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Posts Tagged ‘Hypertension’

The Cost to Value Conundrum in Cardiovascular Healthcare Provision

Posted in Accountable Care Organizations, Affordable Care Act, Anemia, Atherogenic Processes & Pathology, Best evidence, Bio Instrumentation in Experimental Life Sciences Research, Biomarkers & Medical Diagnostics, Biomedical Measurement Science, Ca2+ triggered activation, Ca2+ triggered activation, Calcium Signaling, Cardiac & Vascular Repair Tools Subsegment, Cardiac and Cardiovascular Surgical Procedures, Cardiac muscle regeneration, Cardiomyopathy, Cardiovascular Pharmacogenomics, Coagulation Therapy and Internal Bleeding, Computational Biology/Systems and Bioinformatics, Curation, Curation methodology, Cytoskeleton, Diabetes Mellitus, Electrophysiology, Evidence-based decision-making, Experimental validation, Federal Budget Appropriations, Frontiers in Cardiology and Cardiovascular Disorders, Health Economics and Outcomes Research, Health Law & Patient Safety, Healthcare costs and reimbursement, Healthcare Reform, Historical relevance, HTN, HTN in Youth, Indigent Nutrition, Interviews with Scientific Leaders, Ionic Transporters Na+, K, Medical Devices R&D and Inventions, Medical Imaging Technology, Image Processing/Computing, MRI, CT, Nuclear Medicine, Ultra Sound, Medicare and Medicaid, Na-K transport, Na-K-ATPase, Nephrology, Nitric Oxide in Health and Disease, Nutrition, Nutritional Supplements: Atherogenesis, lipid metabolism, Origins of Cardiovascular Disease, Pharmaceutical Analytics, Pharmacogenomics, Pharmacologic toxicities, Pharmacotherapy of Cardiovascular Disease, Population Health Management, Genetics & Pharmaceutical, Population Health Management, Nutrition and Phytochemistry, Prescription Drugs Costs, Regenerative Biology and Medicine, Resident-cell-based, Skilled Nursing Facilities, Stem Cells for Regenerative Medicine, Stents & Tools, Synaptic vesicle, Systematic Error (Bias), Systemic Inflammatory Response Related Disorders, Technology Advance Assessment of, Technology Capital Expenses, Technology Transfer: Biotech and Pharmaceutical, Translational Effectiveness, Translational Science, Uninsured and Underinsured, Valves & Tools, tagged acute myocardial infarct, American College of Cardiology ACC, Antiarrhythmic drugs, arrythmias, Artificial Biosensor, Artificial cardiac pacemaker, Artificial heart, Bare-metal stent, Cardiac & Vascular Repair, cardiac myocyte regeneration, Cardiogenic Shock, Cardiology, Cardiometabolic Syndrome, CHF, Content Curation, Coronary artery disease, Coronary stent, Curation methodology, Drug-eluting stents, gene expression, Hypertension, myocardial hypertrophy, nitric oxide, Nitric oxide synthase, RNA, Stem cell on January 1, 2014| Leave a Comment »

The Cost to Value Conundrum in Cardiovascular Healthcare Provision

Author: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Article ID #98: The Cost to Value Conundrum in Cardiovascular Healthcare Provision. Published on 1/1/2014

WordCloud Image Produced by Adam Tubman

I write this introduction to Volume 2 of the e-series on Cardiovascular Diseases, which curates the basic structure and physiology of the heart, the vasculature, and related structures, e.g., the kidney, with respect to:

1. Pathogenesis
2. Diagnosis
3. Treatment

Curation is an introductory portion to Volume Two, which is necessary to introduce the methodological design used to create the following articles. More needs not to be discussed about the methodology, which will become clear, if only that the content curated is changing based on success or failure of both diagnostic and treatment technology availability, as well as the systems needed to support the ongoing advances.  Curation requires:

• meaningful selection,
• enrichment, and
• sharing combining sources and
• creation of new synnthesis

Curators have to create a new perspective or idea on top of the existing media which supports the content in the original. The curator has to select from the myriad upon myriad options available, to re-share and critically view the work. A search can be overwhelming in size of the output, but the curator has to successfully pluck the best material straight out of that noise.

Part 1 is a highly important treatment that is not technological, but about the system now outdated to support our healthcare system, the most technolog-ically advanced in the world, with major problems in the availability of care related to economic disparities.  It is not about technology, per se, but about how we allocate healthcare resources, about individuals’ roles in a not full list of lifestyle maintenance options for self-care, and about the important advances emerging out of the Affordable Care Act (ACA), impacting enormously on Medicaid, which depends on state-level acceptance, on community hospital, ambulatory, and home-care or hospice restructuring, which includes the reduction of management overhead by the formation of regional healthcare alliances, the incorporation of physicians into hospital-based practices (with the hospital collecting and distributing the Part B reimbursement to the physician, with “performance-based” targets for privileges and payment – essential to the success of an Accountable Care Organization (AC)).  One problem that ACA has definitively address is the elimination of the exclusion of patients based on preconditions.  One problem that has been left unresolved is the continuing existence of private policies that meet financial capabilities of the contract to provide, but which provide little value to the “purchaser” of care.  This is a holdout that persists in for-profit managed care as an option.  A physician response to the new system of care, largely fostered by a refusal to accept Medicaid, is the formation of direct physician-patient contracted care without an intermediary.

In this respect, the problem is not simple, but is resolvable.  A proposal for improved economic stability has been prepared by Edward Ingram. A concern for American families and businesses is substantially addressed in a macroeconomic design concept, so that financial services like housing, government, and business finance, savings and pensions, boosting confidence at every level giving everyone a better chance of success in planning their personal savings and lifetime and business finances.

http://macro-economic-design.blogspot.com/p/book.html

Part 2 is a collection of scientific articles on the current advances in cardiac care by the best trained physicians the world has known, with mastery of the most advanced vascular instrumentation for medical or surgical interventions, the latest diagnostic ultrasound and imaging tools that are becoming outdated before the useful lifetime of the capital investment has been completed.  If we tie together Part 1 and Part 2, there is ample room for considering  clinical outcomes based on individual and organizational factors for best performance. This can really only be realized with considerable improvement in information infrastructure, which has miles to go.  Why should this be?  Because for generations of IT support systems, they are historically focused on billing and have made insignificant inroads into the front-end needs of the clinical staff.

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St. Jude’s CEO is still betting on EnligHTN IV Study Renal Denervation System, despite Medtronic’s setback related to SYMPLICITY Phase IV

Posted in Bio Instrumentation in Experimental Life Sciences Research, Biomedical Measurement Science, Cardiac & Vascular Repair Tools Subsegment, Cardiac and Cardiovascular Surgical Procedures, Cardiovascular Research, Ecosystems & Industrial Concentration in the Medical Device Sector, FDA Regulatory Affairs, FDA, CE Mark & Global Regulatory Affairs: process management and strategic planning - GCP, GLP, ISO 14155, Frontiers in Cardiology and Cardiovascular Disorders, HTN, Interviews with Scientific Leaders, Medical Devices R&D and Inventions, Medical Devices R&D Investment, Origins of Cardiovascular Disease, Peripheral Arterial Disease & Peripheral Vascular Surgery, Regulated Clinical Trials: Design, Methods, Components and IRB related issues, Renal Denervation, Technology Transfer: Biotech and Pharmaceutical, tagged Boston Scientific, Clinical trial, Food and Drug Administration, Hypertension, Medtronic, Renal denervation medical devices, Renal denervation procedure, St. Jude Medical on December 10, 2013| Leave a Comment »

St. Jude’s CEO is still betting on EnligHTN IV Study Renal Denervation System, despite Medtronic’s setback related to SYMPLICITY Phase IV

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Article ID #92: St. Jude’s CEO is still betting on EnligHTN IV Study Renal Denervation System, despite Medtronic’s setback related to SYMPLICITY Phase IV. Published on 12/10/2013

WordCloud Image Produced by Adam Tubman

UPDATED on 1/14/2014

This is in continuation to our 1/9/2014 article:

Market Impact on Global Suppliers of Renal Denervation Systems by Pivotal US Trial: Metronics’ Symplicity Renal Denervation System FAILURE at Efficacy Endpoint

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/01/09/market-impact-on-global-suppliers-of-renal-denervation-systems-by-pivotal-us-trial-metronics-symplicity-renal-denervation-system-failure-at-efficacy-endpoint/

In the short term, the company, St. Jude suspended enrollment in three other related trials and announced plans to gather an independent panel of experts to plot a future course. 

St. Jude Medical won a CE mark for its next-gen EnligHTN IV renal denervation system over the summer, but halted its own U.S. trial in December. Minnesota-based St. Jude said it had struggled to recruit viable candidates for the 590-patient trial, and was concerned that Medtronic’s Symplicity might siphon off viable patients needed for its own study. At the time, St. Jude said it would work to develop a new protocol to address trial enrollment challenges.

According to Mark Hollmer:

Symplicity’s setbacks may make that job much easier for St. Jude. They also create new opportunities for other rivals focused on developing similar technology, such as Boston Scientific ($BSX) and Covidien ($COV).

Curator of this article has expressed a different view in 

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/01/09/market-impact-on-global-suppliers-of-renal-denervation-systems-by-pivotal-us-trial-metronics-symplicity-renal-denervation-system-failure-at-efficacy-endpoint/

St. Jude’s CEO is still betting on renal denervation, despite Medtronic’s setback

By Mark Hollmer

Medtronic’s Symplicity renal denervation device

If Medtronic’s ($MDT) recent U.S. clinical trial failure for its Symplicity renal denervation device throws the door wide open for its competitors, St. Jude Medical ($STJ) will likely waste no time walking through.

As MassDevice reported, St. Jude CEO Daniel Starks told an audience at the JPMorgan Healthcare conference in San Francisco that the company plans to keep plowing ahead with the development of its own technology.

“The fact that we had and that there have been favorable early clinical results in numerous other experiences is still valid,” MassDevice quoted Starks as saying. “There is open surgical data dating back several decades that was favorable to the impact of surgical renal denervation to treat hypertension.

That said, he also expressed genuine surprise about Medtronic’s trial setback.

“This was unexpected for us, to have a negative result from Medtronic’s trial, and it’s too soon for us to know what to make of that,” Starks said in the story.

Medtronic’s Symplicity device, which has a CE mark and is a market leader, had done well in previous trials in patients with different forms of hypertension and was on track to win FDA approval in 2015–potentially the first renal denervation device to reach that point.

The Minnesota device giant announced a few days ago that Symplicity proved safe in a 535-patient trial but failed to significantly lower blood pressure for drug-resistant hypertension.

This was a trial that mattered, designed to help fuel FDA approval.

Related Articles:

Medtronic’s flunked trial throws its hypertension program into doubt

St. Jude Medical will try again another day for a U.S. renal denervation study

St. Jude bags EU approval for next-gen renal denervation

 SOURCE

From: FierceMedicalDevices <editors@fiercemedicaldevices.com>
Date: Tue, 14 Jan 2014 18:14:06 +0000 (GMT)
To: <avivalev-ari@alum.berkeley.edu>

Renal Denervation: EnligHTN IV Study Called Off and Potential Novel Indications – Diastolic Heart Failure

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

This Open Access Scientific Journal has covered all the major developments reported on Renal Denervation since its inception

The Archive for Renal denervation

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/category/cardiac-and-cardiovascular-surgical-procedures/renal-denervation/

Search Results for Renal Denervation

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/?s=Renal+denervation

Heartwire Reported on December 09, 2013

EnligHTN IV Renal Denervation Study Called Off

Michael O’Riordan

EDITORS’ RECOMMENDATIONS

• EnligHTN-1 12-Mo Results as Renal Denervation Booms
• Multielectrode Renal-Denervation Device Appears Safe
• New Renal-Denervation Systems Debut Amid Excitement, Caution

ST PAUL, MN – The EnligHTN IV study (St Jude Medical, St Paul, MN), testing the multielectrode renal-denervation system in patients with resistant hypertension, has been stopped almost before it even began. The trial, which was announced in June and began enrolling a small number of patients this fall, was canceled because of concerns about slow enrollment.

To heartwire ,

Denise Perkins-Landry, a spokesperson for St Jude Medical, said the decision to discontinue the study was based on “anticipated recruitment challenges” and is not the result of any safety or efficacy issues with the device. “A US clinical trial for EnligHTN remains a very high priority for St Jude Medical, and we will be working with the FDA to develop a new protocol that will address anticipated enrollment challenges,” she stated in an email.

The full results of the SYMPLICITY HTN-3 trial, a study similar to the EnligHTN IV study, which is sponsored by Medtronic (Minneapolis, MN), are expected in early 2014. While neither device is approved for clinical use in the US, it is expected that the Medtronic renal-denervation system will be first. As a result, it might be difficult to enroll patients to a sham procedure if there is another commercially available system for treating resistant hypertension, according to St Jude.

EnligHTN IV was to be a randomized, single-blind, controlled study with patients randomized from as many as 80 clinical centers in the US and Canada. It was intended to show the safety and effectiveness of the renal-denervation system in the reduction of systolic blood pressure in 590 patients with an office blood pressure >160 mm Hg despite taking three or more antihypertensive medications, including a diuretic.

Abrupt Decision to Stop the Study

Dr William White (University of Connecticut Medical Center, Farmington), one of the cochairs of the EnligHTN IV steering committee, told heartwire the decision to cancel the study was made just last week. In fact, there were clinical centers already up and running in terms of enrollment, although these were pilot centers where any “bugs could be worked out.” The meeting for training investigators participating in the trial was scheduled for Saturday in Chicago, IL, although that is now off.

“In the grander scheme of things, I can tell you that the decision was not made because of any problem with the catheter or any safety issues,” said White. “Outside the US, the development is continuing as planned, but the biggest concern is that it might be very difficult, if not impossible, to continue doing a sham-controlled study a year from now if there were a commercially available renal-denervation catheter in the US, which there very well could be with Medtronic.”

Still, White said that it’s not even known if the SYMPLICITY HTN-3 study is positive or if the FDA will be satisfied with the trial and its outcomes. He said a lot of assumptions are being made by St Jude Medical in stopping the trial, and it could turn out to be a bad decision. In addition, reimbursement remains an open question.

“Commercially available doesn’t mean there’s going to be a payer,” White told heartwire . “If that happens, it will be doubly unfortunate for the patients that are out there because they might be willing and able to go into a clinical trial but they won’t have that opportunity.”

As a scientist, White said that he would have preferred the trial be pursued, regardless of what happens with Medtronic. He believes the EnligHTN catheter is “outstanding,” as it has multiple electrodes to enable physicians to thoroughly ablate the renal arteries within a couple of minutes. “The clinical scientist in me would have preferred that we go ahead as planned,” he said. “I think we would have gained a great deal of knowledge. And just because one study shows a p value of 0.05 doesn’t mean a second study will.”

The Medtronic SYMPLICITY renal-denervation system was launched in 2010 and is available in parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America. The first-generation EnligHTN device has had CE Mark approval in Europe since 2012 while the updated second-generation system with multiple electrodes received European approval this past summer.

News of the halting of EnligHTN IV was first reported by Wells Fargo analyst Larry Biegelsen.

SOURCE

http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/817482?nlid=41903_2105&src=wnl_edit_medp_card&uac=93761AJ&spon=2

On December 06, 2013 Marlene Busko reported to Heartwire on

Renal Denervation’s Structural, Functional Heart Benefits May Be Independent of BP

HAMBURG, GERMANY — In a small study of patients undergoing renal denervation for resistant hypertension, left-ventricular hypertrophy and diastolic function improved independently of changes in blood pressure and heart rate ^[1].

“The novelty of our findings is the independence of morphologic improvements [regression of LV hypertrophy] from hemodynamic changes (reduction of blood pressure and heart rate),” Dr Stephan H Schirmer (University of Saarland, Hamburg, Germany) told heartwire in an email. “If this is confirmed in larger trials, it might open up novel indications for the use of renal denervation, for example, in [diastolic] heart-failure patients, independent of blood pressure.”

Dr Deepak L Bhatt (Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA) told heartwire that the study observations are “provocative” and “exciting” but stressed that they need to be confirmed in a blinded, larger, multicenter study before they could be accepted into clinical practice. Bhatt and Dr George Bakris (University of Chicago, IL) are co–principal investigators for the ongoing SYMPLICITY HTN-3 trial of bilateral renal denervation in patients with uncontrolled hypertension.

The study was published online December 4, 2013 in the Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

Are Renal Denervation Effects Always Tied to BP Change?

Renal denervation reduces heart rate and blood pressure in patients with resistant hypertension, and as reported by heartwire , a recent small study suggested that the procedure also reduces left-ventricular mass and improves diastolic function in such patients, Schirmer and colleagues write.

They hypothesized that renal denervation might affect cardiac structure and function, independent of the effect on blood pressure.

They enrolled 66 consecutive patients who underwent renal denervation using the Flex catheter system (Medtronic) at their center during 2010 and 2011 for treatment of resistant hypertension (office systolic blood pressure >140 mm Hg). Patients had a mean age of 64 years, and 55% were men. They were on a mean of 4.3 antihypertensive drugs. All were taking a diuretic, 89% were taking a beta-blocker, and 55% were taking an angiotensin-receptor blocker.

Six months after renal denervation,

• Mean blood pressure decreased from 172.9/92.5 to 151.3/85.5 mm Hg, confirmed by 24-hour ambulatory monitoring, if available (n=50).
• Mean heart rate decreased from 67.7 to 60.5 bpm.
• Mean left-ventricular mass index decreased from 61.5 to 53.4 g/m².
• Measures of diastolic function also improved.

The changes in cardiac function and ventricular size were not tied to the magnitude of the blood-pressure reduction, which “suggest[s] a direct effect of the sympathetic nervous system on myocardial morphology and function,” Schirmer and colleagues write. They call for further research to investigate functional cardiovascular benefits of renal denervation beyond blood-pressure reduction.

Promising Early Benefit, Needs Confirmation

In an accompanying editorial ^[2], Bakris and Dr Sandeep Nathan (University of Chicago) commend Schirmer and colleagues “for providing promising early benefit of catheter-based renal denervation and for highlighting a possible blood-pressure–independent facet of this technique.” However, they caution that although the findings are “intriguing,” the study’s limitations include that it was

• relatively small,
• conducted at a single center,
• lacked a sham control, and
• relied on echocardiography rather than magnetic resonance imaging.

Therefore, “these observations need confirmation before acceptance in clinical practice . . . and can only be applied to those with inclusion criteria used in their study,” the editorialists conclude.

“It’s an exciting, provocative result, and there’s a good chance that it will stand the test of time, but I still think in general, it’s best to be cautious about new technologies and relatively small studies, because time typically shows that they provide an overestimate of what the true effects will be,” Bhatt commented when interviewed.

“Whether the reduction in left-ventricular mass is beyond what would be anticipated with blood-pressure and heart-rate reduction—certainly this analysis suggests that is a possibility—needs to be confirmed in larger studies,” he added, echoing the authors and editorialists.

Potentially referring physicians, in the United States where the procedure is investigational, and even in Europe where it’s approved, appear to be waiting for the results of SYMPLICITY HTN-3, Bhatt said. This blinded, randomized, multicenter trial will provide a clearer picture of what sort of blood-pressure reductions are achievable in patients with resistant hypertension who undergo renal denervation. Results are expected by mid-2014.

References

1. Schirmer SH, Sayed M, Reil J-C, et al. Improvements of left-ventricular hypertrophy and diastolic function following renal denervation – Effects beyond blood pressure and heart rate reduction. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013; DOI:10.1016/j.jacc.2013.10.073. Abstract
2. Bakris G, Nathan S. Renal denervation and left ventricular mass regression: A benefit beyond blood pressure reduction? J Am Coll Cardiol 2013; DOI:10.1016/j.jacc.2013.11.015. Editorial

SOURCE

http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/817397?nlid=41903_2105&src=wnl_edit_medp_card&uac=93761AJ&spon=2

This Open Access Scientific Journal has covered all the major developments reported on Renal Denervation since its inception

The Archive for Renal denervation

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/category/cardiac-and-cardiovascular-surgical-procedures/renal-denervation/

Search Results for Renal Denervation

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/?s=Renal+denervation

For the ORIGINAL work on 

Renal Sympathetic Denervation: Updates on the State of Medicine

the Readers is called to go to the ORIGINAL SOURCES listed below:

Intravascular Stimulation of Autonomics: A Letter from Dr. Michael Scherlag

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/02/intravascular-stimulation-of-autonomics-a-letter-from-dr-michael-scherlag/

Imbalance of Autonomic Tone: The Promise of Intravascular Stimulation of Autonomics

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/02/imbalance-of-autonomic-tone-the-promise-of-intravascular-stimulation-of-autonomics/

Interaction of Nitric Oxide and Prostacyclin in Vascular Endothelium

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/14/interaction-of-nitric-oxide-and-prostacyclin-in-vascular-endothelium/

Absorb™ Bioresorbable Vascular Scaffold: An International Launch by Abbott Laboratories

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/29/absorb-bioresorbable-vascular-scaffold-an-international-launch-by-abbott-laboratories/

The Molecular Biology of Renal Disorders: Nitric Oxide – Part III

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/the-molecular-biology-of-renal-disorders/

Treatment of Refractory Hypertension via Percutaneous Renal Denervation

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/06/13/treatment-of-refractory-hypertension-via-percutaneous-renal-denervation/

Renal Denervation Technology of Vessix Vascular, Inc. been acquired by Boston Scientific Corporation (BSX) to pay up to $425 Million

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/08/renal-denervation-technology-of-vessix-vascular-inc-been-acquired-by-boston-scientific-corporation-bsx-to-pay-up-to-425-million/

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Preeclampsia: Pregnency Induced-Hypertension – Potential New Treatment in Development

Posted in HTN, Reproductive Andrology, Embryology, Genomic Endocrinology, Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis and Reproductive Genomics, Reproductive Biology & Bio Instrumentation, tagged Blood pressure, HELLP syndrome, Hypertension, PLX, Pre-eclampsia, pregnancy, SNP, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, University of Nottingham on June 12, 2013| 1 Comment »

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

PRE-ECLAMPSIA

Preeclampsia is a disorder that occurs only during pregnancy and the postpartum period and affects both the mother and the unborn baby. Affecting at least 5-8% of all pregnancies, it is a rapidly progressive condition characterized by high blood pressure and the presence of protein in the urine. Swelling, sudden weight gain, headaches and changes in vision are important symptoms; however, some women with rapidly advancing disease report few symptoms.

Typically, preeclampsia occurs after 20 weeks gestation (in the late 2nd or 3rd trimesters or middle to late pregnancy) and up to six weeks postpartum, though in rare cases it can occur earlier than 20 weeks. Proper prenatal care is essential to diagnose and manage preeclampsia. Pregnancy Induced Hypertension (PIH) and toxemia are outdated terms for preeclampsia. HELLP syndrome and eclampsia (seizures) are other variants of preeclampsia.

Globally, preeclampsia and other hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are a leading cause of maternal and infant illness and death. By conservative estimates, these disorders are responsible for 76,000 maternal and 500,000 infant deaths each year.

http://www.preeclampsia.org/health-information/about-preeclampsia?gclid=CNeVjpG537cCFUYaOgodC0QASg

VIEW VIDEO – SIX Sections, Pauses in between

http://on.aol.com/video/preeclampsia-vs–pregnancy-induced-hypertension-484063856

• Preeclampsia vs. Pregnency -Induced Hypertension
• When Preeclampsia Occur
• Preeclampsia – Effects on Fetus Health
• Preeclampsia – Effects on the Baby

Genetic Aspects of Pre-eclampsia

The genetics of pre-eclampsia and other hypertensive disorders of pregnancy

Paula J. Williams and Fiona Broughton Pipkin

Human Genetics Research Group, School of Molecular and Medical Sciences, University of Nottingham, A Floor West Block, Queen’s Medical Centre, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK

Paula J. Williams: Paula.Williams@nottingham.ac.uk

Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 (0) 115 8230758; Fax: +44 (0) 115 8230759. Email: Paula.Williams@nottingham.ac.uk

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3145161/

Epidemiological studies clearly confirm a genetic component to pre-eclampsia. Numerous candidate genes have been studied that fall into groups based on their proposed pathological mechanism, including

• thrombophilia,
• endothelial function,
• vasoactive proteins,
• oxidative stress and
• lipid metabolism and
• immunogenetics.

It is expected that no one gene will be identified as the sole risk factor for pre-eclampsia, as in the general population pre-eclampsia represents a complex genetic disorder. Interactions between numerous SNP either alone or with combination with predisposing environmental factors, are most likely underpin the genetic component of this disorder. We must be cautious in our approach to genetics and acknowledge that we are still in the infancy of this research. Following on from GWAS, further fine mapping studies to delineate SNP that are causal from those that are in linkage disequilibrium, followed by functional laboratory studies will be required. Only when we have a better understanding of how the environment interacts with genes will we be in a better position to target treatment for women, for example knowing that women with a certain genotype will benefit from losing weight, enabling us to yield clinical benefit.

At present no genetic test is available to predict pre-eclampsia. The lack of a predictive test can be overcome by careful monitoring and assessment of women, especially those in high-risk groups, including:

Those at either end of the reproductive age spectrum•Obesity•Black ethnicity•Primiparity•Previous history of pre-eclampsia•Multiple pregnancy•Pre-existing medical conditions: renal disease, insulin-dependent diabetes, autoimmune disease, antiphospholipid syndrom

Genetic aspects of pre-eclampsia

Clustering of cases of pre-eclampsia within families has been recognised since the 19th century, suggesting a genetic component to the disorder.2 Deciphering the genetic involvement in pre-eclampsia is challenging, not least because the phenotype is expressed only in parous women. Furthermore, in complex disorders of pregnancy, it is necessary to consider two genotypes, that of the mother and that of the fetus, which includes genes inherited from both mother and father. Maternal and fetal genes may have independent or interactive effects on the risk of pre-eclampsia. Finally, the heterogeneous nature of the disorder, with a sliding scale of severity, has resulted in differences in the definition of pre-eclampsia used within studies (see above), often with overlap of non-proteinuric gestational hypertension.

Twin studies investigating the relative contribution of genetic versus environmental factors to pre-eclampsia risk, initially yielded disappointing results. They showed that discordance for pre-eclampsia between monozygotic twin sisters was common, suggesting that heritability caused by maternal genes was low.3 These early studies were small. More recent investigations, however, using the large Swedish Twin, Medical Birth and Multigeneration Registries have estimated the heritability of pre-eclampsia to be about 55%, with contributions from both maternal and fetal genes. A further study in monozygotic twins4 found concordance of pre-eclampsia to be as common as discordance. Evidence from the largest published twin study, which correlated the Swedish Twin Register with the Swedish Medical Register, revealed pre-eclampsia penetrance to be less than 50%, suggesting diversity within models of inheritance.5–7

Pre-eclampsia: a complex genetic disorder

For a small number of families, pre-eclampsia seems to follow Mendelian patterns of disease inheritance,8 consistent with a rare deleterious monogenic variant or mutation with high penetrance. For most of the population, however, pre-eclampsia seems to represent a complex genetic disorder, and occurs as the result of numerous common variants at different loci which, individually, have small effects but collectively contribute to an individual’s susceptibility to disease. Environmental exposures, including age and weight, also determine whether these low penetrant variants result in phenotypic manifestation of the disease. It is likely that no single cause or genetic variant will account for all cases of pre-eclampsia, although it is possible that different variants are associated with various subsets of disease (e.g. pre-eclampsia combined with intrauterine growth restriction). Complex genetic disorders affect a high proportion of the population, representing a large burden to public health. New approaches to susceptibility gene discovery have emerged to address this challenge. Unfortunately, early diagnosis would only permit closer focus on routine antenatal care, as at present no intervention other than delivery has been shown to alter the course of pre-eclampsia.

Determining susceptibility to pre-eclampsia

The need to assess both the maternal and the fetal genotype is clear. The role of the placenta in the primary pathogenesis of the disorder indisputably indicates a fetal contribution to susceptibility to the disorder.9 Reports of severe, very early-onset pre-eclampsia in cases of fetal chromosomal abnormalities such as diandric hydatifidiform moles of entirely paternal genetic origin10 are consistent with a role for paternally inherited fetal genes in the determination of clinical phenotype. This is supported by epidemiological studies reporting a higher rate of pre-eclampsia in pregnancies fathered by men who were themselves born of pre-eclamptic pregnancies.11 The occurrence of pre-eclampsia in daughters-in-law of index women9 further supports a genetic contribution from both parents. The genetic conflict hypothesis states that fetal (paternal) genes will be selected to increase the transfer of nutrients to the fetus, whereas maternal genes will be selected to limit transfer in excess of a specific maternal optimum.12 Fetal genes are predicted to raise maternal blood pressure in order to enhance the uteroplacental blood flow, whereas maternal genes act the opposite way. Endothelial dysfunction in mothers with pre-eclampsia could, therefore, be interpreted as a fetal attempt to compensate for an inadequate uteroplacental nutrient supply.

As the phenotype is apparently only expressed during pregnancy, identification of ‘susceptible’ men is impossible. Most genetic studies of pre-eclampsia have focused on maternal genotypes only. The Genetics of Pre-eclampsia consortium highlighted the need to include analysis of all contributing genotypes, and carried out transmission disequilibrium testing in maternal and fetal triads.13 Understanding the contribution of the fetal genotype will require large sample sizes, with the development of algorithms to determine the relative contribution from mother and fetus. Furthermore, the decreased incidence of pre-eclampsia in second and subsequent pregnancies hampers analysis of the contribution of the fetal genotype.

Candidate gene approach

The candidate gene approach has been widely used in pre-eclampsia, and largely focuses on the maternal genotype. In this method, a single gene is chosen as the candidate for investigation based on prior biological knowledge of the pathophysiology of pre-eclampsia. The choice is strengthened if the gene lies within a region identified by linkage studies. A case-control design is usually used, comparing the frequencies of allelic variants in women with pre-eclampsia and normotensive pregnancies. Such studies need careful definition of inclusion criteria for cases and controls, and subtle ethnic stratification of groups must be avoided. Such performance characteristics of the genotyping assays as the rate of mis-genotyping, and the quality assurance methods used, should be clearly stated, but this is rarely done. Over 70 biological candidate genes have been examined, representing pathways involved in various pathophysiological processes, including vasoactive proteins, thrombophilia and hypofibrinolysis, oxidative stress and lipid metabolism, endothelial injury and immunogenetics.14 In common with the experience in other genetically complex disorders, results from candidate gene studies have been inconsistent, and no universally accepted susceptibility gene has been identified. Although this may, in part, be attributed to variation within populations, a more important factor is the small size of most of the candidate studies, which have been underpowered to detect variants with small effects. As there are more than 20,000 genes and 10 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) available, multiple testing will inevitably result in numerous results that achieve P values of less than 0.05. The development of robust statistical techniques for the minimisation of both false positive and false negative results is an important area.15,16 Only in recent years, as susceptibility genes for other complex disorders have been reported, has the small effect size of individual genetic variants become apparent, the majority increasing the risk of disease by less than 50%. A further limitation of the candidate gene approach is its reliance on the generation of an a-priori hypothesis based on our current incomplete knowledge of the pathophysiology of the disorder. The candidate genes studied belong to different groups according to their functional properties and plausible role in the pathophysiology (Table 2).

Thrombophilia

A successful pregnancy requires the development of adequate placental circulation. It is hypothesised that thrombophilias may increase the risk of placental insufficiency because of placental micro-vascular thrombosis, macro-vascular thrombosis, or both, as well as effects on trophoblast growth and differentiation.17 Abnormalities of the clotting cascade are well documented in women with pre-eclampsia.18 The endothelial damage of pre-eclampsia is associated with an altered phenotype from anticoagulant to procoagulant and decreased endothelially mediated vasorelaxation. It is possible that this phenotype is present before pre-eclampsia in pregnancy, or it may develop as a consequence of damage initiated during placentation. Furthermore, a subset of women develop frank thrombocytopaenia, often in association with haemolysis, elevated liver enzymes and low platelet count (HELLP) syndrome. Association of the three most widely studied thrombophilic factors, factor V Leiden (F5), methylenetetrahydrofolate (MTHFR) and prothrombin (F2), with pre-eclampsia has been shown; however, several studies have also shown contradictory results.14 A recent meta-analysis indicated a two-fold increase in risk for pre-eclampsia associated with 1691G>A mutation in F5, but no associations were found for MTHFR or F2.19 To date, the number of studies showing no association with pre-eclampsia for these three genes is much higher than the number confirming association. Association with the inhibitor of fibrinolysis plasminogen activator factor-1 gene has also been reported; however, replication attempts have failed.20–22

Haemodynamics and endothelial function

The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is important for regulating the cardiovascular and renal changes that occur in pregnancy. Several studies have implicated the RAS in the pathophysiology of pre-eclampsia.23 As such, genes in the RAS have been considered as plausible candidates for pre-eclampsia. Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), angiotensin II type 1 and type 2 receptor (AGTR1, AGTR2), and angiotensinogen (AGT) have all been studied extensively in pre-eclampsia. Recent meta-analyses have identified the T allele of AGT M235T as increasing the risk of developing pre-eclampsia by 1.62 times and similar increases in disease risk have been found in AGT and the angiotensin-converting enzyme I/D polymorphism.24 A rare functional polymorphism in AGT, which results in replacement of leucine by phenylalanine at the site of renin cleavage, has been reported in association with severe pre-eclampsia.25

Endothelial nitric oxide synthase 3 (eNOS3), which is involved in vascular remodelling and vasodilation, has been shown to have reduced activity in pre-eclampsia26 Association studies in different ethnic populations, however, have yielded both positive and negative findings. A meta-analysis investigating the E298D polymorphism, which had initially been associated with pre-eclampsia in Colombian women, failed to find increased risk.24 Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is important for endothelial cell proliferation, migration, survival and regulation of vascular permeability. The number of studies that have investigated SNP in the genes involved in the VEGF system is small. Two polymorphisms in VEGF, 405G>C and 936C>T, were found to be associated with the severe form of pre-eclampsia in two small studies, but cannot at present be considered as major risk factors.27,28

Oxidative stress and lipid metabolism

Oxidative stress plays a central role in the pathogenesis of pre-eclampsia. Maternal perfusion of the placenta does not occur until towards the end of the first trimester,29 when a rapid increase in local oxygen tension takes place, and the probable occurrence of a period of hypoxia–reperfusion until stability is reached. This is accompanied by increased expression and activity of such antioxidants as glutathione peroxidase, catalase and the various forms of superoxide dismutase.30 If this antioxidant response were reduced, then the cascade of events leading to impaired placentation could be initiated. Evidence for reduced antioxidant activity in pre-eclampsia has recently been reviewed.31 Genes involved in the generation or inactivation of reactive oxygen species, if defective, could increase endothelial dysfunction via lipid peroxidation, which has been a candidate causative agent for the endothelial damage of pre-eclampsia for more than 20 years.32 Despite the strong correlation between oxidative stress and pre-eclampsia, only a small handful of genes have been investigated. Functional polymorphisms in the gene for microsomal epoxide hydrolase (EPHX) that catalyses the hydrolysis of certain oxides and may produce toxic intermediates that could be involved in pre-eclampsia, and glutathione S-transferase (GST), an antioxidant capable of inactivating reactive oxygen species, have shown associations. Conflicting results, however, have also been reported.33–36

Abnormal lipid profiles associated with the lipid peroxidation caused by oxidative stress are also characteristic of pre-eclampsia. Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and apolipoprotein E (ApoE) are the two major regulators of lipid metabolism, abundantly expressed in placenta, and have therefore been proposed as possible candidate genes.37,38 A recent study using bioinformatic analysis identified altered glycosylation of circulating ApoE isoforms in pre-eclampsia.39 A deglycosylated basic ApoE isoform was increased in pre-eclampsia, and an acidic ApoE sialyated isoform was decreased. Functionally, this might increase the risk of developing placental atherotic changes. The most promising genetic variant in this context is a mis-sense mutation, Asn291Ser, in LPL which correlates with lowered LPL activity and increased dyslipidaemia in two separate studies. Again, others have failed to replicate these findings.38,40,41 The fetal genotype of these two genes has also been reported to contribute to the metabolism of the maternal lipoproteins.37

Immune system

The maternal immune response to pregnancy is crucial in determining pregnancy outcome and success. The increased incidence of pre-eclampsia in primiparous women, especially those at either end of the childbearing age range, indicates a strong association between immune factors and pre-eclampsia.42 However, the protective effect of multiparity is lost with change of partner. Advances in assisted reproductive technology are also posing new challenges to the maternal immune system. The use of donated sperm or eggs increases the risk of pre-eclampsia three-fold.43

Human leucocyte antigen

Trophoblast cells express an unusual repertoire of histocompatibility antigens, comprising human leucocyte C, E and G class antigens (HLA-C, HLA-E, HLA-E), of which only HLA-C displays marked polymorphism. The expression of HLA on the invading cytotrophoblast is important, as these interact with killer immunoglobulin, such as receptors (KIR) expressed on maternal uNKs and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, down-regulating their cytolytic activity and stimulating the production of cytokines needed for successful placentation. Multiple highly homologous KIR genes map to chromosome 19q, probably arising from ancestral gene duplications, and the two main resulting gene clusters have been classified as haplotypes A and B. The A group codes mainly for KIR, which inhibit natural killer cells, whereas the B group has additional stimulatory genes.44 Pre-eclampsia is more frequent in women who are homozygous for the inhibitory A haplotypes (AA) than in women homozygous for the stimulatory B haplotypes (BB). The effect is strongest if the fetus is homozygous for the HLA-C2 haplotype.45 Alteration in KIR interaction on uNK cells with HLA-C on interstitial trophoblast alters the decidual immune response, resulting in impaired extravillous trophoblast invasion and deficient spiral artery remodelling, associated with pre-eclampsia.

An association of HLA-G, which displays limited polymorphism, with pre-eclampsia, has also been reported. A possible association between the presence of the HLA-G allele G*0106 in the placenta and an increased risk of pre-eclampsia has been identified in two small studies.46,47 these were underpowered, however, and further studies using larger cohorts of mothers and babies are needed to replicate these results. HLA-G variants foreign to the mother may lead to histo-incompatibility between mother and child. A maternal rejection response to the semi-allogeneic fetus may represent one of the pathways involved in the development of pre-eclampsia.

A number of pro-inflammatory cytokines have also been investigated for possible associations with pre-eclampsia. Excessive release of tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) has been implicated owing to its contribution to endothelial activation, which in turn could contribute to maternal symptoms.48 Interestingly, in pregnant rats, TNF induces hypertension, a response not seen in non-pregnant rats.49 Furthermore, plasma levels of TNFα are significantly higher in women with pre-eclampsia than matched controls.50 TNFα is also involved in the production of reactive oxygen species and subsequently oxidant mediated endothelial damage. The most frequently studied variant in pre-eclampsia is the –308G>A transition in the promoter region, which is associated with increased levels of TNFα production and an increased risk for pre-eclampsia linked disorders, including type 2 diabetes, coronary artery disease and dyslipidaemia.51,52 However, a meta-analysis from 2008 combined 16 studies investigating this promoter SNP, but failed to detect a significant association to pre-eclampsia.53

Interleukin-10 (IL-10) has also been implicated in the pathogenesis of pre-eclampsia by enhancing the inflammatory response towards trophoblast cells resulting in reduced invasion and remodelling of the spiral arteries.54 Expression of IL-10 is reduced in pre-eclamptic placentae.55 Studies investigating associations of variants of the gene and pre-eclampsia, however, have yielded conflicting results.56–58 Associations have also been detected for two additional inflammatory genes, interleukin-1α (IL-1α) and the interleukin 1 receptor anatagonist (IL1Ra) in relatively small studies, but few studies have addressed the role of polymorphisms in these genes so far.59,60

Antioxidant enzymes

A large family of cytosolic glutathione-s-transferases (GST) exists, and the P class is highly expressed in the human placenta. Several relatively small case-control studies of polymorphisms in this family in relation to pre-eclampsia have failed to identify any significant effect of several GST polymorphisms studied individually. However, a cumulative effect of the number of polymorphisms in various biotransformation enzymes, including GST, which would result in decreased antioxidant capacity, has been reported.61 Intriguingly, the use of semi-quantitative polymerase chain reaction on a small data set identified using serial analysis of gene expression profiles, seems to identify a specific molecular signature for HELLP, which includes decreased expression of GST P1.62

Remarkably, few studies of possible functional polymorphisms in antioxidant enzyme systems have been reported. The 242C>T polymorphism in exon 4 of the gene for the p22phox subunit of NADPH/NADH oxidase (CYBA), which is part of the cascade of superoxide generation, has been reported as showing no evidence of an association with either pre-eclampsia or HELLP and pre-eclampsa.63 A small preliminary study of the Ala40Thr polymorphism of the superoxide dismutase 3 gene (SOD3), which has been associated with insulin resistance, reported a significant excess of the mutant allele in women with severe intrauterine growth restriction.64

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3145161/?report=printable

High blood pressure in pregnancy: What’s your story?

By Mary M. Murry, R.N., C.N.M.

Blood pressure tends to fluctuate during pregnancy.

For example, it’s normal to experience a drop in blood pressure during the second trimester. In fact, your blood pressure might be lower than it’s ever been. During the third trimester, a gradual increase in blood pressure is common.

Sometimes, though, blood pressure changes more dramatically — or sustained high blood pressure becomes a concern.

By definition, there are various types of high blood pressure during pregnancy:

• Chronic hypertension. If high blood pressure develops before pregnancy or during pregnancy but before 20 weeks, it’s known as chronic hypertension. High blood pressure that lasts more than 12 weeks after delivery is also considered chronic hypertension.
• Gestational hypertension. If high blood pressure develops after 20 weeks of pregnancy, it’s known as gestational hypertension. Gestational hypertension usually goes away after delivery.
• Preeclampsia. Sometimes chronic hypertension or gestational hypertension leads to preeclampsia. This is a serious condition characterized by high blood pressure and protein in the urine after 20 weeks of pregnancy.

All of these conditions can be dangerous for you and your baby. If your pregnancy has been normal until now, a diagnosis of high blood pressure can be especially jarring.

Depending on the circumstances, your health care provider might recommend close monitoring or, in some cases, an early delivery.

Count on your health care provider to help you understand what’s happening and what you can do to promote a healthy outcome. Above all, don’t hesitate to ask questions. Being fully informed can help you make the best decisions for you and your baby.

http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/high-blood-pressure-in-pregnancy/MY02263

Texas A&M Researcher Uncovers New Data for the Treatment of Preeclampsia

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Posted Thursday , June 06,2013

A Researcher From Texas A&M Has Uncovered New Data for the Treatment of Preeclampsia: Preclinical Research Shows PLX Cells May Be Effective in Treating Preeclampsia.

Preliminary research led by Brett Mitchell, PhD, an Associate Professor of Internal Medicine in the Cardiovascular Research Institute (CVRI) at Texas A&M University College of Medicine, is demonstrating that administrating placental stem cells may aid in reversing symptoms linked with preeclampsia within days after dosing with no apparent harmful effects to fetus or mother.

Preeclampsia may occur after the 20^th week of pregnancy when the mother-to-be’s blood pressure has increased and there are signs of excessive protein in the urine. This condition affects somewhere between 6-8 percentage of pregnancies in the US, and can be serious, as there is a shift from protecting mother and fetus as immunologically privileged sites. This brings about vascular issues that involve the inability of blood vessels to dilate or relax.

Dr. Mitchel has been able to look at the immune cells that are responsible for the development of high blood pressure (hypertension) during pregnancy in hopes to develop new therapies that diminish the immune cells that are responsible for this action while maintaining normal immune cell function.

Mitchel and colleagues have taken mice that had preeclampsia and injected placenta-based cells (stem cells) known as PLX (Placentall eXpanded) into leg muscle.  PLX cells are used as a way of delivering drugs and in particular therapeutic proteins in response to inflammatory and ischemic events.  They tested eight groups of 2 separate animal models (preeclampsia models) and found that PLX cells were effective in treating preeclampsia.

They observed a reduction in

• systolic pressure to normal levels within 3 days and a reduction of
• urinary proteins within 4 days.

They also observed an

• increase in endothelial function.  This was measured by acetylcholine-induced relaxation and was effective within 4 days. A
• weight reduction of the spleen was also observed within 4 days.

Pregnant mice who didn’t have preeclampsia were subjected to the same protocol and it was found that muscle injection of PLX cells did not effect a normal pregnancy.  They also found that the number of pups or fetal demise in a litter were not different indicating that PLX cells caused no fetal harm.

Dr. Mitchel presented his findings at the Society for Gynecologic Investigation Summit in Jerusalem on May 30, 2013.  Mitchell suggests that the factors that were secreted from the PLX cells were able to decrease inflammation thereby restoring endothelial function.

Currently, there are no treatments available for preeclampsia, so this therapy looks promising.

http://bionews-tx.com/news/2013/06/06/texas-a-and-m-new-data-for-the-treatment-of-preeclampsia-preclinical-research-shows-plx-cells-may-be-effective-in-treating-preeclampsia/

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