secretory function.”

In the current study, the researchers aimed to engage canonical and noncanonical Wnt signalling at the receptor level to increase the proliferation of human β cells in vitro, without losing the capacity of the cells to produce and secrete insulin.

The researchers treated cadaver-derived intact human islets with a conditioned medium from L cells that constitutively produce Wnt-3a, R-spondin-3 and Noggin. A similar medium had previously enabled successful proliferation of mouse colonic intestinal epithelial cells. The researchers added inhibitors of ROCK and RhoA to this medium to augment cell survival.

The conditioned medium with the inhibitors lead to ~20-fold proliferation of the human β cells above that with glucose alone. Crucially, treatment with this conditioned medium did not impair glucose-stimulated insulin secretion or decrease insulin content of the cells.

“This novel strategy has clear potential for use in the in vitro expansion of human islets and the subsequent treatment of impaired β-cell functional mass in type 1 diabetes mellitus and type 2 diabetes mellitus,” concludes Aly.

Betatrophin—inducing β-cell expansion to treat diabetes mellitus?

Elisabeth Kugelberg
Original article Yi, P. et al. Betatrophin: a hormone that controls pancreatic β cell proliferation. Cell http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.cell.2013.04.008
Nature Reviews Endocrinology 2013; 9, 379; http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nrendo.2013.98

Betatrophin, a newly identified hormone, increases the production and expansion of insulin-secreting β cells in mice, research from Harvard University suggests.

When insulin resistance develops, pancreatic β cells undergo an expansion in mass and proliferation to compensate for increasing insulin needs. To date, the mechanisms regulating β-cell replication are unclear.

Yi et al. developed a mouse model of insulin resistance using the insulin receptor antagonist S961. Subcutaneous injections of the S961 peptide into mice led to dose-dependent, instant β-cell proliferation and hyperglycemia.

Microarray analysis revealed that a highly conserved mammalian gene, betatrophin, was upregulated fourfold in liver and threefold in white adipose tissue cells in response to the acute peripheral insulin resistance induced by S961.

Yi and coworkers found that Betatrophin encodes a secreted protein that can be detected in human plasma. Intravenous injection of betatrophin-expressing constructs into mice resulted in a 17-fold higher β-cell proliferation rate compared with control vectors, and ultimately led to increased islet size and insulin content, with improvements in glucose tolerance, in betatrophin-injected animals.

The mechanisms of action of betatrophin are still unknown, and the next step is to test the effects of recombinant betatrophin protein on β-cell mass. The authors conclude that the identification of betatrophin and its control of β-cell proliferation opens a new door to possible diabetes therapy.

Blocking RANKL signaling might prevent T2DM

Carol Wilson
Original article Kiechl, S. et al. Blockade of receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB (RANKL) signaling improves hepatic insulin resistance and prevents development of diabetes mellitus. Nat. Med.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nm.3084

Nature Reviews Endocrinology 2013; 9, 188;
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nrendo.2013.43

Blockade of receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL) signaling in hepatocytes protects against type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), report researchers.

“It is well known that activation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) in the liver is a crucial event in the development of hepatic insulin resistance and T2DM,” explains lead author Stefan Kiechl of the Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria. “RANKL, a member of the tumour necrosis factor superfamily, is a potent activator of NF-κB, and its receptor RANK is expressed on liver cells. We, thus, hypothesized that RANKL is involved in hepatic NF-κB activation, leading to T2DM.”

The researchers studied the association between serum levels of soluble RANKL and osteoprotegerin and subsequent risk of developing T2DM in 844 men and women without T2DM aged 40–79 years. Soluble RANKL was assessed because it has been shown to be functionally active.

During follow-up, between 1990 and 2005, 78 individuals of the cohort developed T2DM. Baseline levels of soluble RANKL between individuals who had and had not developed T2DM differed considerably: risk of T2DM was elevated in the group with the top tertile T2DM of concentrations of soluble RANKL compared with the group with the bottom tertile (OR 4.06, 95% CI 2.01–8.20). Adjustment for lifestyle factors and body composition did not significantly affect the risk association. Interestingly, although concentrations of osteoprotegerin were not elevated preceding T2DM onset, as they were for soluble RANKL, increased levels were found in individuals after disease occurrence.

In a series of mouse models in which RANKL signaling was downregulated systemically or in the liver, the investigators showed that hepatic insulin sensitivity and plasma glucose concentrations improved with blockade of RANKL signaling. In one such experiment, mice with a hepatocyte-specific Rank knockout were fed a high-fat diet for 4 weeks. These mice did not develop insulin resistance, whereas control mice did.

The investigators note that medications for T2DM already available, such as metformin, lower RANKL activity in bone and might also lower RANKL activity in the liver. They speculate that RANKL antagonism could be a yet unknown.

SFRP4—a biomarker for islet dysfunction?

Carol Wilson
Original article Mahdi, T. et al. Secreted frizzled-related protein 4 reduces insulin secretion and is overexpressed in type 2 diabetes. Cell Metab. http://doi.org:/10.1016/j.cmet.2012.10.009

Secreted frizzled-related protein 4 (SFRP4) reduces insulin secretion and is a potential biomarker for islet dysfunction in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), report researchers.

Mahdi et al. discovered these insights into the pathophysiology of T2DM by the analysis of global gene expression in human pancreatic islets. The researchers identified a group of co-expressed genes (also called a gene co-expression module) associated with T2DM, reduced insulin secretion and elevated HbA1c levels after analysing global microarray expression data from human islets of 48 individuals, including 10 with T2DM. This module was enriched for IL-1-related genes.

The investigators identified SFRP4 as a gene highly expressed in islets from patients with T2DM. The protein encoded by SFRP4 is an extracellular regulator of the Wnt pathway, and has roles in tissue development, cancer and phosphate metabolism. Further study revealed that the expression and release of SFRP4 from islets was stimulated by IL-1β. Furthermore, elevated systemic SFRP4 levels led to reduced glucose tolerance as a result of decreased islet expression of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels and supressed insulin exocytosis.

Interestingly, levels of SFRP4 were elevated in serum of patients a few years before they developed T2DM, which indicates that this protein has potential to be used as a biomarker for T2DM. The researchers also point out that their data suggest that SFRP4 could be a therapeutic target for the treatment of islet dysfunction.

Add-on to metformin in T2DM —linagliptin or glimepiride?

Mikkel Christensen and Filip K. Knop
Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 2012; 8, 576–578 http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nrendo.2012.163

Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4) inhibitors, also known as gliptins, are a rapidly expanding class of oral antidiabetic drugs for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Since 2006, five DPP4 inhibitors have reached the market and, because they can be administered orally and have an almost impeccable safety profile, these drugs have gained widespread use in the treatment of T2DM. The DPP4 inhibitor linagliptin was approved in 2011 by the FDA and the European Medicines Agency (EMA) for use in patients with T2DM as second-line therapy to add on to metformin either alone or in combination with another second-line treatment.

The UK Prospective Diabetes Study trial showed that sulphonylurea treatment was more effective than metformin treatment after 1 year in terms of reducing HbA1c levels; however, after 6 years of treatment, the effectiveness of sulphonylurea treatment declined and metformin treatment was more effective. A decline in the effectiveness of the sulphonylurea treatment over time could be due to sulphonylureas inducing stress and possibly causing apoptosis in β cells. However, in the trial by Gallwitz et al. the sustained efficacies of the add-on treatments with linagliptin and glimepiride were similar after 2 years.

The inhibitors of DPP4 enhance glucose-dependent insulin secretion and could even augment the counter-regulatory glucagon response to hypoglycemia. DPP4 inhibition generally has a neutral effect upon body weight.

The study by Gallwitz et al. included patients whose plasma glucose levels were near-normal whilst they were receiving metformin monotherapy (baseline level 6–7 mmol/l), which could result in increased occurrence of hypoglycemia. Treating patients whose blood glucose levels were, by many standards, already adequately controlled with metformin with a drug known to be associated with inducing hypoglycemia would be expected to increase the frequency of hypoglycemia in this group, inflating the differences in the frequency of this event between the group receiving linagliptin and that receiving glimepiride.

The most groundbreaking findings in the study by Gallwitz et al. are related to cardiovascular outcomes. Although the study was not adequately powered to detect subtle differences in cardiovascular event frequency, significantly fewer patients who received linagliptin than glimepiride experienced major cardiovascular events (12 versus 26 individuals, respectively). This difference was driven by fewer patients experiencing nonfatal myocardial infarctions and nonfatal strokes in the linagliptin-treated group than in the glimepiride-treated group (9 versus 21 individuals, respectively).

Clinicians are responsible for selecting a suitable second-line treatment for patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus when metformin monotherapy fails. New evidence could aid clinicians in deciding between one of the most commonly used second-line agents, glimepiride, and the recently approved dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitor linagliptin.

Relation of Mitochondrial Oxygen Consumption in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells to Vascular Function in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Mor-Li Hartman, Orian S. Shirihai, Monika Holbrook, Guoquan Xu, et al.
Vasc Med. 2014 February ; 19(1): 67–74. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1177/1358863X14521315.

Recent studies have shown mitochondrial dysfunction and increased production of reactive

oxygen species in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC’s) and endothelial cells from patients with diabetes mellitus. Mitochondria oxygen consumption is coupled to ATP production and also occurs in an uncoupled fashion during formation of reactive oxygen species by components of the electron transport chain and other enzymatic sites. We therefore hypothesized that diabetes would be associated with higher total and uncoupled oxygen consumption in PBMC’s that would correlate with endothelial dysfunction. We developed a method to measure oxygen consumption in freshly isolated PBMC’s and applied it to 26 patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and 28 non-diabetic controls. Basal (192±47 vs. 161±44 pMoles/min, P=0.01), uncoupled (64±16 vs. 53±16 pMoles/min, P=0.007), and maximal (795±87 vs. 715±128 pMoles/min, P=0.01) oxygen consumption rates were higher in diabetic patients compared to controls. There were no significant correlations between oxygen consumption rates and endothelium-dependent flow-mediated dilation measured by vascular ultrasound. Non-endothelium-dependent nitroglycerin-mediated dilation was lower in diabetics (10.1±6.6 vs. 15.8±4.8%, P=0.03) and correlated with maximal oxygen consumption (R= −0.64, P=0.001). In summary, we found that diabetes mellitus is associated with a pattern of mitochondrial oxygen consumption consistent with higher production of reactive oxygen species. The correlation between oxygen consumption and nitroglycerin-mediated dilation may suggest a link between mitochondrial dysfunction and vascular smooth muscle cell dysfunction that merits further study. Finally, the described method may have utility for assessment of mitochondrial function in larger scale observational and interventional studies in humans.

Musashi expression in b-cells coordinates insulin expression, apoptosis and proliferation in response to endoplasmic reticulum stress in diabetes

M Szabat, TB Kalynyak, GE Lim, KY Chu, YH Yang, A Asadi, BK Gage, et al.
Cell Death and Disease (2011) 2, e232
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/cddis.2011.119

Diabetes is associated with the death and dysfunction of insulin-producing pancreatic b-cells. In other systems, Musashi genes regulate cell fate via Notch signaling, which we recently showed regulates b-cell survival. Here we show for the first time that human and mouse adult islet cells express mRNA and protein of both Musashi isoforms, as well Numb/Notch/Hes/neurogenin-3 pathway components. Musashi expression was observed in insulin/glucagon double-positive cells during human fetal development and increased during directed differentiation of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) to the pancreatic lineage. De-differentiation of b-cells with activin A increased Msi1 expression. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress increased Msi2 and Hes1, while it decreased Ins1 and Ins2 expression, revealing a molecular link between ER stress and b-cell dedifferentiation in type 2 diabetes. These effects were independent of changes in Numb protein levels and Notch activation. Overexpression of MSI1 was sufficient to increase Hes1, stimulate proliferation, inhibit apoptosis and reduce insulin expression, whereas Msi1 knockdown had the converse effects on proliferation and insulin expression. Overexpression of MSI2 resulted in a decrease in MSI1 expression. Taken together, these results demonstrate overlapping, but distinct roles for Musashi-1 and Musashi-2 in the control of insulin expression and b-cell proliferation. Our data also suggest that Musashi is a novel link between ER stress and the compensatory b-cell proliferation and the loss of b-cell gene expression seen in specific phases of the progression to type 2 diabetes.

Cooperation between brain and islet in glucose homeostasis and diabetes

Michael W. Schwartz, RJ Seeley, MH Tschöp, SC Woods, et al.
Nature 7 Nov 2013; 503: 59–66 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature12709

Although a prominent role for the brain in glucose homeostasis was proposed by scientists in the nineteenth century, research throughout most of the twentieth century focused on evidence that the function of pancreatic islets is both necessary and sufficient to explain glucose homeostasis, and that diabetes results from defects of insulin secretion, action or both. However, insulin-independent mechanisms, referred to as ‘glucose effectiveness’, account for roughly 50% of overall glucose disposal, and reduced glucose effectiveness also contributes importantly to diabetes pathogenesis. Although mechanisms underlying glucose effectiveness are poorly understood, growing evidence suggests that the brain can dynamically regulate this process in ways that improve or even normalize glycaemia in rodent models of diabetes. Here we present evidence of a brain-centred glucoregulatory system (BCGS) that can lower blood glucose levels via both insulin-dependent and -independent mechanisms, and propose a model in which complex and highly coordinated interactions between the BCGS and pancreatic islets promote normal glucose homeostasis. Because activation of either regulatory system can compensate for failure of the other, defects in both may be required for diabetes to develop. Consequently, therapies that target the BCGS in addition to conventional approaches based on enhancing insulin effects may have the potential to induce diabetes remission, whereas targeting just one typically does not.

The traditional view holds that diabetes arises as a consequence of damage to, and ultimately failure of, beta-cell function. We propose a two-component model in which failure of glucose homeostasis can begin after initial impairment.

Schematic illustrations of brain- and islet-centred glucoregulatory systems

Schematic illustrations of brain- and islet-centred glucoregulatory systems
The BCGS is proposed to regulate tissue glucose metabolism and plasma glucose levels via mechanisms that are both insulin dependent (for example, by regulating tissue insulin sensitivity) and insulin independent

Proposed contributions of defective brain- and islet-centred glucoregulatory systems to T2D pathogenesis

Insulin’s discovery: New insights on its ninetieth birthday

Jesse Roth, Sana Qureshi, Ian Whitford, Mladen Vranic, et al.
Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2012; 28: 293–304
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1002/dmrr.2300

2012 marks the 90th year since the purification of insulin and the miraculous rescue from death of youngsters with type 1 diabetes. In this review, we highlight several previously unappreciated or unknown events surroundingthe discovery.
(i) We remind readers of the essential contributions of each of the four discoverers – Banting, Macleod, Collip, and Best.
(ii) Banting and Best (each with his own inner circle) worked not only to accrue credit for himself but also to minimize credit to the other discoverers.
(iii) Banting at the time of the insulin research was very likely suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) that originated during his heroic service as a surgeon in World War I on the Western Front in 1918, including an infected shrapnel wound that threatened amputation of his arm. His war record along with the newly discovered evidence of a suicide threat goes along with his paranoia, combativeness, alcohol excess, and depression, symptoms we associate with PTSD.
(iv) Banting’s eureka idea, ligation of the pancreatic duct to preserve the islets, while it energized the early research, was unnecessary and was bypassed early.
(v) Post discovery,Macleod uncovered many features of insulin action that he summarized in his 1925 Nobel Lecture.Macleod closed by raising the question – what is the mechanism of insulin action in the body? – a challenge that attracted many talented investigators but remained unanswered until the latter third of the 20th century.

Genetic Variants Associated With Glycine Metabolism and Their Role in Insulin Sensitivity and Type 2 Diabetes

Weijia Xie, Andrew R. Wood, Valeriya Lyssenko, Michael N. Weedon, et al.
Diabetes 2013; 62:2141–2150 http://dx.doi.org:/10.2337/db12-0876

Circulating metabolites associated with insulin sensitivity may represent useful biomarkers, but their causal role in insulin sensitivity and diabetes is less certain. We previously identified novel metabolites correlated with insulin sensitivity measured by the hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp. The top-ranking metabolites were in the glutathione and glycine biosynthesis pathways. We aimed to identify common genetic variants associated with metabolites in these pathways and test their role in insulin sensitivity and type 2 diabetes. With 1,004 nondiabetic individuals from the RISC study, we performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of 14 insulin sensitivity–related metabolites and one metabolite ratio. We replicated our results in the Botnia study (n = 342). We assessed the association of these variants with diabetes-related traits in GWAS meta-analyses (GENESIS [including RISC, EUGENE2, and Stanford], MAGIC, and DIAGRAM). We identified four associations with three metabolites—glycine (rs715 at CPS1), serine (rs478093 at PHGDH), and betaine (rs499368 at SLC6A12; rs17823642 at BHMT)—and one association signal with glycine-to-serine ratio (rs1107366 at ALDH1L1). There was no robust evidence for association between these variants and insulin resistance or diabetes. Genetic variants associated with genes in the glycine biosynthesis pathways do not provide consistent evidence for a role of glycine in diabetes related traits.

Fractalkine (CX3CL1), a new factor protecting b-cells against TNFa

Sabine Rutti, Caroline Arous, Domitille Schvartz, Katharina Timper, et al.
MOLMET164_proof ■ 14 Aug 2014 ■ 1/11
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molmet.2014.07.007

Objective: We have previously shown the existence of a muscleepancreas intercommunication axis in which CX3CL1 (fractalkine), a CX3C chemokine produced by skeletal muscle cells, could be implicated. It has recently been shown that the fractalkine system modulates murine β-cell function. However, the impact of CX3CL1 on human islet cells especially regarding a protective role against cytokine-induced apoptosis remains to be investigated. Methods: Gene expression was determined using RNA sequencing in human islets, sorted β- and non-β-cells. Glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) and glucagon secretion from human islets was measured following 24 h exposure to 1e50 ng/ml CX3CL1. GSIS and specific protein phosphorylation were measured in rat sorted β-cells exposed to CX3CL1 for 48 h alone or in the presence of TNFα (20 ng/ml). Rat and human β-cell apoptosis (TUNEL) and rat β-cell proliferation (BrdU incorporation) were assessed after 24 h treatment with increasing concentrations of CX3CL1. Results: Both CX3CL1 and its receptor CX3CR1 are expressed in human islets. However, CX3CL1 is more expressed in non-β-cells than in b-cells while its receptor is more expressed in β-cells. CX3CL1 decreased human (but not rat) β-cell apoptosis. CX3CL1 inhibited human islet glucagon secretion stimulated by low glucose but did not impact human islet and rat sorted β-cell GSIS. However, CX3CL1 completely prevented the adverse effect of TNFa on GSIS and on molecular mechanisms involved in insulin granule trafficking by restoring the phosphorylation (Akt, AS160, paxillin) and expression (IRS2, ICAM-1, Sorcin, PCSK1) of key proteins involved in these processes. Conclusions: We demonstrate for the first time that human islets express and secrete CX3CL1 and CX3CL1 impacts them by decreasing glucagon secretion without affecting insulin secretion. Moreover, CX3CL1 decreases basal apoptosis of human β-cells. We further demonstrate that CX3CL1 protects β-cells from the adverse effects of TNFa on their function by restoring the expression and phosphorylation of key proteins of the insulin secretion pathway.
Heart Failure, Saxagliptin and Diabetes Mellitus: Observations from the SAVOR – TIMI 53 Randomized Trial

Benjamin M. Scirica; Eugene Braunwald; Itamar Raz, and SAVOR-TIMI 53 Steering Committee and Investigators
Circulation. Sept 4, 2014 http://dx.doi.org:/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.010389
Background—Diabetes and heart failure frequently coexist. However, few diabetes trials have prospectively evaluated and adjudicated heart failure as an endpoint. Methods and Results—16,492 patients with type 2 diabetes and a history of, or at risk for, cardiovascular events were randomized to saxagliptin or placebo (mean followup-2.1 years). The primary endpoint was the composite of cardiovascular death, myocardial infarction, or ischemic stroke. Hospitalization for heart failure was a predefined component of the secondary endpoint. Baseline NT-proBNP was measured in 12,301 patients. More patients treated with saxagliptin (289, 3.5%) were hospitalized for heart failure compared to placebo (228, 2.8%) (HR 1.27; 95%CI 1.07-1.51; p=0.007). Corresponding rates at 12-months were 1.9% vs.1.3% (HR 1.46, 95%CI 1.15-1.88, p=0.002, with no significant difference thereafter time-varying interaction
p=0.017). Subjects at greatest risk for hospitalization for heart failure had prior heart failure, EGFR < 60 ml/min and/or elevated baseline levels of NT-proBNP. There was no evidence of heterogeneity between NT-proBNP and saxagliptin (p for interaction=0.46), though the absolute risk excess for heart failure with saxagliptin was greatest in the highest NT-proBNP quartile (2.1%). Even in patients at high-risk for hospitalization for heart failure, the risk of the primary and secondary endpoints were similar between treatment groups. Conclusions—In the context of balanced primary and secondary endpoints, saxagliptin treatment was associated with an increased risk for hospitalization for heart failure. This increase in risk was highest among patients with elevated levels of natriuretic peptides, prior heart failure, or chronic kidney disease.
Angiotensin 1–7 improves insulin sensitivity by increasing skeletal muscle glucose uptake in vivo

Omar Echeverría-Rodríguez, Leonardo Del Valle-Mondragón, Enrique Hong
Peptides 51 (2014) 26– 30 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2013.10.022

The renin–angiotensin system (RAS) regulates skeletal muscle insulin sensitivity through different mechanisms. The overactivation of the ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme)/Ang (angiotensin) II/AT1R (Ang IItype 1 receptor) axis has been associated with the development of insulin resistance, whereas the stimulation of the ACE2/Ang 1–7/MasR (Mas receptor) axis improves insulin sensitivity. The in vivo mechanismsby which this axis enhances skeletal muscle insulin sensitivity are scarcely known. In this work, we investigated whether rat soleus muscle expresses the ACE2/Ang 1–7/MasR axis and determined the effect ofAng 1–7 on rat skeletal muscle glucose uptake in vivo. Western blot analysis revealed the expression ofACE2 and MasR, while Ang 1–7 levels were detected in rat soleus muscle by capillary zone electrophoresis. The euglycemic clamp exhibited that Ang 1–7 by itself did not promote glucose transport, but itincreased insulin-stimulated glucose disposal in the rat. In a similar manner, captopril (an ACE inhibitor) enhanced insulin-induced glucose uptake and this effect was blocked by the MasR antagonist A-779. Our results show for the first time that rat soleus muscle expresses the ACE2/Ang 1–7/MasR axis of the RAS,and Ang 1–7 improves insulin sensitivity by enhancing insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in rat skeletal muscle in vivo. Thus, endogenous (systemic and/or local) Ang 1–7 could regulate insulin-mediated glucose transport in vivo.

Evolving concepts in advanced glycation, diabetic nephropathy, and diabetic vascular disease

George Jerums, S Panagiotopoulos, J Forbes, T Osicka, and Mark Cooper
Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 419 (2003) 55–62
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.abb.2003.08.017

Advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) have been postulated to play a role in the development of both nephropathy and large vessel disease in diabetes. However, it is still not clear which AGE subtypes play a pathogenetic role and which of several AGE receptors mediate AGE effects on cells. This review summarises the renoprotective effect of inhibitors of AGE formation, including aminoguanidine, and of cross-link breakers, including ALT-711, on experimental diabetic nephropathy and on mesenteric vascular hypertrophy. It also demonstrates similar effects of aminoguanidine and ramipril (an angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor) on fluorescent and immunoassayable AGE levels, renal protein kinase C activity, nitrotyrosine expression, lysosomal function, and protein handling in experimental diabetes. These findings indicate that inhibition of the renin angiotensin system blocks both upstream and downstream pathways leading to tissue injury. We postulate that the chemical pathways leading to advanced glycation endproduct formation and the renin angiotensin systems may interact through the generation of free radicals, induced both by glucose and angiotensin II. There is also evidence to suggest that AGE-dependent pathways may play a role in the development of tubulointerstitial fibrosis in the diabetic kidney. This effect is mediated through RAGE and is TGF-b and CTGF-dependent.

Preconditioning with Associated Blocking of Ca2+ Inflow Alleviates Hypoxia-Induced Damage to Pancreatic β-Cells

Zuheng Ma, Noah Moruzzi, Sergiu-Bogdan Catrina, Ingrid Hals, et al.
PLoS ONE 8(7): e67498. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1371/journal.pone.0067498

Objective: Beta cells of pancreatic islets are susceptible to functional deficits and damage by hypoxia. Here we aimed to characterize such effects and to test for and pharmacological means to alleviate a negative impact of hypoxia. Methods and Design: Rat and human pancreatic islets were subjected to 5.5 h of hypoxia after which functional and viability parameters were measured subsequent to the hypoxic period and/or following a 22 h re-oxygenation period. Preconditioning with diazoxide or other agents was usually done during a 22 h period prior to hypoxia. Results: Insulin contents decreased by 23% after 5.5 h of hypoxia and by 61% after a re-oxygenation period. Preconditioning with diazoxide time-dependently alleviated these hypoxia effects in rat and human islets. Hypoxia reduced proinsulin biosynthesis (3H-leucine incorporation into proinsulin) by 35%. Preconditioning counteracted this decrease by 91%. Preconditioning reduced hypoxia-induced necrosis by 40%, attenuated lowering of proteins of mitochondrial complexes I–IV and enhanced stimulation of HIF-1-alpha and phosphorylated AMPK proteins. Preconditioning by diazoxide was abolished by co-exposure to tolbutamide or elevated potassium (i.e. conditions which increase Ca2+ inflow). Preconditioning with nifedipine, a calcium channel blocker, partly reproduced effects of diazoxide. Both diazoxide and nifedipine moderately reduced basal glucose oxidation whereas glucose-induced oxygen consumption (tested with diazoxide) was unaffected. Preconditioning with diaxoxide enhanced insulin contents in transplants of rat islets to nondiabetic rats and lowered hyperglycemia vs. non-preconditioned islets in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Preconditioning of human islet transplants lowered hyperglycemia in streptozotocin-diabetic nude mice.
Conclusions:
1) Prior blocking of Ca2+ inflow associates with lesser hypoxia-induced damage,
2) preconditioning affects basal mitochondrial metabolism and accelerates activation of hypoxia-reactive and potentially protective factors,
3) results indicate that preconditioning by K+-ATP-channel openers has therapeutic potential for islet transplantations.

Read Full Post »

The Evolution of Clinical Chemistry in the 20th Century

Posted in Academic Publishing, Acute Myocardial Infarction, Biomarkers & Medical Diagnostics, Bone Disease and Musculoskeletal Disease, Calcium, Cardiomyopathy, Cardiovascular Pharmacogenomics, Cardiovascular Research, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Clinical Diagnostics, Diabetes Mellitus, Diagnostic Immunology, Drug Toxicity, Enzymes and isoenzymes, Historical relevance, Immunodiagnostics, Intellectual Property, Interviews with Scientific Leaders, Lipids, Liver & Digestive Diseases Research, Mass automation of plasma proteins, Random Error, Statistical Methods for Research Evaluation, Systematic Error (Bias), Technology Advance Assessment of, tagged automation, Clinical chemistry, diagnostics, laboratory medicine on December 13, 2014| Leave a Comment »

The Evolution of Clinical Chemistry in the 20th Century

Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Article ID #164: The Evolution of Clinical Chemistry in the 20th Century. Published on 12/13/2014

WordCloud Image Produced by Adam Tubman

This is a subchapter in the series on developments in diagnostics in the period from 1880 to 1980.

Otto Folin: America’s First Clinical Biochemist

(Extracted from Samuel Meites, AACC History Division; Apr 1996)

Forward by Wendell T. Caraway, PhD.

The first introduction to Folin comes with the Folin-Wu protein-free filktrate, a technique for removing proteins from whole blood or plasma that resulted in water-clear solutions suitable for the determination of glucose, creatinine, uric acid, non-protein nitrogen, and chloride. The major active ingredient used in the precipitation of protein was sodium tungstate prepared “according to Folin”.Folin-Wu sugar tubes were used for the determination of glucose. From these and subsequent encounters, we learned that Folin was a pioneer in methods for the chemical analysis of blood. The determination of uric acid in serum was the Benedict method in which protein-free filtrate was mixed with solutions of sodium cyanide and arsenophosphotungstic acid and then heated in a water bath to develop a blue color. A thorough review of the literature revealed that Folin and Denis had published, in 1912, a method for uric acid in which they used sodium carbonate, rather than sodium cyanide, which was modified and largely superceded the “cyanide”method.

Notes from the author.

Modern clinical chemistry began with the application of 20th century quantitative analysis and instrumentation to measure constituents of blood and urine, and relating the values obtained to human health and disease. In the United States, the first impetus propelling this new area of biochemistry was provided by the 1912 papers of Otto Folin. The only precedent for these stimulating findings was his own earlier and certainly classic papers on the quantitative compositiuon of urine, the laws governing its composition, and studies on the catabolic end products of protein, which led to his ingenious concept of endogenous and exogenous metabolism. He had already determined blood ammonia in 1902. This work preceded the entry of Stanley Benedict and Donald Van Slyke into biochemistry. Once all three of them were active contributors, the future of clinical biochemistry was ensured. Those who would consult the early volumes of the Journal of Biological Chemistry will discover the direction that the work of Otto Follin gave to biochemistry. This modest, unobstrusive man of Harvard was a powerful stimulus and inspiration to others.

Quantitatively, in the years of his scientific productivity, 1897-1934, Otto Folin published 151 (+ 1) journal articles including a chapter in Aberhalden’s handbook and one in Hammarsten’s Festschrift, but excluding his doctoral dissertation, his published abstracts, and several articles in the proceedings of the Association of Life Insurance Directors of America. He also wrote one monograph on food preservatives and produced five editions of his laboratory manual. He published four articles while studying in Europe (1896-98), 28 while at the McLean Hospital (1900-7), and 119 at Harvard (1908-34). In his banner year of 1912 he published 20 papers. His peak period from 1912-15 included 15 papers, the monograph, and most of the work on the first edition of his laboratory manual.

The quality of Otto Folin’s life’s work relates to its impact on biochemistry, particularly clinical biochemistry. Otto’s two brilliant collaborators, Willey Denis and Hsien Wu, must be acknowledged. Without denis, Otto could not have achieved so rapidly the introduction and popularization of modern blood analysis in the U.S. It would be pointless to conjecture how far Otto would have progressed without this pair.

His work provided the basis of the modern approach to the quantitative analysis of blood and urine through improved methods that reduced the body fluid volume required for analysis. He also applied these methods to metabolic studies on tissues as well as body fluids. Because his interests lay in protein metabolism, his major contributions were directede toward measuring nitrogenous waste or end products.His most dramatic achievement was is illustrated by the study of blood nitrogen retention in nephritis and gout.

Folin introduced colorimetry, turbidimetry, and the use of color filters into quantitative clinical biochemistry. He initiated and applied ingeniously conceived reagents and chemical reactions that paved the way for a host of studies by his contemporaries. He introduced the use of phosphomolybdate for detecting phenolic compounds, and phosphomolybdate for uric acid. These, in turn, led to the quantitation of epinephrine and tyrosin tryptophane, and cystine in protein. The molybdate suggested to Fiske and SubbaRow the determination of phosphate as phosphomolybdate, and the tungsten led to the use of tungstic acid as a protein precipitant. Phosphomolybdate became the key reagent in thge blood sugar method. Folin resurrected the abandoned Jaffe reaction and established creatine and creatinine analysis. He also laid the groundwork for the discovery of the discovery of creatine phosphate. Clinical chemistry owes to him the introductionb of Nessler’s reagent, permutit, Lloyd’s reagent, gum ghatti, and preservatives for standards, such as benzoic acid and formaldehyde. Among his distinguished graduate investigators were Bloor, Doisy, fiske, Shaffer, SubbaRow, Sumner and, Wu.

A Golden Age of Clinical Chemistry: 1948–1960

Louis Rosenfeld
Clinical Chemistry 2000; 46(10): 1705–1714

The 12 years from 1948 to 1960 were notable for introduction of the Vacutainer
tube, electrophoresis, radioimmunoassay, and the Auto-Analyzer. Also
appearing during this interval were new organizations, publications, programs,
and services that established a firm foundation for the professional status
of clinical chemists. It was a golden age.
Except for photoelectric colorimeters, the clinical chemistry laboratories
in 1948—and in many places even later—were not very different from
those of 1925. The basic technology and equipment were essentially
unchanged.There was lots of glassware of different kinds—pipettes,
burettes, wooden racks of test tubes, funnels, filter paper,
cylinders, flasks, and beakers—as well as visual colorimeters,
centrifuges, water baths, an exhaust hood for evaporating organic
solvents after extractions, a microscope for examining urine
sediments, a double-pan analytical beam balance for weighing
reagents and standard chemicals, and perhaps a pH meter. The
most complicated apparatus was the Van Slyke volumetric gas
device—manually operated. The emphasis was on classical chemical
and biological techniques that did not require instrumentation.
The unparalleled growth and wide-ranging research that began after
World War II and have continued into the new century, often aided by
government funding for biomedical research and development as civilian
health has become a major national goal, have impacted the operations
of the clinical chemistry laboratory. The years from 1948 to 1960 were
especially notable for the innovative technology that produced better
methods for the investigation of many diseases, in many cases
leading to better treatment.

AUTOMATION IN CLINICAL CHEMISTRY: CURRENT SUCCESSES AND TRENDS
FOR THE FUTURE
Pierangelo Bonini
Pure & Appl.Chem.,1982;.54, (11):, 2Ol7—2O3O,

the history of automation in clinical chemistry is the history of how and
when the techno logical progress in the field of analytical methodology
as well as in the field of instrumentation, has helped clinical chemists
to mechanize their procedures and to control them.

GENERAL STEPS OF A CLINICAL CHEMISTRY PROCEDURE –
1 – PRELIMINARY TREATMENT (DEPR0TEINIZATION)
2 – SAMPLE + REAGENT(S)
3 – INCUBATION
L – READING
5 – CALCULATION
Fig. 1 General steps of a clinical chemistry procedure
Especially in the classic clinical chemistry methods, a preliminary treatment
of the sample ( in most cases a deproteinization) was an essential step. This
was a major constraint on the first tentative steps in automation and we will
see how this problem was faced and which new problems arose from avoiding
deproteinization. Mixing samples and reagents is the next step; then there is
a more or less long incubation at different temperatures and finally reading,
which means detection of modifications of some physical property of the
mixture; in most cases the development of a colour can reveal the reaction
but, as well known, many other possibilities exist; finally the result is calculated.

Some 25 years ago, Skeggs (1) presented his paper on continuous flow
automation that was the basis of very successful instruments still used all over
the world. The continuous flow automation reactions take place in an hydraulic
route common to all samples.them after mechanization.

Standards and samples enter the analytical stream segmented by air bubbles
and, as they circulate, specific chemical reactions and physical manipulations
continuously take place in the stream. Finally, after the air bubbles are vented,
the colour intensity, proportional to the solute molecules, is monitored in a
detector flow cell.

It is evident that the most important aim of automation is to correctly process
as many samples in as short a time as possible. This result can be obtained
thanks to many technological advances either from analytical point of view or
from the instrument technology.

ANALYTICAL METHODOLOGY –
– VERY ACTIVE ENZYMATIC REAGENTS
– SHORTER REACTION TIME
– KINETIC AND FIXED TIME REACTIONS
– No NEED OF DEPROTEINIZATION
– SURFACTANTS
– AUTOMATIC SAtIPLE BLANK CALCULATION
– POLYCHROMATIC ANALYSIS

The introduction of very active enzymatic reagents for determination of
substrates resulted in shorter reaction times and possibly, in many cases,
of avoiding deproteinization.Reaction times are also reduced by using kinetic
and fixed time reactions instead of end points. In this case, the measurement
of sample blank does not need a separate tube with separate reaction
mixture. Deproteinization can be avoided also by using some surfac—
tants in the reagent mixture. An automatic calculation of sample blanks
is also possible by using polychromatic analysis. As we can see from this
figure, reduction of reaction times and elimination of tedious ope
rations like deproteinization, are the main results of this analytical progress.

Many relevant improvements in mechanics and optics over the last
twenty years and the tremendous advance in electronics have largely
contributed to the instrumental improvement of clinical chemistry automation.

A recent interesting innovation in the field of centrifugal analyzers consists
in the possibility of adding another reagent to an already mixed sample—
reagent solution. This innovation allows a preincubation to be made and
sample blanks to be read before adding the starter reagent.
The possibility to measure absorbances in cuvettes positioned longitudinally
to the light path, realized in a recent model of centrifugal analyzers, is claimed
to be advantageous to read absorbances in non homogeneous solutions, to
avoid any influence of reagent volume errors on the absorbance and to have
more suitable calculation factors. The interest of fluorimetric assays is
growing more and more, especially in connection with drugs immunofluorimetric
assays. This technology has been recently applied also to centrifugal analyzers
technology. A Xenon lamp generates a high energy light, reflected by a mirror
— holographic — grating operated by a stepping motor.
The selected wavelength of the exciting light passes through a split and
reaches the rotating cuvettes. Fluorescence is then filtered, read by
means of a photomultiplier and compared to the continuously monitored
fluorescence of an appropriate reference compound. In this way, eventual
instability due either to the electro—optical devices or to changes in
physicochemical properties of solution is corrected.

…more…

Dr. Yellapragada Subbarow – ATP – Energy for Life

One of the observations Dr SubbaRow made while testing the phosphorus method seemed to provide a clue to the mystery what happens to blood sugar when insulin is administered. Biochemists began investigating the problem when Frederick Banting showed that injections of insulin, the pancreatic hormone, keeps blood sugar under control and keeps diabetics alive.

SubbaRow worked for 18 months on the problem, often dieting and starving along with animals used in experiments. But the initial observations were finally shown to be neither significant nor unique and the project had to be scrapped in September 1926.

Out of the ashes of this project however arose another project that provided the key to the ancient mystery of muscular contraction. Living organisms resist degeneration and destruction with the help of muscles, and biochemists had long believed that a hypothetical inogen provided the energy required for the flexing of muscles at work.

Two researchers at Cambridge University in United Kingdom confirmed that lactic acid is formed when muscles contract and Otto Meyerhof of Germany showed that this lactic acid is a breakdown product of glycogen, the animal starch stored all over the body, particularly in liver, kidneys and muscles. When Professor Archibald Hill of the University College of London demonstrated that conversion of glycogen to lactic acid partly accounts for heat produced during muscle contraction everybody assumed that glycogen was the inogen. And, the 1922 Nobel Prize for medicine and physiology was divided between Hill and Meyerhof.

But how is glycogen converted to lactic acid? Embden, another German biochemist, advanced the hypothesis that blood sugar and phosphorus combine to form a hexose phosphoric ester which breaks down glycogen in the muscle to lactic acid.

In the midst of the insulin experiments, it occurred to Fiske and SubbaRow that Embden’s hypothesis would be supported if normal persons were found to have more hexose phosphate in their muscle and liver than diabetics. For diabetes is the failure of the body to use sugar. There would be little reaction between sugar and phosphorus in a diabetic body. If Embden was right, hexose (sugar) phosphate level in the muscle and liver of diabetic animals should rise when insulin is injected.

Fiske and SubbaRow rendered some animals diabetic by removing their pancreas in the spring of 1926, but they could not record any rise in the organic phosphorus content of muscles or livers after insulin was administered to the animals. Sugar phosphates were indeed produced in their animals but they were converted so quickly by enzymes to lactic acid that Fiske and SubbaRow could not detect them with methods then available. This was fortunate for science because, in their mistaken belief that Embden was wrong, they began that summer an extensive study of organic phosphorus compounds in the muscle “to repudiate Meyerhof completely”.

The departmental budget was so poor that SubbaRow often waited on the back streets of Harvard Medical School at night to capture cats he needed for the experiments. When he prepared the cat muscles for estimating their phosphorus content, SubbaRow found he could not get a constant reading in the colorimeter. The intensity of the blue colour went on rising for thirty minutes. Was there something in muscle which delayed the colour reaction? If yes, the time for full colour development should increase with the increase in the quantity of the sample. But the delay was not greater when the sample was 10 c.c. instead of 5 c.c. The only other possibility was that muscle had an organic compound which liberated phosphorus as the reaction in the colorimeter proceeded. This indeed was the case, it turned out. It took a whole year.

The mysterious colour delaying substance was a compound of phosphoric acid and creatine and was named Phosphocreatine. It accounted for two-thirds of the phosphorus in the resting muscle. When they put muscle to work by electric stimulation, the Phosphocreatine level fell and the inorganic phosphorus level rose correspondingly. It completely disappeared when they cut off the blood supply and drove the muscle to the point of “fatigue” by continued electric stimulation. And, presto! It reappeared when the fatigued muscle was allowed a period of rest.

Phosphocreatine created a stir among the scientists present when Fiske unveiled it before the American Society of Biological Chemists at Rochester in April 1927. The Journal of American Medical Association hailed the discovery in an editorial. The Rockefeller Foundation awarded a fellowship that helped SubbaRow to live comfortably for the first time since his arrival in the United States. All of Harvard Medical School was caught up with an enthusiasm that would be a life-time memory for contemporary students. The students were in awe of the medium-sized, slightly stoop shouldered, “coloured” man regarded as one of the School’s top research workers.

SubbaRow’s carefully conducted series of experiments disproved Meyerhof’s assumptions about the glycogen-lactic acid cycle. His calculations fully accounted for the heat output during muscle contraction. Hill had not been able to fully account for this in terms of Meyerhof’s theory. Clearly the Nobel Committee was in haste in awarding the 1922 physiology prize, but the biochemistry orthodoxy led by Meyerhof and Hill themselves was not too eager to give up their belief in glycogen as the prime source of muscular energy.

Fiske and SubbaRow were fully upheld and the Meyerhof-Hill theory finally rejected in 1930 when a Danish physiologist showed that muscles can work to exhaustion without the aid of glycogen or the stimulation of lactic acid.

Fiske and SubbaRow had meanwhile followed a substance that was formed by the combination of phosphorus, liberated from Phosphocreatine, with an unidentified compound in muscle. SubbaRow isolated it and identified it as a chemical in which adenylic acid was linked to two extra molecules of phosphoric acid. By the time he completed the work to the satisfaction of Fiske, it was August 1929 when Harvard Medical School played host to the 13th International Physiological Congress.

ATP was presented to the gathered scientists before the Congress ended. To the dismay of Fiske and SubbaRow, a few days later arrived in Boston a German science journal, published 16 days before the Congress opened. It carried a letter from Karl Lohmann of Meyerhof’s laboratory, saying he had isolated from muscle a compound of adenylic acid linked to two molecules of phosphoric acid!

While Archibald Hill never adjusted himself to the idea that the basis of his Nobel Prize work had been demolished, Otto Meyerhof and his associates had seen the importance of Phosphocreatine discovery and plunged themselves into follow-up studies in competition with Fiske and SubbaRow. Two associates of Hill had in fact stumbled upon Phosphocreatine about the same time as Fiske and SubbaRow but their loyalty to Meyerhof-Hill theory acted as blinkers and their hasty and premature publications reveal their confusion about both the nature and significance of Phosphocreatine.

The discovery of ATP and its significance helped reveal the full story of muscular contraction: Glycogen arriving in muscle gets converted into lactic acid which is siphoned off to liver for re-synthesis of glycogen. This cycle yields three molecules of ATP and is important in delivering usable food energy to the muscle. Glycolysis or break up of glycogen is relatively slow in getting started and in any case muscle can retain ATP only in small quantities. In the interval between the beginning of muscle activity and the arrival of fresh ATP from glycolysis, Phosphocreatine maintains ATP supply by re-synthesizing it as fast as its energy terminals are used up by muscle for its activity.

Muscular contraction made possible by ATP helps us not only to move our limbs and lift weights but keeps us alive. The heart is after all a muscle pouch and millions of muscle cells embedded in the walls of arteries keep the life-sustaining blood pumped by the heart coursing through body organs. ATP even helps get new life started by powering the sperm’s motion toward the egg as well as the spectacular transformation of the fertilized egg in the womb.

Archibald Hill for long denied any role for ATP in muscle contraction, saying ATP has not been shown to break down in the intact muscle. This objection was also met in 1962 when University of Pennsylvania scientists showed that muscles can contract and relax normally even when glycogen and Phosphocreatine are kept under check with an inhibitor.

Michael Somogyi

Michael Somogyi was born in Reinsdorf, Austria-Hungary, in 1883. He received a degree in chemical engineering from the University of Budapest, and after spending some time there as a graduate assistant in biochemistry, he immigrated to the United States. From 1906 to 1908 he was an assistant in biochemistry at Cornell University.

Returning to his native land in 1908, he became head of the Municipal Laboratory in Budapest, and in 1914 he was granted his Ph.D. After World War I, the politically unstable situation in his homeland led him to return to the United States where he took a job as an instructor in biochemistry at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri. While there he assisted Philip A. Shaffer and Edward Adelbert Doisy, Sr., a future Nobel Prize recipient, in developing a new method for the preparation of insulin in sufficiently large amounts and of sufficient purity to make it a viable treatment for diabetes. This early work with insulin helped foster Somogyi’s lifelong interest in the treatment and cure of diabetes. He was the first biochemist appointed to the staff of the newly opened Jewish Hospital, and he remained there as the director of their clinical laboratory until his retirement in 1957.

Arterial Blood Gases. Van Slyke.

The test is used to determine the pH of the blood, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and oxygen, and the bicarbonate level. Many blood gas analyzers will also report concentrations of lactate, hemoglobin, several electrolytes, oxyhemoglobin, carboxyhemoglobin and methemoglobin. ABG testing is mainly used in pulmonology and critical care medicine to determine gas exchange which reflect gas exchange across the alveolar-capillary membrane.

DONALD DEXTER VAN SLYKE died on May 4, 1971, after a long and productive career that spanned three generations of biochemists and physicians. He left behind not only a bibliography of 317 journal publications and 5 books, but also more than 100 persons who had worked with him and distinguished themselves in biochemistry and academic medicine. His doctoral thesis, with Gomberg at University of Michigan was published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society in 1907. Van Slyke received an invitation from Dr. Simon Flexner, Director of the Rockefeller Institute, to come to New York for an interview. In 1911 he spent a year in Berlin with Emil Fischer, who was then the leading chemist of the scientific world. He was particularly impressed by Fischer’s performing all laboratory operations quantitatively —a procedure Van followed throughout his life. Prior to going to Berlin, he published the classic nitrous acid method for the quantitative determination of primary aliphatic amino groups, the first of the many gasometric procedures devised by Van Slyke, and made possible the determination of amino acids. It was the primary method used to study amino acid composition of proteins for years before chromatography. Thus, his first seven postdoctoral years were centered around the development of better methodology for protein composition and amino acid metabolism.

With his colleague G. M. Meyer, he first demonstrated that amino acids, liberated during digestion in the intestine, are absorbed into the bloodstream, that they are removed by the tissues, and that the liver alone possesses the ability to convert the amino acid nitrogen into urea. From the study of the kinetics of urease action, Van Slyke and Cullen developed equations that depended upon two reactions: (1) the combination of enzyme and substrate in stoichiometric proportions and (2) the reaction of the combination into the end products. Published in 1914, this formulation, involving two velocity constants, was similar to that arrived at contemporaneously by Michaelis and Menten in Germany in 1913.

He transferred to the Rockefeller Institute’s Hospital in 2013, under Dr. Rufus Cole, where “Men who were studying disease clinically had the right to go as deeply into its fundamental nature as their training allowed, and in the Rockefeller Institute’s Hospital every man who was caring for patients should also be engaged in more fundamental study”. The study of diabetes was already under way by Dr. F. M. Allen, but patients inevitably died of acidosis. Van Slyke reasoned that if incomplete oxidation of fatty acids in the body led to the accumulation of acetoacetic and beta-hydroxybutyric acids in the blood, then a reaction would result between these acids and the bicarbonate ions that would lead to a lower than-normal bicarbonate concentration in blood plasma. The problem thus became one of devising an analytical method that would permit the quantitative determination of bicarbonate concentration in small amounts of blood plasma. He ingeniously devised a volumetric glass apparatus that was easy to use and required less than ten minutes for the determination of the total carbon dioxide in one cubic centimeter of plasma. It also was soon found to be an excellent apparatus by which to determine blood oxygen concentrations, thus leading to measurements of the percentage saturation of blood hemoglobin with oxygen. This found extensive application in the study of respiratory diseases, such as pneumonia and tuberculosis. It also led to the quantitative study of cyanosis and a monograph on the subject by C. Lundsgaard and Van Slyke.

In all, Van Slyke and his colleagues published twenty-one papers under the general title “Studies of Acidosis,” beginning in 1917 and ending in 1934. They included not only chemical manifestations of acidosis, but Van Slyke, in No. 17 of the series (1921), elaborated and expanded the subject to describe in chemical terms the normal and abnormal variations in the acid-base balance of the blood. This was a landmark in understanding acid-base balance pathology. Within seven years after Van moved to the Hospital, he had published a total of fifty-three papers, thirty-three of them coauthored with clinical colleagues.

In 1920, Van Slyke and his colleagues undertook a comprehensive investigation of gas and electrolyte equilibria in blood. McLean and Henderson at Harvard had made preliminary studies of blood as a physico-chemical system, but realized that Van Slyke and his colleagues at the Rockefeller Hospital had superior techniques and the facilities necessary for such an undertaking. A collaboration thereupon began between the two laboratories, which resulted in rapid progress toward an exact physico-chemical description of the role of hemoglobin in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide, of the distribution of diffusible ions and water between erythrocytes and plasma, and of factors such as degree of oxygenation of hemoglobin and hydrogen ion concentration that modified these distributions. In this Van Slyke revised his volumetric gas analysis apparatus into a manometric method. The manometric apparatus proved to give results that were from five to ten times more accurate.

A series of papers on the CO2 titration curves of oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin, of oxygenated and reduced whole blood, and of blood subjected to different degrees of oxygenation and on the distribution of diffusible ions in blood resulted. These developed equations that predicted the change in distribution of water and diffusible ions between blood plasma and blood cells when there was a change in pH of the oxygenated blood. A significant contribution of Van Slyke and his colleagues was the application of the Gibbs-Donnan Law to the blood—regarded as a two-phase system, in which one phase (the erythrocytes) contained a high concentration of nondiffusible negative ions, i.e., those associated with hemoglobin, and cations, which were not freely exchaThe importance of Vanngeable between cells and plasma. By changing the pH through varying the CO2 tension, the concentration of negative hemoglobin charges changed in a predictable amount. This, in turn, changed the distribution of diffusible anions such as Cl” and HCO3″ in order to restore the Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium. Redistribution of water occurred to restore osmotic equilibrium. The experimental results confirmed the predictions of the equations.

As a spin-off from the physico-chemical study of the blood, Van undertook, in 1922, to put the concept of buffer value of weak electrolytes on a mathematically exact basis.

This proved to be useful in determining buffer values of mixed, polyvalent, and amphoteric electrolytes, and put the understanding of buffering on a quantitative basis. A monograph in Medicine entitled “Observation on the Courses of Different Types of Bright’s Disease, and on the Resultant Changes in Renal Anatomy,” was a landmark that related the changes occurring at different stages of renal deterioration to the quantitative changes taking place in kidney function. During this period, Van Slyke and R. M. Archibald identified glutamine as the source of urinary ammonia. During World War II, Van and his colleagues documented the effect of shock on renal function and, with R. A. Phillips, developed a simple method, based on specific gravity, suitable for use in the field.

Over 100 of Van’s 300 publications were devoted to methodology. The importance of Van Slyke’s contribution to clinical chemical methodology cannot be overestimated. These included the blood organic constituents (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, amino acids, urea, nonprotein nitrogen, and phospholipids) and the inorganic constituents (total cations, calcium, chlorides, phosphate, and the gases carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen). It was said that a Van Slyke manometric apparatus was almost all the special equipment needed to perform most of the clinical chemical analyses customarily performed prior to the introduction of photocolorimeters and spectrophotometers for such determinations.

The progress made in the medical sciences in genetics, immunology, endocrinology, and antibiotics during the second half of the twentieth century obscures at times the progress that was made in basic and necessary biochemical knowledge during the first half. Methods capable of giving accurate quantitative chemical information on biological material had to be painstakingly devised; basic questions on chemical behavior and metabolism had to be answered; and, finally, those factors that adversely modified the normal chemical reactions in the body so that abnormal conditions arise that we characterize as disease states had to be identified.

Viewed in retrospect, he combined in one scientific lifetime (1) basic contributions to the chemistry of body constituents and their chemical behavior in the body, (2) a chemical understanding of physiological functions of certain organ systems (notably the respiratory and renal), and (3) how such information could be exploited in the understanding and treatment of disease. That outstanding additions to knowledge in all three categories were possible was in large measure due to his sound and broadly based chemical preparation, his ingenuity in devising means of accurate measurements of chemical constituents, and the opportunity given him at the Hospital of the Rockefeller Institute to study disease in company with physicians.

In addition, he found time to work collaboratively with Dr. John P. Peters of Yale on the classic, two-volume Quantitative Clinical Chemistry. In 1922, John P. Peters, who had just gone to Yale from Van Slyke’s laboratory as an Associate Professor of Medicine, was asked by a publisher to write a modest handbook for clinicians describing useful chemical methods and discussing their application to clinical problems. It was originally to be called “Quantitative Chemistry in Clinical Medicine.” He soon found that it was going to be a bigger job than he could handle alone and asked Van Slyke to join him in writing it. Van agreed, and the two men proceeded to draw up an outline and divide up the writing of the first drafts of the chapters between them. They also agreed to exchange each chapter until it met the satisfaction of both.At the time it was published in 1931, it contained practically all that could be stated with confidence about those aspects of disease that could be and had been studied by chemical means. It was widely accepted throughout the medical world as the “Bible” of quantitative clinical chemistry, and to this day some of the chapters have not become outdated.

Paul Flory

Paul J. Flory was born in Sterling, Illinois, in 1910. He attended Manchester College, an institution for which he retained an abiding affection. He did his graduate work at Ohio State University, earning his Ph.D. in 1934. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1974, largely for his work in the area of the physical chemistry of macromolecules.

Flory worked as a newly minted Ph.D. for the DuPont Company in the Central Research Department with Wallace H. Carothers. This early experience with practical research instilled in Flory a lifelong appreciation for the value of industrial application. His work with the Air Force Office of Strategic Research and his later support for the Industrial Affiliates program at Stanford University demonstrated his belief in the need for theory and practice to work hand-in-hand.

Following the death of Carothers in 1937, Flory joined the University of Cincinnati’s Basic Science Research Laboratory. After the war Flory taught at Cornell University from 1948 until 1957, when he became executive director of the Mellon Institute. In 1961 he joined the chemistry faculty at Stanford, where he would remain until his retirement.

Among the high points of Flory’s years at Stanford were his receipt of the National Medal of Science (1974), the Priestley Award (1974), the J. Willard Gibbs Medal (1973), the Peter Debye Award in Physical Chemistry (1969), and the Charles Goodyear Medal (1968). He also traveled extensively, including working tours to the U.S.S.R. and the People’s Republic of China.

Abraham Savitzky

Abraham Savitzky was born on May 29, 1919, in New York City. He received his bachelor’s degree from the New York State College for Teachers in 1941. After serving in the U.S. Air Force during World War II, he obtained a master’s degree in 1947 and a Ph.D. in 1949 in physical chemistry from Columbia University.

In 1950, after working at Columbia for a year, he began a long career with the Perkin-Elmer Corporation. Savitzky started with Perkin-Elmer as a staff scientist who was chiefly concerned with the design and development of infrared instruments. By 1956 he was named Perkin-Elmer’s new product coordinator for the Instrument Division, and as the years passed, he continued to gain more and more recognition for his work in the company. Most of his work with Perkin-Elmer focused on computer-aided analytical chemistry, data reduction, infrared spectroscopy, time-sharing systems, and computer plotting. He retired from Perkin-Elmer in 1985.

Abraham Savitzky holds seven U.S. patents pertaining to computerization and chemical apparatus. During his long career he presented numerous papers and wrote several manuscripts, including “Smoothing and Differentiation of Data by Simplified Least Squares Procedures.” This paper, which is the collaborative effort of Savitzky and Marcel J. E. Golay, was published in volume 36 of Analytical Chemistry, July 1964. It is one of the most famous, respected, and heavily cited articles in its field. In recognition of his many significant accomplishments in the field of analytical chemistry and computer science, Savitzky received the Society of Applied Spectroscopy Award in 1983 and the Williams-Wright Award from the Coblenz Society in 1986.

Samuel Natelson

Samuel Natelson attended City College of New York and received his B.S. in chemistry in 1928. As a graduate student, Natelson attended New York University, receiving a Sc.M. in 1930 and his Ph.D. in 1931. After receiving his Ph.D., he began his career teaching at Girls Commercial High School. While maintaining his teaching position, Natelson joined the Jewish Hospital of Brooklyn in 1933. Working as a clinical chemist for Jewish Hospital, Natelson first conceived of the idea of a society by and for clinical chemists. Natelson worked to organize the nine charter members of the American Association of Clinical Chemists, which formally began in 1948. A pioneer in the field of clinical chemistry, Samuel Natelson has become a role model for the clinical chemist. Natelson developed the usage of microtechniques in clinical chemistry. During this period, he served as a consultant to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration in the 1960s, helping analyze the effect of weightless atmospheres on astronauts’ blood. Natelson spent his later career as chair of the biochemistry department at Michael Reese Hospital and as a lecturer at the Illinois Institute of Technology.

Arnold Beckman

Arnold Orville Beckman (April 10, 1900 – May 18, 2004) was an American chemist, inventor, investor, and philanthropist. While a professor at Caltech, he founded Beckman Instruments based on his 1934 invention of the pH meter, a device for measuring acidity, later considered to have “revolutionized the study of chemistry and biology”.[1] He also developed the DU spectrophotometer, “probably the most important instrument ever developed towards the advancement of bioscience”.[2] Beckman funded the first transistor company, thus giving rise to Silicon Valley.[3]

He earned his bachelor’s degree in chemical engineering in 1922 and his master’s degree in physical chemistry in 1923. For his master’s degree he studied the thermodynamics of aqueous ammonia solutions, a subject introduced to him by T. A. White.. Beckman decided to go to Caltech for his doctorate. He stayed there for a year, before returning to New York to be near his fiancée, Mabel. He found a job with Western Electric’s engineering department, the precursor to the Bell Telephone Laboratories. Working with Walter A. Shewhart, Beckman developed quality control programs for the manufacture of vacuum tubes and learned about circuit design. It was here that Beckman discovered his interest in electronics.

In 1926 the couple moved back to California and Beckman resumed his studies at Caltech. He became interested in ultraviolet photolysis and worked with his doctoral advisor, Roscoe G. Dickinson, on an instrument to find the energy of ultraviolet light. It worked by shining the ultraviolet light onto a thermocouple, converting the incident heat into electricity, which drove a galvanometer. After receiving a Ph.D. in photochemistry in 1928 for this application of quantum theory to chemical reactions, Beckman was asked to stay on at Caltech as an instructor and then as a professor. Linus Pauling, another of Roscoe G. Dickinson’s graduate students, was also asked to stay on at Caltech.

During his time at Caltech, Beckman was active in teaching at both the introductory and advanced graduate levels. Beckman shared his expertise in glass-blowing by teaching classes in the machine shop. He also taught classes in the design and use of research instruments. Beckman dealt first-hand with the chemists’ need for good instrumentation as manager of the chemistry department’s instrument shop. Beckman’s interest in electronics made him very popular within the chemistry department at Caltech, as he was very skilled in building measuring instruments.

Over the time that he was at Caltech, the focus of the department increasingly moved towards pure science and away from chemical engineering and applied chemistry. Arthur Amos Noyes, head of the chemistry division, encouraged both Beckman and chemical engineer William Lacey to be in contact with real-world engineers and chemists, and Robert Andrews Millikan, Caltech’s president, referred technical questions to Beckman from government and businessess.

Sunkist Growers was having problems with its manufacturing process. Lemons that were not saleable as produce were made into pectin or citric acid, with sulfur dioxide used as a preservative. Sunkist needed to know the acidity of the product at any given time, Chemist Glen Joseph at Sunkist was attempting to measure the hydrogen-ion concentration in lemon juice electrochemically, but sulfur dioxide damaged hydrogen electrodes, and non-reactive glass electrodes produced weak signals and were fragile.

Joseph approached Beckman, who proposed that instead of trying to increase the sensitivity of his measurements, he amplify his results. Beckman, familiar with glassblowing, electricity, and chemistry, suggested a design for a vacuum-tube amplifier and ended up building a working apparatus for Joseph. The glass electrode used to measure pH was placed in a grid circuit in the vacuum tube, producing an amplified signal which could then be read by an electronic meter. The prototype was so useful that Joseph requested a second unit.

Beckman saw an opportunity, and rethinking the project, decided to create a complete chemical instrument which could be easily transported and used by nonspecialists. By October 1934, he had registered patent application U.S. Patent No. 2,058,761 for his “acidimeter”, later renamed the pH meter. Although it was priced expensively at $195, roughly the starting monthly wage for a chemistry professor at that time, it was significantly cheaper than the estimated cost of building a comparable instrument from individual components, about $500. The original pH meter weighed in at nearly 7 kg, but was a substantial improvement over a benchful of delicate equipment. The earliest meter had a design glitch, in that the pH readings changed with the depth of immersion of the electrodes, but Beckman fixed the problem by sealing the glass bulb of the electrode. The pH meter is an important device for measuring the pH of a solution, and by 11 May 1939, sales were successful enough that Beckman left Caltech to become the full-time president of National Technical Laboratories. By 1940, Beckman was able to take out a loan to build his own 12,000 square foot factory in South Pasadena.

In 1940, the equipment needed to analyze emission spectra in the visible spectrum could cost a laboratory as much as $3,000, a huge amount at that time. There was also growing interest in examining ultraviolet spectra beyond that range. In the same way that he had created a single easy-to-use instrument for measuring pH, Beckman made it a goal to create an easy-to-use instrument for spectrophotometry. Beckman’s research team, led by Howard Cary, developed several models.

The new spectrophotometers used a prism to spread light into its absorption spectra and a phototube to “read” the spectra and generate electrical signals, creating a standardized “fingerprint” for the material tested. With Beckman’s model D, later known as the DU spectrophotometer, National Technical Laboratories successfully created the first easy-to-use single instrument containing both the optical and electronic components needed for ultraviolet-absorption spectrophotometry. The user could insert a sample, dial up the desired frequency, and read the amount of absorption of that frequency from a simple meter. It produced accurate absorption spectra in both the ultraviolet and the visible regions of the spectrum with relative ease and repeatable accuracy. The National Bureau of Standards ran tests to certify that the DU’s results were accurate and repeatable and recommended its use.

Beckman’s DU spectrophotometer has been referred to as the “Model T” of scientific instruments: “This device forever simplified and streamlined chemical analysis, by allowing researchers to perform a 99.9% accurate biological assessment of a substance within minutes, as opposed to the weeks required previously for results of only 25% accuracy.” Nobel laureate Bruce Merrifield is quoted as calling the DU spectrophotometer “probably the most important instrument ever developed towards the advancement of bioscience.”

Development of the spectrophotometer also had direct relevance to the war effort. The role of vitamins in health was being studied, and scientists wanted to identify Vitamin A-rich foods to keep soldiers healthy. Previous methods involved feeding rats for several weeks, then performing a biopsy to estimate Vitamin A levels. The DU spectrophotometer yielded better results in a matter of minutes. The DU spectrophotometer was also an important tool for scientists studying and producing the new wonder drug penicillin. By the end of the war, American pharmaceutical companies were producing 650 billion units of penicillin each month. Much of the work done in this area during World War II was kept secret until after the war.

Beckman also developed the infrared spectrophotometer, first the the IR-1, then, in 1953, he redesigned the instrument. The result was the IR-4, which could be operated using either a single or double beam of infrared light. This allowed a user to take both the reference measurement and the sample measurement at the same time.

Beckman Coulter Inc., is an American company that makes biomedical laboratory instruments. Founded by Caltech professor Arnold O. Beckman in 1935 as National Technical Laboratories to commercialize a pH meter that he had invented, the company eventually grew to employ over 10,000 people, with $2.4 billion in annual sales by 2004. Its current headquarters are in Brea, California.

In the 1940s, Beckman changed the name to Arnold O. Beckman, Inc. to sell oxygen analyzers, the Helipot precision potentiometer, and spectrophotometers. In the 1950s, the company name changed to Beckman Instruments, Inc.

Beckman was contacted by Paul Rosenberg. Rosenberg worked at MIT’s Radiation Laboratory. The lab was part of a secret network of research institutions in both the United States and Britain that were working to develop radar, “radio detecting and ranging”. The project was interested in Beckman because of the high quality of the tuning knobs or “potentiometers” which were used on his pH meters. Beckman had trademarked the design of the pH meter knobs, under the name “helipot” for “helical potentiometer”. Rosenberg had found that the helipot was more precise, by a factor of ten, than other knobs. He redesigned the knob to have a continuous groove, in which the contact could not be jarred out of contact.

Beckman instruments were also used by the Manhattan Project to measure radiation in gas-filled, electrically charged ionization chambers in nuclear reactors.
The pH meter was adapted to do the job with a relatively minor adjustment – substituting an input-load resistor for the glass electrode. As a result, Beckman Instruments developed a new product, the micro-ammeter

After the war, Beckman developed oxygen analyzers that were used to monitor conditions in incubators for premature babies. Doctors at Johns Hopkins University used them to determine recommendations for healthy oxygen levels for incubators.

Beckman himself was approached by California governor Goodwin Knight to head a Special Committee on Air Pollution, to propose ways to combat smog. At the end of 1953, the committee made its findings public. The “Beckman Bible” advised key steps to be taken immediately:

In 1955, Beckman established the seminal Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory as a division of Beckman Instruments to begin commercializing the semiconductor transistor technology invented by Caltech alumnus William Shockley. The Shockley Laboratory was established in nearby Mountain View, California, and thus, “Silicon Valley” was born.

Beckman also saw that computers and automation offered a myriad of opportunities for integration into instruments, and the development of new instruments.

The Arnold and Mabel Beckman Foundation was incorporated in September 1977. At the time of Beckman’s death, the Foundation had given more than 400 million dollars to a variety of charities and organizations. In 1990, it was considered one of the top ten foundations in California, based on annual gifts. Donations chiefly went to scientists and scientific causes as well as Beckman’s alma maters. He is quoted as saying, “I accumulated my wealth by selling instruments to scientists,… so I thought it would be appropriate to make contributions to science, and that’s been my number one guideline for charity.”

Wallace H. Coulter

Engineer, Inventor, Entrepreneur, Visionary

Wallace Henry Coulter was an engineer, inventor, entrepreneur and visionary. He was co-founder and Chairman of Coulter® Corporation, a worldwide medical diagnostics company headquartered in Miami, Florida. The two great passions of his life were applying engineering principles to scientific research, and embracing the diversity of world cultures. The first passion led him to invent the Coulter Principle™, the reference method for counting and sizing microscopic particles suspended in a fluid.

This invention served as the cornerstone for automating the labor intensive process of counting and testing blood. With his vision and tenacity, Wallace Coulter, was a founding father in the field of laboratory hematology, the science and study of blood. His global viewpoint and passion for world cultures inspired him to establish over twenty international subsidiaries. He recognized that it was imperative to employ locally based staff to service his customers before this became standard business strategy.

Wallace’s first attempts to patent his invention were turned away by more than one attorney who believed “you cannot patent a hole”. Persistent as always, Wallace finally applied for his first patent in 1949 and it was issued on October 20, 1953. That same year, two prototypes were sent to the National Institutes of Health for evaluation. Shortly after, the NIH published its findings in two key papers, citing improved accuracy and convenience of the Coulter method of counting blood cells. That same year, Wallace publicly disclosed his invention in his one and only technical paper at the National Electronics Conference, “High Speed Automatic Blood Cell Counter and Cell Size Analyzer”.

Leonard Skeggs was the inventor of the first continuous flow analyser way back in 1957. This groundbreaking event completely changed the way that chemistry was carried out. Many of the laborious tests that dominated lab work could be automated, increasing productivity and freeing personnel for other more challenging tasks

Continuous flow analysis and its offshoots and decedents are an integral part of modern chemistry. It might therefore be some conciliation to Leonard Skeggs to know that not only was he the beneficiary of an appellation with a long and fascinating history, he also created a revolution in wet chemistry that is still with us today.

Technicon

The AutoAnalyzer is an automated analyzer using a flow technique called continuous flow analysis (CFA), first made by the Technicon Corporation. The instrument was invented 1957 by Leonard Skeggs, PhD and commercialized by Jack Whitehead’s Technicon Corporation. The first applications were for clinical analysis, but methods for industrial analysis soon followed. The design is based on separating a continuously flowing stream with air bubbles.

In continuous flow analysis (CFA) a continuous stream of material is divided by air bubbles into discrete segments in which chemical reactions occur. The continuous stream of liquid samples and reagents are combined and transported in tubing and mixing coils. The tubing passes the samples from one apparatus to the other with each apparatus performing different functions, such as distillation, dialysis, extraction, ion exchange, heating, incubation, and subsequent recording of a signal. An essential principle of the system is the introduction of air bubbles. The air bubbles segment each sample into discrete packets and act as a barrier between packets to prevent cross contamination as they travel down the length of the tubing. The air bubbles also assist mixing by creating turbulent flow (bolus flow), and provide operators with a quick and easy check of the flow characteristics of the liquid. Samples and standards are treated in an exactly identical manner as they travel the length of the tubing, eliminating the necessity of a steady state signal, however, since the presence of bubbles create an almost square wave profile, bringing the system to steady state does not significantly decrease throughput ( third generation CFA analyzers average 90 or more samples per hour) and is desirable in that steady state signals (chemical equilibrium) are more accurate and reproducible.

A continuous flow analyzer (CFA) consists of different modules including a sampler, pump, mixing coils, optional sample treatments (dialysis, distillation, heating, etc.), a detector, and data generator. Most continuous flow analyzers depend on color reactions using a flow through photometer, however, also methods have been developed that use ISE, flame photometry, ICAP, fluorometry, and so forth.

Flow injection analysis (FIA), was introduced in 1975 by Ruzicka and Hansen.
Jaromir (Jarda) Ruzicka is a Professor of Chemistry (Emeritus at the University of Washington and Affiliate at the University of Hawaii), and member of the Danish Academy of Technical Sciences. Born in Prague in 1934, he graduated from the Department of Analytical Chemistry, Facultyof Sciences, Charles University. In 1968, when Soviets occupied Czechoslovakia, he emigrated to Denmark. There, he joined The Technical University of Denmark, where, ten years later, received a newly created Chair in Analytical Chemistry. When Jarda met Elo Hansen, they invented Flow Injection.

The first generation of FIA technology, termed flow injection (FI), was inspired by the AutoAnalyzer technique invented by Skeggs in early 1950s. While Skeggs’ AutoAnalyzer uses air segmentation to separate a flowing stream into numerous discrete segments to establish a long train of individual samples moving through a flow channel, FIA systems separate each sample from subsequent sample with a carrier reagent. While the AutoAnalyzer mixes sample homogeneously with reagents, in all FIA techniques sample and reagents are merged to form a concentration gradient that yields analysis results

Arthur Karmen.

Dr. Karmen was born in New York City in 1930. He graduated from the Bronx High School of Science in 1946 and earned an A.B. and M.D. in 1950 and 1954, respectively, from New York University. In 1952, while a medical student working on a summer project at Memorial-Sloan Kettering, he used paper chromatography of amino acids to demonstrate the presence of glutamic-oxaloacetic and glutaniic-pyruvic ransaminases (aspartate and alanine aminotransferases) in serum and blood. In 1954, he devised the spectrophotometric method for measuring aspartate aminotransferase in serum, which, with minor modifications, is still used for diagnostic testing today. When developing this assay, he studied the reaction of NADH with serum and demonstrated the presence of lactate and malate dehydrogenases, both of which were also later used in diagnosis. Using the spectrophotometric method, he found that aspartate aminotransferase increased in the period immediately after an acute myocardial infarction and did the pilot studies that showed its diagnostic utility in heart and liver diseases. This became as important as the EKG. It was replaced in cardiology usage by the MB isoenzyme of creatine kinase, which was driven by Burton Sobel’s work on infarct size, and later by the troponins.

History of Laboratory Medicine at Yale University.

The roots of the Department of Laboratory Medicine at Yale can be traced back to John Peters, the head of what he called the “Chemical Division” of the Department of Internal Medicine, subsequently known as the Section of Metabolism, who co-authored with Donald Van Slyke the landmark 1931 textbook Quantitative Clinical Chemistry (2.3); and to Pauline Hald, research collaborator of Dr. Peters who subsequently served as Director of Clinical Chemistry at Yale-New Haven Hospital for many years. In 1947, Miss Hald reported the very first flame photometric measurements of sodium and potassium in serum (4). This study helped to lay the foundation for modern studies of metabolism and their application to clinical care.

The Laboratory Medicine program at Yale had its inception in 1958 as a section of Internal Medicine under the leadership of David Seligson. In 1965, Laboratory Medicine achieved autonomous section status and in 1971, became a full-fledged academic department. Dr. Seligson, who served as the first Chair, pioneered modern automation and computerized data processing in the clinical laboratory. In particular, he demonstrated the feasibility of discrete sample handling for automation that is now the basis of virtually all automated chemistry analyzers. In addition, Seligson and Zetner demonstrated the first clinical use of atomic absorption spectrophotometry. He was one of the founding members of the major Laboratory Medicine academic society, the Academy of Clinical Laboratory Physicians and Scientists.

Nathan Gochman. Developer of Automated Chemistries.

Nathan Gochman, PhD, has over 40 years of experience in the clinical diagnostics industry. This includes academic teaching and research, and 30 years in the pharmaceutical and in vitro diagnostics industry. He has managed R & D, technical marketing and technical support departments. As a leader in the industry he was President of the American Association for Clinical Chemistry (AACC) and the National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards (NCCLS, now CLSI). He is currently a Consultant to investment firms and IVD companies.

William Sunderman

A doctor and scientist who lived a remarkable century and beyond — making medical advances, playing his Stradivarius violin at Carnegie Hall at 99 and being honored as the nation’s oldest worker at 100.

He developed a method for measuring glucose in the blood, the Sunderman Sugar Tube, and was one of the first doctors to use insulin to bring a patient out of a diabetic coma. He established quality-control techniques for medical laboratories that ended the wide variation in the results of laboratories doing the same tests.

He taught at several medical schools and founded and edited the journal Annals of Clinical and Laboratory Science. In World War II, he was a medical director for the Manhattan Project, which developed the atomic bomb.

Dr. Sunderman was president of the American Society of Clinical Pathologists and a founding governor of the College of American Pathologists. He also helped organize the Association of Clinical Scientists and was its first president.

Yale Department of Laboratory Medicine

The roots of the Department of Laboratory Medicine at Yale can be traced back to John Peters, the head of what he called the “Chemical Division” of the Department of Internal Medicine, subsequently known as the Section of Metabolism, who co-authored with Donald Van Slyke the landmark 1931 textbook Quantitative Clinical Chemistry; and to Pauline Hald, research collaborator of Dr. Peters who subsequently served as Director of Clinical Chemistry at Yale-New Haven Hospital for many years. In 1947, Miss Hald reported the very first flame photometric measurements of sodium and potassium in serum. This study helped to lay the foundation for modern studies of metabolism and their application to clinical care.

The discipline of clinical chemistry and the broader field of laboratory medicine, as they are practiced today, are attributed in no small part to Seligson’s vision and creativity.

Born in Philadelphia in 1916, Seligson graduated from University of Maryland and received a D.Sc. from Johns Hopkins University and an M.D. from the University of Utah. In 1953, he served as captain in the U.S. Army, chief of the Hepatic and Metabolic Disease Laboratory at Walter Reed Army Medical Center.

Recruited to Yale and Grace-New Haven Hospital in 1958 from the University of Pennsylvania as professor of internal medicine at the medical school and the first director of clinical laboratories at the hospital, Seligson subsequently established the infrastructure of the Department of Laboratory Medicine, creating divisions of clinical chemistry, microbiology, transfusion medicine (blood banking) and hematology – each with its own strong clinical, teaching and research programs.

Challenging the continuous flow approach, Seligson designed, built and validated “discrete sample handling” instruments wherein each sample was treated independently, which allowed better choice of methods and greater efficiency. Today continuous flow has essentially disappeared and virtually all modern automated clinical laboratory instruments are based upon discrete sample handling technology.

Seligson was one of the early visionaries who recognized the potential for computers in the clinical laboratory. One of the first applications of a digital computer in the clinical laboratory occurred in Seligson’s department at Yale, and shortly thereafter data were being transmitted directly from the laboratory computer to data stations on the patient wards. Now, such laboratory information systems represent the standard of care.

He was also among the first to highlight the clinical importance of test specificity and accuracy, as compared to simple reproducibility. One of his favorite slides was one that showed almost perfectly reproducible results for 10 successive measurements of blood sugar obtained with what was then the most widely used and popular analytical instrument. However, he would note, the answer was wrong; the assay was not accurate.

Seligson established one of the nation’s first residency programs focused on laboratory medicine or clinical pathology, and also developed a teaching curriculum in laboratory medicine for medical students. In so doing, he created a model for the modern practice of laboratory medicine in an academic environment, and his trainees spread throughout the country as leaders in the field.

Ernest Cotlove

Ernest Cotlove’s scientific and medical career started at NYU where, after finishing medicine in 1943, he pursued studies in renal physiology and chemistry. His outstanding ability to acquire knowledge and conduct innovative investigations earned him an invitation from James Shannon, then Director of the National Heart Institute at NIH. He continued studies of renal physiology and chemistry until 1953 when he became Head of Clinical Chemistry Laboratories in the new Department of Clinical Pathology being developed by George Z. Williams during the Clinical Center’s construction. Dr. Cotlove seized the opportunity to design and equip the most advanced and functional clinical chemistry facility in our country.

Dr. Cotlove’s career exemplified the progress seen in medical research and technology. He designed the electronic chloridometer that bears his name, in spite of published reports that such an approach was theoretically impossible. He used this innovative skill to develop new instruments and methods at the Clinical Center. Many recognized him as an expert in clinical chemistry, computer programming, systems design for laboratory operations, and automation of analytical instruments.

Effects of Automation on Laboratory Diagnosis

George Z. Williams

There are four primary effects of laboratory automation on the practice of medicine: The range of laboratory support is being greatly extended to both diagnosis and guidance of therapeutic management; the new feasibility of multiphasic periodic health evaluation promises effective health and manpower conservation in the future; and substantially lowered unit cost for laboratory analysis will permit more extensive use of comprehensive laboratory medicine in everyday practice. There is, however, a real and growing danger of naive acceptance of and overconfidence in the reliability and accuracy of automated analysis and computer processing without critical evaluation. Erroneous results can jeopardize the patient’s welfare. Every physician has the responsibility to obtain proof of accuracy and reliability from the laboratories which serve his patients.

. Mario Werner

Dr. Werner received his medical degree from the University of Zurich, Switzerland in 1956. After specializing in internal medicine at the University Clinic in Basel, he came to the United States–as a fellow of the Swiss Academy of Medical Sciences–to work at NIH and at the Rockefeller University. From 1964 to 1966, he served as chief of the Central Laboratory at the Klinikum Essen, Ruhr-University, Germany. In 1967, he returned to the US, joining the Division of Clinical Pathology and Laboratory Medicine at the University of California, San Francisco, as an assistant professor. Three years later, he became Associate Professor of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine at Washington University in St. Louis, where he was instrumental in establishing the training program in laboratory medicine. In 1972, he was appointed Professor of Pathology at The George Washington University in Washington, DC.

Norbert Tietz

Professor Norbert W. Tietz received the degree of Doctor of Natural Sciences from the Technical University Stuttgart, Germany, in 1950. In 1954 he immigrated to the United States where he subsequently held positions or appointments at several Chicago area institutions including the Mount Sinai Hospital Medical Center, Chicago Medical School/University of Health Sciences and Rush Medical College.

Professor Tietz is best known as the editor of the Fundamentals of Clinical Chemistry. This book, now in its sixth edition, remains a primary information source for both students and educators in laboratory medicine. It was the first modem textbook that integrated clinical chemistry with the basic sciences and pathophysiology.

Throughout his career, Dr. Tietz taught a range of students from the undergraduate through post-graduate level including (1) medical technology students, (2) medical students, (3) clinical chemistry graduate students, (4) pathology residents, and (5) practicing chemists. For example, in the late 1960’s he began the first master’s of science degree program in clinical chemistry in the United States at the Chicago Medical School. This program subsequently evolved into one of the first Ph.D. programs in clinical chemistry.

Automation and other recent developments in clinical chemistry.

Griffiths J.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1344702

The decade 1980 to 1990 was the most progressive period in the short, but
turbulent, history of clinical chemistry. New techniques and the instrumentation
needed to perform assays have opened a chemical Pandora’s box. Multichannel
analyzers, the base spectrophotometric key to automated laboratories, have
become almost perfect. The extended use of the antigen-monoclonal antibody
reaction with increasing sensitive labels has extended analyte detection
routinely into the picomole/liter range. Devices that aid the automation of
serum processing and distribution of specimens are emerging. Laboratory
computerization has significantly matured, permitting better integration of
laboratory instruments, improving communication between laboratory personnel
and the patient’s physician, and facilitating the use of expert systems and
robotics in the chemistry laboratory

Automation and Expert Systems in a Core Clinical Chemistry Laboratory
Streitberg, GT, et al. JALA 2009;14:94–105

Clinical pathology or laboratory medicine has a great
influence on clinical decisions and 60e70% of the
most important decisions on admission, discharge,
and medication are based on laboratory results.1
As we learn more about clinical laboratory results
and incorporate them in outcome optimization
schemes, the laboratory will play a more pivotal role
in management of patients and the eventual outcomes.
2 It has been stated that the development of
information technology and automation in laboratory
medicine has allowed laboratory professionals
to keep in pace with the growth in workload.

Since the reasons to automate and the impact of automation have
similarities and these include reduction in errors, increase in productivity,
and improvement in safety. Advances in technology in clinical chemistry
that have included total laboratory automation call for changes in job
responsibilities to include skills in information technology, data management,
instrumentation, patient preparation for diagnostic analysis, interpretation
of pathology results, dissemination of knowledge and information to
patients and other health staff, as well as skills in research.

The clinical laboratory has become so productive, particularly in chemistry and immunology, and the labor, instrument and reagent costs are well determined, that today a physician’s medical decisions are 80% determined by the clinical laboratory. Medical information systems have lagged far behind. Why is that? Because the decision for a MIS has historical been based on billing capture. Moreover, the historical use of chemical profiles were quite good at validating healthy dtatus in an outpatient population, but the profiles became restricted under Diagnostic Related Groups. Thus, it came to be that the diagnostics was considered a “commodity”. In order to be competitive, a laboratory had to provide “high complexity” tests that were drawn in by a large volume of “moderate complexity” tests.

Read Full Post »

Summary of Signaling and Signaling Pathways

Posted in Academic Publishing, Alzheimer's Disease, Best evidence, Biochemical pathways, Bone Disease and Musculoskeletal Disease, Ca2+ triggered activation, Calcium Signaling, Calmodulin Kinase and Contraction, Cardiac muscle regeneration, Cardiomyopathy, Cardiovascular Research, Cerebrovascular and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Curation, Cytoskeleton, Developmental biology, Dialectic, Discovery process, Disease Biology, Electrophysiology, Endocrine Diseases, Enzyme Induction, Epigenetics and Cardiovascular Risks, Experimental validation, Explanatory, Fatty acids, Frontiers in Cardiology and Cardiovascular Disorders, Gene Regulation, Genomic Expression, Human Immune System in Health and in Disease, Inferential analysis, Kinase, Lipid metabolism, Lipids, Mechanical Assist Devices: LVAD, Metabolism, Metabolomics, Mg++, MS, Mutant Gene Expression, Myocardial Metabolism, Neurohumoral Transmission, Neurological Diseases, Nitric Oxide in Health and Disease, Nutrition, Nutritional Supplements: Atherogenesis, Pharmaceutical Analytics, Pharmaceutical Discovery, Pharmaceutical R&D Investment, Pharmacodynamics and Pharmacokinetics, Phosphorylase, Phosphorylation, PKC, Population Health Management, Proteins, Proteomics, RNA Biology, Signaling, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Skeletal muscle regeneration, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, Systemic Inflammatory Response Related Disorders, Transcriptomics, Translational Research, Translational Science, Ubiquitinylation, tagged Alzheimers Disease, a_b catenin, cell signaling, Cytoskeleton, Extracellular matrix, G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR), integrin, intracellular localization, myasthenia gravis, N-glycosylation, neuroendocrine signal, Neuroendocrine Transcriptome, nuclear receptor, Phosphorylation, protein signals, Receptor tyrosine kinases, second messenger, signaling, signaling cascades, transduction, Tyrosine Kinase, zinc on November 1, 2014| Leave a Comment »

Summary of Signaling and Signaling Pathways

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

In the imtroduction to this series of discussions I pointed out JEDS Rosalino’s observation about the construction of a complex molecule of acetyl coenzyme A, and the amount of genetic coding that had to go into it. Furthermore, he observes – Millions of years later, or as soon as, the information of interaction leading to activity and regulation could be found in RNA, proteins like reverse transcriptase move this information to a more stable form (DNA). In this way it is easier to understand the use of CoA to make two carbon molecules more reactive.

acetylCoA

In the tutorial that follows we find support for the view that mechanisms and examples from the current literature, which give insight into the developments in cell metabolism, are achieving a separation from inconsistent views introduced by the classical model of molecular biology and genomics, toward a more functional cellular dynamics that is not dependent on the classic view. The classical view fits a rigid framework that is to genomics and metabolomics as Mendelian genetics if to multidimentional, multifactorial genetics. The inherent difficulty lies in two places:

Interactions between differently weighted determinants
A large part of the genome is concerned with regulatory function, not expression of the code

The goal of the tutorial was to achieve an understanding of how cell signaling occurs in a cell. Completion of the tutorial would provide

a basic understanding signal transduction and
the role of phosphorylation in signal transduction.

Regulation of the integrity of endothelial cell–cell contacts by phosphorylation of VE-cadherin

In addition – detailed knowledge of –

the role of Tyrosine kinases and
G protein-coupled receptors in cell signaling.

serine

threonine

protein kinase

We are constantly receiving and interpreting signals from our environment, which can come

in the form of light, heat, odors, touch or sound.

The cells of our bodies are also

constantly receiving signals from other cells.

These signals are important to

keep cells alive and functioning as well as
to stimulate important events such as
cell division and differentiation.

Signals are most often chemicals that can be found

in the extracellular fluid around cells.

These chemicals can come

from distant locations in the body (endocrine signaling by hormones), from
nearby cells (paracrine signaling) or can even
be secreted by the same cell (autocrine signaling).

Signaling molecules may trigger any number of cellular responses, including

changing the metabolism of the cell receiving the signal or
result in a change in gene expression (transcription) within the nucleus of the cell or both.

controlling the output of ribosomes.

To which I would now add..

result in either an inhibitory or a stimulatory effect

The three stages of cell signaling are:

Cell signaling can be divided into 3 stages:

Reception: A cell detects a signaling molecule from the outside of the cell.

Transduction: When the signaling molecule binds the receptor it changes the receptor protein in some way. This change initiates the process of transduction. Signal transduction is usually a pathway of several steps. Each relay molecule in the signal transduction pathway changes the next molecule in the pathway.

Response: Finally, the signal triggers a specific cellular response.

signal transduction

http://www.hartnell.edu/tutorials/biology/images/signaltransduction_simple.jpg

The initiation is depicted as follows:

Signal Transduction – ligand binds to surface receptor

Membrane receptors function by binding the signal molecule (ligand) and causing the production of a second signal (also known as a second messenger) that then causes a cellular response. These types of receptors transmit information from the extracellular environment to the inside of the cell.

by changing shape or
by joining with another protein
once a specific ligand binds to it.

Examples of membrane receptors include

G Protein-Coupled Receptors and

Understanding these receptors and identifying their ligands and the resulting signal transduction pathways represent a major conceptual advance.

Receptor Tyrosine Kinases.

intracellular signaling

http://www.hartnell.edu/tutorials/biology/images/membrane_receptor_tk.jpg

Intracellular receptors are found inside the cell, either in the cytopolasm or in the nucleus of the target cell (the cell receiving the signal).

Note that though change in gene expression is stated, the change in gene expression does not here imply a change in the genetic information – such as – mutation. That does not have to be the case in the normal homeostatic case.

This point is the differentiating case between what JEDS Roselino has referred as

a fast, adaptive reaction, that is the feature of protein molecules, and distinguishes this interaction from
a one-to-one transcription of the genetic code.

The rate of transcription can be controlled, or it can be blocked. This is in large part in response to the metabolites in the immediate interstitium.

This might only be

a change in the rate of a transcription or a suppression of expression through RNA.
Or through a conformational change in an enzyme

Swinging domains in HECT E3 enzymes

Since signaling systems need to be

responsive to small concentrations of chemical signals and act quickly,
cells often use a multi-step pathway that transmits the signal quickly,
while amplifying the signal to numerous molecules at each step.

Signal transduction pathways are shown (simplified):

Signal Transduction

Signal transduction occurs when an

extracellular signaling molecule activates a specific receptor located on the cell surface or inside the cell.
In turn, this receptor triggers a biochemical chain of events inside the cell, creating a response.
Depending on the cell, the response alters the cell’s metabolism, shape, gene expression, or ability to divide.
The signal can be amplified at any step. Thus, one signaling molecule can cause many responses.

In 1970, Martin Rodbell examined the effects of glucagon on a rat’s liver cell membrane receptor. He noted that guanosine triphosphate disassociated glucagon from this receptor and stimulated the G-protein, which strongly influenced the cell’s metabolism. Thus, he deduced that the G-protein is a transducer that accepts glucagon molecules and affects the cell. For this, he shared the 1994 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Alfred G. Gilman.

Guanosine monophosphate structure

In 2007, a total of 48,377 scientific papers—including 11,211 e-review papers—were published on the subject. The term first appeared in a paper’s title in 1979. Widespread use of the term has been traced to a 1980 review article by Rodbell: Research papers focusing on signal transduction first appeared in large numbers in the late 1980s and early 1990s.

Signal transduction involves the binding of extracellular signaling molecules and ligands to cell-surface receptors that trigger events inside the cell. The combination of messenger with receptor causes a change in the conformation of the receptor, known as receptor activation.

This activation is always the initial step (the cause) leading to the cell’s ultimate responses (effect) to the messenger. Despite the myriad of these ultimate responses, they are all directly due to changes in particular cell proteins. Intracellular signaling cascades can be started through cell-substratum interactions; examples are the integrin that binds ligands in the extracellular matrix and steroids.

Integrin

Most steroid hormones have receptors within the cytoplasm and act by stimulating the binding of their receptors to the promoter region of steroid-responsive genes.

steroid hormone receptor

Various environmental stimuli exist that initiate signal transmission processes in multicellular organisms; examples include photons hitting cells in the retina of the eye, and odorants binding to odorant receptors in the nasal epithelium. Certain microbial molecules, such as viral nucleotides and protein antigens, can elicit an immune system response against invading pathogens mediated by signal transduction processes. This may occur independent of signal transduction stimulation by other molecules, as is the case for the toll-like receptor. It may occur with help from stimulatory molecules located at the cell surface of other cells, as with T-cell receptor signaling. Receptors can be roughly divided into two major classes: intracellular receptors and extracellular receptors.

Signal transduction cascades amplify the signal output

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a family of integral transmembrane proteins that possess seven transmembrane domains and are linked to a heterotrimeric G protein. Many receptors are in this family, including adrenergic receptors and chemokine receptors.

Arrestin binding to active GPCR kinase (GRK)-phosphorylated GPCRs blocks G protein coupling

signal transduction pathways

Arrestin binding to active GPCR kinase (GRK)-phosphorylated GPCRs blocks G protein coupling

Signal transduction by a GPCR begins with an inactive G protein coupled to the receptor; it exists as a heterotrimer consisting of Gα, Gβ, and Gγ. Once the GPCR recognizes a ligand, the conformation of the receptor changes to activate the G protein, causing Gα to bind a molecule of GTP and dissociate from the other two G-protein subunits.

The dissociation exposes sites on the subunits that can interact with other molecules. The activated G protein subunits detach from the receptor and initiate signaling from many downstream effector proteins such as phospholipases and ion channels, the latter permitting the release of second messenger molecules.

Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are transmembrane proteins with an intracellular kinase domain and an extracellular domain that binds ligands; examples include growth factor receptors such as the insulin receptor.

insulin receptor and and insulin receptor signaling pathway (IRS)

To perform signal transduction, RTKs need to form dimers in the plasma membrane; the dimer is stabilized by ligands binding to the receptor.

RTKs

The interaction between the cytoplasmic domains stimulates the autophosphorylation of tyrosines within the domains of the RTKs, causing conformational changes.

Subsequent to this, the receptors’ kinase domains are activated, initiating phosphorylation signaling cascades of downstream cytoplasmic molecules that facilitate various cellular processes such as cell differentiation and metabolism.

Signal-Transduction-Pathway

As is the case with GPCRs, proteins that bind GTP play a major role in signal transduction from the activated RTK into the cell. In this case, the G proteins are

members of the Ras, Rho, and Raf families, referred to collectively as small G proteins.

They act as molecular switches usually

tethered to membranes by isoprenyl groups linked to their carboxyl ends.

Upon activation, they assign proteins to specific membrane subdomains where they participate in signaling. Activated RTKs in turn activate

small G proteins that activate guanine nucleotide exchange factors such as SOS1.

Once activated, these exchange factors can activate more small G proteins, thus

amplifying the receptor’s initial signal.

The mutation of certain RTK genes, as with that of GPCRs, can result in the expression of receptors that exist in a constitutively activate state; such mutated genes may act as oncogenes.

Integrin

Integrin

Integrin-mediated signal transduction

An overview of integrin-mediated signal transduction, adapted from Hehlgens et al. (2007).

Integrins are produced by a wide variety of cells; they play a role in

cell attachment to other cells and the extracellular matrix and
in the transduction of signals from extracellular matrix components such as fibronectin and collagen.

Ligand binding to the extracellular domain of integrins

changes the protein’s conformation,
clustering it at the cell membrane to
initiate signal transduction.

Integrins lack kinase activity; hence, integrin-mediated signal transduction is achieved through a variety of intracellular protein kinases and adaptor molecules, the main coordinator being integrin-linked kinase.

As shown in the picture, cooperative integrin-RTK signaling determines the

timing of cellular survival,
apoptosis,
proliferation, and
differentiation.

integrin-mediated signal transduction

Integrin signaling

ion channel

A ligand-gated ion channel, upon binding with a ligand, changes conformation

to open a channel in the cell membrane
through which ions relaying signals can pass.

An example of this mechanism is found in the receiving cell of a neural synapse. The influx of ions that occurs in response to the opening of these channels

induces action potentials, such as those that travel along nerves,
by depolarizing the membrane of post-synaptic cells,
resulting in the opening of voltage-gated ion channels.

RyR and Ca+ release from SR

An example of an ion allowed into the cell during a ligand-gated ion channel opening is Ca2+;

it acts as a second messenger
initiating signal transduction cascades and
altering the physiology of the responding cell.

This results in amplification of the synapse response between synaptic cells

by remodelling the dendritic spines involved in the synapse.

In eukaryotic cells, most intracellular proteins activated by a ligand/receptor interaction possess an enzymatic activity; examples include tyrosine kinase and phosphatases. Some of them create second messengers such as cyclic AMP and IP3,

cAMP

Inositol_1,4,5-trisphosphate.svg

the latter controlling the release of intracellular calcium stores into the cytoplasm.

Many adaptor proteins and enzymes activated as part of signal transduction possess specialized protein domains that bind to specific secondary messenger molecules. For example,

calcium ions bind to the EF hand domains of calmodulin,
allowing it to bind and activate calmodulin-dependent kinase.

calcium movement and RyR2 receptor

PIP3 and other phosphoinositides do the same thing to the Pleckstrin homology domains of proteins such as the kinase protein AKT.

Signals can be generated within organelles, such as chloroplasts and mitochondria, modulating the nuclear
gene expression in a process called retrograde signaling.

Recently, integrative genomics approaches, in which correlation analysis has been applied on transcript and metabolite profiling data of Arabidopsis thaliana, revealed the identification of metabolites which are putatively acting as mediators of nuclear gene expression.

http://fpls.com/unraveling_retrograde_signaling_pathways:_finding_candidate_signaling_molecules_via_metabolomics_and_systems_biology_driven_approaches

Systems Biology Approach Reveals Genome to Phenome Correlation in Type 2 Diabetes (plosone.org)
Gene Expression and Thiopurine Metabolite Profiling in Inflammatory Bowel Disease – Novel Clues to Drug Targets and Disease Mechanisms? (plosone.org)
Activation of the Jasmonic Acid Plant Defence Pathway Alters the Composition of Rhizosphere

Nutrients 2014, 6, 3245-3258; http://dx.doi.org:/10.3390/nu6083245

Omega-3 (ω-3) fatty acids are one of the two main families of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). The main omega-3 fatty acids in the mammalian body are

α-linolenic acid (ALA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA).

Central nervous tissues of vertebrates are characterized by a high concentration of omega-3 fatty acids. Moreover, in the human brain,

DHA is considered as the main structural omega-3 fatty acid, which comprises about 40% of the PUFAs in total.

DHA deficiency may be the cause of many disorders such as depression, inability to concentrate, excessive mood swings, anxiety, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, dry skin and so on.

On the other hand,

zinc is the most abundant trace metal in the human brain.

There are many scientific studies linking zinc, especially

excess amounts of free zinc, to cellular death.

Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, are characterized by altered zinc metabolism. Both animal model studies and human cell culture studies have shown a possible link between

omega-3 fatty acids, zinc transporter levels and
free zinc availability at cellular levels.

Many other studies have also suggested a possible

omega-3 and zinc effect on neurodegeneration and cellular death.

Therefore, in this review, we will examine

the effect of omega-3 fatty acids on zinc transporters and
the importance of free zinc for human neuronal cells.

Moreover, we will evaluate the collective understanding of

mechanism(s) for the interaction of these elements in neuronal research and their
significance for the diagnosis and treatment of neurodegeneration.

Epidemiological studies have linked high intake of fish and shellfish as part of the daily diet to

reduction of the incidence and/or severity of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and senile mental decline in

Omega-3 fatty acids are one of the two main families of a broader group of fatty acids referred to as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). The other main family of PUFAs encompasses the omega-6 fatty acids. In general, PUFAs are essential in many biochemical events, especially in early post-natal development processes such as

cellular differentiation,
photoreceptor membrane biogenesis and
active synaptogenesis.

Despite the significance of these

two families, mammals cannot synthesize PUFA de novo, so they must be ingested from dietary sources. Though belonging to the same family, both

omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are metabolically and functionally distinct and have
opposing physiological effects. In the human body,
high concentrations of omega-6 fatty acids are known to increase the formation of prostaglandins and
thereby increase inflammatory processes [10].

the reverse process can be seen with increased omega-3 fatty acids in the body.

Many other factors, such as

thromboxane A2 (TXA2),
leukotriene
B4 (LTB4),
IL-1,
IL-6,
tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and
C-reactive protein,

which are implicated in various health conditions, have been shown to be increased with high omega-6 fatty acids but decreased with omega-3 fatty acids in the human body.

Dietary fatty acids have been identified as protective factors in coronary heart disease, and PUFA levels are known to play a critical role in

immune responses,
gene expression and
intercellular communications.

omega-3 fatty acids are known to be vital in

the prevention of fatal ventricular arrhythmias, and
are also known to reduce thrombus formation propensity by decreasing platelet aggregation, blood viscosity and fibrinogen levels

.Since omega-3 fatty acids are prevalent in the nervous system, it seems logical that a deficiency may result in neuronal problems, and this is indeed what has been identified and reported.

The main

In another study conducted with individuals of 65 years of age or older (n = 6158), it was found that

only high fish consumption, but
not dietary omega-3 acid intake,
had a protective effect on cognitive decline

In 2005, based on a meta-analysis of the available epidemiology and preclinical studies, clinical trials were conducted to assess the effects of omega-3 fatty acids on cognitive protection. Four of the trials completed have shown

a protective effect of omega-3 fatty acids only among those with mild cognitive impairment conditions.

A trial of subjects with mild memory complaints demonstrated

an improvement with 900 mg of DHA.

We review key findings on

the effect of the omega-3 fatty acid DHA on zinc transporters and the
importance of free zinc to human neuronal cells.

DHA is the most abundant fatty acid in neural membranes, imparting appropriate

fluidity and other properties,

and is thus considered as the most important fatty acid in neuronal studies. DHA is well conserved throughout the mammalian species despite their dietary differences. It is mainly concentrated

in membrane phospholipids at synapses and
in retinal photoreceptors and
also in the testis and sperm.

In adult rats’ brain, DHA comprises approximately

17% of the total fatty acid weight, and
in the retina it is as high as 33%.

DHA is believed to have played a major role in the evolution of the modern human –

in particular the well-developed brain.

Premature babies fed on DHA-rich formula show improvements in vocabulary and motor performance.

Analysis of human cadaver brains have shown that

people with AD have less DHA in their frontal lobe
and hippocampus compared with unaffected individuals

Furthermore, studies in mice have increased support for the

protective role of omega-3 fatty acids.

Mice administrated with a dietary intake of DHA showed

an increase in DHA levels in the hippocampus.

Errors in memory were decreased in these mice and they demonstrated

reduced peroxide and free radical levels,
suggesting a role in antioxidant defense.

Another study conducted with a Tg2576 mouse model of AD demonstrated that dietary

DHA supplementation had a protective effect against reduction in
drebrin (actin associated protein), elevated oxidation, and to some extent, apoptosis via
decreased caspase activity.

Zinc

Zinc is a trace element, which is indispensable for life, and it is the second most abundant trace element in the body. It is known to be related to

growth,
development,
differentiation,
immune response,
receptor activity,
DNA synthesis,
gene expression,
neuro-transmission,
enzymatic catalysis,
hormonal storage and release,
tissue repair,
memory,
the visual process

and many other cellular functions. Moreover, the indispensability of zinc to the body can be discussed in many other aspects, as

a component of over 300 different enzymes
an integral component of a metallothioneins
a gene regulatory protein.

Approximately 3% of all proteins contain

zinc binding motifs .

The broad biological functionality of zinc is thought to be due to its stable chemical and physical properties. Zinc is considered to have three different functions in enzymes;

catalytic,
coactive and

Indeed, it is the only metal found in all six different subclasses

of enzymes. The essential nature of zinc to the human body can be clearly displayed by studying the wide range of pathological effects of zinc deficiency. Anorexia, embryonic and post-natal growth retardation, alopecia, skin lesions, difficulties in wound healing, increased hemorrhage tendency and severe reproductive abnormalities, emotional instability, irritability and depression are just some of the detrimental effects of zinc deficiency.

Proper development and function of the central nervous system (CNS) is highly dependent on zinc levels. In the mammalian organs, zinc is mainly concentrated in the brain at around 150 μm. However, free zinc in the mammalian brain is calculated to be around 10 to 20 nm and the rest exists in either protein-, enzyme- or nucleotide bound form. The brain and zinc relationship is thought to be mediated

through glutamate receptors, and
it inhibits excitatory and inhibitory receptors.

Vesicular localization of zinc in pre-synaptic terminals is a characteristic feature of brain-localized zinc, and

its release is dependent on neural activity.

Retardation of the growth and development of CNS tissues have been linked to low zinc levels. Peripheral neuropathy, spina bifida, hydrocephalus, anencephalus, epilepsy and Pick’s disease have been linked to zinc deficiency. However, the body cannot tolerate excessive amounts of zinc.

The relationship between zinc and neurodegeneration, specifically AD, has been interpreted in several ways. One study has proposed that β-amyloid has a greater propensity to

form insoluble amyloid in the presence of
high physiological levels of zinc.

Insoluble amyloid is thought to

aggregate to form plaques,

which is a main pathological feature of AD. Further studies have shown that

chelation of zinc ions can deform and disaggregate plaques.

In AD, the most prominent injuries are found in

hippocampal pyramidal neurons, acetylcholine-containing neurons in the basal forebrain, and in
somatostatin-containing neurons in the forebrain.

All of these neurons are known to favor

rapid and direct entry of zinc in high concentration
leaving neurons frequently exposed to high dosages of zinc.

This is thought to promote neuronal cell damage through oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. Excessive levels of zinc are also capable of

inhibiting Ca2+ and Na+ voltage gated channels
and up-regulating the cellular levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS).

High levels of zinc are found in Alzheimer’s brains indicating a possible zinc related neurodegeneration. A study conducted with mouse neuronal cells has shown that even a 24-h exposure to high levels of zinc (40 μm) is sufficient to degenerate cells.

If the human diet is deficient in zinc, the body

efficiently conserves zinc at the tissue level by compensating other cellular mechanisms

to delay the dietary deficiency effects of zinc. These include reduction of cellular growth rate and zinc excretion levels, and

redistribution of available zinc to more zinc dependent cells or organs.

A novel method of measuring metallothionein (MT) levels was introduced as a biomarker for the

assessment of the zinc status of individuals and populations.

In humans, erythrocyte metallothionein (E-MT) levels may be considered as an indicator of zinc depletion and repletion, as E-MT levels are sensitive to dietary zinc intake. It should be noted here that MT plays an important role in zinc homeostasis by acting

as a target for zinc ion binding and thus
assisting in the trafficking of zinc ions through the cell,
which may be similar to that of zinc transporters

Zinc Transporters

Deficient or excess amounts of zinc in the body can be catastrophic to the integrity of cellular biochemical and biological systems. The gastrointestinal system controls the absorption, excretion and the distribution of zinc, although the hydrophilic and high-charge molecular characteristics of zinc are not favorable for passive diffusion across the cell membranes. Zinc movement is known to occur

via intermembrane proteins and zinc transporter (ZnT) proteins

These transporters are mainly categorized under two metal transporter families; Zip (ZRT, IRT like proteins) and CDF/ZnT (Cation Diffusion Facilitator), also known as SLC (Solute Linked Carrier) gene families: Zip (SLC-39) and ZnT (SLC-30). More than 20 zinc transporters have been identified and characterized over the last two decades (14 Zips and 8 ZnTs).

Members of the SLC39 family have been identified as the putative facilitators of zinc influx into the cytosol, either from the extracellular environment or from intracellular compartments (Figure 1).

The identification of this transporter family was a result of gene sequencing of known Zip1 protein transporters in plants, yeast and human cells. In contrast to the SLC39 family, the SLC30 family facilitates the opposite process, namely zinc efflux from the cytosol to the extracellular environment or into luminal compartments such as secretory granules, endosomes and synaptic vesicles; thus decreasing intracellular zinc availability (Figure 1). ZnT3 is the most important in the brain where

it is responsible for the transport of zinc into the synaptic vesicles of
glutamatergic neurons in the hippocampus and neocortex,

Figure 1: Subcellular localization and direction of transport of the zinc transporter families, ZnT and ZIP. Arrows show the direction of zinc mobilization for the ZnT (green) and ZIP (red) proteins. A net gain in cytosolic zinc is achieved by the transportation of zinc from the extracellular region and organelles such as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus by the ZIP transporters. Cytosolic zinc is mobilized into early secretory compartments such as the ER and Golgi apparatus by the ZnT transporters. Figures were produced using Servier Medical Art, http://www.servier.com/. http://www.hindawi.com/journals/jnme/2012/173712.fig.001.jpg

Figure 2: Early zinc signaling (EZS) and late zinc signaling (LZS). EZS involves transcription-independent mechanisms where an extracellular stimulus directly induces an increase in zinc levels within several minutes by releasing zinc from intracellular stores (e.g., endoplasmic reticulum). LSZ is induced several hours after an external stimulus and is dependent on transcriptional changes in zinc transporter expression. Components of this figure were produced using Servier Medical Art, http://www.servier.com/ and adapted from Fukada et al. [30].

omega-3 fatty acids in the mammalian body are

α-linolenic acid (ALA),
docosahexenoic acid (DHA) and
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA).

In general, seafood is rich in omega-3 fatty acids, more specifically DHA and EPA (Table 1). Thus far, there are nine separate epidemiological studies that suggest a possible link between

increased fish consumption and reduced risk of AD
and eight out of ten studies have reported a link between higher blood omega-3 levels

DHA and Zinc Homeostasis

Many studies have identified possible associations between DHA levels, zinc homeostasis, neuroprotection and neurodegeneration. Dietary DHA deficiency resulted in

increased zinc levels in the hippocampus and
elevated expression of the putative zinc transporter, ZnT3, in the rat brain.

Altered zinc metabolism in neuronal cells has been linked to neurodegenerative conditions such as AD. A study conducted with transgenic mice has shown a significant link between ZnT3 transporter levels and cerebral amyloid plaque pathology. When the ZnT3 transporter was silenced in transgenic mice expressing cerebral amyloid plaque pathology,

a significant reduction in plaque load
and the presence of insoluble amyloid were observed.

In addition to the decrease in plaque load, ZnT3 silenced mice also exhibited a significant

reduction in free zinc availability in the hippocampus
and cerebral cortex.

Collectively, the findings from this study are very interesting and indicate a clear connection between

zinc availability and amyloid plaque formation,

thus indicating a possible link to AD.

DHA supplementation has also been reported to limit the following:

amyloid presence,
synaptic marker loss,
hyper-phosphorylation of Tau,
oxidative damage and
cognitive deficits in transgenic mouse model of AD.

In addition, studies by Stoltenberg, Flinn and colleagues report on the modulation of zinc and the effect in transgenic mouse models of AD. Given that all of these are classic pathological features of AD, and considering the limiting nature of DHA in these processes, it can be argued that DHA is a key candidate in preventing or even curing this debilitating disease.

In order to better understand the possible links and pathways of zinc and DHA with neurodegeneration, we designed a study that incorporates all three of these aspects, to study their effects at the cellular level. In this study, we were able to demonstrate a possible link between omega-3 fatty acid (DHA) concentration, zinc availability and zinc transporter expression levels in cultured human neuronal cells.

When treated with DHA over 48 h, ZnT3 levels were markedly reduced in the human neuroblastoma M17 cell line. Moreover, in the same study, we were able to propose a possible

neuroprotective mechanism of DHA,

which we believe is exerted through

a reduction in cellular zinc levels (through altering zinc transporter expression levels)
that in turn inhibits apoptosis.

DHA supplemented M17 cells also showed a marked depletion of zinc uptake (up to 30%), and

free zinc levels in the cytosol were significantly low compared to the control

This reduction in free zinc availability was specific to DHA; cells treated with EPA had no significant change in free zinc levels (unpublished data). Moreover, DHA-repleted cells had

low levels of active caspase-3 and
high Bcl-2 levels compared to the control treatment.

These findings are consistent with previous published data and further strengthen the possible

correlation between zinc, DHA and neurodegeneration.

On the other hand, recent studies using ZnT3 knockout (ZnT3KO) mice have shown the importance of

ZnT3 in memory and AD pathology.

For example, Sindreu and colleagues have used ZnT3KO mice to establish the important role of

ZnT3 in zinc homeostasis that modulates presynaptic MAPK signaling
required for hippocampus-dependent memory

Results from these studies indicate a possible zinc-transporter-expression-level-dependent mechanism for DHA neuroprotection.

Read Full Post »

Summary of Lipid Metabolism

Posted in Academic Publishing, Anaerobic Glycolysis, Biochemical pathways, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Chemical Genetics, Curation, Developmental biology, Diabetes Mellitus, Disease Biology, Disease Biology, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, Epigenetics and Cardiovascular Risks, Fatty acids, Gene Regulation and Evolution, Ionic Transporters Na+, K, Lipid metabolism, Lipids, Metabolism, Metabolomics, Myocardial Metabolism, Myocardial metabolism, Myocardial ischemia, myocardial perfusion, Myocardial adenine nucleotide metabolism, Na-K transport, Neurohumoral Transmission, Nutrition, Oxidative phosphorylation, Proteins, Regenerative Biology and Medicine, Signaling, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Transcriptomics, Translational Science, tagged Lipid metabolism, summary on October 29, 2014| Leave a Comment »

Summary of Lipid Metabolism

Author: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Lipid Classification System

The LIPID MAPS Lipid Classification System is comprised of eight lipid categories, each with its own sublassification hierarchy.

http://www.lipidmaps.org/resources/tutorials/lipid_cns.html

Each LMSD record contains an image of the

molecular structure,
common and systematic names,
links to external databases,
Wikipedia pages (where available),
other annotations and links to structure viewing tools.

All lipids in the LIPID MAPS Structure Database (LMSD) have been classified using this system and have been assigned LIPID MAPS ID’s (LM_ID) which reflects their position in the classification hierarchy.

The LIPID MAPS Structure Database (LMSD) is a relational database encompassing structures and annotations of biologically relevant lipids. As of May 3, 2013, LMSD contains over 37,500 unique lipid structures, making it the largest public lipid-only database in the world. Structures of lipids in the database come from several sources:

LIPID MAPS Consortium’s core laboratories and partners;
lipids identified by LIPID MAPS experiments;
biologically relevant lipids manually curated from LIPID BANK, LIPIDAT, Lipid Library, Cyberlipids, ChEBI and other public sources;
novel lipids submitted to peer-reviewed journals;
computationally generated structures for appropriate classes.

All the lipid structures in LMSD adhere to the structure drawing rules proposed by the LIPID MAPS consortium. A number of structure viewing options are offered: gif image (default), Chemdraw (requires Chemdraw ActiveX/Plugin), MarvinView (Java applet) and JMol (Java applet).

(as of 10/8/14)

Number of lipids per category

Fatty acyls 5869

Glycerolipids 7541

Glycerophospholipids 8002

Sphingolipids 4338

Sterol lipids 2715

Prenol lipids 1259

Sacccharolipids 1293

Polyketides 6742

TOTAL 37,759 structures

References

Sud M, Fahy E, Cotter D, Brown A, Dennis EA, Glass CK, Merrill AH Jr, Murphy RC, Raetz CR, Russell DW, Subramaniam S. LMSD: LIPID MAPS structure database Nucleic Acids Research 35: p. D527-32. PMID:17098933 [doi:10.1093/nar/gkl838] PMID: 17098933

Fahy E, Sud M, Cotter D & Subramaniam S. LIPID MAPS online tools for lipid research Nucleic Acids Research (2007) 35: p. W606-12.PMID:17584797 [doi:10.1093/nar/gkm324] PMID: 17584797

The Recognition of Essential Fatty Acids

Dietary fat has long been recognized as an important source of energy for mammals, but in the late 1920s, researchers demonstrated the dietary requirement for particular fatty acids, which came to be called essential fatty acids. It was not until the advent of intravenous feeding, however, that the importance of essential fatty acids was widely accepted: Clinical signs of essential fatty acid deficiency are generally observed only in patients on total parenteral nutrition who received mixtures devoid of essential fatty acids or in those with malabsorption syndromes.

These signs include dermatitis and changes in visual and neural function. Over the past 40 years, an increasing number of physiological functions, such as immunomodulation, have been attributed to the essential fatty acids and their metabolites, and this area of research remains quite active.1, 2

Fatty Acid Nomenclature

The fat found in foods consists largely of a heterogeneous mixture of triacylglycerols (triglycerides)–glycerol molecules that are each combined with three fatty acids. The fatty acids can be divided into two categories, based on chemical properties: saturated fatty acids, which are usually solid at room temperature, and unsaturated fatty acids, which are liquid at room temperature. The term “saturation” refers to a chemical structure in which each carbon atom in the fatty acyl chain is bound to (saturated with) four other atoms, these carbons are linked by single bonds, and no other atoms or molecules can attach; unsaturated fatty acids contain at least one pair of carbon atoms linked by a double bond, which allows the attachment of additional atoms to those carbons (resulting in saturation). Despite their differences in structure, all fats contain approximately the same amount of energy (37 kilojoules/gram, or 9 kilocalories/gram).

The class of unsaturated fatty acids can be further divided into monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Monounsaturated fatty acids (the primary constituents of olive and canola oils) contain only one double bond. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (the primary constituents of corn, sunflower, flax seed and many other vegetable oils) contain more than one double bond. Fatty acids are often referred to using the number of carbon atoms in the acyl chain, followed by a colon, followed by the number of double bonds in the chain (e.g., 18:1 refers to the 18-carbon monounsaturated fatty acid, oleic acid; 18:3 refers to any 18-carbon PUFA with three double bonds).

PUFAs are further categorized on the basis of the location of their double bonds. An omega or n notation indicates the number of carbon atoms from the methyl end of the acyl chain to the first double bond. Thus, for example, in the omega-3 (n-3) family of PUFAs, the first double bond is 3 carbons from the methyl end of the molecule. Finally, PUFAs can be categorized according to their chain length. The 18-carbon n-3 and n-6 short-chain PUFAs are precursors to the longer 20- and 22-carbon PUFAs, called long-chain PUFAs (LCPUFAs).

Fatty Acid Metabolism

Mammalian cells can introduce double bonds into all positions on the fatty acid chain except the n-3 and n-6 position. Thus, the short-chain alpha- linolenic acid (ALA, chemical abbreviation: 18:3n-3) and linoleic acid (LA, chemical abbreviation: 18:2n-6) are essential fatty acids.

No other fatty acids found in food are considered ‘essential’ for humans, because they can all be synthesized from the short chain fatty acids.

Following ingestion, ALA and LA can be converted in the liver to the long chain, more unsaturated n-3 and n-6 LCPUFAs by a complex set of synthetic pathways that share several enzymes (Figure 1). LC PUFAs retain the original sites of desaturation (including n-3 or n-6). The omega-6 fatty acid LA is converted to gamma-linolenic acid (GLA, 18:3n-6), an omega- 6 fatty acid that is a positional isomer of ALA. GLA, in turn, can be converted to the longerchain omega-6 fatty acid, arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4n-6). AA is the precursor for certain classes of an important family of hormone- like substances called the eicosanoids (see below).

The omega-3 fatty acid ALA (18:3n-3) can be converted to the long-chain omega-3 fatty acid, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5n-3). EPA can be elongated to docosapentaenoic acid (DPA 22:5n-3), which is further desaturated to docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n-3). EPA and DHA are also precursors of several classes of eicosanoids and are known to play several other critical roles, some of which are discussed further below.

The conversion from parent fatty acids into the LC PUFAs – EPA, DHA, and AA – appears to occur slowly in humans. In addition, the regulation of conversion is not well understood, although it is known that ALA and LA compete for entry into the metabolic pathways.

Physiological Functions of EPA and AA

As stated earlier, fatty acids play a variety of physiological roles. The specific biological functions of a fatty acid are determined by the number and position of double bonds and the length of the acyl chain.

Both EPA (20:5n-3) and AA (20:4n-6) are precursors for the formation of a family of hormone- like agents called eicosanoids. Eicosanoids are rudimentary hormones or regulating – molecules that appear to occur in most forms of life. However, unlike endocrine hormones, which travel in the blood stream to exert their effects at distant sites, the eicosanoids are autocrine or paracrine factors, which exert their effects locally – in the cells that synthesize them or adjacent cells. Processes affected include the movement of calcium and other substances into and out of cells, relaxation and contraction of muscles, inhibition and promotion of clotting, regulation of secretions including digestive juices and hormones, and control of fertility, cell division, and growth.3

The eicosanoid family includes subgroups of substances known as prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes, among others. As shown in Figure 1.1, the long-chain omega-6 fatty acid, AA (20:4n-6), is the precursor of a group of eicosanoids that include series-2 prostaglandins and series-4 leukotrienes. The omega-3 fatty acid, EPA (20:5n-3), is the precursor to a group of eicosanoids that includes series-3 prostaglandins and series-5 leukotrienes. The AA-derived series-2 prostaglandins and series-4 leukotrienes are often synthesized in response to some emergency such as injury or stress, whereas the EPA-derived series-3 prostaglandins and series-5 leukotrienes appear to modulate the effects of the series-2 prostaglandins and series-4 leukotrienes (usually on the same target cells). More specifically, the series-3 prostaglandins are formed at a slower rate and work to attenuate the effects of excessive levels of series-2 prostaglandins. Thus, adequate production of the series-3 prostaglandins seems to protect against heart attack and stroke as well as certain inflammatory diseases like arthritis, lupus, and asthma.3.

EPA (22:6 n-3) also affects lipoprotein metabolism and decreases the production of substances – including cytokines, interleukin 1ß (IL-1ß), and tumor necrosis factor a (TNF-a) – that have pro-inflammatory effects (such as stimulation of collagenase synthesis and the expression of adhesion molecules necessary for leukocyte extravasation [movement from the circulatory system into tissues]).2 The mechanism responsible for the suppression of cytokine production by omega-3 LC PUFAs remains unknown, although suppression of omega-6-derived eicosanoid production by omega-3 fatty acids may be involved, because the omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids compete for a common enzyme in the eicosanoid synthetic pathway, delta-6 desaturase.

DPA (22:5n-3) (the elongation product of EPA) and its metabolite DHA (22:6n-3) are frequently referred to as very long chain n-3 fatty acids (VLCFA). Along with AA, DHA is the major PUFA found in the brain and is thought to be important for brain development and function. Recent research has focused on this role and the effect of supplementing infant formula with DHA (since DHA is naturally present in breast milk but not in formula).

Overview of Lipid Catabolism:

http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/622overview.html

The major aspects of lipid metabolism are involved with

Fatty Acid Oxidation to produce energy or
the synthesis of lipids which is called Lipogenesis.

The metabolism of lipids and carbohydrates are related by the conversion of lipids from carbohydrates. This can be seen in the diagram. Notice the link through actyl-CoA, the seminal discovery of Fritz Lipmann. The metabolism of both is upset by diabetes mellitus, which results in the release of ketones (2/3 betahydroxybutyric acid) into the circulation.

fatty acid metabolism

http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/images/590metabolism.gif

The first step in lipid metabolism is the hydrolysis of the lipid in the cytoplasm to produce glycerol and fatty acids.

Since glycerol is a three carbon alcohol, it is metabolized quite readily into an intermediate in glycolysis, dihydroxyacetone phosphate. The last reaction is readily reversible if glycerol is needed for the synthesis of a lipid.

The hydroxyacetone, obtained from glycerol is metabolized into one of two possible compounds. Dihydroxyacetone may be converted into pyruvic acid, a 3-C intermediate at the last step of glycolysis to make energy.

In addition, the dihydroxyacetone may also be used in gluconeogenesis (usually dependent on conversion of gluconeogenic amino acids) to make glucose-6-phosphate for glucose to the blood or glycogen depending upon what is required at that time.

Fatty acids are oxidized to acetyl CoA in the mitochondria using the fatty acid spiral. The acetyl CoA is then ultimately converted into ATP, CO₂, and H₂O using the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain.

There are two major types of fatty acids – ω-3 and ω-6. There are also saturated and unsaturated with respect to the existence of double bonds, and monounsaturated and polyunsatured. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are important in long term health, and it will be seen that high cardiovascular risk is most associated with a low ratio of ω-3/ω-6, the denominator being from animal fat. Ω-3 fatty acids are readily available from fish, seaweed, and flax seed. More can be said of this later.

Fatty acids are synthesized from carbohydrates and occasionally from proteins. Actually, the carbohydrates and proteins have first been catabolized into acetyl CoA. Depending upon the energy requirements, the acetyl CoA enters the citric acid cycle or is used to synthesize fatty acids in a process known as LIPOGENESIS.

The relationships between lipid and carbohydrate metabolism are
summarized in Figure 2.

Energy Production Fatty Acid Oxidation:

“Visible” ATP:

In the fatty acid spiral, there is only one reaction which directly uses ATP and that is in the initiating step. So this is a loss of ATP and must be subtracted later.

A large amount of energy is released and restored as ATP during the oxidation of fatty acids. The ATP is formed from both the fatty acid spiral and the citric acid cycle.

Connections to Electron Transport and ATP:

One turn of the fatty acid spiral produces ATP from the interaction of the coenzymes FAD (step 1) and NAD⁺ (step 3) with the electron transport chain. Total ATP per turn of the fatty acid spiral is:

Electron Transport Diagram – (e.t.c.)

Step 1 – FAD into e.t.c. = 2 ATP
Step 3 – NAD⁺ into e.t.c. = 3 ATP
Total ATP per turn of spiral = 5 ATP

In order to calculate total ATP from the fatty acid spiral, you must calculate the number of turns that the spiral makes. Remember that the number of turns is found by subtracting one from the number of acetyl CoA produced. See the graphic on the left bottom.

Example with Palmitic Acid = 16 carbons = 8 acetyl groups

Number of turns of fatty acid spiral = 8-1 = 7 turns

ATP from fatty acid spiral = 7 turns and 5 per turn = 35 ATP.

This would be a good time to remember that single ATP that was needed to get the fatty acid spiral started. Therefore subtract it now.

NET ATP from Fatty Acid Spiral = 35 – 1 = 34 ATP

SREBPs: activators of the complete program of cholesterol and fatty acid synthesis in the liver

Jay D. Horton^1,2, Joseph L. Goldstein¹ and Michael S. Brown¹

¹Department of Molecular Genetics, and
²Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA

J Clin Invest. 2002;109(9):1125–1131.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1172/JCI15593
Lipid homeostasis in vertebrate cells is regulated by a family of membrane-bound transcription factors designated sterol regulatory element–binding proteins (SREBPs). SREBPs directly activate the expression of more than 30 genes dedicated to the synthesis and uptake of cholesterol, fatty acids, triglycerides, and phospholipids, as well as the NADPH cofactor required to synthesize these molecules (1–4). In the liver, three SREBPs regulate the production of lipids for export into the plasma as lipoproteins and into the bile as micelles. The complex, interdigitated roles of these three SREBPs have been dissected through the study of ten different lines of gene-manipulated mice. These studies form the subject of this review.

SREBPs: activation through proteolytic processing

SREBPs belong to the basic helix-loop-helix–leucine zipper (bHLH-Zip) family of transcription factors, but they differ from other bHLH-Zip proteins in that they are synthesized as inactive precursors bound to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (1, 5). Each SREBP precursor of about 1150 amino acids is organized into three domains: (a) an NH₂-terminal domain of about 480 amino acids that contains the bHLH-Zip region for binding DNA; (b) two hydrophobic transmembrane–spanning segments interrupted by a short loop of about 30 amino acids that projects into the lumen of the ER; and (c) a COOH-terminal domain of about 590 amino acids that performs the essential regulatory function described below.

In order to reach the nucleus and act as a transcription factor, the NH₂-terminal domain of each SREBP must be released from the membrane proteolytically (Figure1). Three proteins required for SREBP processing have been delineated in cultured cells, using the tools of somatic cell genetics (see ref. 5for review). One is an escort protein designated SREBP cleavage–activating protein (SCAP). The other two are proteases, designated Site-1 protease (S1P) and Site-2 protease (S2P). Newly synthesized SREBP is inserted into the membranes of the ER, where its COOH-terminal regulatory domain binds to the COOH-terminal domain of SCAP (Figure 1).

Figure 1

Model for the sterol-mediated proteolytic release of SREBPs from membranes. SCAP is a sensor of sterols and an escort of SREBPs. When cells are depleted of sterols, SCAP transports SREBPs from the ER to the Golgi apparatus, where two proteases, Site-1 protease (S1P) and Site-2 protease (S2P), act sequentially to release the NH₂-terminal bHLH-Zip domain from the membrane. The bHLH-Zip domain enters the nucleus and binds to a sterol response element (SRE) in the enhancer/promoter region of target genes, activating their transcription.

SCAP is both an escort for SREBPs and a sensor of sterols. When cells become depleted in cholesterol, SCAP escorts the SREBP from the ER to the Golgi apparatus, where the two proteases reside. In the Golgi apparatus, S1P, a membrane-bound serine protease, cleaves the SREBP in the luminal loop between its two membrane-spanning segments, dividing the SREBP molecule in half. (Fig 1) The NH₂-terminal bHLH-Zip domain is then released from the membrane via a second cleavage mediated by S2P, a membrane-bound zinc metalloproteinase. The NH₂-terminal domain, designated nuclear SREBP (nSREBP), translocates to the nucleus, where it activates transcription by binding to nonpalindromic sterol response elements (SREs) in the promoter/enhancer regions of multiple target genes.

SREBPs: two genes, three proteins

The mammalian genome encodes three SREBP isoforms, designated SREBP-1a, SREBP-1c, and SREBP-2.

SREBP-1a is a potent activator of all SREBP-responsive genes, including those that mediate the synthesis of cholesterol, fatty acids, and triglycerides. High-level transcriptional activation is dependent on exon 1a, which encodes a longer acidic transactivation segment than does the first exon of SREBP-1c. The roles of SREBP-1c and SREBP-2 are more restricted than that of SREBP-1a. SREBP-1c preferentially enhances transcription of genes required for fatty acid synthesis but not cholesterol synthesis.

SREBP-1c and SREBP-2 activate three genes required to generate NADPH, which is consumed at multiple stages in these lipid biosynthetic pathways (8) (Figure 2).

major metabolic intermediates in the pathways for synthesis of cholesterol, fatty acids, and triglycerides

Steroids

A major class of lipids, steroids, have a ring structure of three cyclohexanes and one
cyclopentane in a fused ring system as shown below. There are a variety of functional
groups that may be attached. The main feature, as in all lipids, is the large number of
carbon-hydrogens which make steroids non-polar.

Steroids include such well known compounds as cholesterol, sex hormones, birth
control pills, cortisone, and anabolic steroids.

sex hormones

cortisone

Adrenocorticoid Hormones

The adrenocorticoid hormones are products of the adrenal glands.

The most important mineralcorticoid is aldosterone, which regulates the
reabsorption of sodium and chloride ions in the kidney tubules and increases
the loss of potassium ions.Aldosterone is secreted when blood sodium ion
levels are too low to cause the kidney to retain sodium ions. If sodium
levels are elevated, aldosterone is not secreted, so that some sodium
will be lost in the urine. Aldosterone also controls swelling in the tissues.

Cortisol, the most important glucocortinoid, has the function of increasing
glucose and glycogen concentrations in the body. These reactions are
completed in the liver by taking fatty acids from lipid storage cells and
amino acids from body proteins to make glucose and glycogen.

In addition, cortisol is elevated in the circulation with cytokine mediated
(IL1, IL1, TNFα) inflammatory reaction, called the systemic inflammatory
response syndrome. Its ketone derivative, cortisone, has the ability
to relieve inflammatory effects. Cortisone or similar synthetic derivatives
such as prednisolone are used to treat inflammatory diseases, rheumatoid
arthritis, and bronchial asthma. There are many side effects with the use
of cortisone drugs, such as bone resorption, so there use must be
monitored carefully.

Hormone Receptors

Steroid hormone receptors are found on the plasma membrane, in the cytosol and also in the nucleus of target cells. They are generally intracellular receptors (typically cytoplasmic) and initiate signal transduction for steroid hormones which lead to changes in gene expression over a time period of hours to days. The best studied steroid hormone receptors are members of the nuclear receptor subfamily 3 (NR3) that include receptors for estrogen (group NR3A)[1] and 3-ketosteroids (group NR3C).[2] In addition to nuclear receptors, several G protein-coupled receptors and ion channels act as cell surface receptors for certain steroid hormones.

Steroid Hormone Receptors and their Response Elements

Steroid hormone receptors are proteins that have a binding site for a particular steroid molecule. Their response elements are DNA sequences that are bound by the complex of the steroid bound to its Steroid receptor.

The response element is part of the promoter of a gene. Binding by the receptor activates or represses, as the case may be, the gene controlled by that promoter.

It is through this mechanism that steroid hormones turn genes on (or off).

steroid hormone receptor

http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sigler.jpg

The glucocorticoid receptor, like all steroid hormone receptors, is a zinc-finger transcription factor; the zinc atoms are the four yellow spheres. Each is attached to four cysteines.

For a steroid hormone to regulate (turn on or off) gene transcription, its receptor must:

bind to the hormone (cortisol in the case of the glucocorticoid receptor)
bind to a second copy of itself to form a homodimer
be in the nucleus, moving from the cytosol if necessary
bind to its response element
bind to other protein cofactors

Each of these functions depend upon a particular region of the protein (e.g., the zinc fingers for binding DNA).

Each of these functions depend upon a particular region of the protein (e.g., the zinc fingers for binding DNA). Mutations in any one region may upset the function of that region without necessarily interfering with other functions of the receptor.

Positive and Negative Response Elements

Some of the hundreds of glucocorticoid response elements in the human genome activate gene transcription when bound by the hormone/receptor complex. Others inhibit gene transcription when bound by the hormone/receptor complex.

Example: When the stress hormone cortisol — bound to its receptor — enters the nucleus of a liver cell, the complex binds to the positive response elements of the many genes needed for gluconeogenesis — the conversion of protein and fat into glucose resulting in a rise in the level of blood sugar.

the negative response element of the insulin receptor gene thus diminishing the ability of the cells to remove glucose from the blood. (This hyperglycemic effect is enhanced by the binding of the cortisol/receptor complex to a negative response element in the beta cells of the pancreas thus reducing the production of insulin.)

Note that every type of cell in the body contains the same response elements in its genome. What determines if a given cell responds to the arrival of a hormone depends on the presence of the hormone’s receptor in the cell.

The Nuclear Receptor Superfamily

Retinoids

http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/R/Retinoids.png

The zinc-finger proteins that serve as receptors for glucocorticoids and progesterone are members of a large family of similar proteins that serve as receptors for a variety of small, hydrophobic molecules. These include:

other steroid hormones like
the mineralocorticoid aldosterone
estrogens
the thyroid hormone, T3
calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D
retinoids: vitamin A (retinol) and its relatives
1. retinal
2. retinoic acid (tretinoin — also available as the drug Retin-A®); and its isomer
isotretinoin (sold as Accutane® for the treatment of acne).
bile acids
fatty acids.

These bind members of the superfamily called peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). They got their name from their initial discovery as the receptors for

drugs that increase the number and size of peroxisomes in cells.

In every case, the receptors consist of at least

three functional modules or domains.

From N-terminal to C-terminal, these are:

a domain needed
the zinc-finger domain needed for DNA binding (to the response element)
the domain responsible for binding the particular hormone as well as the second unit of the dimer.
for the receptor to activate the promoters of the genes being controlled

Schematic diagram of type II zinc finger proteins characteristic of the DNA-binding domain structure of members of the steroid hormone receptor superfamily. Zinc fingers are common features of many transcription factors, allowing proteins to bind to DNA. Each circle represents one amino acid. The CI zinc finger interacts specifically with five base pairs of DNA and determines the DNA sequence recognized by the particular steroid receptor. The three shaded amino acids indicated by the arrows in the knuckle of the CI zinc finger are in the “P box” that allows HRE sequence discrimination between the GR and ERα. The vertically striped aa within the knuckle of the CII zinc finger constitutes the “D box” that is important for dimerization and contacts with the DNA phosphate backbone. Adapted from Tsai M-J, O’Malley BW. Molecular mechanisms of action of steroid/thyroid receptor superfamily members. Annu Rev Biochem 1994;63:451-483; Gronemeyer H. Transcription activation by estrogen and progesterone receptors. Annu Rev Genet 1991;25:89-123.

type II zinc finger proteins

Cytoskeleton and Cell Membrane Physiology

http://pharmaceuticalinnovation.com/10/28/2014/larryhbern/Cytoskeleton_
and_Cell_Membrane_Physiology

Definition and Function

The cytoskeleton is a series of intercellular proteins that help a cell with

shape,
support, and
movement.

Cytoskeleton has three main structural components:

microfilaments,
intermediate filaments, and
movement

The cytoskeleton mediates movement by

helping the cell move in its environment and
mediating the movement of the cell’s components.

Thereby it provides an important structural framework for the cell –

the framework for the movement of organelles, contiguous with the cell membrane, around the cytoplasm. By the activity of
the network of protein microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.

The structural framework supports cell function as follows:

Cell shape. For cells without cell walls, the cytoskeleton determines the shape of the cell. This is one of the functions of the intermediate filaments.

Cell movement. The dynamic collection of microfilaments and microtubles can be continually in the process of assembly and disassembly, resulting in forces that move the cell. There can also be sliding motions of these structures. Audesirk and Audesirk give examples of white blood cells “crawling” and the migration and shape changes of cells during the development of multicellular organisms.

Organelle movement. Microtubules and microfilaments can help move organelles from place to place in the cell. In endocytosis a vesicle formed engulfs a particle abutting the cell. Microfilaments then attach to the vesicle and pull it into the cell. Much of the complex synthesis and distribution function of the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi complex makes use of transport vescicles, associated with the cytoskeleton.

Cell division. During cell division, microtubules accomplish the movement of the chromosones to the daughter nucleus. Also, a ring of microfilaments helps divide two developing cells by constricting the central region between the cells (fission).

References:
Hickman, et al. Ch 4 Hickman, Cleveland P., Roberts, Larry S., and Larson, Allan, Integrated Principles of Zoology, 9th. Ed., Wm C. Brown, 1995.
Audesirk & Audesirk Ch 6 Audesirk, Teresa and Audesirk, Gerald, Biology, Life on Earth, 5th Ed., Prentice-Hall, 1999.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/biology/bioref.html#c1
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/biology/cytoskel.html

Read Full Post »

Cytoskeleton and Cell Membrane Physiology

Posted in Academic Publishing, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Curation, Cytoskeleton, Developmental biology, Disease Biology, Gene Regulation, Human Immune System in Health and in Disease, Ionic Transporters Na+, K, Lipid metabolism, Lipids, Metabolism, Metabolomics, Na-K transport, Nutrition, Proteins, Proteomics, Signaling, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Transcriptomics, Translational Science, tagged cell membrane functions, Cytoskeleton, cytoskeleton transport, Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, ion transfer, movement, nuclear pores, protein signals, shape, tubulins on October 28, 2014| Leave a Comment »

Cytoskeleton and Cell Membrane Physiology

Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

cell-membrane

early evolution of lipid membranes and the three domains of life

Definition and Function

The cytoskeleton is a series of intercellular proteins that help a cell with

shape,
support, and
movement.

Cytoskeleton has three main structural components:

microfilaments,
intermediate filaments, and
movement

The cytoskeleton mediates movement by

helping the cell move in its environment and
mediating the movement of the cell’s components.

Thereby it provides an important structural framework for the cell –

the framework for the movement of organelles, contiguous with the cell membrane, around the cytoplasm. By the activity of
the network of protein microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.

The structural framework supports cell function as follows:

Cell shape. For cells without cell walls, the cytoskeleton determines the shape of the cell. This is one of the functions of the intermediate filaments.

Intermediate filaments are 8-12 nanometers in diameter and are twisted together in a cord shape. They are composed of keratin and keratin-like proteins. These filaments are tough and resist tension.

Microtubules are composed of alpha and beta tubulin that form long, hollow cylinders. These are fairly strong proteins and are the largest component of cytoskeleton at 25 nanometers. Tubular monomers can be lengthened or shortened from the positive end.

Microtubules have three different functions.

They make up the cell’s

centriole
the flagella and cilia of a cell, and
they serve as “tracks” for transport vesicles to move along.

http://biology.kenyon.edu/HHMI/Biol113/cytoskeleton.htm

Key Points

Microtubules

help the cell resist compression,
provide a track along which vesicles can move throughout the cell, and
are the components of cilia and flagella.

Cilia and flagella are hair-like structures that

assist with locomotion in some cells, as well as
line various structures to trap particles.

The structures of cilia and flagella are a “9+2 array,” meaning that

a ring of nine microtubules is surrounded by two more microtubules.

Microtubules attach to replicated chromosomes

during cell division and
pull them apart to opposite ends of the pole,
allowing the cell to divide with a complete set of chromosomes in each daughter cell.

Microtubules are the largest element of the cytoskeleton.

The walls of the microtubule are made of

polymerized dimers of α-tubulin and β-tubulin, two globular proteins.

https://figures.boundless.com/18608/full/figure-04-05-04ab.jpe

With a diameter of about 25 nm, microtubules are the widest components of the cytoskeleton.

https://figures.boundless.com/18608/full/figure-04-05-04ab.jpe

They help the cell

resist compression,
provide a track along which vesicles move through the cell, and
pull replicated chromosomes to opposite ends of a dividing cell.

Like microfilaments, microtubules can dissolve and reform quickly.

Microtubules are also the structural elements of flagella, cilia, and centrioles (the latter are the two perpendicular bodies of the centrosome). In animal cells, the centrosome is the microtubule-organizing center. In eukaryotic cells, flagella and cilia are quite different structurally from their counterparts in prokaryotes.

Intermediate Filaments

Intermediate filaments (IFs) are cytoskeletal components found in animal cells. They are composed of a family of related proteins sharing common structural and sequence features.

epithelial cells

https://figures.boundless.com/22035/full/epithelial-cells.jpe

flagella and cilia share a common structural arrangement of microtubules called a “9 + 2 array.” This is an appropriate name because a single flagellum or cilium is made of a ring of nine microtubule doublets surrounding a single microtubule doublet in the center.

9+2 array

https://figures.boundless.com/18609/full/figure-04-05-05.jpe

https://www.boundless.com/physiology/textbooks/boundless-anatomy-and-physiology-textbook/cellular-structure-and-function-3/the-cytoskeleton-46/the-composition-and-function-of-the-cytoskeleton-348-11460/

http://jcs.biologists.org/content/115/22/4215/F4.large.jpg

The `Spectraplakins’: cytoskeletal giants with characteristics of both spectrin and plakin families

Katja Röper, Stephen L. Gregory and Nicholas H. Brown
J Cell Sci Nov 15, 2002; 115: 4215-4225
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1242/jcs.00157

cytoskel

http://plantphys.info/plant_physiology/images/cytoskelfcns.gif

cytoskeleton

http://img.sparknotes.com/figures/D/d479f5da672c08a54f986ae699069d7a/cytoskeleton.gif

The sequential endosymbiotic origins of eukaryotes: Compared to bacteria and archaea, the typical eukaryotic cell is much more structurally complex.

While the prokaryotes have a rigid cell wall, the ancestral eukaryote appears to have been wall-less (the walls of plant cells appear to represent a adaptation, and are not homologous to prokaryotic cell walls).

In addition to a nucleus (wherein the cell’s DNA is located, and which we will return to in the next section), there are cytoskeletal structures, including distinctive flagella (quite different from those found in prokaryotes), an active (motile) plasma membrane, capable of engulfing other cells, and multiple internal membrane systems. (A more complete description of cell structure is beyond this version of Biofundamentals).

In aerobic bacteria and cyanobacteria, the electron transport chains associated with ATP synthesis (through either photosynthesis or aerobic respiration) located within the plasma membrane (and in the case of cyanobacteria, internal membrane systems as well).

The same processes (aerobic respiration and photosynthesis) occur within eukaryotic cells. Animals have aerobic respiration, while plants have both).

However, these processes do not occur on the plasma membrane, but rather within distinct cytoplasmic organelles: mitochondria for aerobic respiration and chloroplasts for photosynthesis. All eukaryotic cells have mitochondria, plants (which are eukaryotic) have both mitochondria and chloroplasts.

An intriguing evolutionary question was, are these processes related, that is, are the processes of aerobic respiration and photosynthesis found in eukaryotes homologous to the processes found in bacteria and cyanobacteria, or did they originate independently.

The path to understanding that homologous nature of these processes began with studies of cell structure.

http://virtuallaboratory.colorado.edu/Biofundamentals/lectureNotes-Revision/Topic2I_Symbiosis.htm

spectrin protein superfamily.large

http://mmbr.asm.org/content/70/3/605/F4.large.jpg

The role of secreted factors and extracellular matrix

Focal Adhesions: Transmembrane Junctions Between the Extracellular Matrix and the Cytoskeleton

K Burridge, K Fath, T Kelly, G Nuckolls, and C Turner
Ann Rev Cell Biol Nov 1988; 4: 487-525

http://dx.doi.org:/10.1146/annurev.cb.04.110188.002415

the extracellular matrix (ECM) is a collection of extracellular molecules secreted by cells that

provides structural and biochemical support to the surrounding cells.[1]

Because multicellularity evolved independently in different multicellular lineages, the composition of ECM varies between multicellular structures; however,

cell adhesion,
cell-to-cell communication and
differentiation

are common functions of the ECM.[2]

The animal extracellular matrix includes

the interstitial matrix and
the basement membrane.[3]

Interstitial matrix is present between various animal cells (i.e., in the intercellular spaces).

Gels of polysaccharides and fibrous proteins

fill the interstitial space and act as
a compression buffer against the stress placed on the ECM.[4]

Basement membranes are sheet-like depositions of ECM on which various epithelial cells rest.

The Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
http://userpage.chemie.fu-berlin.de/biochemie/aghaucke/lehre/cytoskelet-ECM.pdf

Mechanical support to tissues

http://www.nature.com/scitable/content/ne0000/ne0000/ne0000/ne0000/14707425/U4CP5-1_FibronectinIntegri_ksm.jpg

http://www.nature.com/scitable/content/integrin-connects-the-extracellular-matrix-with-the-14707425

Organization of cells into tissues

Activation of signaling pathways (cell growth, proliferation; development); examples:
TGF-β, integrins
specialized roles (tendon, bone; cartilage; cell movement during development; basal lamina in epithelia)

Components

proteoglycans
collagen fibers (mechanical strength)
multiadhesive matrix proteins (linking cell surface receptors to the (ECM)

Integrin connects the extracellular matrix with the actin cytoskeleton inside the cell

Fibronectin Integrin

http://www.nature.com/scitable/content/ne0000/ne0000/ne0000/ne0000/14707425/U4CP5-1_FibronectinIntegri_ksm.jpg

http://www.nature.com/scitable/content/integrin-connects-the-extracellular-matrix-with-the-14707425

Continuous membrane-cytoskeleton adhesion requires continuous accommodation to lipid and cytoskeleton dynamics.

Sheetz MP, Sable JE, Döbereiner HG.
Annu Rev Biophys Struct Biomol. 2006;35:417-34.

The plasma membrane of most animal cells conforms to the cytoskeleton and only occasionally separates to form blebs. Previous studies indicated that

many weak interactions between cytoskeleton and the lipid bilayer
kept the surfaces together to counteract the normal outward pressure of cytoplasm.

Either the loss of adhesion strength or the formation of gaps in the cytoskeleton enables the pressure to form blebs. Membrane-associated cytoskeleton proteins, such as spectrin and filamin, can

control the movement and aggregation of membrane proteins and lipids,
e.g., phosphoinositol phospholipids (PIPs), as well as blebbing.

At the same time, lipids (particularly PIPs) and membrane proteins affect

cytoskeleton and signaling dynamics.

We consider here the roles of the major phosphatidylinositol-4,5-diphosphate (PIP2) binding protein, MARCKS, and PIP2 levels in controlling cytoskeleton dynamics. Further understanding of dynamics will provide important clues about how membrane-cytoskeleton adhesion rapidly adjusts to cytoskeleton and membrane dynamics. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16689643

Interaction of membrane/lipid rafts with the cytoskeleton: impact on signaling and function: membrane/lipid rafts, mediators of cytoskeletal arrangement and cell signaling.

Head BP, Patel HH, Insel PA Epub 2013 Jul 27.
Biochim Biophys Acta. 2014 Feb;1838(2):532-45.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.bbamem.2013.07.018

The plasma membrane in eukaryotic cells contains microdomains that are

enriched in certain glycosphingolipids, gangliosides, and sterols (such as cholesterol) to form membrane/lipid rafts (MLR).

These regions exist as caveolae, morphologically observable flask-like invaginations, or as a less easily detectable planar form. MLR are scaffolds for many molecular entities, including

signaling receptors and ion channels that
communicate extracellular stimuli to the intracellular milieu.

Much evidence indicates that this organization and/or the clustering of MLR into more active signaling platforms

depends upon interactions with and dynamic rearrangement of the cytoskeleton.

Several cytoskeletal components and binding partners, as well as enzymes that regulate the cytoskeleton, localize to MLR and help

regulate lateral diffusion of membrane proteins and lipids in response to extracellular events
(e.g., receptor activation, shear stress, electrical conductance, and nutrient demand).

MLR regulate

cellular polarity,
adherence to the extracellular matrix,
signaling events (including ones that affect growth and migration), and
are sites of cellular entry of certain pathogens, toxins and nanoparticles.

The dynamic interaction between MLR and the underlying cytoskeleton thus regulates many facets of the function of eukaryotic cells and their adaptation to changing environments. Here, we review general features of MLR and caveolae and their role in several aspects of cellular function, including

polarity of endothelial and epithelial cells,
cell migration,
mechanotransduction,
lymphocyte activation,
neuronal growth and signaling, and
a variety of disease settings.

This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Reciprocal influences between cell cytoskeleton and membrane channels, receptors and transporters. Guest Editor: Jean Claude Hervé.

Cell control by membrane–cytoskeleton adhesion

Michael P. Sheetz
Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology 2, 392-396 (May 2001) | http://dx.doi.doi:/10.1038/35073095

The rates of mechanochemical processes, such as endocytosis, membrane extension and membrane resealing after cell wounding, are known to be controlled biochemically, through interaction with regulatory proteins. Here, I propose that these rates are also controlled physically, through an apparently continuous adhesion between plasma membrane lipids and cytoskeletal proteins.

Lipid Rafts, Signalling and the Cytoskeleton
http://www.bms.ed.ac.uk/research/others/smaciver/Cyto-Topics/lipid_rafts_and_the_cytoskeleton.htm

Lipid rafts are specialised membrane domains enriched in certain lipids cholesterol and proteins. The existence of lipid rafts was first hypothesised in 1988 (Simons & van Meer, 1988; Simon & Ikonen, 1997), but what we know as “caveolae” were first observed much earlier (Palade, 1953; Yamada, 1955). Caveolae are flask shaped invaginations on the cell surface that are a type of membrane raft, these were named “caveolae intracellulare” (Yamada, 1955). After a long argument (Jacobson & Dietrich, 1999), most now consider that these rafts actually exist, however, there is some confusion surrounding the classification of these rafts. It presently seems that there could be three types; caveolae, glycosphingolipid enriched membranes (GEM), and polyphospho inositol rich rafts. It may also be that there are inside rafts (PIP2 rich and caveolae) and outside rafts (GEM).

The fatty-acid chains of lipids within the rafts tend to be extended and so more tightly packed, creating domains with higher order. It is therefore thought that rafts exist in a separate ordered phase that floats in a sea of poorly ordered lipids. Glycosphingolipids, and other lipids with long, straight acyl chains are preferentially incorporated into the rafts.

Caveolae are similar in composition to GEMs that lack caveolae and in fact cells that lack caveolin-1 do not have morphologically identifiable caveolae but instead have extra GEM. These cells can then be transfected with caveolin-1 cDNA and the caveolae then appear. This suggests that GEM are merely caveolae without caveolin-1. Caveolin-1 is a 21kDa integral membrane protein that binds cholesterol (Maruta et al, 1995). In cells lacking caveolin-1, caveolin-2 is synthesised but remains in the Golgi. Caveolin 1 and 2 colocalise when expressed in the same cells and they may form hetero-dimers (Scherer et al, 1997). Caveolin-3 is expressed in muscle where it forms muscle-type caveolae. Caveolin-3 is involved in certain types of muscular dystrophy (Galbiati et al, ). A slightly confusing finding is that caveolae are the reported site of integrin signalling (). It is difficult to imagine integrins being available in the depths of membrane invaginations for binding extra-cellular ligands.

The function of rafts

Many functions have been attributed to rafts, from cholesterol transport, endocytosis and signal transduction. The later is almost certainly the case. It has been suggested that the primary function of caveolae was in constitutive endocytic trafficking but recent data show that this is not the case, instead caveolae are very stable regions of membranes that are not involved in endocytosis (Thompsen et al, 2002).

lipid raft

Rafts and the Cytoskeleton

Many actin binding proteins are known to bind to polyphosphoinositides and to be regulated by them (see PI and ABPs), by a series of protein domains such as PH, PX and ENTH (see Domains). It is consequently scarcely surprising that some ABPs are suggested to link the actin cytoskeleton and PIP2-enriched rafts. One of these is gelsolin, a Ca2+, pH and polyphosphoinositide regulated actin capping and severing protein (see Gelsolin Family), that partitions into rafts isolated biochemically from brain (Fanatsu et al, 2000).

GEMs too are suggested to link to the actin cytoskeleton through ABPs particularly ERM proteins through EBP50, a protein that binds members of the ERM proteins through the ERM C-terminus (Brdickova et al, 2001).

References:–

Brdickova, N., Brdicka, T., Andrea, L., Spicka, J., Angelisova, P., Milgram, S. L. & Horejsi, V. (2001) Interaction between two adaptor proteins, PAG and EBP50: a possible link between membrane rafts and actin cytoskeleton. FEBS letters. 507, 133-136.

Cary, L. A. & Cooper, J. A. (2000) Molecular switches in lipid rafts. Nature. 404, 945-947.

Czarny, M., Fiucci, G., Lavie, Y., Banno, Y., Nozawa, Y. & Liscovitch, M. (2000) Phospholipase D2: functional interaction with caveolin in low-density membrane microdomains., FEBS letters.

Foger, N., Funatsu, N., Kumanogoh, H., Sokawa, Y. & Maekawa, S. (2000) Identification of gelsolin as an actin regulatory component in a Triton insoluble low density fraction (raft) of newborn bovine brain. Neuroscience Research. 36, 311-317.

Galbiati, F., Engelman, J. A., Volonte, D., Zhang, X. L., Minetti, C., Li, M., Hou jr, H., Kneitz, B., Edelman, W. & Lisanti, M. P. (2001) Caveolin-3 null mice show a loss of caveolae, changes in the microdomain distribution of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex, and T-tubule abnormalities. J. Biol.Chem. 276, 21425-21433.

… (more)

centralpore-small Gating and Ion Conductivity

Interaction of epithelial ion channels with the actin-based cytoskeleton.

Mazzochi C, Benos DJ, Smith PR.
Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2006 Dec;291(6):F1113-22. Epub 2006 Aug 22

The interaction of ion channels with the actin-based cytoskeleton in epithelial cells

not only maintains the polarized expression of ion channels within specific membrane domains,
it also functions in the intracellular trafficking and regulation of channel activity.

Initial evidence supporting an interaction between

epithelial ion channels and the
actin-based cytoskeleton

came from patch-clamp studies of the effects of cytochalasins on channel activity. Cytochalasins were shown to

either activate or inactivate epithelial ion channels.

An interaction between

the actin-based cytoskeleton and epithelial ion channels

was further supported by the fact that the addition of monomeric or filamentous actin to excised patches had an effect on channel activity comparable to that of cytochalasins. Through the recent application of molecular and proteomic approaches, we now know that

the interactions between epithelial ion channels and actin can either be direct or indirect,
the latter being mediated through scaffolding or actin-binding proteins
that serve as links between the channels and the actin-based cytoskeleton.

This review discusses recent advances in our understanding of the interactions between epithelial ion channels and the actin-based cytoskeleton, and the roles these interactions play in regulating the cell surface expression, activity, and intracellular trafficking of epithelial ion channels.

epithelial ion channels

Actin cytoskeleton regulates ion channel activity in retinal neurons.

Maguire G, Connaughton V, Prat AG, Jackson GR Jr, Cantiello HF.
Neuroreport. 1998 Mar 9;9(4):665-70

The actin cytoskeleton is an important contributor to the integrity of cellular shape and responses in neurons. However, the molecular mechanisms associated with functional interactions between the actin cytoskeleton and neuronal ion channels are largely unknown. Whole-cell and single channel recording techniques were thus applied to identified retinal bipolar neurons of the tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum) to assess the role of acute changes in actin-based cytoskeleton dynamics in the regulation of voltage-gated ion channels. Disruption of endogenous actin filaments after brief treatment (20-30 min) with cytochalasin D (CD) activated voltage-gated K+ currents in bipolar cells, which were largely prevented by intracellular perfusion with the actin filament-stabilizer agent, phalloidin. Either CD treatment under cell-attached conditions or direct addition of actin to excised, inside-out patches of bipolar cells activated and/or increased single K+ channels. Thus, acute changes in actin-based cytoskeleton dynamics regulate voltage-gated ion channel activity in bipolar cells.

Cytoskeletal Basis of Ion Channel Function in Cardiac Muscle

Matteo Vatta, Ph.D1,2 and Georgine Faulkner, Ph.D3

The publisher’s final edited version of this article is available at Future Cardiol

The heart is a force-generating organ that responds to self-generated electrical stimuli from specialized cardiomyocytes. This function is modulated by sympathetic and parasympathetic activity.

In order to contract and accommodate the repetitive morphological changes induced by the cardiac cycle,

cardiomyocytes depend on their highly evolved and specialized cytoskeletal apparatus.

Defects in components of the cytoskeleton, in the long term, affect

the ability of the cell to compensate at
both functional and structural levels.

In addition to the structural remodeling, the myocardium becomes

increasingly susceptible to altered electrical activity leading to arrhythmogenesis.

The development of arrhythmias secondary to structural remodeling defects has been noted, although the detailed molecular mechanisms are still elusive. Here I will review the current knowledge of the molecular and functional relationships between the cytoskeleton and ion channels and, I will discuss the future impact of new data on molecular cardiology research and clinical practice.

Stretch-activated ion channel

Stretch-activated or stretch-gated ion channels are

ion channels which open their pores in response to
mechanical deformation of a neuron’s plasma membrane.

[Also see mechanosensitive ion channels and mechanosensitive channels, with which they may be synonymous]. Opening of the ion channels

depolarizes the afferent neuron producing an action potential with sufficient depolarization.[1]

Channels open in response to two different mechanisms: the prokaryotic model and the mammalian hair cell model.[2][3] Stretch-activated ion channels have been shown to detect vibration, pressure, stretch, touch, sounds, tastes, smell, heat, volume, and vision.[4][5][6] Stretch-activated ion channels have been categorized into

three distinct “superfamilies”:

the ENaC/DEG family,
the TRP family, and
the K1 selective family.

These channels are involved with bodily functions such as blood pressure regulation.[7] They are shown to be associated with many cardiovascular diseases.[3] Stretch-activated channels were first observed in chick skeletal muscles by Falguni Guharay and Frederick Sachs in 1983 and the results were published in 1984.[8] Since then stretch-activated channels have been found in cells from bacteria to humans as well as plants.

Mechanosensitivity of cell membranes. Ion channels, lipid matrix and cytoskeleton.

Petrov AG, Usherwood PN.
Eur Biophys J. 1994;23(1):1-19

Physical and biophysical mechanisms of mechano-sensitivity of cell membranes are reviewed. The possible roles of

the lipid matrix and of
the cytoskeleton in membrane mechanoreception

are discussed. Techniques for generation of static strains and dynamic curvatures of membrane patches are considered. A unified model for

stress-activated and stress-inactivated ion channels

under static strains is described. A review of work on

stress-sensitive pores in lipid-peptide model membranes

is presented. The possible role of flexoelectricity in mechano-electric transduction, e.g. in auditory receptors is discussed. Studies of

flexoelectricity in model lipid membranes, lipid-peptide membranes and natural membranes containing ion channels

are reviewed. Finally, possible applications in molecular electronics of mechanosensors employing some of the recognized principles of mechano-electric transduction in natural membranes are discussed.Marhaba, R. & Zoller, M. (2001) Involvement of CD44 in cytoskeleton rearrangement and raft reorganization in T cells. J.Cell Sci. 114, 1169-1178.

FIGURE 2 | The transient pore model.

peroxisomal matrix protein

FROM THE FOLLOWING ARTICLE:
Peroxisomal matrix protein import: the transient pore model

Ralf Erdmann & Wolfgang Schliebs
Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology 6, 738-742 (September 2005)
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nrm1710

Peroxisomal matrix protein import: the transient pore model
The transient pore model

The peroxisomal import receptor peroxin-5 (Pex5) recognizes peroxisomal targeting signal-1 (PTS1)-containing cargo proteins in the cytosol. It then moves to the peroxisome where it inserts into the peroxisomal membrane to become an integral part of the protein-import apparatus. Pex14 and/or Pex13, which are associated with Pex17, are proposed to be involved in tethering the receptor to the membrane and in the assembly, stabilization and rearrangement of the translocon. Cargo release into the peroxisomal matrix is thought to be initiated by intraperoxisomal factors — for example, the competitive binding of the intraperoxisomal Pex8, which also has a PTS1. The disassembly and recycling of Pex5 is triggered by a cascade of protein–protein interactions at the peroxisomal membrane that results in the Pex1-, Pex6-driven, ATP-dependent dislocation of Pex5 from the peroxisomal membrane to the cytosol. Pex1 and Pex6 are AAA+ (ATPases associated with a variety of cellular activities) peroxins that are associated with the peroxisome membrane through Pex15 in yeast or its orthologue PEX26 in mammals. Pex4, which is membrane-anchored through Pex22, is a member of the E2 family of ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes, and Pex2, Pex10 and Pex12 contain the RING-finger motif that is a characteristic element of E3 ubiquitin ligases. Mono- or di-ubiquitylation are reversible steps that seem to be required for the efficient recycling of import receptors, whereas polyubiquitylation might signal the proteasome-dependent degradation of receptors when the physiological dislocation of receptors is blocked. Ub, ubiquitin.

Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology 6, 738-742 (September 2005) |
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nrm1710

FROM THE FOLLOWING ARTICLE:

peroxisomal protein pore model

Peroxisomal matrix protein import: the transient pore model

Ralf Erdmann & Wolfgang Schliebs
Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology 6, 738-742 (September 2005)
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nrm1710

Peroxisomal matrix protein import: the transient pore model

Peroxin-13 (Pex13), Pex14 and Pex17 are constituents of the docking complex for cycling peroxisomal import receptors. Another protein assembly in the peroxisomal membrane comprises the RING-finger-motif-containing peroxins Pex2, Pex10 and Pex12. This motif is a characteristic element of E3 ubiquitin ligases, and this subcomplex is linked to the docking complex by Pex8, which is peripherally attached to the lumenal side of the peroxisomal membrane. Pex4 is a member of the E2 family of ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes and is anchored to the peroxisomal membrane through the cytosolic domain of Pex22. Pex1 and Pex6 are interacting AAA+ proteins (ATPases associated with a variety of cellular activities), which are attached to the membrane through binding to Pex15 in yeast or to its mammalian counterpart PEX26.

Peroxisomal matrix protein import: the transient pore model

Ralf Erdmann & Wolfgang Schliebs

Peroxisomes import folded, even oligomeric, proteins, which distinguishes the peroxisomal translocation machinery from the well-characterized translocons of other organelles. How proteins are transported across the peroxisomal membrane is unclear. Here, we propose a mechanistic model that conceptually divides the import process into three consecutive steps: the formation of a

translocation pore by the import receptor,
the ubiquitylation of the import receptors, and
pore disassembly/receptor recycling.

Phytosphingosine

Masoud Naderi Maralani

Identification of the phytosphingosine metabolic pathway leading to odd-numbered fatty acids

The long-chain base phytosphingosine is a component of sphingolipids and exists in yeast, plants and some mammalian tissues. Phytosphingosine is unique in that it possesses an additional hydroxyl group compared with other long-chain bases. However, its metabolism is unknown. Here we show that phytosphingosine is metabolized to odd-numbered fatty acids and is incorporated into glycerophospholipids both in yeast and mammalian cells. Disruption of the yeast gene encoding long-chain base 1-phosphate lyase, which catalyzes the committed step in the metabolism of phytosphingosine to glycerophospholipids, causes an ~40% reduction in the level of phosphatidylcholines that contain a C15 fatty acid. We also find that 2-hydroxypalmitic acid is an intermediate of the phytosphingosine metabolic pathway. Furthermore, we show that the yeast MPO1 gene, whose product belongs to a large, conserved protein family of unknown function, is involved in phytosphingosine metabolism. Our findings provide insights into fatty acid diversity and identify a pathway by which hydroxyl group-containing lipids are metabolized. nature.com nature.com

About GPCRs

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a class of membrane proteins that allow the transmission of a wide variety of signals over the cell membrane, between different cells and over long distances inside the body. The molecular mechanisms of action of GPCRs were worked in great detail by Brian Kobilka and Robert Lefkowitz for which they were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 2012. Read More

Read Full Post »

Sex Hormones, Adrenal Cortisol, Prostaglandins

Posted in Biological Networks, Cancer and Current Therapeutics, Cell Biology, Disease Biology, Gene Regulation, Gene Regulation and Evolution, Lipid metabolism, Lipids, Metabolism, Metabolomics, Molecular Genetics & Pharmaceutical, Nutrition, Translational Science, tagged adrenal corticosteroids, Estrogen, Progesterone, prostaglandins, sex hormones, steroid hormones, testosterone on October 27, 2014| Leave a Comment »

Sex Hormones, Adrenal Cortisol, Prostaglandins

Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Steroids

Steroids include such well known compounds as cholesterol, sex hormones, birth
control pills, cortisone, and anabolic steroids.

cholesterol

http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/images/556cholesterol.gif

The best known and most abundant steroid in the body is cholesterol. Cholesterol is
formed in brain tissue, nerve tissue, and the blood stream. It is the major compound
found in gallstones and bile salts. Cholesterol also contributes to the formation of
deposits on the inner walls of blood vessels. This topic was covered in the previous
discussion of the lipids series, and extensively in cardiovascular topics.

Cholesterol is synthesized by the liver from carbohydrates and proteins as well as fat.
Therefore, the elimination of cholesterol rich foods from the diet does not necessarily
lower blood cholesterol levels. Some studies have found that if certain unsaturated fats
and oils are substituted for saturated fats, the blood cholesterol level decreases.
The research is incomplete on this problem.

Cholesterol exists as an ester with fatty acids.What is the functional group at carbon 3
which is used to make an ester?
OH is alcohol

What is the feature on carbon 17?
Branched long hydrocarbon chain

Sex Hormones

sex hormones

http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/images/556sexhormones.gif

The primary sex hormones, testosterone and estrogen, are responsible for the
development of secondary sex characteristics. Two female sex hormones,
progesterone and estrogen or estradiol control the ovulation cycle. Notice
that the male and female hormones have only slight differences in structures,
but yet have very different physiological effects.

Testosterone promotes the normal development of male genital organs and
is synthesized from cholesterol in the testes. It also promotes secondary male
sexual characteristics such as deep voice, facial and body hair.

Estrogen, along with progesterone regulates changes occurring in the uterus
and ovaries known as the menstrual cycle. Estrogen is synthesized from
testosterone by making the first ring aromatic which results in the loss of a
methyl group and formation of an alcohol group.

List three functional groups in progesterone?
C#3 & #17 are ketones; C#4&5 are alkenes;

What is difference between progesterone and testosterone?
testosterone has C#17 alcohol vs ketone on progesterone

What is difference between testosterone and estrogen?
Estrogen has C#3 alcohol, + aromatic first ring;
no methyl group on C#17

Adrenocorticoid Hormones

The adrenocorticoid hormones are products of the adrenal glands.

What is the only difference between cortisol and aldosterone?
Aldosterone has C#13 aldehyde instead of methyl group

cortisone

http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/images/556cortisone.gif

Prostaglandins

Prostaglandins, are like hormones in that they act as chemical messengers,
but do not move to other sites, but work right within the cells where
they are synthesized. (PARACRINE)

Prostaglandins are unsaturated carboxylic acids, consisting of of a 20 carbon
skeleton that also contains a five member ring. They are biochemically
synthesized from the fatty acid, arachidonic acid.

arachidonic acid

http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/images/551arachidonic.gif

The unique shape of the arachidonic acid caused by a series of cis double
bonds helps to put it into position to make the five member ring.

Prostaglandins are unsaturated carboxylic acids, consisting of a

20 carbon skeleton that also contains
a five member ring and
are based upon the fatty acid, arachidonic acid.

There are a variety of structures one, two, or three double bonds. On the
five member ring there may also be double bonds, a ketone, or alcohol groups.

In PGE2, list all of the functional groups.
one acid; two alkenes; two alcohols; one ketone

What is difference the C=C double bonds?
the upper is cis; the lower is trans.

prostaglandin PGE2

http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/images/556prostaglandin.gif

Functions of Prostaglandins

There are a variety of physiological effects including:

Activation of the inflammatory response, production of pain, and fever.
When tissues are damaged, white blood cells flood to the site to
try to minimize tissue destruction. Prostaglandins are produced
as a result.
Blood clots form when a blood vessel is damaged. A type of
prostaglandin called thromboxane stimulates constriction and
clotting of platelets. Conversely, PGI2, is produced to have the
opposite effect on the walls of blood vessels where clots
should not be forming.
Certain prostaglandins are involved with the induction of labor
and other reproductive processes. PGE2 causes uterine
contractions and has been used to induce labor.
Prostaglandins are involved in several other organs such as
the gastrointestinal tract (inhibit acid synthesis and increase
secretion of protective mucus), increase blood flow in kidneys,
and leukotriens promote constriction of bronchi associated
with asthma.

When you see that prostaglandins induce inflammation, pain, and fever,
what comes to mind but aspirin. Aspirin blocks an enzyme called
cyclooxygenase, COX-1 and COX-2, which is involved with the ring
closure and addition of oxygen to arachidonic acid converting to
prostaglandins.

The acetyl group on aspirin is hydrolzed and then bonded to the
alcohol group of serine as an ester. This has the effect of blocking
the channel in the enzyme and arachidonic can not enter the active
site of the enzyme.

By inhibiting or blocking this enzyme, the synthesis of prostaglandins
is blocked, which in turn relives some of the effects of pain and fever.

cox1 aspirin

http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/images/556coxaspirin.gif

http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/

Sphingolipids

Sphingolipids are a second type of lipid found in cell membranes, particularly
nerve cells and brain tissues. They do not contain glycerol, but retain the
two alcohols with the middle position occupied by an amine.

As shown in the graphic, sphingosine has three parts, a three carbon
chain with two alcohols and amine attached and a long hydrocarbon chain.

http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/images/556sphingosine.gif

Structure of Sphingomyelin

In sphingomyelin, the base sphingosine has several other groups attached
as shown in the graphic on the left. A fatty acid is attached to the amine
through amide bond. Phosphate is attached through a phosphate ester bond,
and again through a phosphate ester bond to choline.

The human brain and spinal cord is made up of gray and white regions.
The white region is made of nerve axons wrapped in a white lipid coating,
the myelin sheath, which provides insulation to allow rapid conduction of
electrical signals. Multiple sclerosis caused by a gradual degradation of
the myelin sheath.

Sphingomyleins are located throughout the body in nerve cell membranes.
They make up about 25 % of the lipids in the myelin sheath that surrounds
and insulates cells of the central nervous system.

Niemann-Pick disease is caused by a deficiency of an enzyme that breaks
down excessive sphingomyelin, which then builds up on the liver, spleen,
brain, and bone marrow. An effected child usually dies within several years.

sphingomyelin

http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/images/556sphingomyelin.gif

Glycolipids and Cerebrosides

Glycolipids are complex lipids that contain carbohydrates. Cerebrosides are an
example which contain the sphingosine backbone attached to a fatty acid and
a carbohydrate. The carbohydrates are most often glucose or galactose. Those
that contain several carbohydrates are called gangliosides. The example on the
left is shown with glucose. Glucocerebroside has the specific function to be in
the cell membranes of macrophages, (cells that protect the body by destroying
foreign microorganisms. Galactocerebroside is found almost exclusively in the
membranes of brain cells.

There are several genetic diseases resulting from the absence of specific enzymes
which breakdown the glycolipids. Tay-Sachs, which mainly effects Jewish children,
results in a build up of gangliosides and result in death in several years. Gaucher’s
disease results in the excessive build up of glucocerebroside resulting in severe
anemia and enlarged liver and spleen.

cerebroside

http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/images/556cerebroside.gif

Read Full Post »

« Newer Posts - Older Posts »

Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence Group, LLC, Doing Business As LPBI Group, Newton, MA

Archive for the ‘Lipids’ Category

Stress and Anxiety

Stress and Anxiety

Like this:

Diet and Diabetes

Diet and Diabetes

Like this:

Diet and Cholesterol

Diet and Cholesterol

Like this:

Pancreatic Islets

Pancreatic Islets

Part I. Endocrine Pancreas

Part 2. a longitudinal cohort study of the cardiovascular experience of individuals at high risk for diabetes

Part 3. Clinical significance of cardiovascular dysmetabolic syndrome

Part 4. Waist circumference a good indicator of future risk for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease

Part 5. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and glucose metabolism: a bitter sweet symphony

Like this:

The Evolution of Clinical Chemistry in the 20th Century

The Evolution of Clinical Chemistry in the 20th Century

Otto Folin: America’s First Clinical Biochemist

A Golden Age of Clinical Chemistry: 1948–1960

Like this:

Summary of Lipid Metabolism

Like this:

Cytoskeleton and Cell Membrane Physiology

Cytoskeleton and Cell Membrane Physiology

Like this:

Sex Hormones, Adrenal Cortisol, Prostaglandins

Sex Hormones, Adrenal Cortisol, Prostaglandins

Like this:

Follow Blog via Email

Recent Posts

Archives

Categories

Meta

Archive for the ‘Lipids’ Category

Stress and Anxiety

Share this:

Like this:

Diet and Exercise

Share this:

Like this:

Diet and Diabetes

Share this:

Like this:

Diet and Cholesterol

Share this:

Like this:

Pancreatic Islets

Part I. Endocrine Pancreas

Part 2. a longitudinal cohort study of the cardiovascular experience of individuals at high risk for diabetes

Part 3. Clinical significance of cardiovascular dysmetabolic syndrome

Part 4. Waist circumference a good indicator of future risk for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease

Part 5. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and glucose metabolism: a bitter sweet symphony

Share this:

Like this:

The Evolution of Clinical Chemistry in the 20th Century

Otto Folin: America’s First Clinical Biochemist

A Golden Age of Clinical Chemistry: 1948–1960

Share this:

Like this:

Summary of Signaling and Signaling Pathways

Share this:

Like this:

Share this:

Like this:

Cytoskeleton and Cell Membrane Physiology

Share this:

Like this:

Sex Hormones, Adrenal Cortisol, Prostaglandins

Share this:

Like this:

Follow Blog via Email

Recent Posts

Archives

Categories

Meta