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Growth Factors, Suppressors and Receptors in Tumorigenesis [7.1]

Posted in Academic Publishing, Biological Networks, CANCER BIOLOGY & Innovations in Cancer Therapy, Clinical Diagnostics, Curation, Cytoskeleton, Developmental biology, Disease Biology, Metabolism, Methods, Proteins, Proteomics, Signaling, Signaling & Cell Circuits, tagged C-Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs), cell polarity, Endoplasmic reticulum, Endoplasmic reticulum protein 29 (ERp29), Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), mesenchymal-epithelial transition, Protein folding, proteome, proteostasis, receptor binding, tight junctions, Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) on April 7, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Growth Factors, Suppressors and Receptors in Tumorigenesis

Writer and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

7.1 Growth Factors, Suppressors and Receptors in Tumorigenesis

7.1.1 Friend or Foe: Endoplasmic reticulum protein 29 (ERp29) in epithelial cancer

7.1.2 Putting together structures of epidermal growth factor receptors

7.1.3 Complex Relationship between Ligand Binding and Dimerization in the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor

7.1.4 IGFBP-2.PTEN- A critical interaction for tumors and for general physiology

7.1.5 Emerging-roles-for-the-Ph-sensing-G-protein-coupled-receptor

7.1.6 Protein amino-terminal modifications and proteomic approaches for N-terminal profiling

7.1.7 Protein homeostasis networks in physiology and disease

7.1.8 Proteome sequencing goes deep

7.1.1 Friend or Foe: Endoplasmic reticulum protein 29 (ERp29) in epithelial cancer

Chen S¹, Zhang D²FEBS Open Bio. 2015 Jan 30; 5:91-8
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.fob.2015.01.004

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) protein 29 (ERp29) is a molecular chaperone that plays a critical role in protein secretion from the ER in eukaryotic cells. Recent studies have also shown that ERp29 plays a role in cancer. It has been demonstrated that ERp29 is inversely associated with primary tumor development and functions as a tumor suppressor by inducing cell growth arrest in breast cancer. However, ERp29 has also been reported to promote epithelial cell morphogenesis, cell survival against genotoxic stress and distant metastasis. In this review, we summarize the current understanding on the biological and pathological functions of ERp29 in cancer and discuss the pivotal aspects of ERp29 as “friend or foe” in epithelial cancer.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is found in all eukaryotic cells and is complex membrane system constituting of an extensively interlinked network of membranous tubules, sacs and cisternae. It is the main subcellular organelle that transports different molecules to their subcellular destinations or to the cell surface [10,85].

The ER contains a number of molecular chaperones involved in protein synthesis and maturation. Of the ER chaperones, protein disulfide isomerase (PDI)-like proteins are characterized by the presence of a thioredoxin domain and function as oxido-reductases, isomerases and chaperones [33]. ERp29 lacks the active-site double-cysteine (CxxC) motif and does not belong to the redox-active PDIs [5,47]. ERp29 is recognized as a characterized resident of the cellular ER, and it is expressed ubiquitously and abundantly in mammalian tissues [50]. Protein structural analysis showed that ERp29 consists of N-terminal and C-terminal domains [5]: N-terminal domain involves dimerization whereas the C-terminal domain is essential for substrate binding and secretion [78]. The biological function of ERp29 in protein secretion has been well established in cells [8,63,67].

ERp9 is proposed to be involved in the unfolded protein response (UPR) as a factor facilitating transport of synthesized secretory proteins from the ER to Golgi [83]. The expression of ERp29 was demonstrated to be increased in cells exposed to radiation [108], sperm cells undergoing maturation [42,107], and in certain cell types both under the pharmacologically induced UPR and under the physiological conditions (e.g., lactation, differentiation of thyroid cells) [66,82]. Under ER stress, ERp29 translocates the precursor protein p90ATF6 from the ER to Golgi where it is cleaved to be a mature and active form p50ATF by protease (S1P and S2P) [48]. In most cases, ERp29 interacts with BiP/GRP78 to exert its function under ER stress [65].

ERp29 is considered to be a key player in both viral unfolding and secretion [63,67,77,78] Recent studies have also demonstrated that ERp29 is involved in intercellular communication by stabilizing the monomeric gap junction protein connexin43 [27] and trafficking of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator to the plasma membrane in cystic fibrosis and non-cystic fibrosis epithelial cells [90]. It was recently reported that ERp29 directs epithelial Na(+) channel (ENaC) toward the Golgi, where it undergoes cleavage during its biogenesis and trafficking to the apical membrane [40]. ERp29 expression protects axotomized neurons from apoptosis and promotes neuronal regeneration [111]. These studies indicate a broad biological function of ERp29 in cells.

Recent studies demonstrated a tumor suppressive function of ERp29 in cancer. It was found that ERp29 expression inhibited tumor formation in mice [4,87] and the level of ERp29 in primary tumors is inversely associated with tumor development in breast, lung and gallbladder cancer [4,29].

However, its expression is also responsible for cancer cell survival against genotoxic stress induced by doxorubicin and radiation [34,76,109]. The most recent studies demonstrate other important roles of ERp29 in cancer cells such as the induction of mesenchymal–epithelial transition (MET) and epithelial morphogenesis [3,4]. MET is considered as an important process of transdifferentiation and restoration of epithelial phenotype during distant metastasis [23,52]. These findings implicate ERp29 in promoting the survival of cancer cells and also metastasis. Hence, the current review focuses on the novel functions of ERp29 and discusses its pathological importance as a “friend or foe” in epithelial cancer.

ERp29 regulates mesenchymal–epithelial transition

Epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) and MET

The EMT is an essential process during embryogenesis [6] and tumor development [43,96]. The pathological conditions such as inflammation, organ fibrosis and cancer progression facilitate EMT [16]. The epithelial cells after undergoing EMT show typical features characterized as: (1) loss of adherens junctions (AJs) and tight junctions (TJs) and apical–basal polarity; (2) cytoskeletal reorganization and distribution; and (3) gain of aggressive phenotype of migration and invasion [98]. Therefore, EMT has been considered to be an important process in cancer progression and its pathological activation during tumor development induces primary tumor cells to metastasize [95]. However, recent studies showed that the EMT status was not unanimously correlated with poorer survival in cancer patients examined [92].

In addition to EMT in epithelial cells, mesenchymal-like cells have capability to regain a fully differentiated epithelial phenotype via the MET [6,35]. The key feature of MET is defined as a process of transdifferentiation of mesenchymal-like cells to polarized epithelial-like cells [23,52] and mediates the establishment of distant metastatic tumors at secondary sites [22]. Recent studies demonstrated that distant metastases in breast cancer expressed an equal or stronger E-cadherin signal than the respective primary tumors and the re-expression of E-cadherin was independent of the E-cadherin status of the primary tumors [58]. Similarly, it was found that E-cadherin is re-expressed in bone metastasis or distant metastatic tumors arising from E-cadherin-negative poorly differentiated primary breast carcinoma [81], or from E-cadherin-low primary tumors [25]. In prostate and bladder cancer cells, the nonmetastatic mesenchymal-like cells were interacted with metastatic epithelial-like cells to accelerate their metastatic colonization [20]. It is, therefore, suggested that the EMT/MET work co-operatively in driving metastasis.

Molecular regulation of EMT/MET

E-cadherin is considered to be a key molecule that provides the physical structure for both cell–cell attachment and recruitment of signaling complexes [75]. Loss of E-cadherin is a hallmark of EMT [53]. Therefore, characterizing transcriptional regulators of E-cadherin expression during EMT/MET has provided important insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the loss of cell–cell adhesion and the acquisition of migratory properties during carcinoma progression [73].

Several known signaling pathways, such as those involving transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), Notch, fibroblast growth factor and Wnt signaling pathways, have been shown to trigger epithelial dedifferentiation and EMT [28,97,110]. These signals repress transcription of epithelial genes, such as those encoding E-cadherin and cytokeratins, or activate transcription programs that facilitate fibroblast-like motility and invasion [73,97].

The involvement of microRNAs (miRNAs) in controlling EMT has been emphasized [11,12,18]. MiRNAs are small non-coding RNAs (∼23 nt) that silence gene expression by pairing to the 3′UTR of target mRNAs to cause their posttranscriptional repression [7]. MiRNAs can be characterized as “mesenchymal miRNA” and “epithelial miRNA” [68]. The “mesenchymal miRNA” plays an oncogenic role by promoting EMT in cancer cells. For instance, the well-known miR-21, miR-103/107 are EMT inducer by repressing Dicer and PTEN [44].

The miR-200 family has been shown to be major “epithelial miRNA” that regulate MET through silencing the EMT-transcriptional inducers ZEB1 and ZEB2 [13,17]. MiRNAs from this family are considered to be predisposing factors for cancer cell metastasis. For instance, the elevated levels of the epithelial miR-200 family in primary breast tumors associate with poorer outcomes and metastasis [57]. These findings support a potential role of “epithelial miRNAs” in MET to promote metastatic colonization [15].

ERp29 promotes MET in breast cancer

The role of ERp29 in regulating MET has been established in basal-like MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. It is known that myosin light chain (MLC) phosphorylation initiates to myosin-driven contraction, leading to reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton and formation of stress fibers [55,56]. ERp29 expression in this type of cells markedly reduced the level of phosphorylated MLC [3]. These results indicate that ERp29 regulates cortical actin formation through a mechanism involved in MLC phosphorylation (Fig. 1). In addition to the phenotypic change, ERp29 expression leads to: expression and membranous localization of epithelial cell marker E-cadherin; expression of epithelial differentiation marker cytokeratin 19; and loss of the mesenchymal cell marker vimentin and fibronectin [3] (Fig. 1). In contrast, knockdown of ERp29 in epithelial MCF-7 cells promotes acquisition of EMT traits including fibroblast-like phenotype, enhanced cell spreading, decreased expression of E-cadherin and increased expression of vimentin [3,4]. These findings further substantiate a role of ERp29 in modulating MET in breast cancer cells.

Fig. 1 ERp29 triggers mesenchymal–epithelial transition. Exogenous expression of ERp29 in mesenchymal MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells inhibits stress fiber formation by suppressing MLC phosphorylation. In addition, the overexpressed ERp29 decreases the …

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ERp29 targets E-cadherin transcription repressors

The transcription repressors such as Snai1, Slug, ZEB1/2 and Twist have been considered to be the main regulators for E-cadherin expression [19,26,32]. Mechanistic studies revealed that ERp29 expression significantly down-regulated transcription of these repressors, leading to their reduced nuclear expression in MDA-MB-231 cells [3,4] (Fig. 2). Consistent with this, the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway which is an important up-stream regulator of Slug and Ets1 was highly inhibited [4]. Apparently, ERp29 up-regulates the expressions of E-cadherin transcription repressors through repressing ERK pathway. Interestingly, ERp29 over-expression in basal-like BT549 cells resulted in incomplete MET and did not significantly affect the mRNA or protein expression of Snai1, ZEB2 and Twist, but increased the protein expression of Slug [3]. The differential regulation of these transcriptional repressors of E-cadherin by ERp29 in these two cell-types may occur in a cell-context-dependent manner.

Fig. 2 ERp29 decreases the expression of EMT inducers to promote MET. Exogenous expression of ERp29 in mesenchymal MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells suppresses transcription and protein expression of E-cadherin transcription repressors (e.g., ZEB2, SNAI1 and Twist), ..

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ERp29 antagonizes Wnt/ β-catenin signaling

Wnt proteins are a family of highly conserved secreted cysteine-rich glycoproteins. The Wnt pathway is activated via a binding of a family member to a frizzled receptor (Fzd) and the LDL-Receptor-related protein co-receptor (LRP5/6). There are three different cascades that are activated by Wnt proteins: namely canonical/β-catenin-dependent pathway and two non-canonical/β-catenin-independent pathways that include Wnt/Ca²⁺ and planar cell polarity [84]. Of note, the Wnt/β-catenin pathway has been extensively studied, due to its important role in cancer initiation and progression [79]. The presence of Wnt promotes formation of a Wnt–Fzd–LRP complex, recruitment of the cytoplasmic protein Disheveled (Dvl) to Fzd and the LRP phosphorylation-dependent recruitment of Axin to the membrane, thereby leading to release of β-catenin from membrane and accumulation in cytoplasm and nuclei. Nuclear β-catenin replaces TLE/Groucho co-repressors and recruits co-activators to activate expression of Wnt target genes. The most important genes regulated are those related to proliferation, such as Cyclin D₁ and c-Myc [46,94], which are over-expressed in most β-catenin-dependent tumors. When β-catenin is absent in nucleus, the transcription factors T-cell factor/lymphoid enhancer factors (TCF/LEF) recruits co-repressors of the TLE/Groucho family and function as transcriptional repressors.

β-catenin is highly expressed in the nucleus of mesenchymal MDA-MB-231 cells. ERp29 over-expression in this type of cells led to translocation of nuclear β-catenin to membrane where it forms complex with E-cadherin [3] (Fig. 3). This causes a disruption of β-catenin/TCF/LEF complex and abolishes its transcription activity. Indeed, ERp29 significantly decreased the expression of cyclin D₁/D₂ [36], one of the downstream targets of activated Wnt/β-catenin signaling [94], indicating an inhibitory effect of ERp29 on this pathway. Meanwhile, expression of ERp29 in this cell type increased the nuclear expression of TCF3, a transcription factor regulating cancer cell differentiation while inhibiting self-renewal of cancer stem cells [102,106]. Hence, ERp29 may play dual functions in mesenchymal MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells by: (1) suppressing activated Wnt/β-catenin signaling via β-catenin translocation; and (2) promoting cell differentiation via activating TCF3 (Fig. 3). Because β-catenin serves as a signaling hub for the Wnt pathway, it is particularly important to focus on β-catenin as the target of choice in Wnt-driven cancers. Though the mechanism by which ERp29 expression promotes the disassociation of β-catenin/TCF/LEF complex in MDA-MB-231 cells remains elusive, activating ERp29 expression may exert an inhibitory effect on the poorly differentiated, Wnt-driven tumors.

Fig. 3 ERp29 over-expression “turns-off” activated Wnt/β-catenin signaling. In mesenchymal MDA-MB-231 cells, high expression of nuclear β-catenin activates its downstream signaling involved in cell cycles and cancer stem cell …

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ERp29 regulates epithelial cell integrity

Cell adherens and tight junctions

Adherens junctions (AJs) and tight junctions (TJs) are composed of transmembrane proteins that adhere to similar proteins in the adjacent cell [69]. The transmembrane region of the TJs is composed mainly of claudins, tetraspan proteins with two extracellular loops [1]. AJs are mediated by Ca²⁺-dependent homophilic interactions of cadherins [71] which interact with cytoplasmic catenins that link the cadherin/catenin complex to the actin cytoskeleton [74].

The cytoplasmic domain of claudins in TJs interacts with occludin and several zona occludens proteins (ZO1-3) to form the plaque that associates with the cytoskeleton [99]. The AJs form and maintain intercellular adhesion, whereas the TJs serve as a diffusion barrier for solutes and define the boundary between apical and basolateral membrane domains [21]. The AJs and TJs are required for integrity of the epithelial phenotype, as well as for epithelial cells to function as a tissue [75].

The TJs are closely linked to the proper polarization of cells for the establishment of epithelial architecture[86]. During cancer development, epithelial cells lose the capability to form TJs and correct apico–basal polarity [59]. This subsequently causes the loss of contact inhibition of cell growth [91]. In addition, reduction of ZO-1 and occludin were found to be correlated with poorly defined differentiation, higher metastatic frequency and lower survival rates [49,64]. Hence, TJs proteins have a tumor suppressive function in cancer formation and progression.

Apical–basal cell polarity

The apical–basal polarity of epithelial cells in an epithelium is characterized by the presence of two specialized plasma membrane domains: namely, the apical surface and basolateral surface [30]. In general, the epithelial cell polarity is determined by three core complexes. These protein complexes include: (1) the partitioning-defective (PAR) complex; (2) the Crumbs (CRB) complex; and (3) the Scribble complex[2,30,45,51]. PAR complex is composed of two scaffold proteins (PAR6 and PAR3) and an atypical protein kinase C (aPKC) and is localized to the apical junction domain for the assembly of TJs [31,39]. The Crumbs complex is formed by the transmembrane protein Crumbs and the cytoplasmic scaffolding proteins such as the homologue of Drosophila Stardust (Pals1) and Pals-associated tight junction protein (Patj) and localizes to the apical [38]. The Scribble complex is comprised of three proteins, Scribble, Disc large (Dlg) and Lethal giant larvae (Lgl) and is localized in the basolateral domain of epithelial cells [100].

Fig. 4 ERp29 regulates epithelial cell morphogenesis. Over-expression of ERp29 in breast cancer cells induces the transition from a mesenchymal-like to epithelial-like phenotype and the restoration of tight junctions and cell polarity. Up-regulation and membrane …

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4329646/bin/gr4.gif

The current data from breast cancer cells supports the idea that ERp29 can function as a tumor suppressive protein, in terms of suppression of cell growth and primary tumor formation and inhibition of signaling pathways that facilitate EMT. Nevertheless, the significant role of ERp29 in cell survival against drugs, induction of cell differentiation and potential promotion of MET-related metastasis may lead us to re-assess its function in cancer progression, particularly in distant metastasis. Hence, it is important to explore in detail the ERp29’s role in cancer as a “friend or foe” and to elucidate its clinical significance in breast cancer and other epithelial cancers. Targeting ERp29 and/or its downstream molecules might be an alternative molecular therapeutic approach for chemo/radio-resistant metastatic cancer treatment

7.1.2 Putting together structures of epidermal growth factor receptors

Bessman NJ¹, Freed DM², Lemmon MA³Curr Opin Struct Biol. 2014 Dec; 29:95-101
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.sbi.2014.10.002

Highlights

Several studies suggest flexible linkage between extracellular and intracellular regions.
Others imply more rigid connections, required for allosteric regulation of dimers.
Interactions with membrane lipids play important roles in EGFR regulation.
Cellular studies suggest half-of-the-sites negative cooperativity for human EGFR.

Numerous crystal structures have been reported for the isolated extracellular region and tyrosine kinase domain of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and its relatives, in different states of activation and bound to a variety of inhibitors used in cancer therapy. The next challenge is to put these structures together accurately in functional models of the intact receptor in its membrane environment. The intact EGFR has been studied using electron microscopy, chemical biology methods, biochemically, and computationally. The distinct approaches yield different impressions about the structural modes of communication between extracellular and intracellular regions. They highlight possible differences between ligands, and also underline the need to understand how the receptor interacts with the membrane itself.

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7.1.3 Complex Relationship between Ligand Binding and Dimerization in the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor

Bessman NJ¹, Bagchi A², Ferguson KM², Lemmon MA³.
Cell Rep. 2014 Nov 20; 9(4):1306-17.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2014.10.010

Highlights

Preformed extracellular dimers of human EGFR are structurally heterogeneous
EGFR dimerization does not stabilize ligand binding
Extracellular mutations found in glioblastoma do not stabilize EGFR dimerization
Glioblastoma mutations in EGFR increase ligand-binding affinity

Summary

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) plays pivotal roles in development and is mutated or overexpressed in several cancers. Despite recent advances, the complex allosteric regulation of EGFR remains incompletely understood. Through efforts to understand why the negative cooperativity observed for intact EGFR is lost in studies of its isolated extracellular region (ECR), we uncovered unexpected relationships between ligand binding and receptor dimerization. The two processes appear to compete. Surprisingly, dimerization does not enhance ligand binding (although ligand binding promotes dimerization). We further show that simply forcing EGFR ECRs into preformed dimers without ligand yields ill-defined, heterogeneous structures. Finally, we demonstrate that extracellular EGFR-activating mutations in glioblastoma enhance ligand-binding affinity without directly promoting EGFR dimerization, suggesting that these oncogenic mutations alter the allosteric linkage between dimerization and ligand binding. Our findings have important implications for understanding how EGFR and its relatives are activated by specific ligands and pathological mutations.

http://www.cell.com/cms/attachment/2020816777/2040986303/fx1.jpg

X-ray crystal structures from 2002 and 2003 (Burgess et al., 2003) yielded the scheme for ligand-induced epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) dimerization shown in Figure 1. Binding of a single ligand to domains I and III within the same extracellular region (ECR) stabilizes an “extended” conformation and exposes a dimerization interface in domain II, promoting self-association with a KD in the micromolar range (Burgess et al., 2003, Dawson et al., 2005, Dawson et al., 2007). Although this model satisfyingly explains ligand-induced EGFR dimerization, it fails to capture the complex ligand-binding characteristics seen for cell-surface EGFR, with concave-up Scatchard plots indicating either negative cooperativity (De Meyts, 2008, Macdonald and Pike, 2008) or distinct affinity classes of EGF-binding site with high-affinity sites responsible for EGFR signaling (Defize et al., 1989). This cooperativity or heterogeneity is lost when the ECR from EGFR is studied in isolation, as also described for the insulin receptor (De Meyts, 2008).

ligand-induced-dimerization-of-the-hegfr-ecr

Figure 1

Structural View of Ligand-Induced Dimerization of the hEGFR ECR

(A) Surface representation of tethered, unliganded, sEGFR from Protein Data Bank entry 1NQL (Ferguson et al., 2003). Ligand-binding domains I and III are green and cysteine-rich domains II and IV are cyan. The intramolecular domain II/IV tether is circled in red.

(B) Hypothetical model for an extended EGF-bound sEGFR monomer based on SAXS studies of an EGF-bound dimerization-defective sEGFR variant (Dawson et al., 2007) from PDB entry 3NJP (Lu et al., 2012). EGF is blue, and the red boundary represents the primary dimerization interface.

(C) 2:2 (EGF/sEGFR) dimer, from PDB entry 3NJP (Lu et al., 2012), colored as in (B). Dimerization arm contacts are circled in red.

http://www.cell.com/cms/attachment/2020816777/2040986313/gr1.sml

Here, we describe studies of an artificially dimerized ECR from hEGFR that yield useful insight into the heterogeneous nature of preformed ECR dimers and into the origins of negative cooperativity. Our data also argue that extracellular structures induced by ligand binding are not “optimized” for dimerization and conversely that dimerization does not optimize the ligand-binding sites. We also analyzed the effects of oncogenic mutations found in glioblastoma patients (Lee et al., 2006), revealing that they affect allosteric linkage between ligand binding and dimerization rather than simply promoting EGFR dimerization. These studies have important implications for understanding extracellular activating mutations found in EGFR/ErbB family receptors in glioblastoma and other cancers and also for understanding specificity of ligand-induced ErbB receptor heterodimerization

Predimerizing the EGFR ECR Has Modest Effects on EGF Binding

To access preformed dimers of the hEGFR ECR (sEGFR) experimentally, we C-terminally fused (to residue 621 of the mature protein) either a dimerizing Fc domain (creating sEGFR-Fc) or the dimeric leucine zipper from S. cerevisiae GCN4 (creating sEGFR-Zip). Size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and/or sedimentation equilibrium analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC) confirmed that the resulting purified sEGFR fusion proteins are dimeric (Figure S1). To measure K_D values for ligand binding to sEGFR-Fc and sEGFR-Zip, we labeled EGF with Alexa-488 and monitored binding in fluorescence anisotropy (FA) assays. As shown in Figure 2A, EGF binds approximately 10-fold more tightly to the dimeric sEGFR-Fc or sEGFR-Zip proteins than to monomeric sEGFR (Table 1). The curves obtained for EGF binding to sEGFR-Fc and sEGFR-Zip showed no signs of negative cooperativity, with sEGFR-Zip actually requiring a Hill coefficient (n_H) greater than 1 for a good fit (n_H = 1 for both sEGFR^WT and sEGFR-Fc). Thus, our initial studies argued that simply dimerizing human sEGFR fails to restore the negatively cooperative ligand binding seen for the intact receptor in cells.

One surprise from these data was that forced sEGFR dimerization has only a modest (≤10-fold) effect on EGF-binding affinity. Under the conditions of the FA experiments, isolated sEGFR (without zipper or Fc fusion) remains monomeric; the FA assay contains just 60 nM EGF, so the maximum concentration of EGF-bound sEGFR is also limited to 60 nM, which is over 20-fold lower than the K_D for dimerization of the EGF/sEGFR complex (Dawson et al., 2005, Lemmon et al., 1997). This ≤10-fold difference in affinity for dimeric and monomeric sEGFR seems small in light of the strict dependence of sEGFR dimerization on ligand binding (Dawson et al., 2005,Lax et al., 1991, Lemmon et al., 1997). Unliganded sEGFR does not dimerize detectably even at millimolar concentrations, whereas liganded sEGFR dimerizes with K_D ∼1 μM, suggesting that ligand enhances dimerization by at least 10⁴– to 10⁶-fold. Straightforward linkage of dimerization and binding equilibria should stabilize EGF binding to dimeric sEGFR similarly (by 5.5–8.0 kcal/mol). The modest difference in EGF-binding affinity for dimeric and monomeric sEGFR is also significantly smaller than the 40- to 100-fold difference typically reported between high-affinity and low-affinity EGF binding on the cell surface when data are fit to two affinity classes of binding site (Burgess et al., 2003, Magun et al., 1980).

Mutations that Prevent sEGFR Dimerization Do Not Significantly Reduce Ligand-Binding Affinity

The fact that predimerizing sEGFR only modestly increased ligand-binding affinity led us to question the extent to which domain II-mediated sEGFR dimerization is linked to ligand binding. It is typically assumed that the domain II conformation stabilized upon forming the sEGFR dimer in Figure 1C optimizes the domain I and III positions for EGF binding. To test this hypothesis, we introduced a well-characterized pair of domain II mutations into sEGFRs that block dimerization: one at the tip of the dimerization arm (Y251A) and one at its “docking site” on the adjacent molecule in a dimer (R285S). The resulting (Y251A/R285S) mutation abolishes sEGFR dimerization and EGFR signaling (Dawson et al., 2005, Ogiso et al., 2002). Importantly, we chose isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) for these studies, where all interacting components are free in solution. Previous surface plasmon resonance (SPR) studies have indicated that dimerization-defective sEGFR variants bind immobilized EGF with reduced affinity (Dawson et al., 2005), and we were concerned that this reflects avidity artifacts, where dimeric sEGFR binds more avidly than monomeric sEGFR to sensor chip-immobilized EGF.

Surprisingly, our ITC studies showed that the Y251A/R285S mutation has no significant effect on ligand-binding affinity for sEGFR in solution (Table 1). These experiments employed sEGFR (with no Fc fusion) at 10 μM—ten times higher than K_D for dimerization of ligand-saturated WT sEGFR (sEGFR^WT) (K_D ∼1 μM). Dimerization of sEGFR^WT should therefore be complete under these conditions, whereas the Y251A/R285S-mutated variant (sEGFR^Y251A/R285S) does not dimerize at all (Dawson et al., 2005). The K_D value for EGF binding to dimeric sEGFR^WT was essentially the same (within 2-fold) as that for sEGFR^Y251A/R285S (Figures 2B and 2C; Table 1), arguing that the favorable Gibbs free energy (ΔG) of liganded sEGFR dimerization (−5.5 to −8 kcal/mol) does not contribute significantly (<0.4 kcal/mol) to enhanced ligand binding. …

Thermodynamics of EGF Binding to sEGFR-Fc

If there is no discernible positive linkage between sEGFR dimerization and EGF binding, why do sEGFR-Fc and sEGFR-Zip bind EGF ∼10-fold more strongly than wild-type sEGFR? To investigate this, we used ITC to compare EGF binding to sEGFR-Fc and sEGFR-Zip (Figures 3A and 3B ) with binding to isolated (nonfusion) sEGFR^WT. As shown in Table 1, the positive (unfavorable) ΔH for EGF binding is further elevated in predimerized sEGFR compared with sEGFR^WT, suggesting that enforced dimerization may actually impair ligand/receptor interactions such as hydrogen bonds and salt bridges. The increased ΔH is more than compensated for, however, by a favorable increase in TΔS. This favorable entropic effect may reflect an “ordering” imposed on unliganded sEGFR when it is predimerized, such that it exhibits fewer degrees of freedom compared with monomeric sEGFR. In particular, since EGF binding does induce sEGFR dimerization, it is clear that predimerization will reduce the entropic cost of bringing two sEGFR molecules into a dimer upon ligand binding, possibly underlying this effect.

Possible Heterogeneity of Binding Sites in sEGFR-Fc

Close inspection of EGF/sEGFR-Fc titrations such as that in Figure 3A suggested some heterogeneity of sites, as evidenced by the slope in the early part of the experiment. To investigate this possibility further, we repeated titrations over a range of temperatures. We reasoned that if there are two different types of EGF-binding sites in an sEGFR-Fc dimer, they might have different values for heat capacity change (ΔC_p), with differences that might become more evident at higher (or lower) temperatures. Indeed, ΔC_p values correlate with the nonpolar surface area buried upon binding (Livingstone et al., 1991), and we know that this differs for the two Spitz-binding sites in the asymmetric Drosophila EGFR dimer (Alvarado et al., 2010). As shown in Figure 3C, the heterogeneity was indeed clearer at higher temperatures for sEGFR-Fc—especially at 25°C and 30°C—suggesting the possible presence of distinct classes of binding sites in the sEGFR-Fc dimer. We were not able to fit the two K_D values (or ΔH values) uniquely with any precision because the experiment has insufficient information for unique fitting to a model with four variables. Whereas binding to sEGFR^WT could be fit confidently with a single-site binding model throughout the temperature range, enforced sEGFR dimerization (by Fc fusion) creates apparent heterogeneity in binding sites, which may reflect negative cooperativity of the sort seen with dEGFR. …

Ligand Binding Is Required for Well-Defined Dimerization of the EGFR ECR

To investigate the structural nature of the preformed sEGFR-Fc dimer, we used negative stain electron microscopy (EM). We hypothesized that enforced dimerization might cause the unliganded ECR to form the same type of loose domain II-mediated dimer seen in crystals of unliganded Drosophila sEGFR (Alvarado et al., 2009). When bound to ligand (Figure 4A), the Fc-fused ECR clearly formed the characteristic heart-shape dimer seen by crystallography and EM (Lu et al., 2010, Mi et al., 2011). Figure 4B presents a structural model of an Fc-fused liganded sEGFR dimer, and Figure 4C shows a calculated 12 Å resolution projection of this model. The class averages for sEGFR-Fc plus EGF (Figure 4A) closely resemble this model, yielding clear densities for all four receptor domains, arranged as expected for the EGF-induced domain II-mediated back-to-back extracellular dimer shown in Figure 1 (Garrett et al., 2002, Lu et al., 2010). In a subset of classes, the Fc domain also appeared well resolved, indicating that these particular arrangements of the Fc domain relative to the ECR represent highly populated states, with the Fc domains occupying similar positions to those of the kinase domain in detergent-solubilized intact receptors (Mi et al., 2011). …

Our results and those of Lu et al. (2012)) argue that preformed extracellular dimers of hEGFR do not contain a well-defined domain II-mediated interface. Rather, the ECRs in these dimers likely sample a broad range of positions (and possibly conformations). This conclusion argues against recent suggestions that stable unliganded extracellular dimers “disfavor activation in preformed dimers by assuming conformations inconsistent with” productive dimerization of the rest of the receptor (Arkhipov et al., 2013). The ligand-free inactive dimeric ECR species modeled by Arkhipov et al. (2013) in their computational studies of the intact receptor do not appear to be stable. The isolated ECR from EGFR has a very low propensity for self-association without ligand, with K_D in the millimolar range (or higher). Moreover, sEGFR does not form a defined structure even when forced to dimerize by Fc fusion. It is therefore difficult to envision how it might assume any particular autoinhibitory dimeric conformation in preformed dimers. …

Extracellular Oncogenic Mutations Observed in Glioblastoma May Alter Linkage between Ligand Binding and sEGFR Dimerization

Missense mutations in the hEGFR ECR were discovered in several human glioblastoma multiforme samples or cell lines and occur in 10%–15% of glioblastoma cases (Brennan et al., 2013, Lee et al., 2006). Several elevate basal receptor phosphorylation and cause EGFR to transform NIH 3T3 cells in the absence of EGF (Lee et al., 2006). Thus, these are constitutively activating oncogenic mutations, although the mutated receptors can be activated further by ligand (Lee et al., 2006, Vivanco et al., 2012). Two of the most commonly mutated sites in glioblastoma, R84 and A265 (R108 and A289 in pro-EGFR), are in domains I and II of the ECR, respectively, and contribute directly in inactive sEGFR to intramolecular interactions between these domains that are thought to be autoinhibitory (Figure 5). Domains I and II become separated from one another in this region upon ligand binding to EGFR (Alvarado et al., 2009), as illustrated in the lower part of Figure 5. Interestingly, analogous mutations in the EGFR relative ErbB3 were also found in colon and gastric cancers (Jaiswal et al., 2013).

We hypothesized that domain I/II interface mutations might activate EGFR by disrupting autoinhibitory interactions between these two domains, possibly promoting a domain II conformation that drives dimerization even in the absence of ligand. In contrast, however, sedimentation equilibrium AUC showed that sEGFR variants harboring R84K, A265D, or A265V mutations all remained completely monomeric in the absence of ligand (Figure 6A) at a concentration of 10 μM, which is similar to that experienced at the cell surface (Lemmon et al., 1997). As with WT sEGFR, however, addition of ligand promoted dimerization of each mutated sEGFR variant, with K_D values that were indistinguishable from those of WT. Thus, extracellular EGFR mutations seen in glioblastoma do not simply promote ligand-independent ECR dimerization, consistent with our finding that even dimerized sEGFR-Fc requires ligand binding in order to form the characteristic heart-shaped dimer. …

We suggest that domain I is normally restrained by domain I/II interactions so that its orientation with respect to the ligand is compromised. When the domain I/II interface is weakened with mutations, this effect is mitigated. If this results simply in increased ligand-binding affinity of the monomeric receptor, the biological consequence might be to sensitize cells to lower concentrations of EGF or TGF-α (or other agonists). However, cellular studies of EGFR with glioblastoma-derived mutations (Lee et al., 2006, Vivanco et al., 2012) clearly show ligand-independent activation, arguing that this is not the key mechanism. The domain I/II interface mutations may also reduce restraints on domain II so as to permit dimerization of a small proportion of intact receptor, driven by the documented interactions that promote self-association of the transmembrane, juxtamembrane, and intracellular regions of EGFR (Endres et al., 2013, Lemmon et al., 2014, Red Brewer et al., 2009).

Setting out to test the hypothesis that simply dimerizing the EGFR ECR is sufficient to recover the negative cooperativity lost when it is removed from the intact receptor, we were led to revisit several central assumptions about this receptor. Our findings suggest three main conclusions. First, we find that enforcing dimerization of the hEGFR ECR does not drive formation of a well-defined domain II-mediated dimer that resembles ligand-bound ECRs or the unliganded ECR from Drosophila EGFR. Our EM and SAXS data show that ligand binding is necessary for formation of well-defined heart-shaped domain II-mediated dimers. This result argues that the unliganded extracellular dimers modeled by Arkhipov et al. (2013)) are not stable and that it is improbable that stable conformations of preformed extracellular dimers disfavor receptor activation by assuming conformations that counter activating dimerization of the rest of the receptor. Recent work from the Springer laboratory employing kinase inhibitors to drive dimerization of hEGFR (Lu et al., 2012) also showed that EGF binding is required to form heart-shaped ECR dimers. These findings leave open the question of the nature of the ECR in preformed EGFR dimers but certainly argue that it is unlikely to resemble the crystallographic dimer seen for unligandedDrosophila EGFR (Alvarado et al., 2009) or that suggested by computational studies (Arkhipov et al., 2013).

This result argues that ligand binding is required to permit dimerization but that domain II-mediated dimerization may compromise, rather than enhance, ligand binding. Assuming flexibility in domain II, we suggest that this domain serves to link dimerization and ligand binding allosterically. Optimal ligand binding may stabilize one conformation of domain II in the scheme shown in Figure 1 that is then distorted upon dimerization of the ECR, in turn reducing the strength of interactions with the ligand. Such a mechanism would give the appearance of a lack of positive linkage between ligand binding and ECR dimerization, and a good test of this model would be to determine the high-resolution structure of a liganded sEGFR monomer (which we expect to differ from a half dimer). This model also suggests a mechanism for selective heterodimerization over homodimerization of certain ErbB receptors. If a ligand-bound EGFR monomer has a domain II conformation that heterodimerizes with ErbB2 in preference to forming EGFR homodimers, this could explain several important observations. It could explain reports that ErbB2 is a preferred heterodimerization partner of EGFR (Graus-Porta et al., 1997) and might also explain why EGF binds more tightly to EGFR in cells where it can form heterodimers with ErbB2 than in cells lacking ErbB2, where only EGFR homodimers can form (Li et al., 2012).

7.1.4 IGFBP-2.PTEN- A critical interaction for tumors and for general physiology

Li Zeng, Claire M. Perks, Jeff M.P. Holly
Growth Hormone & IGF Research online 7 February 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ghir.2015.01.003

Highlights

IGFBP-2 is the second most abundant of the IGFBPs in the circulation.
IGFBP2 levels are increased in a variety of tumors and associated with progression and poor prognosis.
PTEN is a phosphatase that returns the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway to its inactivated state.
PTEN is the second most commonly mutated gene in a variety of common cancers.
Recent evidence indicates that IGFBP-2 regulates PTEN in a variety of normal and malignant cell types.
This review summarizes the evidence that these extracellular and intracellular modulators of the IGF-system are linked.

Abstract

IGFBP-2 is an important modulator of IGF availability and activity. It is the second most abundant of the IGFBPs in the circulation and its levels are increased in a variety of tumors and associated with progression and poor prognosis. PTEN is a phosphatase that returns the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway to its inactivated state and is therefore a critical modulator of one of the main intracellular signaling pathways activated by the IGFs. Recent evidence has indicated that IGFBP-2 regulates PTEN in a variety of normal and malignant cell types. This review summarizes the recent evidence that these extracellular and intracellular modulators are linked to provide a synchronous system for cell regulation with coordinated control of both the ‘accelerator’ and the ‘brake’.

IGFBP-2.PTEN

http://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S1096637415000167-gr1.sml

7.1.5 Emerging-roles-for-the-Ph-sensing-G-protein-coupled-receptor

Sanderlin EJ, Justus CR, Krewson EA, Yang LV
CHC March 2015 Volume 2015:7 Pages 99—109

http://www.dovepress.com/emerging-roles-for-the-ph-sensing-g-protein-coupled-receptors-in-respo-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-CHC#

Protons (hydrogen ions) are the simplest form of ions universally produced by cellular metabolism including aerobic respiration and glycolysis. Export of protons out of cells by a number of acid transporters is essential to maintain a stable intracellular pH that is critical for normal cell function. Acid products in the tissue interstitium are removed by blood perfusion and excreted from the body through the respiratory and renal systems. However, the pH homeostasis in tissues is frequently disrupted in many pathophysiologic conditions such as in ischemic tissues and tumors where protons are overproduced and blood perfusion is compromised. Consequently, accumulation of protons causes acidosis in the affected tissue. Although acidosis has profound effects on cell function and disease progression, little is known about the molecular mechanisms by which cells sense and respond to acidotic stress. Recently a family of pH-sensing G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), including GPR4, GPR65 (TDAG8), and GPR68 (OGR1), has been identified and characterized. These GPCRs can be activated by extracellular acidic pH through the protonation of histidine residues of the receptors. Upon activation by acidosis the pH-sensing GPCRs can transduce several downstream G protein pathways such as the G_s, G_q/11, and G_12/13 pathways to regulate cell behavior. Studies have revealed the biological roles of the pH-sensing GPCRs in the immune, cardiovascular, respiratory, renal, skeletal, endocrine, and nervous systems, as well as the involvement of these receptors in a variety of pathological conditions such as cancer, inflammation, pain, and cardiovascular disease. As GPCRs are important drug targets, small molecule modulators of the pH-sensing GPCRs are being developed and evaluated for potential therapeutic applications in disease treatment.

Cellular metabolism produces acid as a byproduct. Metabolism of each glucose molecule by glycolysis generates two pyruvate molecules. Under anaerobic conditions the metabolism of pyruvate results in the production of the glycolytic end product lactic acid, which has a pKa of 3.9. Lactic acid is deprotonated at the carboxyl group and results in one lactate ion and one proton at the physiological pH. Under aerobic conditions pyruvate is converted into acetyl-CoA and CO₂ in the mitochondria. CO₂in water forms a chemical equilibrium of carbonic acid and bicarbonate, an important physiological pH buffering system. The body must maintain suitable pH for proper physiological functions. Some regulatory mechanisms to control systemic pH are respiration, renal excretion, bone buffering, and metabolism.¹^–⁴ The respiratory system can buffer the blood by excreting carbonic acid as CO₂ while the kidney responds to decreased circulatory pH by excreting protons and electrolytes to stabilize the physiological pH. Bone buffering helps maintain systemic pH by Ca²⁺ reabsorption and mineral dissolution. Collectively, it is clear that several biological systems require tight regulation to maintain pH for normal physiological functions. Cells utilize vast varieties of acid-base transporters for proper pH homeostasis within each biological context.⁵^–⁸ Some such transporters are H⁺-ATPase, Na⁺/H⁺exchanger, Na⁺-dependent HCO₃^–/C1^– exchanger, Na⁺-independent anion exchanger, and monocarboxylate transporters. Cells can also maintain short-term pH homeostasis of the intracellular pH by rapid H⁺ consuming mechanisms. Some such mechanisms utilize metabolic conversions that move acids from the cytosol into organelles. Despite these cellular mechanisms that tightly maintain proper pH homeostasis, there are many diseases whereby pH homeostasis is disrupted. These pathological conditions are characterized by either local or systemic acidosis. Systemic acidosis can occur from respiratory, renal, and metabolic diseases and septic shock.¹^–⁴^,⁹ Additionally, local acidosis is characterized in ischemic tissues, tumors, and chronically inflamed conditions such as in asthma and arthritis caused by deregulated metabolism and hypoxia.¹⁰^–¹⁵

Acidosis is a stress for the cell. The ability of the cell to sense and modulate activity for adaptation to the stressful environment is critical. There are several mechanisms whereby cells sense acidosis and modulate cellular functions to facilitate adaptation. Cells can detect extracellular pH changes by acid sensing ion channels (ASICs) and transient receptor potential (TRP) channels.¹⁶ Apart from ASIC and TRP channels, extracellular acidic pH was shown to stimulate inositol polyphosphate formation and calcium efflux.¹⁷^,18 This suggested the presence of an unknown cell surface receptor that may be activated by a certain functional group, namely the imidazole of a histidine residue. The identity of the acid-activated receptor was later unmasked by Ludwig et al as a family of proton-sensing G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). This group identified human ovarian cancer GPCR 1 (OGR1) which upon activation will produce inositol phosphate and calcium efflux through the G_q pathway.¹⁹ These pH-sensing GPCR family members, including GPR4, GPR65 (TDAG8), and GPR68 (OGR1), will be discussed in this review (Figure 1). The proton-sensing GPCRs sense extracellular pH by protonation of several histidine residues on their extracellular domain. The activation of these proton-sensing GPCRs facilitates the downstream signaling through the G_q/11, G_s, and G_12/13 pathways. Their expression varies in different cell types and play critical roles in sensing extracellular acidity and modulating cellular functions in several biological systems.

Figure 1 Biological roles and G protein coupling of the pH-sensing GPCRs

Biological roles and G protein coupling of the pH-sensing GPCRs

http://www.dovepress.com/cr_data/article_fulltext/s60000/60508/img/fig1small.jpg

Cells encounter acidotic stress in many pathophysiologic conditions such as inflammation, cancer, and ischemia. Intricate molecular mechanisms, including a large array of acid/base transporters and acid sensors, have evolved for cells to sense and respond to acidotic stress. Emerging evidence has demonstrated that a family of the pH-sensing GPCRs can be activated by extracellular acidotic stress and regulate the function of multiple physiological systems (Table 1). The pH-sensing GPCRs also play important roles in various pathological disorders. Agonists, antagonists and other modulators of the pH-sensing GPCRs are being actively developed and evaluated as potential novel treatment for acidosis-related diseases.

Table 1 The main biological functions of the pH-sensing GPCRs

Table1 The main biological functions of the pH-sensing GPCRs

http://www.dovepress.com/cr_data/article_fulltext/s60000/60508/img/Table1small.jpg

7.1.6 Protein amino-terminal modifications and proteomic approaches for N-terminal profiling

Lai ZW¹, Petrera A², Schilling O³.
Curr Opin Chem Biol. 2015 Feb; 24:71-9
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2014.10.026

Highlights

N-terminal acetylation, pyroglutamate formation, N-degrons and proteolysis are reviewed.
N-terminomics provide comprehensive profiling of modification at protein N-termini in a proteome-wide manner.
We outline a number of established methodologies for the enrichment of protein N-termini through positive and negative selection strategies.
Peptidomics-based approach is beneficial for the study of post-translational processing of protein N-termini.

Amino-/N-terminal processing is a crucial post-translational modification affecting almost all proteins. In addition to altering the chemical properties of the N-terminus, these modifications affect protein activation, conversion, and degradation, which subsequently lead to diversified biological functions. The study of N-terminal modifications is of increasing interest; especially since modifications such as proteolytic truncation or pyroglutamate formation have been linked to disease processes. During the past decade, mass spectrometry has played an important role in facilitating the investigation of N-terminal modifications. Continuous progress is being made in the development and application of robust methods for the dedicated analysis of native and modified protein N-termini in a proteome-wide manner. Here we highlight recent progress in our understanding of protein N-terminal biology as well as outlining present enrichment strategies for mass spectrometry-based studies of protein N-termini

7.1.7 Protein homeostasis networks in physiology and disease

Claudio Hetz^1,2,3,* and Laurie H. Glimcher^3,4,*Curr Opin Cell Biol. 2011 Apr; 23(2): 123–125.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ceb.2011.01.004

Although most text books of biochemistry describe the process of protein folding to a three dimensional native state as an intrinsic property of the primary sequence, it is becoming increasingly clear that this process can go wrong in an almost infinite number of ways. In fact, many different diseases are caused by the misfolding and aggregation of certain proteins without genetic mutations in the primary sequence. An integrative view of the mechanisms that maintain protein folding homeostasis is emerging, which could be thought as a balanced and dynamic network of interconnected processes tightly regulated by a series of quality control mechanisms. This protein homeostasis network involves families of folding catalysts, co-factors under specific environmental and metabolic conditions. Maintaining protein homeostasis is particularly challenging in specialized secretory cells where the high demand for protein synthesis generates a constant source of stress that could lead to proteotoxicity.

Protein folding is assisted and monitored by diverse interconnected processes that follow a sequential pattern over time. The calnexin/calreticulin cycle ensures the proper folding of glycosylated proteins through the secretory pathway, which establishes the final pattern of disulfide bond formation through interactions with the disulfide isomerase ERp57. Coupled to this cycle is the ER-associated degradation (ERAD) pathway, which translocates terminally misfolded proteins to the cytosol for degradation by proteasomes. In addition, macroautophagy is becoming a relevant mechanism for the clearance of damaged proteins and abnormal protein aggregates through lysosomal hydrolysis, a process also referred to as ERAD-II. The folding status at the ER is constantly monitored by the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR), a specialized signaling pathway initiated by the activation of three types of stress sensors. The process underlying the surveillance of protein folding stress by the UPR is not fully understood, but it may require coupling to key folding mediators such as BiP or the direct recognition of the misfolded peptides by stress sensors. The UPR regulates genes and processs related to almost every folding step in the secretory pathway to reduce the load of misfolded proteins, including protein translation into the ER, translocation, folding, quality control, ERAD, the redox status, and many other related functions. Protein folding stress is observed in many disease conditions such as cancer, diabetes, and neurodegeneration. For example, abnormal protein aggregation and the accumulation of protein inclusions is associated with Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s Disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. In those diseases and many others, neuronal dysfunction and disease progression correlates with the presence of a strong ER stress response; however, the direct in vivo role of the UPR in the disease process has been experimentally defined in only a few cases. Therapeutic strategies are currently being developed to increase protein folding and clearance of misfolded proteins, with the goal of alleviating ER stress.

In this issue of Current Opinion in Cell Biology we present a series of focused reviews from recognized experts in the field, that provide an overview of mechanisms underlying protein folding and quality control, and how balance of protein homeostasis is maintained in physiology and deregulated in diseases. Daniela Roth and William Balch integrate the concept of protein homeostasis networks into an interesting model termed FoldFx, showing how the interconnection between different pathways in the context of the cellular proteome determines the energetic barrier required to generate a functional folded peptide. The authors have previously proposed the term Proteostasis to refer to the set of interacting activities that maintain the health of the proteome and the organism (protein homeostasis). The ER is a central subcellular compartment for protein synthesis and quality control in the secretory pathway. Yukio Kimata and Kenji Kohno give an overview of the signaling pathways that control adaptation to ER stress and maintenance of protein folding homeostasis. The authors summarize the models proposed so far for the activation of UPR stress sensors, and discuss how this directly or indirectly relates to the accumulation of unfolded proteins in the ER lumen. Chronic or irreversible ER stress triggers cell death by apoptosis. Gordon Shore, Feroz Papa, and Scott Oakes summarize the complex signaling pathways initiating apoptosis by ER stress, where cross talk between the ER and the mitochondria play a central role. The authors focus on addressing the role of the BCL-2 protein family on the activation of intrinsic mitochondrial apoptosis pathways, highlighting different cytosolic and transcriptional events that determine the transition between adaptive responses to apoptosis programmed by the UPR to eliminate irreversibly injured cells.

Although diverse families of chaperones, foldases and co-factors are expressed at the ER, only a few protein folding networks have been well defined. However, molecular explanations for specific substrate recognition and quality control mechanisms are poorly defined. Here we present a series of reviews covering different aspects of protein maturation. Amy Lee summarizes what is known about the biology of the key ER folding chaperone BiP/Grp78, and its emerging role in diverse pathological conditions including cancer. In two reviews, David B. Williams and Linda M. Hendershot describe the best characterized mechanism of protein quality control at the ER, the calnexin cycle. In addition, they give an overview of the function of a family of ER foldases, the protein disulfide isomerases (PDIs), in folding, quality control and degradation of abnormally folded proteins. PDIs are also becoming key factors in establishing the redox tone of the ER. Riccardo Bernasconi and Maurizio Molinari overview the ERAD process and how this pathway affects the efficiency of the protein folding process at the ER and its relation to pathological conditions.

Lysosomal-mediated degradation is becoming a fundamental process for the control of the haft-life of proteins and the degradation of misfolded, aggregate prone proteins. Ana Maria Cuervo reviews the relevance of Chaperone-mediated autophagy in the selective degradation of soluble cytosolic proteins in lysosomes, and also points out a key role for Chaperone-mediated autophagy in the cellular defense against proteotoxicity. David Rubinsztein and Guido Kroemer present two reviews highlighting the emerging relevance of macroautophagy in maintaining the homeostasis of the nervous system. They also discuss the actual impact of macroautophagy in the clearance of protein aggregates related to neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington’s disease among others. In addition, recent evidence suggesting an actual impairment of macroautophagy as a causative factor in aging-related disorders is also discussed.

Strategies to increase the efficiency of quality control mechanisms, to reduce protein aggregation and to enhance folding are suggested to be beneficial in the setting of diseases associated with the disruption of protein homeostasis. Jeffery Kelly reviews recent chemical and biological therapeutic strategies to restore protein homeostasis, which could be achieved by enhancing the biological capacity of the proteostasis network or through small molecule to stabilize misfolding-prone proteins. In summary, this volume of Current Opinion in Cell Biology compiles the most recent advances in understanding the impact of protein folding stress in physiology and disease, and integrates a variety of complex mechanisms that evolved to maintain protein homeostasis in a dynamic way in the context of a changing environment. The biomedical applications of developing strategies to cope with protein folding stress have profound implications for the treatment of the most prevalent diseases in the human population.

7.1.8 Proteome sequencing goes deep

Richards AL¹, Merrill AE², Coon JJ³.
Curr Opin Chem Biol. 2015 Feb; 24:11-7
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2014.10.017

Highlights

Recent MS advances have transformed the depth of coverage of the human proteome.
Expression of half the estimated human protein coding genes can be verified by MS.
MS sample preparation, instrumentation, and data analysis techniques are highlighted.

Advances in mass spectrometry (MS) have transformed the scope and impact of protein characterization efforts. Identifying hundreds of proteins from rather simple biological matrices, such as yeast, was a daunting task just a few decades ago. Now, expression of more than half of the estimated ∼20 000 human protein coding genes can be confirmed in record time and from minute sample quantities. Access to proteomic information at such unprecedented depths has been fueled by strides in every stage of the shotgun proteomics workflow — from sample processing to data analysis — and promises to revolutionize our understanding of the causes and consequences of proteome variation.

Advances in proteomic sample preparation
Advances in peptide separation and MS instrumentation
Advances in computational proteomics
Conclusions and outlook

Mg²+ is critical for maintaining the positional integrity of closely clustered phosphate groups. These clusters appear in numerous and distinct parts of the cell nucleus and cytoplasm. The Mg²+ ion maintains the integrity of nucleic acids, ribosomes and proteins. In addition, this ion acts as an oligo-element with role in energy catalysis. [6] Biological cell membranes and cell walls exhibit poly-anionic charges on the surface. This finding has important implications for the transport of ions, particularly because different membranes preferentially bind different ions. Both Mg²+ and Ca²+ regularly stabilize membranes by cross-linking the carboxylated and phosphorylated head groups of lipids.

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Endoplasmic reticulum protein 29 (ERp29) in epithelial cancer [7.3.4]

Posted in Academic Publishing, CANCER BIOLOGY & Innovations in Cancer Therapy, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Curation, Cytoskeleton, Developmental biology, Disease Biology, Embryology, Metabolism, Proteins, Proteomics, tagged Cancer - General, cell polarity, cell-cell binding, cellular adhesion, Endoplasmic reticulum protein 29 (ERp29), epithelial cancer, tight binding on April 7, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Endoplasmic reticulum protein 29 (ERp29) in epithelial cancer

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Writer and Curator

http://pharmaceuticalinnovation.com/2015/04/07/Endoplasmic reticulum protein 29 (ERp29) in epithelial cancer[7.3.4]

7.3.4 Endoplasmic reticulum protein 29 (ERp29) in epithelial cancer

Friend or Foe: Endoplasmic reticulum protein 29 (ERp29) in epithelial cancer

Chen S, Zhang D
FEBS Open Bio. 2015 Jan 30; 5:91-8 http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.fob.2015.01.004

Chen S¹, Zhang D²FEBS Open Bio. 2015 Jan 30; 5:91-8
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.fob.2015.01.004

ERp29 is proposed to be involved in the unfolded protein response (UPR) as a factor facilitating transport of synthesized secretory proteins from the ER to Golgi [83]. The expression of ERp29 was demonstrated to be increased in cells exposed to radiation [108], sperm cells undergoing maturation [42,107], and in certain cell types both under the pharmacologically induced UPR and under the physiological conditions (e.g., lactation, differentiation of thyroid cells) [66,82]. Under ER stress, ERp29 translocates the precursor protein p90ATF6 from the ER to Golgi where it is cleaved to be a mature and active form p50ATF by protease (S1P and S2P) [48]. In most cases, ERp29 interacts with BiP/GRP78 to exert its function under ER stress [65].

2. ERp29 regulates mesenchymal–epithelial transition

2.1. Epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) and MET

2.2. Molecular regulation of EMT/MET

2.3. ERp29 promotes MET in breast cancer

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4329646/bin/gr1.gif

2.4. ERp29 targets E-cadherin transcription repressors

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4329646/bin/gr2.gif

2.5. ERp29 antagonizes Wnt/ β-catenin signaling

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4329646/bin/gr3.gif

3. ERp29 regulates epithelial cell integrity

3.1. Cell adherens and tight junctions

3.2. Apical–basal cell polarity

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4329646/bin/gr4.gif

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Warburg Effect and Mitochondrial Regulation- 2.1.3

Posted in Academic Publishing, Amino acids, Anaerobic Glycolysis, Biochemical pathways, Biological Networks, Cancer and Current Therapeutics, CANCER BIOLOGY & Innovations in Cancer Therapy, Cell Biology, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Clinical Diagnostics, Curation, Cytoskeleton, Developmental biology, Disease Biology, Enzyme Induction, Enzymes and isoenzymes, Fatty acids, Gene Regulation, Genomic Expression, Hexokinase, Inosine nucleotides, Lipid metabolism, Lipids, Liver & Digestive Diseases Research, Loss of function gene, Metabolism, Metabolomics, Methods, mtDNA, Oxidative phosphorylation, Phosphorylation, Proteins, Proteomics, Pyridine nucleotides, Pyruvate Kinase, Signaling, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, Warburg effect, tagged ATP, cancer biology, cell respiration, fumarate, Glycolysis, IDH, inner mitochondrial membrane, mitochondria, mitochondrial complex I, succinate, Warburg Effect on April 1, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Warburg Effect and Mitochondrial Regulation -2.1.3

Writer and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

2.1.3 Warburg Effect and Mitochondrial Regulation

Warburg Effect and Mitochondrial Regulation- 2.1.3

Word Cloud by Daniel Menzin

2.1.3.1 Regulation of Substrate Utilization by the Mitochondrial Pyruvate Carrier

NM Vacanti, AS Divakaruni, CR Green, SJ Parker, RR Henry, TP Ciaraldi, et a..
Molec Cell 6 Nov 2014; 56(3):425–435
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molcel.2014.09.024

Highlights

Oxidation of fatty acids and amino acids is increased upon MPC inhibition
•Respiration, proliferation, and biosynthesis are maintained when MPC is inhibited
•Glutaminolytic flux supports lipogenesis in the absence of MPC
•MPC inhibition is distinct from hypoxia or complex I inhibition

Summary

Pyruvate lies at a central biochemical node connecting carbohydrate, amino acid, and fatty acid metabolism, and the regulation of pyruvate flux into mitochondria represents a critical step in intermediary metabolism impacting numerous diseases. To characterize changes in mitochondrial substrate utilization in the context of compromised mitochondrial pyruvate transport, we applied 13C metabolic flux analysis (MFA) to cells after transcriptional or pharmacological inhibition of the mitochondrial pyruvate carrier (MPC). Despite profound suppression of both glucose and pyruvate oxidation, cell growth, oxygen consumption, and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) metabolism were surprisingly maintained. Oxidative TCA flux was achieved through enhanced reliance on glutaminolysis through malic enzyme and pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) as well as fatty acid and branched-chain amino acid oxidation. Thus, in contrast to inhibition of complex I or PDH, suppression of pyruvate transport induces a form of metabolic flexibility associated with the use of lipids and amino acids as catabolic and anabolic fuels.

oxidation-of-fatty-acids-and-amino-acids

Graphical Abstract – Oxidation of fatty acids and amino acids is increased upon MPC inhibition

Figure 2. MPC Regulates Mitochondrial Substrate Utilization (A) Citrate mass isotopomer distribution (MID) resulting from culture with [U-13C6]glucose (UGlc). (B) Percentage of 13C-labeled metabolites from UGlc. (C) Percentage of fully labeled lactate, pyruvate, and alanine from UGlc. (D) Serine MID resulting from culture with UGlc. (E) Percentage of fully labeled metabolites derived from [U-13C5]glutamine (UGln). (F) Schematic of UGln labeling of carbon atoms in TCA cycle intermediates arising via glutaminoloysis and reductive carboxylation. Mitochondrion schematic inspired by Lewis et al. (2014). (G and H) Citrate (G) and alanine (H) MIDs resulting from culture with UGln. (I) Maximal oxygen consumption rates with or without 3 mM BPTES in medium supplemented with 1 mM pyruvate. (J) Percentage of newly synthesized palmitate as determined by ISA. (K) Contribution of UGln and UGlc to lipogenic AcCoA as determined by ISA. (L) Contribution of glutamine to lipogenic AcCoA via glutaminolysis (ISA using a [3-13C] glutamine [3Gln]) and reductive carboxylation (ISA using a [5-13C]glutamine [5Gln]) under normoxia and hypoxia. (M) Citrate MID resulting from culture with 3Gln. (N) Contribution of UGln and exogenous [3-13C] pyruvate (3Pyr) to lipogenic AcCoA. 2KD+Pyr refers to Mpc2KD cells cultured with 10 mM extracellular pyruvate. Error bars represent SD (A–E, G, H, and M), SEM(I), or 95% conﬁdence intervals(J–L, and N).*p<0.05,**p<0.01,and ***p<0.001 by ANOVA with Dunnett’s post hoc test (A–E and G–I) or * indicates signiﬁcance by non-overlapping 95% conﬁdence intervals (J–L and N).

Figure 3. Mpc Knockdown Increases Fatty Acid Oxidation. (A) Schematic of changes in ﬂux through metabolic pathways in Mpc2KD relative to control cells. (B) Citrate MID resulting from culture with [U-13C16] palmitate conjugated to BSA (UPalm). (C) Percentage of 13C enrichment resulting from culture with UPalm. (D) ATP-linked and maximal oxygen consumption rate, with or without 20m Metomoxir, with or without 3 mM BPTES. Culture medium supplemented with 0.5 mM carnitine. Error bars represent SD (B and C) or SEM (D). *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, and ***p < 0.001 by two-tailed, equal variance, Student’s t test(B–D), or by ANOVA with Dunnett’s post hoc test (D).

Figure 4. Metabolic Reprogramming Resulting from Pharmacological Mpc Inhibition Is Distinct from Hypoxia or Complex I Inhibition

2.1.3.2 Oxidation of Alpha-Ketoglutarate Is Required for Reductive Carboxylation in Cancer Cells with Mitochondrial Defects

AR Mullen, Z Hu, X Shi, L Jiang, …, WM Linehan, NS Chandel, RJ DeBerardinis
Cell Reports 12 Jun 2014; 7(5):1679–1690
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2014.04.037

Highlights

Cells with mitochondrial defects use bidirectional metabolism of the TCA cycle
•Glutamine supplies the succinate pool through oxidative and reductive metabolism
•Oxidative TCA cycle metabolism is required for reductive citrate formation
•Oxidative metabolism produces reducing equivalents for reductive carboxylation

Summary

Mammalian cells generate citrate by decarboxylating pyruvate in the mitochondria to supply the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. In contrast, hypoxia and other impairments of mitochondrial function induce an alternative pathway that produces citrate by reductively carboxylating α-ketoglutarate (AKG) via NADPH-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH). It is unknown how cells generate reducing equivalents necessary to supply reductive carboxylation in the setting of mitochondrial impairment. Here, we identified shared metabolic features in cells using reductive carboxylation. Paradoxically, reductive carboxylation was accompanied by concomitant AKG oxidation in the TCA cycle. Inhibiting AKG oxidation decreased reducing equivalent availability and suppressed reductive carboxylation. Interrupting transfer of reducing equivalents from NADH to NADPH by nicotinamide nucleotide transhydrogenase increased NADH abundance and decreased NADPH abundance while suppressing reductive carboxylation. The data demonstrate that reductive carboxylation requires bidirectional AKG metabolism along oxidative and reductive pathways, with the oxidative pathway producing reducing equivalents used to operate IDH in reverse.

Proliferating cells support their growth by converting abundant extracellular nutrients like glucose and glutamine into precursors for macromolecular biosynthesis. A continuous supply of metabolic intermediates from the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle is essential for cell growth, because many of these intermediates feed biosynthetic pathways to produce lipids, proteins and nucleic acids (Deberardinis et al., 2008). This underscores the dual roles of the TCA cycle for cell growth: it generates reducing equivalents for oxidative phosphorylation by the electron transport chain (ETC), while also serving as a hub for precursor production. During rapid growth, the TCA cycle is characterized by large influxes of carbon at positions other than acetyl-CoA, enabling the cycle to remain full even as intermediates are withdrawn for biosynthesis. Cultured cancer cells usually display persistence of TCA cycle activity despite robust aerobic glycolysis, and often require mitochondrial catabolism of glutamine to the TCA cycle intermediate AKG to maintain rapid rates of proliferation (Icard et al., 2012, Hiller and Metallo, 2013).

Some cancer cells contain severe, fixed defects in oxidative metabolism caused by mutations in the TCA cycle or the ETC. These include mutations in fumarate hydratase (FH) in renal cell carcinoma and components of the succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) complex in pheochromocytoma, paraganglioma, and gastrointestinal stromal tumors (Tomlinson et al., 2002, Astuti et al., 2001, Baysal et al., 2000, Killian et al., 2013, Niemann and Muller, 2000). All of these mutations alter oxidative metabolism of glutamine in the TCA cycle. Recently, analysis of cells containing mutations in FH, ETC Complexes I or III, or exposed to the ETC inhibitors metformin and rotenone or the ATP synthase inhibitor oligomycin revealed that turnover of TCA cycle intermediates was maintained in all cases (Mullen et al., 2012). However, the cycle operated in an unusual fashion characterized by conversion of glutamine-derived AKG to isocitrate through a reductive carboxylation reaction catalyzed by NADP⁺/NADPH-dependent isoforms of isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH). As a result, a large fraction of the citrate pool carried five glutamine-derived carbons. Citrate could be cleaved to produce acetyl-CoA to supply fatty acid biosynthesis, and oxaloacetate (OAA) to supply pools of other TCA cycle intermediates. Thus, reductive carboxylation enables biosynthesis by enabling cells with impaired mitochondrial metabolism to maintain pools of biosynthetic precursors that would normally be supplied by oxidative metabolism. Reductive carboxylation is also induced by hypoxia and by pseudo-hypoxic states caused by mutations in the von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) tumor suppressor gene (Metallo et al., 2012, Wise et al., 2011).

Interest in reductive carboxylation stems in part from the possibility that inhibiting the pathway might induce selective growth suppression in tumor cells subjected to hypoxia or containing mutations that prevent them from engaging in maximal oxidative metabolism. Hence, several recent studies have sought to understand the mechanisms by which this pathway operates. In vitro studies of IDH1 indicate that a high ratio of NADPH/NADP+ and low citrate concentration activate the reductive carboxylation reaction (Leonardi et al., 2012). This is supported by data demonstrating that reductive carboxylation in VHL-deficient renal carcinoma cells is associated with a low concentration of citrate and a reduced ratio of citrate:AKG, suggesting that mass action can be a driving force to determine IDH directionality (Gameiro et al., 2013b). Moreover, interrupting the supply of mitochondrial NADPH by silencing the nicotinamide nucleotide transhydrogenase (NNT) suppresses reductive carboxylation (Gameiro et al., 2013a). This mitochondrial transmembrane protein catalyzes the transfer of a hydride ion from NADH to NADP+ to generate NAD+ and NADPH. Together, these observations suggest that reductive carboxylation is modulated in part through the mitochondrial redox state and the balance of substrate/products.

Here we used metabolomics and stable isotope tracing to better understand overall metabolic states associated with reductive carboxylation in cells with defective mitochondrial metabolism, and to identify sources of mitochondrial reducing equivalents necessary to induce the reaction. We identified high levels of succinate in some cells using reductive carboxylation, and determined that most of this succinate was formed through persistent oxidative metabolism of AKG. Silencing this oxidative flux by depleting the mitochondrial enzyme AKG dehydrogenase substantially altered the cellular redox state and suppressed reductive carboxylation. The data demonstrate that bidirectional/branched AKG metabolism occurs during reductive carboxylation in cells with mitochondrial defects, with oxidative metabolism producing reducing equivalents to supply reductive metabolism.

Shared metabolomic features among cell lines with cytb or FH mutations

To identify conserved metabolic features associated with reductive carboxylation in cells harboring defective mitochondrial metabolism, we analyzed metabolite abundance in isogenic pairs of cell lines in which one member displayed substantial reductive carboxylation and the other did not. We used a pair of previously described cybrids derived from 143B osteosarcoma cells, in which one cell line contained wild-type mitochondrial DNA (143Bwt) and the other contained a mutation in the cytb gene (143Bcytb), severely reducing complex III function (Rana et al., 2000, Weinberg et al., 2010). The 143Bwt cells primarily use oxidative metabolism to supply the citrate pool while the 143Bcytb cells use reductive carboxylation (Mullen et al., 2012). The other pair, derived from FH-deficient UOK262 renal carcinoma cells, contained either an empty vector control (UOK262EV) or a stably re-expressed wild-type FH allele (UOK262FH). Metabolites were extracted from all four cell lines and analyzed by triple-quadrupole mass spectrometry. We first performed a quantitative analysis to determine the abundance of AKG and citrate in the four cell lines. Both 143Bcytb and UOK262EV cells had less citrate, more AKG, and lower citrate:AKG ratios than their oxidative partners (Fig. S1A-C), consistent with findings from VHL-deficient renal carcinoma cells (Gameiro et al., 2013b).

Next, to identify other perturbations, we profiled the relative abundance of more than 90 metabolites from glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway, one-carbon/nucleotide metabolism, the TCA cycle, amino acid degradation, and other pathways (Tables S1 and S2). Each metabolite was normalized to protein content, and relative abundance was determined between cell lines from each pair. Hierarchical clustering (Fig 1A) and principal component analysis (Fig 1B) revealed far greater metabolomic similarities between the members of each pair than between the two cell lines using reductive carboxylation. Only three metabolites displayed highly significant (p<0.005) differences in abundance between the two members of both pairs, and in all three cases the direction of the difference (i.e. higher or lower) was shared in the two cell lines using reductive carboxylation. Proline, a nonessential amino acid derived from glutamine in an NADPH-dependent biosynthetic pathway, was depleted in 143Bcytb and UOK262EV cells (Fig. 1C). 2-hydroxyglutarate (2HG), the reduced form of AKG, was elevated in 143Bcytb and UOK262EV cells (Fig. 1D), and further analysis revealed that while both the L- and D-enantiomers of this metabolite were increased, L-2HG was quantitatively the predominant enantiomer (Fig. S1D). It is likely that 2HG accumulation was related to the reduced redox ratio associated with cytb and FH mutations. Although the sources of 2HG are still under investigation, promiscuous activity of the TCA cycle enzyme malate dehydrogenase produces L-2HG in an NADH-dependent manner (Rzem et al., 2007). Both enantiomers are oxidized to AKG by dehydrogenases (L-2HG dehydrogenase and D-2HG dehydrogenase). It is therefore likely that elevated 2-HG is a consequence of a reduced NAD+/NADH ratio. Consistent with this model, inborn errors of the ETC result in 2-HG accumulation (Reinecke et al., 2011). Exposure to hypoxia (<1% O₂) has also been demonstrated to reduce the cellular NAD+/NADH ratio (Santidrian et al., 2013) and to favor modest 2HG accumulation in cultured cells (Wise et al., 2011), although these levels were below those noted in gliomas expressing 2HG-producing mutant alleles of isocitrate dehydrogenase-1 or -2 (Dang et al., 2009).

Figure 1 Metabolomic features of cells using reductive carboxylation

Finally, the TCA cycle intermediate succinate was markedly elevated in both cell lines (Fig. 1E). We tested additional factors previously reported to stimulate reductive AKG metabolism, including a genetic defect in ETC Complex I, exposure to hypoxia, and chemical inhibitors of the ETC (Mullen et al., 2012, Wise et al., 2011, Metallo et al., 2012). These factors had a variable effect on succinate, with impairments of Complex III or IV strongly inducing succinate accumulation, while impairments of Complex I either had little effect or suppressed succinate (Fig. 1F).

Oxidative glutamine metabolism is the primary route of succinate formation

UOK262EV cells lack FH activity and accumulate large amounts of fumarate (Frezza et al., 2011); elevated succinate was therefore not surprising in these cells, because succinate precedes fumarate by one reaction in the TCA cycle. On the other hand, TCA cycle perturbation in 143Bcytb cells results from primary ETC dysfunction, and reductive carboxylation is postulated to be a consequence of accumulated AKG (Anastasiou and Cantley, 2012, Fendt et al., 2013). Accumulation of AKG is not predicted to result in elevated succinate. We previously reported that 143Bcytb cells produce succinate through simultaneous oxidative and reductive glutamine metabolism (Mullen et al., 2012). To determine the relative contributions of these two pathways, we cultured 143Bwt and 143Bcytb with [U-¹³C]glutamine and monitored time-dependent ¹³C incorporation in succinate and other TCA cycle intermediates. Oxidative metabolism of glutamine generates succinate, fumarate and malate containing four glutamine-derived ¹³C nuclei on the first turn of the cycle (m+4), while reductive metabolism results in the incorporation of three ¹³C nuclei in these intermediates (Fig. S2). As expected, oxidative glutamine metabolism was the predominant source of succinate, fumarate and malate in 143Bwt cells (Fig. 2A-C). In 143Bcytb, fumarate and malate were produced primarily through reductive metabolism (Fig. 2E-F). Conversely, succinate was formed primarily through oxidative glutamine metabolism, with a minor contribution from the reductive carboxylation pathway (Fig. 2D). Notably, this oxidatively-derived succinate was detected prior to that formed through reductive carboxylation. This indicated that 143Bcytb cells retain the ability to oxidize AKG despite the observation that most of the citrate pool bears the labeling pattern of reductive carboxylation. Together, the labeling data in 143Bcytb cells revealed bidirectional metabolism of carbon from glutamine to produce various TCA cycle intermediates.

Figure 2 Oxidative glutamine metabolism is the primary route of succinate formation in cells using reductive carboxylation to generate citrate

Pyruvate carboxylation contributes to the TCA cycle in cells using reductive carboxylation

Because of the persistence of oxidative metabolism, we determined the extent to which other routes of metabolism besides reductive carboxylation contributed to the TCA cycle. We previously reported that silencing the glutamine-catabolizing enzyme glutaminase (GLS) depletes pools of fumarate, malate and OAA, eliciting a compensatory increase in pyruvate carboxylase (PC) to supply the TCA cycle (Cheng et al., 2011). In cells with defective oxidative phophorylation, production of OAA by PC may be preferable to glutamine oxidation because it diminishes the need to recycle reduced electron carriers generated by the TCA cycle. Citrate synthase (CS) can then condense PC-derived OAA with acetyl-CoA to form citrate. To examine the contribution of PC to the TCA cycle, cells were cultured with [3,4-¹³C]glucose. In this labeling scheme, glucose-derived pyruvate is labeled in carbon 1 (Fig. S3). This label is retained in OAA if pyruvate is carboxylated, but removed as CO₂ during conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA by pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH).

Figure 3 Pyruvate carboxylase contributes to citrate formation in cells using reductive carboxylation

Oxidative metabolism of AKG is required for reductive carboxylation

Oxidative synthesis of succinate from AKG requires two reactions: the oxidative decarboxylation of AKG to succinyl-CoA by AKG dehydrogenase, and the conversion of succinyl-CoA to succinate by succinyl-CoA synthetase. In tumors with mutations in the succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) complex, large accumulations of succinate are associated with epigenetic modifications of DNA and histones to promote malignancy (Kaelin and McKnight, 2013, Killian et al., 2013). We therefore tested whether succinate accumulation per se was required to induce reductive carboxylation in 143Bcytb cells. We used RNA interference directed against the gene encoding the alpha subunit (SUCLG1) of succinyl-CoA synthetase, the last step in the pathway of oxidative succinate formation from glutamine (Fig. 4A). Silencing this enzyme greatly reduced succinate levels (Fig. 4B), but had no effect on the labeling pattern of citrate from [U-¹³C]glutamine (Fig. 4C). Thus, succinate accumulation is not required for reductive carboxylation.

Figure 5 AKG dehydrogenase is required for reductive carboxylation

Figure 6 AKG dehydrogenase and NNT contribute to NAD+/NADH ratio

Finally, we tested whether these enzymes also controlled the NADP+/NADPH ratio in 143Bcytb cells. Silencing either OGDH or NNT increased the NADP+/NADPH ratio (Fig. 6F,G), whereas silencing IDH2reduced it (Fig. 6H). Together, these data are consistent with a model in which persistent metabolism of AKG by AKG dehydrogenase produces NADH that supports reductive carboxylation by serving as substrate for NNT-dependent NADPH formation, and that IDH2 is a major consumer of NADPH during reductive carboxylation (Fig. 6I).

Reductive carboxylation of AKG initiates a non-conventional form of metabolism that produces TCA cycle intermediates when oxidative metabolism is impaired by mutations, drugs or hypoxia. Because NADPH-dependent isoforms of IDH are reversible, supplying supra-physiological pools of substrates on either side of the reaction drives function of the enzyme as a reductive carboxylase or an oxidative decarboxylase. Thus, in some circumstances reductive carboxylation may operate in response to a mass effect imposed by drastic changes in the abundance of AKG and isocitrate/citrate. However, reductive carboxylation cannot occur without a source of reducing equivalents to produce NADPH. The current work demonstrates that AKG dehydrogenase, an NADH-generating enzyme complex, is required to maintain a low NAD+/NADH ratio for reductive carboxylation of AKG. Thus, reductive carboxylation not only coexists with oxidative metabolism of AKG, but depends on it. Furthermore, silencing NNT, a consumer of NADH, also perturbs the redox ratio and suppresses reductive formation of citrate. These observations suggest that the segment of the oxidative TCA cycle culminating in succinate is necessary to transmit reducing equivalents to NNT for the reductive pathway (Fig 6I).

Succinate accumulation was observed in cells with cytb or FH mutations. However, this accumulation was dispensable for reductive carboxylation, because silencing SUCLG1 expression had no bearing on the pathway as long as AKG dehydrogenase was active. Furthermore, succinate accumulation was not a universal finding of cells using reductive carboxylation. Rather, high succinate levels were observed in cells with distal defects in the ETC (complex III: antimycin, cytb mutation; complex IV: hypoxia) but not defects in complex I (rotenone, metformin, NDUFA1 mutation). These differences reflect the known suppression of SDH activity when downstream components of the ETC are impaired, and the various mechanisms by which succinate may be formed through either oxidative or reductive metabolism. Succinate has long been known as an evolutionarily conserved anaerobic end product of amino acid metabolism during prolonged hypoxia, including in diving mammals (Hochachka and Storey, 1975, Hochachka et al., 1975). The terminal step in this pathway is the conversion of fumarate to succinate using the NADH-dependent “fumarate reductase” system, essentially a reversal of succinate dehydrogenase/ETC complex II (Weinberg et al., 2000, Tomitsuka et al., 2010). However, this process requires reducing equivalents to be passed from NADH to complex I, then to Coenzyme Q, and eventually to complex II to drive the reduction of fumarate to succinate. Hence, producing succinate through reductive glutamine metabolism would require functional complex I. Interestingly, the fumarate reductase system has generally been considered as a mechanism to maintain a proton gradient under conditions of defective ETC activity. Our data suggest that the system is part of a more extensive reorganization of the TCA cycle that also enables reductive citrate formation.

In summary, we demonstrated that branched AKG metabolism is required to sustain levels of reductive carboxylation observed in cells with mitochondrial defects. The organization of this branched pathway suggests that it serves as a relay system to maintain the redox requirements for reductive carboxylation, with the oxidative arm producing reducing equivalents at the level of AKG dehydrogenase and NNT linking this activity to the production of NADPH to be used in the reductive carboxylation reaction. Hence, impairment of the oxidative arm prevents maximal engagement of reductive carboxylation. As both NNT and AKG dehydrogenase are mitochondrial enzymes, the work emphasizes the flexibility of metabolic systems in the mitochondria to fulfill requirements for redox balance and precursor production even when the canonical oxidative function of the mitochondria is impaired.

2.1.3.3 Rewiring Mitochondrial Pyruvate Metabolism. Switching Off the Light in Cancer Cells

Peter W. Szlosarek, Suk Jun Lee, Patrick J. Pollard
Molec Cell 6 Nov 2014; 56(3): 343–344
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molcel.2014.10.018

Figure 1. MPC Expression and Metabolic Targeting of Mitochondrial Pyruvate High MPC expression (green) is associated with more favorable tumor prognosis, increased pyruvate oxidation, and reduced lactate and ROS, whereas low expression or mutated MPC is linked to poor tumor prognosis and increased anaplerotic generation of OAA. Dual targeting of MPC and GDH with small molecule inhibitors may ameliorate tumorigenesis in certain cancer types.

The study by Yang et al., (2014) provides evidence for the metabolic ﬂexibility to maintain TCA cycle function. Using isotopic labeling, the authors demonstrated that inhibition of MPCs by a speciﬁc compound (UK5099) induced glutamine-dependent acetyl-CoA formation via glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH). Consequently, and in contrast to single agent treatment, simultaneous administration of MPC and GDH inhibitors drastically abrogated the growth of cancer cells (Figure 1). These studies have also enabled a fresh perspective on metabolism in the clinic and emphasized a need for high-quality translational studies to assess the role of mitochondrial pyruvate transport in vivo. Thus, integrating the biomarker of low MPC expression with dual inhibition of

MPC and GDH as a synthetic lethal strategy (Yang et al., 2014) is testable and may offer a novel therapeutic window for patients (DeBerardinis and Thompson, 2012). Indeed, combinatorial targeting of cancer metabolism may prevent early drug resistance and lead to enhanced tumor control, as shown recently for antifolate agents combined with arginine deprivation with modulation of intracellular glutamine (Szlosarek, 2014). Moreover, it will be important to assess both intertumoral and intratumoral metabolic heterogeneity going forward, as tumor cells are highly adaptable with respect to the precursors used to fuel the TCA cycle in the presence of reduced pyruvate transport. The observation by Vacanti et al. (2014) that the ﬂux of BCAAs increased following inhibition of MPC activity may also underlie the increase in BCAAs detected in the plasma of patients several years before a clinical diagnosis of pancreatic cancer (Mayers et al., 2014). Since measuring pyruvate transport via the MPC is technically challenging, the use of 18-FDG positron emission tomography and more recently magnetic spectroscopy with hyperpolarized 13C-labeled pyruvate will need to be incorporated into these future studies (Brindle et al., 2011).

References

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Brindle, K.M., Bohndiek, S.E., Gallagher, F.A., and Kettunen, M.I. (2011). Magn. Reson. Med. 66, 505–519.

DeBerardinis, R.J., and Thompson, C.B. (2012). Cell 148, 1132–1144.

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2.1.3.4 Betaine is a positive regulator of mitochondrial respiration

Lee I
Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2015 Jan 9; 456(2):621-5.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.12.005

Highlights

Betaine enhances cytochrome c oxidase activity and mitochondrial respiration.
• Betaine increases mitochondrial membrane potential and cellular energy levels.
• Betaine’s anti-tumorigenic effect might be due to a reversal of the Warburg effect.

Betaine protects cells from environmental stress and serves as a methyl donor in several biochemical pathways. It reduces cardiovascular disease risk and protects liver cells from alcoholic liver damage and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Its pretreatment can rescue cells exposed to toxins such as rotenone, chloroform, and LiCl. Furthermore, it has been suggested that betaine can suppress cancer cell growth in vivo and in vitro. Mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) complexes generate the mitochondrial membrane potential, which is essential to produce cellular energy, ATP. Reduced mitochondrial respiration and energy status have been found in many human pathological conditions including aging, cancer, and neurodegenerative disease. In this study we investigated whether betaine directly targets mitochondria. We show that betaine treatment leads to an upregulation of mitochondrial respiration and cytochrome c oxidase activity in H2.35 cells, the proposed rate limiting enzyme of ETC in vivo. Following treatment, the mitochondrial membrane potential was increased and cellular energy levels were elevated. We propose that the anti-proliferative effects of betaine on cancer cells might be due to enhanced mitochondrial function contributing to a reversal of the Warburg effect.

2.1.3.5 Mitochondrial dysfunction in human non-small-cell lung cancer cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis by reactive oxygen species and Bcl-XL/p53-mediated amplification mechanisms

Y-L Shi, S Feng, W Chen, Z-C Hua, J-J Bian and W Yin
Cell Death and Disease (2014) 5, e1579
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/cddis.2014.547

Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is a promising agent for anticancer therapy; however, non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) cells are relatively TRAIL resistant. Identification of small molecules that can restore NSCLC susceptibility to TRAIL-induced apoptosis is meaningful. We found here that rotenone, as a mitochondrial respiration inhibitor, preferentially increased NSCLC cells sensitivity to TRAIL-mediated apoptosis at subtoxic concentrations, the mechanisms by which were accounted by the upregulation of death receptors and the downregulation of c-FLIP (cellular FLICE-like inhibitory protein). Further analysis revealed that death receptors expression by rotenone was regulated by p53, whereas c-FLIP downregulation was blocked by Bcl-XL overexpression. Rotenone triggered the mitochondria-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, which subsequently led to Bcl-XL downregulation and PUMA upregulation. As PUMA expression was regulated by p53, the PUMA, Bcl-XL and p53 in rotenone-treated cells form a positive feedback amplification loop to increase the apoptosis sensitivity. Mitochondria-derived ROS, however, promote the formation of this amplification loop. Collectively, we concluded that ROS generation, Bcl-XL and p53-mediated amplification mechanisms had an important role in the sensitization of NSCLC cells to TRAIL-mediated apoptosis by rotenone. The combined TRAIL and rotenone treatment may be appreciated as a useful approach for the therapy of NSCLC that warrants further investigation.

Abbreviations: c-FLIP, cellular FLICE-like inhibitory protein; DHE, dihydroethidium; DISC, death-inducing signaling complex; DPI, diphenylene iodonium; DR4/DR5, death receptor 4/5; EB, ethidium bromide; FADD, Fas-associated protein with death domain; MnSOD, manganese superoxide; NAC, N-acetylcysteine; NSCLC, non-small-cell lung carcinoma; PBMC, peripheral blood mononuclear cells; ROS, reactive oxygen species; TRAIL, tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand; UPR, unfolded protein response.

Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) has emerged as a promising cancer therapeutic because it can selectively induce apoptosis in tumor cells in vitro, and most importantly, in vivo with little adverse effect on normal cells.¹ However, a number of cancer cells are resistant to TRAIL, especially highly malignant tumors such as lung cancer.²^,³ Lung cancer, especially the non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) constitutes a heavy threat to human life. Presently, the morbidity and mortality of NSCLC has markedly increased in the past decade,⁴ which highlights the need for more effective treatment strategies.

TRAIL has been shown to interact with five receptors, including the death receptors 4 and 5 (DR4 and DR5), the decoy receptors DcR1 and DcR2, and osteoprotegerin.⁵ Ligation of TRAIL to DR4 or DR5 allows for the recruitment of Fas-associated protein with death domain (FADD), which leads to the formation of death-inducing signaling complex (DISC) and the subsequent activation of caspase-8/10.⁶ The effector caspase-3 is activated by caspase-8, which cleaves numerous regulatory and structural proteins resulting in cell apoptosis. Caspase-8 can also cleave the Bcl-2 inhibitory BH3-domain protein (Bid), which engages the intrinsic apoptotic pathway by binding to Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) and Bcl-2 homologous antagonist killer (BAK). The oligomerization between Bcl-2 and Bax promotes the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria to cytosol, and facilitates the formation of apoptosome and caspase-9 activation.⁷ Like caspase-8, caspase-9 can also activate caspase-3 and initiate cell apoptosis. Besides apoptosis-inducing molecules, several apoptosis-inhibitory proteins also exist and have function even when apoptosis program is initiated. For example, cellular FLICE-like inhibitory protein (c-FLIP) is able to suppress DISC formation and apoptosis induction by sequestering FADD.⁸^,⁹^,¹⁰^,¹¹

Until now, the recognized causes of TRAIL resistance include differential expression of death receptors, constitutively active AKT and NF-κB,¹²^,¹³overexpression of c-FLIP and IAPs, mutations in Bax and BAK gene.² Hence, resistance can be overcome by the use of sensitizing agents that modify the deregulated death receptor expression and/or apoptosis signaling pathways in cancer cells.⁵ Many sensitizing agents have been developed in a variety of tumor cell models.² Although the clinical effectiveness of these agents needs further investigation, treatment of TRAIL-resistant tumor cells with sensitizing agents, especially the compounds with low molecular weight, as well as prolonged plasma half-life represents a promising trend for cancer therapy.

Mitochondria emerge as intriguing targets for cancer therapy. Metabolic changes affecting mitochondria function inside cancer cells endow these cells with distinctive properties and survival advantage worthy of drug targeting, mitochondria-targeting drugs offer substantial promise as clinical treatment with minimal side effects.¹⁴^,¹⁵^,¹⁶ Rotenone is a potent inhibitor of NADH oxidoreductase in complex I, which demonstrates anti-neoplastic activity on a variety of cancer cells.¹⁷^,¹⁸^,¹⁹^,²⁰^,²¹ However, the neurotoxicity of rotenone limits its potential application in cancer therapy. To avoid it, rotenone was effectively used in combination with other chemotherapeutic drugs to kill cancerous cells.²²

In our previous investigation, we found that rotenone was able to suppress membrane Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity and enhance ouabain-induced cancer cell death.²³ Given these facts, we wonder whether rotenone may also be used as a sensitizing agent that can restore the susceptibility of NSCLC cells toward TRAIL-induced apoptosis, and increase the antitumor efficacy of TRAIL on NSCLC. To test this hypothesis, we initiated this study.

Rotenone sensitizes NSCLC cell lines to TRAIL-induced apoptosis

Four NSCLC cell lines including A549, H522, H157 and Calu-1 were used in this study. As shown in Figure 1a, the apoptosis induced by TRAIL alone at 50 or 100 ng/ml on A549, H522, H157 and Calu-1 cells was non-prevalent, indicating that these NSCLC cell lines are relatively TRAIL resistant. Interestingly, when these cells were treated with TRAIL combined with rotenone, significant increase in cell apoptosis was observed. To examine whether rotenone was also able to sensitize normal cells to TRAIL-mediated apoptosis, peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) isolated from human blood were used. As a result, rotenone failed to sensitize human PBMC to TRAIL-induced apoptosis, indicating that the sensitizing effect of rotenone is tumor cell specific. Of note, the apoptosis-enhancing effect of rotenone occurred independent of its cytotoxicity, because the minimal dosage required for rotenone to cause toxic effect on NSCLC cell lines was 10 μM, however, rotenone augmented TRAIL-mediated apoptosis when it was used as little as 10 nM.

Figure 1.

Full figure and legend (310K)

http://www.nature.com/cddis/journal/v5/n12/fig_tab/cddis2014547f1.html#figure-title
To further confirm the effect of rotenone, cells were stained with Hoechst and observed under fluorescent microscope (Figure 1b). Consistently, the combined treatment of rotenone with TRAIL caused significant nuclear fragmentation in A549, H522, H157 and Calu-1 cells. Rotenone or TRAIL treatment alone, however, had no significant effect.

Caspases activation is a hallmark of cell apoptosis. In this study, the enzymatic activities of caspases including caspase-3, -8 and -9 were measured by flow cytometry by using FITC-conjugated caspases substrate (Figure 1c). As a result, rotenone used at 1 μM or TRAIL used at 100 ng/ml alone did not cause caspase-3, -8 and -9 activation. The combined treatment, however, significantly increased the enzymatic activities of them. Moreover, A549 or H522 cell apoptosis by TRAIL combined with rotenone was almost completely suppressed in the presence of z-VAD.fmk, a pan-caspase inhibitor (Figure 1d). All of these data indicate that both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways are involved in the sensitizing effect of rotenone on TRAIL-mediated apoptosis in NSCLC.

Upregulation of death receptors expression is required for rotenone-mediated sensitization to TRAIL-induced apoptosis

Sensitization to TRAIL-induced apoptosis has been explained in some studies by upregulation of death receptors,²⁴ whereas other results show that sensitization can occur without increased TRAIL receptor expression.²⁵ As such, we examined TRAIL receptors expression on NSCLC cells after treatment with rotenone. Rotenone increased DR4 and DR5 mRNA levels in A549 cells in a time or concentration-dependent manner (Figures 2a and b), also increased DR4 and DR5 protein expression levels (Supplementary Figure S1). Notably, rotenone failed to increase DR5 mRNA levels in H157 and Calu-1 cells (Supplementary Figure S2). To observe whether the increased DR4 and DR5 mRNA levels finally correlated with the functional molecules, we examined the surface expression levels of DR4 and DR5 by flow cytometry. The results, as shown in Figure 2c demonstrated that the cell surface expression levels of DR4 and DR5 were greatly upregulated by rotenone in either A549 cells or H522 cells.

Figure 2.

Full figure and legend (173K)

http://www.nature.com/cddis/journal/v5/n12/fig_tab/cddis2014547f2.html#figure-title

To analyze whether the upregulation of DR4 and DR5 is a ‘side-effect’, or contrarily, necessary for rotenone-mediated sensitization to TRAIL-induced apoptosis, we blocked upregulation of the death receptors by small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) against DR4 and DR5 (Supplementary Figure S3). The results showed that blocking DR4 and DR5 expression alone significantly reduced the rate of cell apoptosis in A549 cells (Figure 2d). However, the highest inhibition of apoptosis was observed when upregulation of both receptors was blocked in parallel, thus showing an additive effect of blocking DR4 and DR5 at the same time. Similar results were also obtained in H522 cells

Rotenone-induced p53 activation regulates death receptors upregulation

TRAIL receptors DR4 and DR5 are regulated at multiple levels. At transcriptional level, studies suggest that several transcriptional factors including NF-κB, p53 and AP-1 are involved in DR4 or DR5 gene transcription.² The NF-κB or AP-1 transcriptional activity was further modulated by ERK1/2, JNK and p38 MAP kinase activity. Unexpectedly, we found here that none of these MAP kinases inhibitors were able to suppress the apoptosis mediated by TRAIL plus rotenone (Figure 3a). To find out other possible mechanisms, we observed that rotenone was able to stimulate p53 phosphorylation as well as p53 protein expression in A549 and H522 cells (Figure 3b). As a p53-inducible gene, p21 mRNA expression was also upregulated by rotenone treatment in a time-dependent manner (Figure 3c). To characterize the effect of p53, A549 cells were transfected with p53 siRNA. The results, as shown in Figure 3d-1 demonstrated that rotenone-mediated surface expression levels of DR4 and DR5 in A549 cells were largely attenuated by siRNA-mediated p53 expression silencing. Control siRNA, however, failed to reveal such effect. Similar results were also obtained in H522 cells (Figure 3d-2). Silencing of p53 expression in A549 cells also partially suppressed the apoptosis induced by TRAIL plus rotenone (Figure 3e).

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Rotenone suppresses c-FLIP expression and increases the sensitivity of A549 cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis

The c-FLIP protein has been commonly appreciated as an anti-apoptotic molecule in death receptor-mediated cell apoptosis. In this study, rotenone treatment led to dose-dependent downregulation of c-FLIP expression, including c-FLIP_L and c-FLIP_s in A549 cells (Figure 4a-1), H522 cells (Figure 4a-2), H441 and Calu-1 cells (Supplementary Figure S4). To test whether c-FLIP is essential for the apoptosis enhancement, A549 cells were transfected with c-FLIP_L-overexpressing plasmids. As shown in Figure 4b-1, the apoptosis of A549 cells after the combined treatment was significantly reduced when c-FLIP_L was overexpressed. Similar results were also obtained in H522 cells (Figure 4b-2).

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Bcl-X_L is involved in the apoptosis enhancement by rotenone

Notably, c-FLIP downregulation by rotenone in NSCLC cells was irrelevant to p53 signaling (data not shown). To identify other mechanism involved, we found that anti-apoptotic molecule Bcl-X_L was also found to be downregulated by rotenone in a dose-dependent manner (Figure 5a). Notably, both Bcl-X_L and c-FLIP_L mRNA levels remained unchanged in cells after rotenone treatment (Supplementary Figure S5). Bcl-2 is homolog to Bcl-X_L. But surprisingly, Bcl-2 expression was almost undetectable in A549 cells. To examine whether Bcl-X_L is involved, A549 cells were transfected with Bcl-X_L-overexpressing plasmid. As compared with mock transfectant, cell apoptosis induced by TRAIL plus rotenone was markedly suppressed under the condition of Bcl-X_L overexpression (Figure 5b). To characterize the mechanisms, surface expression levels of DR4 and DR5 were examined. As shown in Figure 5c, the increased surface expression of DR4 and DR5 in A549 cells, or in H522 cells were greatly reduced after Bcl-X_Loverexpression (Figure 5c). In addition, Bcl-X_L overexpression also significantly prevented the downregulation of c-FLIP_L and c-FLIP_s expression in A549 cells by rotenone treatment (Figure 5d).

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Rotenone suppresses the interaction between BCL-X_L/p53 and increases PUMA transcription

Lines of evidence suggest that Bcl-X_L has a strong binding affinity with p53, and can suppress p53-mediated tumor cell apoptosis.²⁶ In this study, FLAG-tagged Bcl-X_L and HA-tagged p53 were co-transfected into cells; immunoprecipitation experiment was performed by using FLAG antibody to immunoprecipitate HA-tagged p53. As a result, we found that at the same amount of p53 protein input, rotenone treatment caused a concentration-dependent suppression of the protein interaction between Bcl-X_L and p53 (Figure 6a). Rotenone also significantly suppressed the interaction between endogenous Bcl-X_L and p53 when polyclonal antibody against p53 was used to immunoprecipitate cellular Bcl-X_L (Figure 6b). Recent study highlighted the importance of PUMA in BCL-X_L/p53 interaction and cell apoptosis.²⁷ We found here that rotenone significantly increased PUMA gene transcription (Figure 6c) and protein expression (Figure 6d) in NSCLC cells, but not in transformed 293T cell. Meanwhile, this effect was attenuated by silencing of p53 expression (Figure 6e).

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Mitochondria-derived ROS are responsible for the apoptosis-enhancing effect of rotenone

As an inhibitor of mitochondrial respiration, rotenone was found to induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in a variety of transformed or non-transformed cells.²⁰^,²² Consistently, by using 2′,7′-dichlorofluorescin diacetate (DCFH) for the measurement of intracellular H₂O₂ and dihydroethidium (DHE) for O₂^.−, we found that rotenone significantly triggered the .generation of H₂O₂(Figure 7a) and O₂^.− (Figure 7b) in A549 and H522 cells. To identify the origin of ROS production, we first incubated cells with diphenylene iodonium (DPI), a potent inhibitor of plasma membrane NADP/NADPH oxidase. The results showed that DPI failed to suppress rotenone-induced ROS generation (Figure 7c). Then, we generated A549 cells deficient in mitochondria DNA by culturing cells in medium supplemented with ethidium bromide (EB). These mtDNA-deficient cells were subject to rotenone treatment, and the result showed that rotenone-induced ROS production were largely attenuated in A549 ρ° cells, but not wild-type A549 cells, suggesting ROS are mainly produced from mitochondria (Figure 7d). Notably, the sensitizing effect of rotenone on TRAIL-induced apoptosis in A549 cells was largely dependent on ROS, because the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) treatment greatly suppressed the cell apoptosis, as shown in annexin V/PI double staining experiment (Figure 7e), cell cycle analysis (Figure 7f) and caspase-3 cleavage activity assay (Figure 7g). Finally, in A549 cells stably transfected with manganese superoxide (MnSOD) and catalase, apoptosis induced by TRAIL and rotenone was partially reversed (Figure 7h). All of these data suggest that mitochondria-derived ROS, including H₂O₂ and O₂^.−, are responsible for the apoptosis-enhancing effect of rotenone.

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Rotenone promotes BCl-X_L degradation and PUMA transcription in ROS-dependent manner

To understand why ROS are responsible for the apoptosis-enhancing effect of rotenone, we found that rotenone-induced suppression of BCL-X_L expression can be largely reversed by NAC treatment (Figure 8a). To examine whether this effect of rotenone occurs at posttranslational level, we used cycloheximide (CHX) to halt protein synthesis, and found that the rapid degradation of Bcl-X_L by rotenone was largely attenuated in A549 ρ0 cells (Figure 8b). Similarly, rotenone-induced PUMA upregulation was also significantly abrogated in A549 ρ0 cells (Figure 8c). Finally, A549 cells were inoculated into nude mice to produce xenografts tumor model. In this model, the therapeutic effect of TRAIL combined with rotenone was evaluated. Notably, in order to circumvent the potential neurotoxic adverse effect of rotenone, mice were challenged with rotenone at a low concentration of 0.5 mg/kg. The results, as shown in Figure 8d revealed that while TRAIL or rotenone alone remained unaffected on A549 tumor growth, the combined therapy significantly slowed down the tumor growth. Interestingly, the tumor-suppressive effect of TRAIL plus rotenone was significantly attenuated by NAC (P<0.01). After experiment, tumors were removed and the caspase-3 activity in tumor cells was analyzed by flow cytometry. Consistently, the caspase-3 cleavage activities were significantly activated in A549 cells from animals challenged with TRAIL plus rotenone, meanwhile, this effect was attenuated by NAC (Figure 8e). The similar effect of rotenone also occurred in NCI-H441 xenografts tumor model (Supplementary Figure S6).

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Restoration of cancer cells susceptibility to TRAIL-induced apoptosis is becoming a very useful strategy for cancer therapy. In this study, we provided evidence that rotenone increased the apoptosis sensitivity of NSCLC cells toward TRAIL by mechanisms involving ROS generation, p53 upregulation, Bcl-XL and c-FLIP downregulation, and death receptors upregulation. Among them, mitochondria-derived ROS had a predominant role. Although rotenone is toxic to neuron, increasing evidence also demonstrated that it was beneficial for improving inflammation, reducing reperfusion injury, decreasing virus infection or triggering cancer cell death. We identified here another important characteristic of rotenone as a tumor sensitizer in TRAIL-based cancer therapy, which widens the application potential of rotenone in disease therapy.

As Warburg proposed the cancer ‘respiration injury’ theory, increasing evidence suggest that cancer cells may have mitochondrial dysfunction, which causes cancer cells, compared with the normal cells, are under increased generation of ROS.33 The increased ROS in cancer cells have a variety of biological effects. We found here that rotenone preferentially increased the apoptosis sensitivity of cancer cells toward TRAIL, further confirming the concept that although tumor cells have a high level of intracellular ROS, they are more sensitive than normal cells to agents that can cause further accumulation of ROS.

Cancer cells stay in a stressful tumor microenvironment including hypoxia, low nutrient availability and immune infiltrates. These conditions, however, activate a range of stress response pathways to promote tumor survival and aggressiveness. In order to circumvent TRAIL-mediated apoptotic clearance, the expression levels of DR4 and DR5 in many types of cancer cells are nullified, but interestingly, they can be reactivated when cancer cells are challenged with small chemical molecules. Furthermore, those small molecules often take advantage of the stress signaling required for cancer cells survival to increase cancer cells sensitivity toward TRAIL. For example, the unfolded protein response (UPR) has an important role in cancer cells survival, SHetA2, as a small molecule, can induce UPR in NSCLC cell lines and augment TRAIL-induced apoptosis by upregulating DR5 expression in CHOP-dependent manner. Here, we found rotenone manipulated the oxidative stress signaling of NSCLC cells to increase their susceptibility to TRAIL. These facts suggest that cellular stress signaling not only offers opportunity for cancer cells to survive, but also renders cancer cells eligible for attack by small molecules. A possible explanation is that depending on the intensity of stress, cellular stress signaling can switch its role from prosurvival to death enhancement. As described in this study, although ROS generation in cancer cells is beneficial for survival, rotenone treatment further increased ROS production to a high level that surpasses the cell ability to eliminate them; as a result, ROS convert its role from survival to death.

2.1.3.6 PPARs and ERRs. molecular mediators of mitochondrial metabolism

Weiwei Fan, Ronald Evans
Current Opinion in Cell Biology Apr 2015; 33:49–54
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ceb.2014.11.002

Since the revitalization of ‘the Warburg effect’, there has been great interest in mitochondrial oxidative metabolism, not only from the cancer perspective but also from the general biomedical science field. As the center of oxidative metabolism, mitochondria and their metabolic activity are tightly controlled to meet cellular energy requirements under different physiological conditions. One such mechanism is through the inducible transcriptional co-regulators PGC1α and NCOR1, which respond to various internal or external stimuli to modulate mitochondrial function. However, the activity of such co-regulators depends on their interaction with transcriptional factors that directly bind to and control downstream target genes. The nuclear receptors PPARs and ERRs have been shown to be key transcriptional factors in regulating mitochondrial oxidative metabolism and executing the inducible effects of PGC1α and NCOR1. In this review, we summarize recent gain-of-function and loss-of-function studies of PPARs and ERRs in metabolic tissues and discuss their unique roles in regulating different aspects of mitochondrial oxidative metabolism.

Energy is vital to all living organisms. In humans and other mammals, the vast majority of energy is produced by oxidative metabolism in mitochondria [1]. As a cellular organelle, mitochondria are under tight control of the nucleus. Although the majority of mitochondrial proteins are encoded by nuclear DNA (nDNA) and their expression regulated by the nucleus, mitochondria retain their own genome, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), encoding 13 polypeptides of the electron transport chain (ETC) in mammals. However, all proteins required for mtDNA replication, transcription, and translation, as well as factors regulating such activities, are encoded by the nucleus [2].

The cellular demand for energy varies in different cells under different physiological conditions. Accordingly, the quantity and activity of mitochondria are differentially controlled by a transcriptional regulatory network in both the basal and induced states. A number of components of this network have been identified, including members of the nuclear receptor superfamily, the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) and the estrogen-related receptors (ERRs) [3, 4 and 5].

The Yin-Yang co-regulators

A well-known inducer of mitochondrial oxidative metabolism is the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α (PGC1α) [6], a nuclear cofactor which is abundantly expressed in high energy demand tissues such as heart, skeletal muscle, and brown adipose tissue (BAT) [7]. Induction by cold-exposure, fasting, and exercise allows PGC1α to regulate mitochondrial oxidative metabolism by activating genes involved in the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle), beta-oxidation, oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), as well as mitochondrial biogenesis [6 and 8] (Figure 1).

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Figure 1. PPARs and ERRs are major executors of PGC1α-induced regulation of oxidative metabolism. Physiological stress such as exercise induces both the expression and activity of PGC1α, which stimulates energy production by activating downstream genes involved in fatty acid and glucose metabolism, TCA cycle, β-oxidation, OXPHOS, and mitochondrial biogenesis. The transcriptional activity of PGC1α relies on its interactions with transcriptional factors such as PPARs (for controlling fatty acid metabolism) and ERRs (for regulating mitochondrial OXPHOS).

The effect of PGC1α on mitochondrial regulation is antagonized by transcriptional corepressors such as the nuclear receptor corepressor 1 (NCOR1) [9 and 10]. In contrast to PGC1α, the expression of NCOR1 is suppressed in conditions where PGC1α is induced such as during fasting, high-fat-diet challenge, and exercise [9 and 11]. Moreover, the knockout of NCOR1 phenotypically mimics PGC1α overexpression in regulating mitochondrial oxidative metabolism [9]. Therefore, coactivators and corepressors collectively regulate mitochondrial metabolism in a Yin-Yang fashion.

However, both PGC1α and NCOR1 lack DNA binding activity and rather act via their interaction with transcription factors that direct the regulatory program. Therefore the transcriptional factors that partner with PGC1α and NCOR1 mediate the molecular signaling cascades and execute their inducible effects on mitochondrial regulation.

PPARs: master executors controlling fatty acid oxidation

Both PGC1α and NCOR1 are co-factors for the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARα, γ, and δ) [7, 11, 12 and 13]. It is now clear that all three PPARs play essential roles in lipid and fatty acid metabolism by directly binding to and modulating genes involved in fat metabolism [13, 14, 15, 16, 17,18 and 19]. While PPARγ is known as a master regulator for adipocyte differentiation and does not seem to be involved with oxidative metabolism [14 and 20], both PPARα and PPARδ are essential regulators of fatty acid oxidation (FAO) [3, 13, 15, 19 and 21] (Figure 1).

PPARα was first cloned as the molecular target of fibrates, a class of cholesterol-lowering compounds that increase hepatic FAO [22]. The importance of PPARα in regulating FAO is indicated in its expression pattern which is restricted to tissues with high capacity of FAO such as heart, liver, BAT, and oxidative muscle [23]. On the other hand, PPARδ is ubiquitously expressed with higher levels in the digestive tract, heart, and BAT [24]. In the past 15 years, extensive studies using gain-of-function and loss-of-function models have clearly demonstrated PPARα and PPARδ as the major drivers of FAO in a wide variety of tissues.

ERRS: master executors controlling mitochondrial OXPHOS

ERRs are essential regulators of mitochondrial energy metabolism [4]. ERRα is ubiquitously expressed but particularly abundant in tissues with high energy demands such as brain, heart, muscle, and BAT. ERRβ and ERRγ have similar expression patterns, both are selectively expressed in highly oxidative tissues including brain, heart, and oxidative muscle [45]. Instead of endogenous ligands, the transcriptional activity of ERRs is primarily regulated by co-factors such as PGC1α and NCOR1 [4 and 46] (Figure 1).

Of the three ERRs, ERRβ is the least studied and its role in regulating mitochondrial function is unclear [4 and 47]. In contrast, when PGC1α is induced, ERRα is the master regulator of the mitochondrial biogenic gene network. As ERRα binds to its own promoter, PGC1α can also induce an autoregulatory loop to enhance overall ERRα activity [48]. Without ERRα, the ability of PGC1α to induce the expression of mitochondrial genes is severely impaired. However, the basal-state levels of mitochondrial target genes are not affected by ERRα deletion, suggesting induced mitochondrial biogenesis is a transient process and that other transcriptional factors such as ERRγ may be important maintaining baseline mitochondrial OXPHOS [41•^,42^and43]. Consistent with this idea, ERRγ (which is active even when PGC1α is not induced) shares many target genes with ERRα [49 and 50].

Conclusion and perspectives

Taken together, recent studies have clearly demonstrated the essential roles of PPARs and ERRs in regulating mitochondrial oxidative metabolism and executing the inducible effects of PGC1α (Figure 1). Both PPARα and PPARδ are key regulators for FA oxidation. While the function of PPARα seems more restricted in FA uptake, beta-oxidation, and ketogenesis, PPARδ plays a broader role in controlling oxidative metabolism and fuel preference, with its target genes involved in FA oxidation, mitochondrial OXPHOS, and glucose utilization. However, it is still not clear how much redundancy exists between PPARα and PPARδ, a question which may require the generation of a double knockout model. In addition, more effort is needed to fully understand how PPARα and PPARδ control their target genes in response to environmental changes.

Likewise, ERRα and ERRγ have been shown to be key regulators of mitochondrial OXPHOS. Knockout studies of ERRα suggest it to be the principal executor of PGC1α induced up-regulation of mitochondrial genes, though its role in exercise-dependent changes in skeletal muscle needs further investigation. Transgenic models have demonstrated ERRγ’s powerful induction of mitochondrial biogenesis and its ability to act in a PGC1α-independent manner. However, it remains to be elucidated whether ERRγ is sufficient for basal-state mitochondrial function in general, and whether ERRα can compensate for its function.

2.1.3.7 Metabolic control via the mitochondrial protein import machinery

Opalińska M, Meisinger C.
Curr Opin Cell Biol. 2015 Apr; 33:42-48
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.ceb.2014.11.001

Mitochondria have to import most of their proteins in order to fulfill a multitude of metabolic functions. Sophisticated import machineries mediate targeting and translocation of preproteins from the cytosol and subsequent sorting into their suborganellar destination. The mode of action of these machineries has been considered for long time as a static and constitutively active process. However, recent studies revealed that the mitochondrial protein import machinery is subject to intense regulatory mechanisms that include direct control of protein flux by metabolites and metabolic signaling cascades.
2.1.3.8 The Protein Import Machinery of Mitochondria—A Regulatory Hub

AB Harbauer, RP Zahedi, A Sickmann, N Pfanner, C Meisinger
Cell Metab 4 Mar 2014; 19(3):357–372

Mitochondria are essential cell. They are best known for their role as cellular powerhouses, which convert the energy derived from food into an electrochemical proton gradient across the inner membrane. The proton gradient drives the mitochondrial ATP synthase, thus providing large amounts of ATP for the cell. In addition, mitochondria fulfill central functions in the metabolism of amino acids and lipids and the biosynthesis of iron-sulfur clusters and heme. Mitochondria form a dynamic network that is continuously remodeled by fusion and fission. They are involved in the maintenance of cellular ion homeostasis, play a crucial role in apoptosis, and have been implicated in the pathogenesis of numerous diseases, in particular neurodegenerative disorders.

Mitochondria consist of two membranes, outer membrane and inner membrane, and two aqueous compartments, intermembrane space and matrix (Figure 1). Proteomic studies revealed that mitochondria contain more than 1,000 different proteins (Prokisch et al., 2004, Reinders et al., 2006, Pagliarini et al., 2008 and Schmidt et al., 2010). Based on the endosymbiotic origin from a prokaryotic ancestor, mitochondria contain a complete genetic system and protein synthesis apparatus in the matrix; however, only ∼1% of mitochondrial proteins are encoded by the mitochondrial genome (13 proteins in humans and 8 proteins in yeast). Nuclear genes code for ∼99% of mitochondrial proteins. The proteins are synthesized as precursors on cytosolic ribosomes and are translocated into mitochondria by a multicomponent import machinery. The protein import machinery is essential for the viability of eukaryotic cells. Numerous studies on the targeting signals and import components have been reported (reviewed in Dolezal et al., 2006,Neupert and Herrmann, 2007, Endo and Yamano, 2010 and Schmidt et al., 2010), yet for many years little has been known on the regulation of the import machinery. This led to the general assumption that the protein import machinery is constitutively active and not subject to detailed regulation.

Figure 1. Protein Import Pathways of Mitochondria. Most mitochondrial proteins are synthesized as precursors in the cytosol and are imported by the translocase of the outer mitochondrial membrane (TOM complex). (A) Presequence-carrying (cleavable) preproteins are transferred from TOM to the presequence translocase of the inner membrane (TIM23 complex), which is driven by the membrane potential (Δψ). The proteins either are inserted into the inner membrane (IM) or are translocated into the matrix with the help of the presequence translocase-associated motor (PAM). The presequences are typically cleaved off by the mitochondrial processing peptidase (MPP). (B) The noncleavable precursors of hydrophobic metabolite carriers are bound to molecular chaperones in the cytosol and transferred to the receptor Tom70. After translocation through the TOM channel, the precursors bind to small TIM chaperones in the intermembrane space and are membrane inserted by the Δψ-dependent carrier translocase of the inner membrane (TIM22 complex).
(C) Cysteine-rich proteins destined for the intermembrane space (IMS) are translocated through the TOM channel in a reduced conformation and imported by the mitochondrial IMS import and assembly (MIA) machinery. Mia40 functions as precursor receptor and oxidoreductase in the IMS, promoting the insertion of disulfide bonds into the imported proteins. The sulfhydryl oxidase Erv1 reoxidizes Mia40 for further rounds of oxidative protein import and folding. (D) The precursors of outer membrane β-barrel proteins are imported by the TOM complex and small TIM chaperones and are inserted into the outer membrane by the sorting and assembly machinery (SAM complex). (E) Outer membrane (OM) proteins with α-helical transmembrane segments are inserted into the membrane by import pathways that have only been partially characterized. Shown is an import pathway via the mitochondrial import (MIM) complex

Studies in recent years, however, indicated that different steps of mitochondrial protein import are regulated, suggesting a remarkable diversity of potential mechanisms. After an overview on the mitochondrial protein import machinery, we will discuss the regulatory processes at different stages of protein translocation into mitochondria. We propose that the mitochondrial protein import machinery plays a crucial role as regulatory hub under physiological and pathophysiological conditions. Whereas the basic mechanisms of mitochondrial protein import have been conserved from lower to higher eukaryotes (yeast to humans), regulatory processes may differ between different organisms and cell types. So far, many studies on the regulation of mitochondrial protein import have only been performed in a limited set of organisms. Here we discuss regulatory principles, yet it is important to emphasize that future studies will have to address which regulatory processes have been conserved in evolution and which processes are organism specific.

Protein Import Pathways into Mitochondria

The classical route of protein import into mitochondria is the presequence pathway (Neupert and Herrmann, 2007 and Chacinska et al., 2009). This pathway is used by more than half of all mitochondrial proteins (Vögtle et al., 2009). The proteins are synthesized as precursors with cleavable amino-terminal extensions, termed presequences. The presequences form positively charged amphipathic α helices and are recognized by receptors of the translocase of the outer mitochondrial membrane (TOM complex) (Figure 1A) (Mayer et al., 1995, Brix et al., 1997, van Wilpe et al., 1999, Abe et al., 2000, Meisinger et al., 2001 and Saitoh et al., 2007). Upon translocation through the TOM channel, the cleavable preproteins are transferred to the presequence translocase of the inner membrane (TIM23 complex). The membrane potential across the inner membrane (Δψ, negative on the matrix side) exerts an electrophoretic effect on the positively charged presequences (Martin et al., 1991). The presequence translocase-associated motor (PAM) with the ATP-dependent heat-shock protein 70 (mtHsp70) drives preprotein translocation into the matrix (Chacinska et al., 2005 and Mapa et al., 2010). Here the presequences are typically cleaved off by the mitochondrial processing peptidase (MPP). Some cleavable preproteins contain a hydrophobic segment behind the presequence, leading to arrest of translocation in the TIM23 complex and lateral release of the protein into the inner membrane (Glick et al., 1992, Chacinska et al., 2005 and Meier et al., 2005). In an alternative sorting route, some cleavable preproteins destined for the inner membrane are fully or partially translocated into the matrix, followed by insertion into the inner membrane by the OXA export machinery, which has been conserved from bacteria to mitochondria (“conservative sorting”) (He and Fox, 1997, Hell et al., 1998, Meier et al., 2005 and Bohnert et al., 2010). …

Regulatory Processes Acting at Cytosolic Precursors of Mitochondrial Proteins

Two properties of cytosolic precursor proteins are crucial for import into mitochondria. (1) The targeting signals of the precursors have to be accessible to organellar receptors. Modification of a targeting signal by posttranslational modification or masking of a signal by binding partners can promote or inhibit import into an organelle. (2) The protein import channels of mitochondria are so narrow that folded preproteins cannot be imported. Thus preproteins should be in a loosely folded state or have to be unfolded during the import process. Stable folding of preprotein domains in the cytosol impairs protein import. …

Import Regulation by Binding of Metabolites or Partner Proteins to Preproteins

Binding of a metabolite to a precursor protein can represent a direct means of import regulation (Figure 2A, condition 1). A characteristic example is the import of 5-aminolevulinate synthase, a mitochondrial matrix protein that catalyzes the first step of heme biosynthesis (Hamza and Dailey, 2012). The precursor contains heme binding motifs in its amino-terminal region, including the presequence (Dailey et al., 2005). Binding of heme to the precursor inhibits its import into mitochondria, likely by impairing recognition of the precursor protein by TOM receptors (Lathrop and Timko, 1993, González-Domínguez et al., 2001,Munakata et al., 2004 and Dailey et al., 2005). Thus the biosynthetic pathway is regulated by a feedback inhibition of mitochondrial import of a crucial enzyme, providing an efficient and precursor-specific means of import regulation dependent on the metabolic situation.

Figure 2. Regulation of Cytosolic Precursors of Mitochondrial Proteins

(A) The import of a subset of mitochondrial precursor proteins can be positively or negatively regulated by precursor-specific reactions in the cytosol. (1) Binding of ligands/metabolites can inhibit mitochondrial import. (2) Binding of precursors to partner proteins can stimulate or inhibit import into mitochondria. (3) Phosphorylation of precursors in the vicinity of targeting signals can modulate dual targeting to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria. (4) Precursor folding can mask the targeting signal. (B) Cytosolic and mitochondrial fumarases are derived from the same presequence-carrying preprotein. The precursor is partially imported by the TOM and TIM23 complexes of the mitochondrial membranes and the presequence is removed by the mitochondrial processing peptidase (MPP). Folding of the preprotein promotes retrograde translocation of more than half of the molecules into the cytosol, whereas the other molecules are completely imported into mitochondria.

Regulation of Mitochondrial Protein Entry Gate by Cytosolic Kinases

Figure 3. Regulation of TOM Complex by Cytosolic Kinases

(A) All subunits of the translocase of the outer mitochondrial membrane (TOM complex) are phosphorylated by cytosolic kinases (phosphorylated amino acid residues are indicated by stars with P). Casein kinase 1 (CK1) stimulates the assembly of Tom22 into the TOM complex. Casein kinase 2 (CK2) stimulates the biogenesis of Tom22 as well as the mitochondrial import protein 1 (Mim1). Protein kinase A (PKA) inhibits the biogenesis of Tom22 and Tom40, and inhibits the activity of Tom70 (see B). Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK) are possibly involved in regulation of TOM. (B) Metabolic shift-induced regulation of the receptor Tom70 by PKA. Carrier precursors bind to cytosolic chaperones (Hsp70 and/or Hsp90). Tom70 has two binding pockets, one for the precursor and one for the accompanying chaperone (shown on the left). When glucose is added to yeast cells (fermentable conditions), the levels of intracellular cAMP are increased and PKA is activated (shown on the right). PKA phosphorylates a serine of Tom70 in vicinity of the chaperone binding pocket, thus impairing chaperone binding to Tom70 and carrier import into mitochondria.

Casein Kinase 2 Stimulates TOM Biogenesis and Protein Import

Metabolic Switch from Respiratory to Fermentable Conditions Involves Protein Kinase A-Mediated Inhibition of TOM

Network of Stimulatory and Inhibitory Kinases Acts on TOM Receptors, Channel, and Assembly Factors

Protein Import Activity as Sensor of Mitochondrial Stress and Dysfunction

Figure 4. Mitochondrial Quality Control and Stress Response

(A) Import and quality control of cleavable preproteins. The TIM23 complex cooperates with several machineries: the TOM complex, a supercomplex consisting of the respiratory chain complexes III and IV, and the presequence translocase-associated motor (PAM) with the central chaperone mtHsp70. Several proteases/peptidases involved in processing, quality control, and/or degradation of imported proteins are shown, including mitochondrial processing peptidase (MPP), intermediate cleaving peptidase (XPNPEP3/Icp55), mitochondrial intermediate peptidase (MIP/Oct1), mitochondrial rhomboid protease (PARL/Pcp1), and LON/Pim1 protease. (B) The transcription factor ATFS-1 contains dual targeting information, a mitochondrial targeting signal at the amino terminus, and a nuclear localization signal (NLS). In normal cells, ATFS-1 is efficiently imported into mitochondria and degraded by the Lon protease in the matrix. When under stress conditions the protein import activity of mitochondria is reduced (due to lower Δψ, impaired mtHsp70 activity, or peptides exported by the peptide transporter HAF-1), some ATFS-1 molecules accumulate in the cytosol and can be imported into the nucleus, leading to induction of an unfolded protein response (UPRmt).

Regulation of PINK1/Parkin-Induced Mitophagy by the Activity of the Mitochondrial Protein Import Machinery

Figure 5. Mitochondrial Dynamics and Disease

(A) In healthy cells, the kinase PINK1 is partially imported into mitochondria in a membrane potential (Δψ)-dependent manner and processed by the inner membrane rhomboid protease PARL, which cleaves within the transmembrane segment and generates a destabilizing N terminus, followed by retro-translocation of cleaved PINK1 into the cytosol and degradation by the ubiquitin-proteasome system (different views have been reported if PINK1 is first processed by MPP or not; Greene et al., 2012, Kato et al., 2013 and Yamano and Youle, 2013). Dissipation of Δψ in damaged mitochondria leads to an accumulation of unprocessed PINK1 at the TOM complex and the recruitment of the ubiquitin ligase Parkin to mitochondria. Mitofusin 2 is phosphorylated by PINK1 and likely functions as receptor for Parkin. Parkin mediates ubiquitination of mitochondrial outer membrane proteins (including mitofusins), leading to a degradation of damaged mitochondria by mitophagy. Mutations of PINK1 or Parkin have been observed in monogenic cases of Parkinson’s disease. (B) The inner membrane fusion protein OPA1/Mgm1 is present in long and short isoforms. A balanced formation of the isoforms is a prerequisite for the proper function of OPA1/Mgm1. The precursor of OPA1/Mgm1 is imported by the TOM and TIM23 complexes. A hydrophobic segment of the precursor arrests translocation in the inner membrane, and the amino-terminal targeting signal is cleaved by MPP, generating the long isoforms. In yeast mitochondria, the import motor PAM drives the Mgm1 precursor further toward the matrix such that a second hydrophobic segment is cleaved by the inner membrane rhomboid protease Pcp1, generating the short isoform (s-Mgm1). In mammals, the m-AAA protease is likely responsible for the balanced formation of long (L) and short (S) isoforms of OPA1. A further protease, OMA1, can convert long isoforms into short isoforms in particular under stress conditions, leading to an impairment of mitochondrial fusion and thus to fragmentation of mitochondria.

….

Mitochondrial research is of increasing importance for the molecular understanding of numerous diseases, in particular of neurodegenerative disorders. The well-established connection between the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease and mitochondrial protein import has been discussed above. Several observations point to a possible connection of mitochondrial protein import with the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease, though a direct role of mitochondria has not been demonstrated so far. The amyloid-β peptide (Aβ), which is generated from the amyloid precursor protein (APP), was found to be imported into mitochondria by the TOM complex, to impair respiratory activity, and to enhance ROS generation and fragmentation of mitochondria (Hansson Petersen et al., 2008, Ittner and Götz, 2011 and Itoh et al., 2013). An accumulation of APP in the TOM and TIM23 import channels has also been reported (Devi et al., 2006). The molecular mechanisms of how mitochondrial activity and dynamics may be altered by Aβ (and possibly APP) and how mitochondrial alterations may impact on the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease await further analysis.

It is tempting to speculate that regulatory changes in mitochondrial protein import may be involved in tumor development. Cancer cells can shift their metabolism from respiration toward glycolysis (Warburg effect) (Warburg, 1956, Frezza and Gottlieb, 2009, Diaz-Ruiz et al., 2011 and Nunnari and Suomalainen, 2012). A glucose-induced downregulation of import of metabolite carriers into mitochondria may represent one of the possible mechanisms during metabolic shift to glycolysis. Such a mechanism has been shown for the carrier receptor Tom70 in yeast mitochondria (Schmidt et al., 2011). A detailed analysis of regulation of mitochondrial preprotein translocases in healthy mammalian cells as well as in cancer cells will represent an important task for the future.

Conclusion

In summary, the concept of the “mitochondrial protein import machinery as regulatory hub” will promote a rapidly developing field of interdisciplinary research, ranging from studies on molecular mechanisms to the analysis of mitochondrial diseases. In addition to identifying distinct regulatory mechanisms, a major challenge will be to define the interactions between different machineries and regulatory processes, including signaling networks, preprotein translocases, bioenergetic complexes, and machineries regulating mitochondrial membrane dynamics and contact sites, in order to understand the integrative system controlling mitochondrial biogenesis and fitness.

2.1.3.9 Exosome Transfer from Stromal to Breast Cancer Cells Regulates Therapy Resistance Pathways

MC Boelens, Tony J. Wu, Barzin Y. Nabet, et al.
Cell 23 Oct 2014; 159(3): 499–513
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867414012392

Highlights

Exosome transfer from stromal to breast cancer cells instigates antiviral signaling
• RNA in exosomes activates antiviral STAT1 pathway through RIG-I
• STAT1 cooperates with NOTCH3 to expand therapy-resistant cells
• Antiviral/NOTCH3 pathways predict NOTCH activity and resistance in primary tumors

Summary

Stromal communication with cancer cells can influence treatment response. We show that stromal and breast cancer (BrCa) cells utilize paracrine and juxtacrine signaling to drive chemotherapy and radiation resistance. Upon heterotypic interaction, exosomes are transferred from stromal to BrCa cells. RNA within exosomes, which are largely noncoding transcripts and transposable elements, stimulates the pattern recognition receptor RIG-I to activate STAT1-dependent antiviral signaling. In parallel, stromal cells also activate NOTCH3 on BrCa cells. The paracrine antiviral and juxtacrine NOTCH3 pathways converge as STAT1 facilitates transcriptional responses to NOTCH3 and expands therapy-resistant tumor-initiating cells. Primary human and/or mouse BrCa analysis support the role of antiviral/NOTCH3 pathways in NOTCH signaling and stroma-mediated resistance, which is abrogated by combination therapy with gamma secretase inhibitors. Thus, stromal cells orchestrate an intricate crosstalk with BrCa cells by utilizing exosomes to instigate antiviral signaling. This expands BrCa subpopulations adept at resisting therapy and reinitiating tumor growth.

stromal-communication-with-cancer-cells

Graphical Abstract

2.1.3.10 Emerging concepts in bioenergetics and cancer research

Obre E, Rossignol R
Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2015 Feb; 59:167-81
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.biocel.2014.12.008

The field of energy metabolism dramatically progressed in the last decade, owing to a large number of cancer studies, as well as fundamental investigations on related transcriptional networks and cellular interactions with the microenvironment. The concept of metabolic flexibility was clarified in studies showing the ability of cancer cells to remodel the biochemical pathways of energy transduction and linked anabolism in response to glucose, glutamine or oxygen deprivation. A clearer understanding of the large-scale bioenergetic impact of C-MYC, MYCN, KRAS and P53 was obtained, along with its modification during the course of tumor development. The metabolic dialog between different types of cancer cells, but also with the stroma, also complexified the understanding of bioenergetics and raised the concepts of metabolic symbiosis and reverse Warburg effect. Signaling studies revealed the role of respiratory chain-derived reactive oxygen species for metabolic remodeling and metastasis development. The discovery of oxidative tumors in human and mice models related to chemoresistance also changed the prevalent view of dysfunctional mitochondria in cancer cells. Likewise, the influence of energy metabolism-derived oncometabolites emerged as a new means of tumor genetic regulation. The knowledge obtained on the multi-site regulation of energy metabolism in tumors was translated to cancer preclinical studies, supported by genetic proof of concept studies targeting LDHA, HK2, PGAM1, or ACLY. Here, we review those different facets of metabolic remodeling in cancer, from its diversity in physiology and pathology, to the search of the genetic determinants, the microenvironmental regulators and pharmacological modulators.

2.1.3.11 Protecting the mitochondrial powerhouse

M Scheibye-Knudsen, EF Fang, DL Croteau, DM Wilson III, VA Bohr
Trends in Cell Biol, Mar 2015; 25(3):158–170

Highlights

Mitochondrial maintenance is essential for cellular and organismal function.
• Maintenance includes reactive oxygen species (ROS) regulation, DNA repair, fusion–fission, and mitophagy.
• Loss of function of these pathways leads to disease.

Mitochondria are the oxygen-consuming power plants of cells. They provide a critical milieu for the synthesis of many essential molecules and allow for highly efficient energy production through oxidative phosphorylation. The use of oxygen is, however, a double-edged sword that on the one hand supplies ATP for cellular survival, and on the other leads to the formation of damaging reactive oxygen species (ROS). Different quality control pathways maintain mitochondria function including mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) replication and repair, fusion–fission dynamics, free radical scavenging, and mitophagy. Further, failure of these pathways may lead to human disease. We review these pathways and propose a strategy towards a treatment for these often untreatable disorders.

Discussion

Radoslav Bozov –

Larry, pyruvate is a direct substrate for synthesizing pyrimidine rings, as well as C-13 NMR study proven source of methyl groups on SAM! Think about what cancer cells care for – dis-regulated growth through ‘escaped’ mutability of proteins, ‘twisting’ pathways of ordered metabolism space-time wise! mtDNA is a back up, evolutionary primitive, however, primary system for pulling strings onto cell cycle events. Oxygen (never observed single molecule) pulls up electron negative light from emerging super rich energy carbon systems. Therefore, ATP is more acting like a neutralizer – resonator of space-energy systems interoperability! You cannot look at a compartment / space independently , as dimension always add 1 towards 3+1.

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Refined Warburg Hypothesis -2.1.2

Posted in Academic Publishing, Amino acids, Anaerobic Glycolysis, Biochemical pathways, Biological Networks, CANCER BIOLOGY & Innovations in Cancer Therapy, Curation, Cytoskeleton, Developmental biology, Disease Biology, Enzymes and isoenzymes, Fatty acids, Gene Regulation, Genomic Expression, Hexokinase, Lipid metabolism, Lipids, Loss of function gene, Metabolism, Metabolomics, Oxidative phosphorylation, Pentose monophosphate shunt, Proteins, Proteomics, Pyridine nucleotides, Pyruvate Kinase, Warburg effect, tagged Apoptosis, ATP, Cancer - General, carcinogenesis, Cellular respiration, dlycolysis, fumarate, glutaminolysis, HIF-1, hypoxia, IDH, inner mitochondrial membrane, inosine, itochondrial pyruvate carrier, L-glutamine, Lactate dehydrogenase, lactic acid, LDH A, mitochondria, Pyridine nucleotides, Pyruvate Kinase, succinate, TCA cycle, Warburg Effect on April 1, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Refined Warburg hypothesis -2.1.2

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Refined Warburg Hypothesis -2.1.2

The Warburg discoveries from 1922 on, and the influence on metabolic studies for the next 50 years was immense, and then the revelations of the genetic code took precedence. Throughout this period, however, the brilliant work of Briton Chance, a giant of biochemistry at the University of Pennsylvania, opened new avenues of exploration that led to a recent resurgence in this vital need for answers in cancer research. The next two series of presentations will open up this resurgence of fundamental metabolic research in cancer and even neurodegenerative diseases.

2.1.2.1 Cancer Cell Metabolism. Warburg and Beyond

Hsu PP, Sabatini DM
Cell, Sep 5, 2008; 134:703-707
http://dx.doi.org:/10.016/j.cell.2008.08.021

Described decades ago, the Warburg effect of aerobic glycolysis is a key metabolic hallmark of cancer, yet its significance remains unclear. In this Essay, we re-examine the Warburg effect and establish a framework for understanding its contribution to the altered metabolism of cancer cells.

It is hard to begin a discussion of cancer cell metabolism without first mentioning Otto Warburg. A pioneer in the study of respiration, Warburg made a striking discovery in the 1920s. He found that, even in the presence of ample oxygen, cancer cells prefer to metabolize glucose by glycolysis, a seeming paradox as glycolysis, when compared to oxidative phosphorylation, is a less efficient pathway for producing ATP (Warburg, 1956). The Warburg effect has since been demonstrated in different types of tumors and the concomitant increase in glucose uptake has been exploited clinically for the detection of tumors by fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG-PET). Although aerobic glycolysis has now been generally accepted as a metabolic hallmark of cancer, its causal relationship with cancer progression is still unclear. In this Essay, we discuss the possible drivers, advantages, and potential liabilities of the altered metabolism of cancer cells (Figure 1). Although our emphasis on the Warburg effect reflects the focus of the field, we would also like to encourage a broader approach to the study of cancer metabolism that takes into account the contributions of all interconnected small molecule pathways of the cell.

Figure 1. The Altered Metabolism of Cancer Cells

Drivers (A and B). The metabolic derangements in cancer cells may arise either from the selection of cells that have adapted to the tumor microenvironment or from aberrant signaling due to oncogene activation. The tumor microenvironment is spatially and temporally heterogeneous, containing regions of low oxygen and low pH (purple). Moreover, many canonical cancer-associated signaling pathways induce metabolic reprogramming. Target genes activated by hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) decrease the dependence of the cell on oxygen, whereas Ras, Myc, and Akt can also upregulate glucose consumption and glycolysis. Loss of p53 may also recapitulate the features of the Warburg effect, that is, the uncoupling of glycolysis from oxygen levels. Advantages (C–E). The altered metabolism of cancer cells is likely to imbue them with several proliferative and survival advantages, such as enabling cancer cells to execute the biosynthesis of macromolecules (C), to avoid apoptosis (D), and to engage in local metabolite-based paracrine and autocrine signaling (E). Potential Liabilities (F and G). This altered metabolism, however, may also confer several vulnerabilities on cancer cells. For example, an upregulated metabolism may result in the build up of toxic metabolites, including lactate and noncanonical nucleotides, which must be disposed of (F). Moreover, cancer cells may also exhibit a high energetic demand, for which they must either increase flux through normal ATP-generating processes, or else rely on an increased diversity of fuel sources (G).

The Tumor Microenvironment Selects for Altered Metabolism

One compelling idea to explain the Warburg effect is that the altered metabolism of cancer cells confers a selective advantage for survival and proliferation in the unique tumor microenvironment. As the early tumor expands, it outgrows the diffusion limits of its local blood supply, leading to hypoxia and stabilization of the hypoxia-inducible transcription factor, HIF. HIF initiates a transcriptional program that provides multiple solutions to hypoxic stress (reviewed in Kaelin and Ratcliffe, 2008). Because a decreased dependence on aerobic respiration becomes advantageous, cell metabolism is shifted toward glycolysis by the increased expression of glycolytic enzymes, glucose transporters, and inhibitors of mitochondrial metabolism. In addition, HIF stimulates angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels) by upregulating several factors, including most prominently vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF).

The oxygen levels within a tumor vary both spatially and temporally, and the resulting rounds of fluctuating oxygen levels potentially select for tumors that constitutively upregulate glycolysis. Interestingly, with the possible exception of tumors that have lost the von Hippel-Lindau protein (VHL), which normally mediates degradation of HIF, HIF is still coupled to oxygen levels, as evident from the heterogeneity of HIF expression within the tumor microenvironment (Wiesener et al., 2001; Zhong et al., 1999). Therefore, the Warburg effect—that is, an uncoupling of glycolysis from oxygen levels—cannot be explained solely by upregulation of HIF.

Recent work has demonstrated that the key components of the Warburg effect—increased glucose consumption, decreased oxidative phosphorylation, and accompanying lactate production—are also distinguishing features of oncogene activation. The signaling molecule Ras, a powerful oncogene when mutated, promotes glycolysis (reviewed in Dang and Semenza, 1999; Samanathan et al., 2005). Akt kinase, a well-characterized downstream effector of insulin signaling, reprises its role in glucose uptake and utilization in the cancer setting (reviewed in Manning and Cantley, 2007), whereas the Myc transcription factor upregulates the expression of various metabolic genes (reviewed in Gordan et al., 2007). The most parsimonious route to tumorigenesis may be activation of key oncogenic nodes that execute a proliferative program, of which metabolism may be one important arm. Moreover, regulation of metabolism is not exclusive to oncogenes. Loss of the tumor suppressor protein p53 prevents expression of the gene encoding SCO2 (the synthesis of cytochrome c oxidase protein), which interferes with the function of the mitochondrial respiratory chain (Matoba et al., 2006). A second p53 effector, TIGAR (TP53-induced glycolysis and apoptosis regulator), inhibits glycolysis by decreasing levels of fructose-2,6-bisphosphate, a potent stimulator of glycolysis and inhibitor of gluconeogenesis (Bensaad et al., 2006). Other work also suggests that p53-mediated regulation of glucose metabolism may be dependent on the transcription factor NF-κB (Kawauchi et al., 2008).
It has been shown that inhibition of lactate dehydrogenase A (LDH-A) prevents the Warburg effect and forces cancer cells to revert to oxidative phosphorylation in order to reoxidize NADH and produce ATP (Fantin et al., 2006; Shim et al., 1997). While the cells are respiratory competent, they exhibit attenuated tumor growth, suggesting that aerobic glycolysis might be essential for cancer progression. In a primary fibroblast cell culture model of stepwise malignant transformation through overexpression of telomerase, large and small T antigen, and the H-Ras oncogene, increasing tumorigenicity correlates with sensitivity to glycolytic inhibition. This finding suggests that the Warburg effect might be inherent to the molecular events of transformation (Ramanathan et al., 2005). However, the introduction of similar defined factors into human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) revealed that transformation can be associated with increased dependence on oxidative phosphorylation (Funes et al., 2007). Interestingly, when introduced in vivo these transformed MSCs do upregulate glycolytic genes, an effect that is reversed when the cells are explanted and cultured under normoxic conditions. These contrasting models suggest that the Warburg effect may be context dependent, in some cases driven by genetic changes and in others by the demands of the microenvironment. Regardless of whether the tumor microenvironment or oncogene activation plays a more important role in driving the development of a distinct cancer metabolism, it is likely that the resulting alterations confer adaptive, proliferative, and survival advantages on the cancer cell.

Altered Metabolism Provides Substrates for Biosynthetic Pathways

Although studies in cancer metabolism have largely been energy-centric, rapidly dividing cells have diverse requirements. Proliferating cells require not only ATP but also nucleotides, fatty acids, membrane lipids, and proteins, and a reprogrammed metabolism may serve to support synthesis of macromolecules. Recent studies have shown that several steps in lipid synthesis are required for and may even actively promote tumorigenesis. Inhibition of ATP citrate lyase, the distal enzyme that converts mitochondrial-derived citrate into cytosolic acetyl coenzyme A, the precursor for many lipid species, prevents cancer cell proliferation and tumor growth (Hatzivassiliou et al., 2005). Fatty acid synthase, expressed at low levels in normal tissues, is upregulated in cancer and may also be required for tumorigenesis (reviewed in Menendez and Lupu, 2007). Furthermore, cancer cells may also enhance their biosynthetic capabilities by expressing a tumor-specific form of pyruvate kinase (PK), M2-PK. Pyruvate kinase catalyzes the third irreversible reaction of glycolysis, the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to pyruvate. Surprisingly, the M2-PK of cancer cells is thought to be less active in the conversion of PEP to pyruvate and thus less efficient at ATP production (reviewed in Mazurek et al., 2005). A major advantage to the cancer cell, however, is that the glycolytic intermediates upstream of PEP might be shunted into synthetic processes.

Biosynthesis, in addition to causing an inherent increase in ATP demand in order to execute synthetic reactions, should also cause a decrease in ATP supply as various glycolytic and Krebs cycle intermediates are diverted. Lipid synthesis, for example, requires the cooperation of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the pentose phosphate shunt. As pyruvate must enter the mitochondria in this case, it avoids conversion to lactate and therefore cannot contribute to glycolysis-derived ATP. Moreover, whereas increased biosynthesis may explain the glucose hunger of cancer cells, it cannot explain the increase in lactic acid production originally described by Warburg, suggesting that lactate must also result from the metabolism of non-glucose substrates. Recently, it has been demonstrated that glutamine may be metabolized by the citric acid cycle in cancer cells and converted into lactate, producing NADPH for lipid biosynthesis and oxaloacetate for replenishment of Krebs cycle intermediates (DeBerardinis et al., 2007).

Metabolic Pathways Regulate Apoptosis

In addition to involvement in proliferation, altered metabolism may promote another cancer-essential function: the avoidance of apoptosis. Loss of the p53 target TIGAR sensitizes cancer cells to apoptosis, most likely by causing an increase in reactive oxygen species (Bensaad et al., 2006). On the other hand, overexpression of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) prevents caspase-independent cell death, presumably by stimulating glycolysis, increasing cellular ATP levels, and promoting autophagy (Colell et al., 2007). Whether or not GAPDH plays a physiological role in the regulation of cell death remains to be determined. Intriguingly, Bonnet et al. (2007) have reported that treating cancer cells with dichloroacetate (DCA), a small molecule inhibitor of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase, has striking effects on their survival and on xenograft tumor growth.

DCA, a currently approved treatment for congenital lactic acidosis, activates oxidative phosphorylation and promotes apoptosis by two mechanisms. First, increased flux through the electron transport chain causes depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane potential (which the authors found to be hyperpolarized specifically in cancer cells) and release of the apoptotic effector cytochrome c. Second, an increase in reactive oxygen species generated by oxidative phosphorylation upregulates the voltage-gated K+ channel, leading to potassium ion efflux and caspase activation. Their work suggests that cancer cells may shift their metabolism to glycolysis in order to prevent cell death and that forcing cancer cells to respire aerobically can counteract this adaptation.

Cancer Cells May Signal Locally in the Tumor Microenvironment

Cancer cells may rewire metabolic pathways to exploit the tumor microenvironment and to support cancer-specific signaling. Without access to the central circulation, it is possible that metabolites can be concentrated locally and reach suprasystemic levels, allowing cancer cells to engage in metabolite-mediated autocrine and paracrine signaling that does not occur in normal tissues. So called androgen-independent prostate cancers may only be independent from exogenous, adrenal-synthesized androgens. Androgen-independent prostate cancer cells still express the androgen receptor and may be capable of autonomously synthesizing their own androgens (Stanbrough et al., 2006).

Metabolism as an Upstream Modulator of Signaling Pathways

Not only is metabolism downstream of oncogenic pathways, but an altered upstream metabolism may affect the activity of signaling pathways that normally sense the state of the cell. Individuals with inherited mutations in succinate dehydrogenase and fumarate hydratase develop highly angiogenic tumors, not unlike those exhibiting loss of the VHL tumor suppressor protein that acts upstream of HIF (reviewed in Kaelin and Ratcliffe, 2008). The mechanism of tumorigenesis in these cancer syndromes is still contentious. However, it has been proposed that loss of succinate dehydrogenase and fumarate hydratase causes an accumulation of succinate or fumarate, respectively, leading to inhibition of the prolyl hydroxylases that mark HIF for VHL-mediated degradation (Isaacs et al., 2005; Pollard et al., 2005; Selak et al., 2005). In this rare case, succinate dehydrogenase and fumarate hydratase are acting as bona fide tumor suppressors.

There are many complex questions to be answered: Is it possible that cancer cells exhibit “metabolite addiction”? Are there unique cancer-specific metabolic pathways, or combinations of pathways, utilized by the cancer cell but not by normal cells? Are different stages of metabolic adaptations required for the cancer cell to progress from the primary tumor stage to invasion to metastasis? How malleable is cancer metabolism?

2.1.2.2 Cancer metabolism. The Warburg effect today

Ferreira LMR
Exp Molec Pathol 2010; 89:372-383.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yexmp.2010.08.006

One of the first studies on the energy metabolism of a tumor was carried out, in 1922, in the laboratory of Otto Warburg. He established that cancer cells exhibited a specific metabolic pattern, characterized by a shift from respiration to fermentation, which has been later named the Warburg effect. Considerable work has been done since then, deepening our understanding of the process, with consequences for diagnosis and therapy. This review presents facts and perspectives on the Warburg effect for the 21st century.

Research highlights

► Warburg first established a tumor metabolic pattern in the 1920s. ► Tumors’ increased glucose uptake has been studied since then. ► Cancer bioenergetics’ study provides insights in all its hallmarks. ► New cancer diagnostic and therapeutic techniques focus on cancer metabolism.

Introduction
Contestation to Warburg’s ideas
Glucose’s uptake and intracellular fates
Lactate production and induced acidosis
Hypoxia
Impairment of mitochondrial function
Tumour microenvironment
Proliferating versus cancer cells
More on cancer bioenergetics – integration of metabolism
Perspectives

2.1.2.3 New aspects of the Warburg effect in cancer cell biology

Bensinger SJ, Cristofk HR
Sem Cell Dev Biol 2012; 23:352-361
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.semcdb.2012.02.003

Altered cellular metabolism is a defining feature of cancer [1]. The best studied metabolic phenotype of cancer is aerobic glycolysis–also known as the Warburg effect–characterized by increased metabolism of glucose to lactate in the presence of sufficient oxygen. Interest in the Warburg effect has escalated in recent years due to the proven utility of FDG-PET for imaging tumors in cancer patients and growing evidence that mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes directly impact metabolism. The goals of this review are to provide an organized snapshot of the current understanding of regulatory mechanisms important for Warburg effect and its role in tumor biology. Since several reviews have covered aspects of this topic in recent years, we focus on newest contributions to the field and reference other reviews where appropriate.

Highlights

► This review discusses regulatory mechanisms that contribute to the Warburg effect in cancer. ► We list cancers for which FDG-PET has established applications as well as those cancers for which FDG-PET has not been established. ► PKM2 is highlighted as an important integrator of diverse cellular stimuli to modulate metabolic flux and cancer cell proliferation. ► We discuss how cancer metabolism can directly influence gene expression programs. ► Contribution of aerobic glycolysis to the cancer microenvironment and chemotherapeutic resistance/susceptibility is also discussed.

Regulation of the Warburg effect

PKM2 integrates diverse signals to modulate metabolic ﬂux and cell proliferation

Fig. 1. PKM2 integrates diverse signals to modulate metabolic ﬂux and cell proliferation

Metabolism can directly inﬂuence gene expression programs

Fig. 2. Metabolism can directly inﬂuence gene expression programs. A schematic representation of how metabolism can intrinsically inﬂuence epigenetics resulting in durable and heritable gene expression programs in progeny.

2.1.2.4 Choosing between glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation. A tumor’s dilemma

Jose C, Ballance N, Rossignal R
Biochim Biophys Acta 201; 1807(6): 552-561.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbabio.2010.10.012

A considerable amount of knowledge has been produced during the last five years on the bioenergetics of cancer cells, leading to a better understanding of the regulation of energy metabolism during oncogenesis, or in adverse conditions of energy substrate intermittent deprivation. The general enhancement of the glycolytic machinery in various cancer cell lines is well described and recent analyses give a better view of the changes in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation during oncogenesis. While some studies demonstrate a reduction of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) capacity in different types of cancer cells, other investigations revealed contradictory modifications with the upregulation of OXPHOS components and a larger dependency of cancer cells on oxidative energy substrates for anabolism and energy production. This apparent conflictual picture is explained by differences in tumor size, hypoxia, and the sequence of oncogenes activated. The role of p53, C-MYC, Oct and RAS on the control of mitochondrial respiration and glutamine utilization has been explained recently on artificial models of tumorigenesis. Likewise, the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells from oncogene activation also showed the role of C-MYC and Oct in the regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis and ROS generation. In this review article we put emphasis on the description of various bioenergetic types of tumors, from exclusively glycolytic to mainly OXPHOS, and the modulation of both the metabolic apparatus and the modalities of energy substrate utilization according to tumor stage, serial oncogene activation and associated or not fluctuating microenvironmental substrate conditions. We conclude on the importance of a dynamic view of tumor bioenergetics.

Research Highlights

►The bioenergetics of cancer cells differs from normals. ►Warburg hypothesis is not verified in tumors using mitochondria to synthesize ATP. ►Different oncogenes can either switch on or switch off OXPHOS. ►Bioenergetic profiling is a prerequisite to metabolic therapy. ►Aerobic glycolysis and OXPHOS cooperate during cancer progression.

Cancer cell variable bioenergetics

Cancer cells exhibit profound genetic, bioenergetic and histological differences as compared to their non-transformed counterpart. All these modifications are associated with unlimited cell growth, inhibition of apoptosis and intense anabolism. Transformation from a normal cell to a malignant cancer cell is a multi-step pathogenic process which includes a permanent interaction between cancer gene activation (oncogenes and/or tumor-suppressor genes), metabolic reprogramming and tumor-induced changes in microenvironment. As for the individual genetic mapping of human tumors, their metabolic characterization (metabolic–bioenergetic profiling) has evidenced a cancer cell-type bioenergetic signature which depends on the history of the tumor, as composed by the sequence of oncogenes activated and the confrontation to intermittent changes in oxygen, glucose and amino-acid delivery.

In the last decade, bioenergetic studies have highlighted the variability among cancer types and even inside a cancer type as regards to the mechanisms and the substrates preferentially used for deriving the vital energy. The more popular metabolic remodeling described in tumor cells is an increase in glucose uptake, the enhancement of glycolytic capacity and a high lactate production, along with the absence of respiration despite the presence of high oxygen concentration (Warburg effect) [1]. To explain this abnormal bioenergetic phenotype pioneering hypotheses proposed the impairment of mitochondrial function in rapidly growing cancer cells [2].

Although the increased consumption of glucose by tumor cells was confirmed in vivo by positron emission tomography (PET) using the glucose analog 2-(18F)-fluoro-2-deoxy-d-glucose (FDG), the actual utilization of glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) cannot be evaluated with this technique. Nowadays, Warburg’s “aerobic-glycolysis” hypothesis has been challenged by a growing number of studies showing that mitochondria in tumor cells are not inactive per se but operate at low capacity [3] or, in striking contrast, supply most of the ATP to the cancer cells [4]. Intense glycolysis is effectively not observed in all tumor types. Indeed not all cancer cells grow fast and intense anabolism is not mandatory for all cancer cells. Rapidly growing tumor cells rely more on glycolysis than slowly growing tumor cells. This is why a treatment with bromopyruvate, for example is very efficient only on rapidly growing cells and barely useful to decrease the growth rate of tumor cells when their normal proliferation is slow. Already in 1979, Reitzer and colleagues published an article entitled “Evidence that glutamine, not sugar, is the major energy source for cultured Hela cells”, which demonstrated that oxidative phosphorylation was used preferentially to produce ATP in cervical carcinoma cells [5]. Griguer et al. also identified several glioma cell lines that were highly dependent on mitochondrial OXPHOS pathway to produce ATP [6]. Furthermore, a subclass of glioma cells which utilize glycolysis preferentially (i.e., glycolytic gliomas) can also switch from aerobic glycolysis to OXPHOS under limiting glucose conditions [7] and [8], as observed in cervical cancer cells, breast carcinoma cells, hepatoma cells and pancreatic cancer cells [9], [10] and [11]. This flexibility shows the interplay between glycolysis and OXPHOS to adapt the mechanisms of energy production to microenvironmental changes as well as differences in tumor energy needs or biosynthetic activity. Herst and Berridge also demonstrated that a variety of human and mouse leukemic and tumor cell lines (HL60, HeLa, 143B, and U937) utilize mitochondrial respiration to support their growth [12]. Recently, the measurement of OXPHOS contribution to the cellular ATP supply revealed that mitochondria generate 79% of the cellular ATP in HeLa cells, and that upon hypoxia this contribution is reduced to 30% [4]. Again, metabolic flexibility is used to survive under hypoxia. All these studies demonstrate that mitochondria are efficient to synthesize ATP in a large variety of cancer cells, as reviewed by Moreno-Sanchez [13]. Despite the observed reduction of the mitochondrial content in tumors [3], [14], [15], [16], [17], [18] and [19], cancer cells maintain a significant level of OXPHOS capacity to rapidly switch from glycolysis to OXPHOS during carcinogenesis. This switch is also observed at the level of glutamine oxidation which can occur through two modes, “OXPHOS-linked” or “anoxic”, allowing to derive energy from glutamine or serine regardless of hypoxia or respiratory chain reduced activity [20].
While glutamine, glycine, alanine, glutamate, and proline are typically oxidized in normal and tumor mitochondria, alternative substrate oxidations may also contribute to ATP supply by OXPHOS. Those include for instance the oxidation of fatty-acids, ketone bodies, short-chain carboxylic acids, propionate, acetate and butyrate (as recently reviewed in [21]).

Varying degree of mitochondrial utilization during tumorigenesis

In vivo metabolomic analyses suggest the existence of a continuum of bioenergetic remodeling in rat tumors according to tumor size and its rate of growth [22]. Peter Vaupel’s group showed that small tumors were characterized by a low conversion of glucose to lactate whereas the conversion of glutamine to lactate was high. In medium sized tumors the flow of glucose to lactate as well as oxygen utilization was increased whereas glutamine and serine consumption were reduced. At this stage tumor cells started with glutamate and alanine production. Large tumors were characterized by a low oxygen and glucose supply but a high glucose and oxygen utilization rate. The conversion of glucose to glycine, alanine, glutamate, glutamine, and proline reached high values and the amino acids were released [22]. Certainly, in the inner layers constituting solid tumors, substrate and oxygen limitation is frequently observed. Experimental studies tried to reproduce these conditions in vitro and revealed that nutrients and oxygen limitation does not affect OXPHOS and cellular ATP levels in human cervix tumor [23]. Furthermore, the growth of HeLa cells, HepG2 cells and HTB126 (breast cancer) in aglycemia and/or hypoxia even triggered a compensatory increase in OXPHOS capacity, as discussed above. Yet, the impact of hypoxia might be variable depending on cell type and both the extent and the duration of oxygen limitation.
In two models of sequential oncogenesis, the successive activation of specific oncogenes in non-cancer cells evidenced the need for active OXPHOS to pursue tumorigenesis. Funes et al. showed that the transformation of human mesenchymal stem cells increases their dependency on OXPHOS for energy production [24], while Ferbeyre et al. showed that cells expressing oncogenic RAS display an increase in mitochondrial mass, mitochondrial DNA, and mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) prior to the senescent cell cycle arrest [25]. Such observations suggest that waves of gene regulation could suppress and then restore OXPHOS in cancer cells during tumorigenesis [20]. Therefore, the definition of cancer by Hanahan and Weinberg [26] restricted to six hallmarks (1—self-sufficiency in growth signals, 2—insensitivity to growth-inhibitory (antigrowth) signals, 3—evasion of programmed cell death (apoptosis), 4—limitless replicative potential, 5—sustained angiogenesis, and 6—tissue invasion and metastases) should also include metabolic reprogramming, as the seventh hallmark of cancer. This amendment was already proposed by Tennant et al. in 2009 [27]. In 2006, the review Science published a debate on the controversial views of Warburg theory [28], in support of a more realistic description of cancer cell’s variable bioenergetic profile. The pros think that high glycolysis is an obligatory feature of human tumors, while the cons propose that high glycolysis is not exclusive and that tumors can use OXPHOS to derive energy. A unifying theory closer to reality might consider that OXPHOS and glycolysis cooperate to sustain energy needs along tumorigenesis [20]. The concept of oxidative tumors, against Warburg’s proposal, was introduced by Guppy and colleagues, based on the observation that breast cancer cells can generate 80% of their ATP by the mitochondrion [29]. The comparison of different cancer cell lines and excised tumors revealed a variety of cancer cell’s bioenergetic signatures which raised the question of the mechanisms underlying tumor cell metabolic reprogramming, and the relative contribution of oncogenesis and microenvironment in this process. It is now widely accepted that rapidly growing cancer cells within solid tumors suffer from a lack of oxygen and nutrients as tumor grows. In such situation of compromised energy substrate delivery, cancer cell’s metabolic reprogramming is further used to sustain anabolism (Fig. 1), through the deviation of glycolysis, Krebs cycle truncation and OXPHOS redirection toward lipid and protein synthesis, as needed to support uncontrolled tumor growth and survival [30] and [31]. Again, these features are not exclusive to all tumors, as Krebs cycle truncation was only observed in some cancer cells, while other studies indicated that tumor cells can maintain a complete Krebs cycle [13] in parallel with an active citrate efflux. Likewise, generalizations should be avoided to prevent over-interpretations.
Fig. 1. Energy metabolism at the crossroad between catabolism and anabolism.

Energy metabolism at the crossroad between catabolism and anabolism.

The oncogene C-MYC participate to these changes via the stimulation of glutamine utilization through the coordinate expression of genes necessary for cells to engage in glutamine catabolism [30]. According to Newsholme EA and Board M [32] both glycolysis and glutaminolysis not only serve for ATP production, but also provide precious metabolic intermediates such as glucose-6-phosphate, ammonia and aspartate required for the synthesis of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides (Fig. 1). In this manner, the observed apparent excess in the rates of glycolysis and glutaminolysis as compared to the requirement for energy production could be explained by the need for biosynthetic processes. Yet, one should not reduce the shift from glycolysis to OXPHOS utilization to the sole activation of glutaminolysis, as several other energy substrates can be used by tumor mitochondria to generate ATP [21]. The contribution of these different fuels to ATP synthesis remains poorly investigated in human tumors.

The metabolism of pre-cancer cells and its ongoing modulation by carcinogenesis

At the beginning of cancer, there might have been a cancer stem cell hit by an oncogenic event, such as alterations in mitogen signaling to extracellular growth factor receptors (EGFR), oncogenic activation of these receptors, or oncogenic alterations of downstream targets in the pathways that leads to cell proliferation (RAS–Raf–ERK and PI3K–AKT, both leading to m-TOR activation stimulating cell growth). Alterations of checkpoint genes controlling the cell cycle progression like Rb also participate in cell proliferation (Fig. 2) and this re-entry in the cell cycle implies three major needs to fill in: 1) supplying enough energy to grow and 2) synthesize building blocks de novo and 3) keep vital oxygen and nutrients available. However, the bioenergetic status of the pre-cancer cell could determine in part the evolution of carcinogenesis, as shown on mouse embryonic stem cells. In this study, Schieke et al. showed that mitochondrial energy metabolism modulates both the differentiation and tumor formation capacity of mouse embryonic stem cells [37]. The idea that cancer derives from a single cell, known as the cancer stem cell hypothesis, was introduced by observations performed on leukemia which appeared to be organized as origination from a primitive hematopoietic cell [38]. Nowadays cancer stem cells were discovered for all types of tumors [39], [40], [41] and [42], but little is known of their bioenergetic properties and their metabolic adaptation to the microenvironment. This question is crucial as regards the understanding of what determines the wide variety of cancer cell’s metabolic profile.

Impact of different oncogenes on tumor progression and energy metabolism remodeling.

Fig. 2. Impact of different oncogenes on tumor progression and energy metabolism remodeling.

The analysis of the metabolic changes that occur during the transformation of adult mesenchymal stem cells revealed that these cells did not switch to aerobic glycolysis, but their dependency on OXPHOS was even increased [24]. Hence, mitochondrial energy metabolism could be critical for tumorigenesis, in contrast with Warburg’s hypothesis. As discussed above, the oncogene C-MYC also stimulates OXPHOS [30]. Furthermore, it was recently demonstrated that cells chronically treated with oligomycin repress OXPHOS and produce larger tumors with higher malignancy [19]. Likewise, alteration of OXPHOS by mutations in mtDNA increases tumorigenicity in different types of cancer cells [43], [44] and [45].

Recently, it was proposed that mitochondrial energy metabolism is required to generate reactive oxygen species used for the carcinogenetic process induced by the K-RAS mutation [46]. This could explain the large number of mitochondrial DNA mutations found in several tumors. The analysis of mitochondria in human embryonic cells which derive energy exclusively from anaerobic glycolysis have demonstrated an immature mitochondrial network characterized by few organelles with poorly developed cristae and peri-nuclear distribution [47] and [48]. The generation of human induced pluripotent stem cell by the introduction of different oncogenes as C-MYC and Oct4 reproduced this reduction of mitochondrial OXPHOS capacity[49] and [50]. This indicates again the impact of oncogenes on the control of OXPHOS and might explain the existence of pre-cancer stem cells with different bioenergetic backgrounds, as modeled by variable sequences of oncogene activation. Accordingly, the inhibition of mitochondrial respiratory chain has been recently found associated with enhancement of hESC pluripotency [51].

Based on the experimental evidence discussed above, one can argue that 1) glycolysis is indeed a feature of several tumors and associates with faster growth in high glucose environment, but 2) active OXPHOS is also an important feature of (other) tumors taken at a particular stage of carcinogenesis which might be more advantageous than a “glycolysis-only” type of metabolism in conditions of intermittent shortage in glucose delivery. The metabolic apparatus of cancer cells is not fixed during carcinogenesis and might depend both on the nature of the oncogenes activated and the microenvironment. It was indeed shown that cancer cells with predominant glycolytic metabolism present a higher malignancy when submitted to carcinogenetic induction and analysed under fixed experimental conditions of high glucose [19]. Yet, if one grows these cells in a glucose-deprived medium they shift their metabolism toward predominant OXPHOS, as shown in HeLa cells and other cell types [9]. Therefore, one might conclude that glycolytic cells have a higher propensity to generate aggressive tumors when glucose availability is high. However, these cells can become OXPHOS during tumor progression [24] and [52]. All these observations indicate again the importance of maintaining an active OXPHOS metabolism to permit evolution of both embryogenesis and carcinogenesis, which emphasizes the importance of targeting mitochondria to alter this malignant process.

Oncogenes and the modulation of energy metabolism

Several oncogenes and associated proteins such as HIF-1α, RAS, C-MYC, SRC, and p53 can influence energy substrate utilization by affecting cellular targets, leading to metabolic changes that favor cancer cell survival, independently of the control of cell proliferation. These oncogenes stimulate the enhancement of aerobic glycolysis, and an increasing number of studies demonstrate that at least some of them can also target directly the OXPHOS machinery, as discussed in this article (Fig. 2). For instance, C-MYC can concurrently drive aerobic glycolysis and/or OXPHOS according to the tumor cell microenvironment, via the expression of glycolytic genes or the activation of mitochondrial oxidation of glutamine [53]. The oncogene RAS has been shown to increase OXPHOS activity in early transformed cells [24], [52] and [54] and p53 modulates OXPHOS capacity via the regulation of cytochrome c oxidase assembly [55]. Hence, carcinogenic p53 deficiency results in a decreased level of COX2 and triggers a shift toward anaerobic metabolism. In this case, lactate synthesis is increased, but cellular ATP levels remain stable [56]. The p53-inducible isoform of phosphofructokinase, termed TP53-induced glycolysis and apoptotic regulator, TIGAR, a predominant phosphatase activity isoform of PFK-2, has also been identified as an important regulator of energy metabolism in tumors [57].

Tumor specific isoforms (or mutated forms) of energy genes

Tumors are generally characterized by a modification of the glycolytic system where the level of some glycolytic enzymes is increased, some fetal-like isozymes with different kinetic and regulatory properties are produced, and the reverse and back-reactions of the glycolysis are strongly reduced [60]. The GAPDH marker of the glycolytic pathway is also increased in breast, gastric, lung, kidney and colon tumors [18], and the expression of glucose transporter GLUT1 is elevated in most cancer cells. The group of Cuezva J.M. developed the concept of cancer bioenergetic signature and of bioenergetic index to describe the metabolic profile of cancer cells and tumors [18], [61], [64], [65]. This signature describes the changes in the expression level of proteins involved in glycolysis and OXPHOS, while the BEC index gives a ratio of OXPHOS protein content to glycolytic protein content, in good correlation with cancer prognostic[61]. Recently, this group showed that the beta-subunit of the mitochondrial F₁F₀-ATP synthase is downregulated in a large number of tumors, thus contributing to the Warburg effect [64] and [65]. It was also shown that IF1 expression levels were increased in hepatocellular carcinomas, possibly to prevent the hydrolysis of glytolytic ATP [66]. Numerous changes occur at the level of OXPHOS and mitochondrial biogenesis in human tumors, as we reviewed previously [67]. Yet the actual impact of these changes in OXPHOS protein expression level or catalytic activities remains to be evaluated on the overall fluxes of respiration and ATP synthesis. Indeed, the metabolic control analysis and its extension indicate that it is often required to inhibit activity beyond a threshold of 70–85% to affect the metabolic fluxes [68] and [69]. Another important feature of cancer cells is the higher level of hexokinase II bound to mitochondrial membrane (50% in tumor cells). A study performed on human gliomas (brain) estimated the mitochondrial bound HK fraction (mHK) at 69% of total, as compared to 9% for normal brain [70]. This is consistent with the 5-fold amplification of the type II HK gene observed by Rempel et al. in the rapidly growing rat AS-30D hepatoma cell line, relative to normal hepatocytes [71]. HK_II subcellular fractionation in cancer cells was described in several studies [72], [73] and [74]. The group led by Pete Pedersen explained that mHK contributes to (i) the high glycolytic capacity by utilizing mitochondrially regenerated ATP rather than cytosolic ATP (nucleotide channelling) and (ii) the lowering of OXPHOS capacity by limiting Pi and ADP delivery to the organelle [75] and [76].

All these observations are consistent with the increased rate of FDG uptake observed by PET in living tumors which could result from both an increase in glucose transport, and/or an increase in hexokinase activity. However, FDG is not a complete substrate for glycolysis (it is only transformed into FDG-6P by hexokinase before to be eliminated) and cannot be used to evidence a general increase in the glycolytic flux. Moreover, FDG-PET scan also gives false positive and false negative results, indicating that some tumors do not depend on, or do not have, an increased glycolytic capacity. The fast glycolytic system described above is further accommodated in cancer cells by an increase in the lactate dehydrogenase isoform A (LDH-A) expression level. This isoform presents a higher Vmax useful to prevent the inhibition of high glycolysis by its end product (pyruvate) accumulation. Recently, Fantin et al. showed that inhibition of LDH-A in tumors diminishes tumorigenicity and was associated with the stimulation of mitochondrial respiration [79]. The preferential expression of the glycolytic pyruvate kinase isoenzyme M2 (PKM2) in tumor cells, determines whether glucose is converted to lactate for regeneration of energy (active tetrameric form, Warburg effect) or used for the synthesis of cell building blocks (nearly inactive dimeric form) [80]. In the last five years, mutations in proteins of the respiratory system (SDH, FH) and of the TCA cycle (IDH1,2) leading to the accumulation of metabolite and the subsequent activation of HIF-1α were reported in a variety of human tumors [81], [82] and [83].

Tumor microenvironment modulates cancer cell’s bioenergetics

It was extensively described how hypoxia activates HIF-1α which stimulates in turn the expression of several glycolytic enzymes such as HK2, PFK, PGM, enolase, PK, LDH-A, MCT4 and glucose transporters Glut 1 and Glut 3. It was also shown that HIF-1α can reduce OXPHOS capacity by inhibiting mitochondrial biogenesis [14] and [15], PDH activity [87] and respiratory chain activity [88]. The low efficiency and uneven distribution of the vascular system surrounding solid tumors can lead to abrupt changes in oxygen (intermittent hypoxia) but also energy substrate delivery. .. The removal of glucose, or the inhibition of glycolysis by iodoacetate led to a switch toward glutamine utilization without delay followed by a rapid decrease in acid release. This illustrates once again how tumors and human cancer cell lines can utilize alternative energy pathway such as glutaminolysis to deal with glucose limitation, provided the presence of oxygen. It was also observed that in situations of glucose limitation, tumor derived-cells can adapt to survive by using exclusively an oxidative energy substrate [9] and [10]. This is typically associated with an enhancement of the OXPHOS system. … In summary, cancer cells can survive by using exclusively OXPHOS for ATP production, by altering significantly mitochondrial composition and form to facilitate optimal use of the available substrate (Fig. 3). Yet, glucose is needed to feed the pentose phosphate pathway and generate ribose essential for nucleotide biosynthesis. This raises the question of how cancer cells can survive in the growth medium which do not contain glucose (so-called “galactose medium” with dialysed serum [9]). In the OXPHOS mode, pyruvate, glutamate and aspartate can be derived from glutamine, as glutaminolysis can replenish Krebs cycle metabolic pool and support the synthesis of alanine and NADPH [31]. Glutamine is a major source for oxaloacetate (OAA) essential for citrate synthesis. Moreover, the conversion of glutamine to pyruvate is associated with the reduction of NADP+ to NADPH by malic enzyme. Such NADPH is a required electron donor for reductive steps in lipid synthesis, nucleotide metabolism and GSH reduction. In glioblastoma cells the malic enzyme flux was estimated to be high enough to supply all of the reductive power needed for lipid synthesis [31].

Fig. 3. Interplay between energy metabolism, oncogenes and tumor microenvironment during tumorigenesis (the “metabolic wave model”).

Interplay between energy metabolism, oncogenes and tumor microenvironment

While the mechanisms leading to the enhancement of glycolytic capacity in tumors are well documented, less is known about the parallel OXPHOS changes. Both phenomena could result from a selection of pre-malignant cells forced to survive under hypoxia and limited glucose delivery, followed by an adaptation to intermittent hypoxia, pseudo-hypoxia, substrate limitation and acidic environment. This hypothesis was first proposed by Gatenby and Gillies to explain the high glycolytic phenotype of tumors [91], [92] and [93], but several lines of evidence suggest that it could also be used to explain the mitochondrial modifications observed in cancer cells.

Aerobic glycolysis and mitochondria cooperate during cancer progression

Metabolic flexibility considers the possibility for a given cell to alternate between glycolysis and OXPHOS in response to physiological needs. Louis Pasteur found that in most mammalian cells the rate of glycolysis decreases significantly in the presence of oxygen (Pasteur effect). Moreover, energy metabolism of normal cell can vary widely according to the tissue of origin, as we showed with the comparison of five rat tissues[94]. During stem cell differentiation, cell proliferation induces a switch from OXPHOS to aerobic glycolysis which might generate ATP more rapidly, as demonstrated in HepG2 cells [95] or in non-cancer cells[96] and [97]. Thus, normal cellular energy metabolism can adapt widely according to the activity of the cell and its surrounding microenvironment (energy substrate availability and diversity). Support for this view came from numerous studies showing that in vitro growth conditions can alter energy metabolism contributing to a dependency on glycolysis for ATP production [98].

Yet, Zu and Guppy analysed numerous studies and showed that aerobic glycolysis is not inherent to cancer but more a consequence of hypoxia[99].

Table 1. Impact of different oncogenes on energy metabolism

Impact of different oncogenes on energy metabolism.

2.1.2.5 Mitohormesis

Yun J, Finkel T
Cell Metab May 2014; 19(5):757–766
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2014.01.011

For many years, mitochondria were viewed as semiautonomous organelles, required only for cellular energetics. This view has been largely supplanted by the concept that mitochondria are fully integrated into the cell and that mitochondrial stresses rapidly activate cytosolic signaling pathways that ultimately alter nuclear gene expression. Remarkably, this coordinated response to mild mitochondrial stress appears to leave the cell less susceptible to subsequent perturbations. This response, termed mitohormesis, is being rapidly dissected in many model organisms. A fuller understanding of mitohormesis promises to provide insight into our susceptibility for disease and potentially provide a unifying hypothesis for why we age.

Figure 1. The Basis of Mitohormesis. Any of a number of endogenous or exogenous stresses can perturb mitochondrial function. These perturbations are relayed to the cytosol through, at present, poorly understood mechanisms that may involve mitochondrial ROS as well as other mediators. These cytoplasmic signaling pathways and subsequent nuclear transcriptional changes induce various long-lasting cytoprotective pathways. This augmented stress resistance allows for protection from a wide array of subsequent stresses.

Figure 2. Potential Parallels between the Mitochondrial Unfolded Protein Response and Quorum Sensing in Gram-Positive Bacteria. In the C. elegans UPRmt response, mitochondrial proteins (indicated by blue swirls) are degraded by matrix proteases, and the oligopeptides that are generated are then exported through the ABC transporter family member HAF-1. Once in the cytosol, these peptides can inﬂuence the subcellular localization of the transcription factor ATFS-1. Nuclear ATFS-1 is capable of orchestrating a broad transcriptional response to mitochondrial stress. As such, this pathway establishes a method for mitochondrial and nuclear genomes to communicate. In some gram-positive bacteria, intracellularly generated peptides can be similarly exported through an ABC transporter protein. These peptides can be detected in the environment by a membrane-bound histidine kinases (HK) sensor. The activation of the HK sensor leads to phosphorylation of a response regulator (RR) protein that, in turn, can alter gene expression. This program allows communication between dispersed gram-positive bacteria and thus coordinated behavior of widely dispersed bacterial genomes.

Figure 3. The Complexity of Mitochondrial Stresses and Responses. A wide array of extrinsic and intrinsic mitochondrial perturbations can elicit cellular responses. As detailed in the text, genetic or pharmacological disruption of electron transport, incorrect folding of mitochondrial proteins, stalled mitochondrial ribosomes, alterations in signaling pathways, or exposure to toxins all appear to elicit speciﬁc cytoprotective programs within the cell. These adaptive responses include increased mitochondrial number (biogenesis), alterations in metabolism, increased antioxidant defenses, and augmented protein chaperone expression. The cumulative effect of these adaptive mechanisms might be an extension of lifespan and a decreased incidence of age-related pathologies.

2.1.2.6 Mitochondrial function and energy metabolism in cancer cells. Past overview and future perspectives

Mayevsky A
Mitochondrion. 2009 Jun; 9(3):165-79
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.mito.2009.01.009

The involvements of energy metabolism aspects of mitochondrial dysfunction in cancer development, proliferation and possible therapy, have been investigated since Otto Warburg published his hypothesis. The main published material on cancer cell energy metabolism is overviewed and a new unique in vivo experimental approach that may have significant impact in this important field is suggested. The monitoring system provides real time data, reflecting mitochondrial NADH redox state and microcirculation function. This approach of in vivo monitoring of tissue viability could be used to test the efficacy and side effects of new anticancer drugs in animal models. Also, the same technology may enable differentiation between normal and tumor tissues in experimental animals and maybe also in patients.

Energy metabolism in mammalian cells

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of cellular energy metabolism and its relationship to microcirculatory blood ﬂow and hemoglobin oxygenation.

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the central role of the mitochondrion in the various processes involved in the pathology of cancer cells and tumors. Six issues marked as 1–6 are discussed in details in the text.

In vivo monitoring of tissue energy metabolism in mammalian cells

Fig. 3. Schematic presentation of the six parameters that could be monitored for the evaluation of tissue energy metabolism (see text for details).

Optical spectroscopy of tissue energy metabolism in vivo

Multiparametric monitoring system

Fig. 4. (A) Schematic representation of the Time Sharing Fluorometer Reﬂectometer (TSFR) combined with the laser Doppler ﬂowmeter (D) for blood ﬂow monitoring. The time sharing system includes a wheel that rotates at a speed of3000 rpm wit height ﬁlters: four for the measurements of mitochondrial NADH(366 nm and 450 nm)and four for oxy-hemoglobin measurements (585 nm and 577 nm) as seen in (C). The source of light is a mercury lamp. The probe includes optical ﬁbers for NADH excitation (Ex) and emission (Em), laser Doppler excitation (LD in), laser Doppler emission (LD out) as seen in part E The absorption spectrum of Oxy- and Deoxy- Hemoglobin indicating the two wave length used (C).

Fig. 7. Comparison between mitochondrial metabolic states in vitro and the typical tissue metabolic states in vivo evaluated by NADH redox state, tissue blood ﬂow and hemoglobin oxygenation as could be measured by the suggested monitoring system.

(very important)

2.1.2.7 Metabolic Reprogramming. Cancer Hallmark Even Warburg Did Not Anticipate

Ward PS, Thompson CB.
Cancer Cell 2012; 21(3):297-308
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2012.02.014

Cancer metabolism has long been equated with aerobic glycolysis, seen by early biochemists as primitive and inefficient. Despite these early beliefs, the metabolic signatures of cancer cells are not passive responses to damaged mitochondria but result from oncogene-directed metabolic reprogramming required to support anabolic growth. Recent evidence suggests that metabolites themselves can be oncogenic by altering cell signaling and blocking cellular differentiation. No longer can cancer-associated alterations in metabolism be viewed as an indirect response to cell proliferation and survival signals. We contend that altered metabolism has attained the status of a core hallmark of cancer.

The propensity for proliferating cells to secrete a significant fraction of glucose carbon through fermentation was first elucidated in yeast. Otto Warburg extended these observations to mammalian cells, finding that proliferating ascites tumor cells converted the majority of their glucose carbon to lactate, even in oxygen-rich conditions. Warburg hypothesized that this altered metabolism was specific to cancer cells, and that it arose from mitochondrial defects that inhibited their ability to effectively oxidize glucose carbon to CO2. An extension of this hypothesis was that dysfunctional mitochondria caused cancer (Koppenol et al., 2011). Warburg’s seminal finding has been observed in a wide variety of cancers. These observations have been exploited clinically using 18F-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG-PET). However, in contrast to Warburg’s original hypothesis, damaged mitochondria are not at the root of the aerobic glycolysis exhibited by most tumor cells. Most tumor mitochondria are not defective in their ability to carry out oxidative phosphorylation. Instead, in proliferating cells mitochondrial metabolism is reprogrammed to meet the challenges of macromolecular synthesis. This possibility was never considered by Warburg and his contemporaries.

Advances in cancer metabolism research over the last decade have enhanced our understanding of how aerobic glycolysis and other metabolic alterations observed in cancer cells support the anabolic requirements associated with cell growth and proliferation. It has become clear that anabolic metabolism is under complex regulatory control directed by growth factor signal transduction in non-transformed cells. Yet despite these advances, the repeated refrain from traditional biochemists is that altered metabolism is merely an indirect phenomenon in cancer, a secondary effect that pales in importance to the activation of primary proliferation and survival signals (Hanahan and Weinberg, 2011). Most proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes encode components of signal transduction pathways. Their roles in carcinogenesis have traditionally been attributed to their ability to regulate the cell cycle and sustain proliferative signaling while also helping cells evade growth suppression and/or cell death (Hanahan and Weinberg, 2011). But evidence for an alternative concept, that the primary functions of activated oncogenes and inactivated tumor suppressors are to reprogram cellular metabolism, has continued to build over the past several years. Evidence is also developing for the proposal that proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressors primarily evolved to regulate metabolism.

We begin this review by discussing how proliferative cell metabolism differs from quiescent cell metabolism on the basis of active metabolic reprogramming by oncogenes and tumor suppressors. Much of this reprogramming depends on utilizing mitochondria as functional biosynthetic organelles. We then further develop the idea that altered metabolism is a primary feature selected for during tumorigenesis. Recent advances have demonstrated that altered metabolism in cancer extends beyond adaptations to meet the increased anabolic requirements of a growing and dividing cell. Changes in cancer cell metabolism can also influence cellular differentiation status, and in some cases these changes arise from oncogenic alterations in metabolic enzymes themselves.

Metabolism in quiescent vs. proliferating cells: both use mitochondria.
(A) In the absence of instructional growth factor signaling, cells in multicellular organisms lack the ability to take up sufficient nutrients to maintain themselves. Neglected cells will undergo autophagy and catabolize amino acids and lipids through the TCA cycle, assuming sufficient oxygen is available. This oxidative metabolism maximizes ATP production. (B) Cells that receive instructional growth factor signaling are directed to increase their uptake of nutrients, most notably glucose and glutamine. The increased nutrient uptake can then support the anabolic requirements of cell growth: mainly lipid, protein, and nucleotide synthesis (biomass). Excess carbon is secreted as lactate. Proliferating cells may also use strategies to decrease their ATP production while increasing their ATP consumption. These strategies maintain the ADP:ATP ratio necessary to maintain glycolytic flux. Green arrows represent metabolic pathways, while black arrows represent signaling.

Metabolism is a direct, not indirect, response to growth factor signaling nihms-360138-f0002

Metabolism is a direct, not indirect, response to growth factor signaling.
(A) The traditional demand-based model of how metabolism is altered in proliferating cells. In response to growth factor signaling, increased transcription and translation consume free energy and decrease the ADP:ATP ratio. This leads to enhanced flux of glucose carbon through glycolysis and the TCA cycle for the purpose of producing more ATP. (B) Supply-based model of how metabolism changes in proliferating cells. Growth factor signaling directly reprograms nutrient uptake and metabolism. Increased nutrient flux through glycolysis and the mitochondria in response to growth factor signaling is used for biomass production. Metabolism also impacts transcription and translation through mechanisms independent of ATP availability.

Alterations in classic oncogenes directly reprogram cell metabolism to increase nutrient uptake and biosynthesis. PI3K/Akt signaling downstream of receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) activation increases glucose uptake through the transporter GLUT1, and increases flux through glycolysis. Branches of glycolytic metabolism contribute to nucleotide and amino acid synthesis. Akt also activates ATP-citrate lyase (ACL), promoting the conversion of mitochondria-derived citrate to acetyl-CoA for lipid synthesis. Mitochondrial citrate can be synthesized when glucose-derived acetyl-CoA, generated by pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), condenses with glutamine-derived oxaloacetate (OAA) via the activity of citrate synthase (CS). mTORC1 promotes protein synthesis and mitochondrial metabolism. Myc increases glutamine uptake and the conversion of glutamine into a mitochondrial carbon source by promoting the expression of the enzyme glutaminase (GLS). Myc also promotes mitochondrial biogenesis. In addition, Myc promotes nucleotide and amino acid synthesis, both through direct transcriptional regulation and through increasing the synthesis of mitochondrial metabolite precursors.

Pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) expression in proliferating cells is regulated by signaling and mitochondrial metabolism to facilitate macromolecular synthesis. PKM2 is a less active isoform of the terminal glycolytic enzyme pyruvate kinase. It is also uniquely inhibited downstream of tyrosine kinase signaling. The decreased enzymatic activity of PKM2 in the cytoplasm promotes the accumulation of upstream glycolytic intermediates and their shunting into anabolic pathways. These pathways include the serine synthetic pathway that contributes to nucleotide and amino acid production. When mitochondrial metabolism is excessive, reactive oxygen species (ROS) from the mitochondria can feedback to inhibit PKM2 activity. Acetylation of PKM2, dependent on acetyl-CoA availability, may also promote PKM2 degradation and further contribute to increased flux through anabolic synthesis pathways branching off glycolysis.

IDH1 and IDH2 mutants convert glutamine carbon to the oncometabolite 2-hydroxyglutarate to dysregulate epigenetics and cell differentiation. (A) α-ketoglutarate, produced in part by wild-type isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH), can enter the nucleus and be used as a substrate for dioxygenase enzymes that modify epigenetic marks. These enzymes include the TET2 DNA hydroxylase enzyme which converts 5-methylcytosine to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, typically at CpG dinucleotides. 5-hydroxymethylcytosine may be an intermediate in either active or passive DNA demethylation. α-ketoglutarate is also a substrate for JmjC domain histone demethylase enzymes that demethylate lysine residues on histone tails. (B) The common feature of cancer-associated mutations in cytosolic IDH1 and mitochondrial IDH2 is the acquisition of a neomorphic enzymatic activity. This activity converts glutamine-derived α-ketoglutarate to the oncometabolite 2HG. 2HG can competitively inhibit α-ketoglutarate-dependent enzymes like TET2 and the JmjC histone demethylases, thereby impairing normal epigenetic regulation. This results in altered histone methylation marks, in some cases DNA hypermethylation at CpG islands, and dysregulated cellular differentiation.

Hypoxia and HIF-1 activation promote an alternative pathway for citrate synthesis through reductive metabolism of glutamine. (A) In proliferating cells under normoxic conditions, citrate is synthesized from both glucose and glutamine. Glucose carbon provides acetyl-CoA through the activity of PDH. Glutamine carbon provides oxaloacetate through oxidative mitochondrial metabolism dependent on NAD+. Glucose-derived acetyl-CoA and glutamine-derived oxaloacetate condense to form citrate via the activity of citrate synthase (CS). Citrate can be exported to the cytosol for lipid synthesis. (B) In cells proliferating in hypoxia and/or with HIF-1 activation, glucose is diverted away from mitochondrial acetyl-CoA and citrate production. Citrate can be maintained through an alternative pathway of reductive carboxylation, which we propose to rely on reverse flux of glutamine-derived α-ketoglutarate through IDH2. This reverse flux in the mitochondria would promote electron export from the mitochondria when the activity of the electron transport chain is inhibited because of the lack of oxygen as an electron acceptor. Mitochondrial reverse flux can be accomplished by NADH conversion to NADPH by mitochondrial transhydrogenase and the resulting NADPH use in α-ketoglutarate carboxylation. When citrate/isocitrate is exported to the cytosol, some may be metabolized in the oxidative direction by IDH1 and contribute to a shuttle that produces cytosolic NADPH.

A major paradox remaining with PKM2 is that cells expressing PKM2 produce more glucose-derived pyruvate than PKM1-expressing cells, despite having a form of the pyruvate kinase enzyme that is less active and more sensitive to inhibition. One way to get around the PKM2 bottleneck and maintain/enhance pyruvate production may be through an proposed alternative glycolytic pathway, involving an enzymatic activity not yet purified, that dephosphorylates PEP to pyruvate without the generation of ATP (Vander Heiden et al., 2010). Another answer to this paradox may emanate from the serine synthetic pathway. The decreased enzymatic activity of PKM2 can promote the accumulation of the 3-phosphoglycerate glycolytic intermediate that serves as the entry point for the serine synthetic pathway branch off glycolysis. The little studied enzyme serine dehydratase can then directly convert serine to pyruvate. A third explanation may lie in the oscillatory activity of PKM2 from the inactive dimer to active tetramer form. Regulatory inputs into PKM2 like tyrosine phosphorylation and ROS destabilize the tetrameric form of PKM2 (Anastasiou et al., 2011; Christofk et al., 2008b; Hitosugi et al., 2009), but other inputs present in glycolytic cancer cells like fructose-1,6-bisphosphate and serine can continually allosterically activate and/or promote reformation of the PKM2 tetramer (Ashizawa et al., 1991; Eigenbrodt et al., 1983). Thus, PKM2 may be continually switching from inactive to active forms in cells, resulting in an apparent upregulation of flux through anabolic glycolytic branching pathways while also maintaining reasonable net flux of glucose carbon through PEP to pyruvate. With such an oscillatory system, small changes in the levels of any of the above-mentioned PKM2 regulatory inputs can cause exquisite, rapid, adjustments to glycolytic flux. This would be predicted to be advantageous for proliferating cells in the setting of variable extracellular nutrient availability. The capability for oscillatory regulation of PKM2 could also provide an explanation for why tumor cells do not select for altered glycolytic metabolism upstream of PKM2 through deletions and/or loss of function mutations of other glycolytic enzymes.

IDH1 mutations at R132 are not simply loss-of-function for isocitrate and α-ketoglutarate interconversion, but also acquire a novel reductive activity to convert α-ketoglutarate to 2-hydroxyglutarate (2HG), a rare metabolite found at only trace amounts in mammalian cells under normal conditions (Dang et al., 2009). However, it still remained unclear if 2HG was truly a pathogenic “oncometabolite” resulting from IDH1 mutation, or if it was just the byproduct of a loss of function mutation. Whether 2HG production or the loss of IDH1 normal function played a more important role in tumorigenesis remained uncertain.

A potential answer to whether 2HG production was relevant to tumorigenesis arrived with the study of mutations in IDH2, the mitochondrial homolog of IDH1. Up to this point a small fraction of gliomas lacking IDH1 mutations were known to harbor mutations at IDH2 R172, the analogous residue to IDH1 R132 (Yan et al., 2009). However, given the rarity of these IDH2 mutations, they had not been characterized for 2HG production. The discovery of IDH2 R172 mutations in AML as well as glioma samples prompted the study of whether these mutations also conferred the reductive enzymatic activity to produce 2HG. Enzymatic assays and measurement of 2HG levels in primary AML samples confirmed that these IDH2 R172 mutations result in 2HG elevation (Gross et al., 2010; Ward et al., 2010).

It was then investigated if the measurement of 2HG levels in primary tumor samples with unknown IDH mutation status could serve as a metabolite screening test for both cytosolic IDH1 and mitochondrial IDH2 mutations. AML samples with low to undetectable 2HG were subsequently sequenced and determined to be IDH1 and IDH2 wild-type, and several samples with elevated 2HG were found to have neomorphic mutations at either IDH1 R132 or IDH2 R172 (Gross et al., 2010). However, some 2HG-elevated AML samples lacked IDH1 R132 or IDH2 R172 mutations. When more comprehensive sequencing of IDH1 and IDH2 was performed, it was found that the common feature of this remaining subset of 2HG-elevated AMLs was another mutation in IDH2, occurring at R140 (Ward et al., 2010). This discovery provided additional evidence that 2HG production was the primary feature being selected for in tumors.

In addition to intensifying efforts to find the cellular targets of 2HG, the discovery of the 2HG-producing IDH1 and IDH2 mutations suggested that 2HG measurement might have clinical utility in diagnosis and disease monitoring. While much work is still needed in this area, serum 2HG levels have successfully correlated with IDH1 R132 mutations in AML, and recent data have suggested that 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy can be applied for 2HG detection in vivo for glioma (Andronesi et al., 2012; Choi et al., 2012; Gross et al., 2010; Pope et al., 2012). These methods may have advantages over relying on invasive solid tumor biopsies or isolating leukemic blast cells to obtain material for sequencing of IDH1 and IDH2. Screening tumors and body fluids by 2HG status also has potentially increased applicability given the recent report that additional IDH mutations can produce 2HG (Ward et al., 2011). These additional alleles may account for the recently described subset of 2HG-elevated chondrosarcoma samples that lacked the most common IDH1 or IDH2 mutations but were not examined for other IDH alterations (Amary et al., 2011). Metabolite screening approaches can also distinguish neomorphic IDH mutations from SNPs and sequencing artifacts with no effect on IDH enzyme activity, as well as from an apparently rare subset of loss-of-function, non 2HG-producing IDH mutations that may play a secondary tumorigenic role in altering cellular redox (Ward et al., 2011).

Will we find other novel oncometabolites like 2HG? We should consider basing the search for new oncometabolites on those metabolites already known to cause disease in pediatric inborn errors of metabolism (IEMs). 2HG exemplifies how advances in research on IEMs can inform research on cancer metabolism, and vice versa. Methods developed by those studying 2HG aciduria were used to demonstrate that R(-)-2HG (also known as D-2HG) is the exclusive 2HG stereoisomer produced by IDH1 and IDH2 mutants (Dang et al., 2009; Ward et al., 2010). Likewise, following the discovery of 2HG-producing IDH2 R140 mutations in leukemia, researchers looked for and successfully found germline IDH2 R140 mutations in D-2HG aciduria. IDH2 R140 mutations now account for nearly half of all cases of this devastating disease (Kranendijk et al., 2010). While interest has surrounded 2HG due to its apparent novelty as a metabolite not found in normal non-diseased cells, there are situations where 2HG appears in the absence of metabolic enzyme mutations. For example, in human cells proliferating in hypoxia, α-ketoglutarate can accumulate and be metabolized through an enhanced reductive activity of wild-type IDH2 in the mitochondria, leading to 2HG accumulation in the absence of IDH mutation (Wise et al., 2011). The ability of 2HG to alter epigenetics may reflect its evolutionary ancient status as a signal for elevated glutamine/glutamate metabolism and/or oxygen deficiency.

With this broadened view of what constitutes an oncometabolite, one could argue that the discoveries of two other oncometabolites, succinate and fumarate, preceded that of 2HG. Loss of function mutations in the TCA cycle enzymes succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) and fumarate hydratase (FH) have been known for several years to occur in pheochromocytoma, paraganglioma, leiomoyoma, and renal carcinoma. It was initially hypothesized that these mutations contribute to cancer through mitochondrial damage producing elevated ROS (Eng et al., 2003). However, potential tumorigenic effects were soon linked to the elevated levels of succinate and fumarate arising from loss of SDH and FH function, respectively. Succinate was initially found to impair PHD2, the α-ketoglutarate-dependent enzyme regulating HIF stability, through product inhibition (Selak et al., 2005). Subsequent work confirmed that fumarate could inhibit PHD2 (Isaacs et al., 2005), and that succinate could also inhibit the related enzyme PHD3 (Lee et al., 2005). These observations linked the elevated HIF levels observed in SDH and FH deficient tumors to the activity of the succinate and fumarate metabolites. Recent work has suggested that fumarate may have other important roles that predominate in FH deficiency. For example, fumarate can modify cysteine residues to inhibit a negative regulator of the Nrf2 transcription factor. This post-translational modification leads to the upregulation of antioxidant response genes (Adam et al., 2011; Ooi et al., 2011).

There are still many unanswered questions regarding the biology of SDH and FH deficient tumors. In light of the emerging epigenetic effects of 2HG, it is intriguing that succinate has been shown to alter histone demethylase activity in yeast (Smith et al., 2007). Perhaps elevated succinate and fumarate resulting from SDH and FH mutations can promote tumorigenesis in part through epigenetic modulation.

Despite rapid technological advances in studying cell metabolism, we remain unable to reliably distinguish cytosolic metabolites from those in the mitochondria and other compartments. Current fractionation methods often lead to metabolite leakage. Even within one subcellular compartment, there may be distinct pools of metabolites resulting from channeling between metabolic enzymes. A related challenge lies in the quantitative measurement of metabolic flux; i.e., measuring the movement of carbon, nitrogen, and other atoms through metabolic pathways rather than simply measuring the steady-state levels of individual metabolites. While critical fluxes have been quantified in cultured cancer cells and methods for these analyses continue to improve (DeBerardinis et al., 2007; Mancuso et al., 2004; Yuan et al., 2008), many obstacles remain such as cellular compartmentalization and the reliance of most cell culture on complex, incompletely defined media.

Over the past decade, the study of metabolism has returned to its rightful place at the forefront of cancer research. Although Warburg was wrong about mitochondria, he was prescient in his focus on metabolism. Data now support the concepts that altered metabolism results from active reprogramming by altered oncogenes and tumor suppressors, and that metabolic adaptations can be clonally selected during tumorigenesis. Altered metabolism should now be considered a core hallmark of cancer. There is much work to be done.

2.1.2.8 A Role for the Mitochondrial Pyruvate Carrier as a Repressor of the Warburg Effect and Colon Cancer Cell Growth

Schell JC, Olson KA, …, Xie J, Egnatchik RA, Earl EG, DeBerardinis RJ, Rutter J.
Mol Cell. 2014 Nov 6; 56(3):400-13
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.molcel.2014.09.026

Cancer cells are typically subject to profound metabolic alterations, including the Warburg effect wherein cancer cells oxidize a decreased fraction of the pyruvate generated from glycolysis. We show herein that the mitochondrial pyruvate carrier (MPC), composed of the products of the MPC1 and MPC2 genes, modulates fractional pyruvate oxidation. MPC1 is deleted or underexpressed in multiple cancers and correlates with poor prognosis. Cancer cells re-expressing MPC1 and MPC2 display increased mitochondrial pyruvate oxidation, with no changes in cell growth in adherent culture. MPC re-expression exerted profound effects in anchorage-independent growth conditions, however, including impaired colony formation in soft agar, spheroid formation, and xenograft growth. We also observed a decrease in markers of stemness and traced the growth effects of MPC expression to the stem cell compartment. We propose that reduced MPC activity is an important aspect of cancer metabolism, perhaps through altering the maintenance and fate of stem cells.

Figure 2. Re-Expressed MPC1 and MPC2 Form a Mitochondrial Complex (A and B) (A) Western blot and (B) qRT-PCR analysis of the indicated colon cancer cell lines with retroviral expression of MPC1 (or MPC1-R97W) and/or MPC2. (C) Western blots of human heart tissue, hematologic cancer cells, and colon cancer cell lines with and without MPC1 and MPC2 re-expression. (D) Fluorescence microscopy of MPC1-GFP and MPC2-GFP overlaid with Mitotracker Red in HCT15 cells. Scale bar: 10 mm. (E) Blue-native PAGE analysis of mitochondria from control and MPC1/2-expressing cells. (F) Western blots of metabolic and mitochondrial proteins across four colon cancer cell lines with or without MPC1/2 expression

Figure 3. MPC Re-Expression Alters Mitochondrial Pyruvate Metabolism (A) OCR at baseline and maximal respiration in HCT15 (n = 7) and HT29 (n = 13) with pyruvate as the sole carbon source (mean ± SEM). (B and C) Schematic and citrate mass isotopomer quantiﬁcation in cells cultured with D-[U-13C]glucose and unlabeled glutamine for 6 hr (mean ± SD, n = 2). (D) Glucose uptake and lactate secretion normalized to protein concentration (mean ± SD, n = 3). (E–G) (E) Western blots of PDH, phospho-PDH, and PDK1; (F) PDH activity assay and (G) CS activity assay with or without MPC1 and MPC2 expression (mean ± SD, n = 4). (H and I) Effects of MPC1/2 re-expression on mitochondrial membrane potential and ROS production (mean ± SD, n = 3). *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; ****p < 0.0001.

Figure 4. MPC Re-Expression Alters Growth under Low-Attachment Conditions (A) Cell number of control and MPC1/2 re-expressing cell lines in adherent culture (mean ± SD, n = 7). (B) Cell viability determined by trypan blue exclusion and Annexin V/PI staining (mean ± SD, n = 3). (C–F) (C) EdU incorporation of MPC re-expressing cell lines at 3 hr post EdU pulse. Growth in 3D culture evaluated by (D) soft agar colony formation (mean ± SD, n = 12, see also Table S1) and by ([E] and [F]) spheroid formation ± MPC inhibitor UK5099 (mean ± SEM, n = 12). *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; ****p < 0.0001.

Figure 7. MPC Re-Expression Alters the Cancer Initiating Cell Population (A) Western blot quantiﬁcation of ALDHA and Lin28A from control or MPC re-expressing HT29 xenografts (mean ± SEM, n = 10). (B and C) Percentage of ALDHhi (n = 3) and CD44hi (n = 5) cells as determined by ﬂow cytometry (mean ± SEM). (D) Western blot analysis of stem cell markers in control and MPC re-expressing cell lines. (E) Relative MPC1 and MPC2 mRNA levels in ALDH sorted HCT15 cells (n = 4,mean ± SEM). 2D growth of (F) whole-population HCT15 cells and (G) ALDH sorted cells. Area determined by ImageJ after crystal violet staining (mean ± SD, n = 6). (H and I) (H) Adherent and (I) spheroid growth of main population (MP) versus side population (SP) HCT15 cells. (mean ± SD, n = 6). *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; ****p < 0.0001

Our demonstration that the MPC is lost or underexpressed in many cancers might provide clarifying context for earlier attempts to exploit metabolic regulation for cancer therapeutics. The PDH kinase inhibitor dichloroacetate, which impairs PDH phosphorylation and increases pyruvate oxidation, has been explored extensively as a cancer therapy (Bonnet et al., 2007; Olszewski et al., 2010). It has met with mixed results, however, and has typically failed to dramatically decrease tumor burden as a monotherapy (Garon et al., 2014;
Sanchez-Arago et al., 2010; Shahrzadetal.,2010). Is one possible reason for these failures that the MPC has been lost or inactivated, thereby limiting the metabolic effects of PDH activity? The inclusion of the MPC adds additional complexity to targeting cancer metabolism for therapy but has the potential to explain why treatments may be more effective in some studies than in others (Fulda et al., 2010; Hamanaka and Chandel, 2012; Tennant et al., 2010; Vander Heiden, 2011). The redundant measures to limit pyruvate oxidation make it easy to understand why expression of the MPC leads to relatively modest metabolic changes in cells grown in adherent culture conditions. While subtle, we observed a number of changes in metabolic parameters, all of which are consistent with enhanced mitochondrial pyruvate entry and oxidation. There are at least two possible explanations for the discrepancy that we observed between the impact on adherent and nonadherent cell proliferation. One hypothesis is that the stress of nutrient deprivation and detachment combines with these subtle metabolic effects to impair survival and proliferation.

2.1.2.9 ECM1 promotes the Warburg effect through EGF-mediated activation of PKM2

Lee KM, Nam K, Oh S, Lim J, Lee T, Shin I.
Cell Signal. 2015 Feb; 27(2):228-35
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.cellsig.2014.11.004

The Warburg effect is an oncogenic metabolic switch that allows cancer cells to take up more glucose than normal cells and favors anaerobic glycolysis. Extracellular matrix protein 1 (ECM1) is a secreted glycoprotein that is overexpressed in various types of carcinoma. Using two-dimensional digest-liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)/MS, we showed that the expression of proteins associated with the Warburg effect was upregulated in trastuzumab-resistant BT-474 cells that overexpressed ECM1 compared to control cells. We further demonstrated that ECM1 induced the expression of genes that promote the Warburg effect, such as glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1), lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA), and hypoxia-inducible factor 1 α (HIF-1α). The phosphorylation status of pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM-2) at Ser37, which is responsible for the expression of genes that promote the Warburg effect, was affected by the modulation of ECM1 expression. Moreover, EGF-dependent ERK activation that was regulated by ECM1 induced not only PKM2 phosphorylation but also gene expression of GLUT1 and LDHA. These findings provide evidence that ECM1 plays an important role in promoting the Warburg effect mediated by PKM2.

Fig. 1.ECM1 induces a metabolic shift toward promoting Warburg effect. (A) The levels of glucose uptake were examined with a cell-based assay. (B) Levels of lactate production were measured using a lactate assay kit. (C) Cellular ATP content was determined with a Cell Titer-Glo luminescent cell viability assay. Error bars represent mean ± SD of triplicate experiments (*p b 0.05, ***p b 0.0005).

Fig.2. ECM1 up-regulates expression of gene sassociated with the Warburg effect. (A) Cell lysates were analyzed by western blotting using antibodies speciﬁc for ECM1, LDHA, GLUT1,and actin (as a loading control). The intensities of the bands were quantiﬁed using 1D Scan software and plotted. (BandC) mRNA levels of each gene were determined by real-time PCR using speciﬁc primers. (D) HIF-1α-dependent transcriptional activities were examined using a hypoxia response element (HRE) reporter indual luciferase assays. Error bars represent mean ± SD of triplicate experiments (*p b 0.05, **p b 0.005, ***p b 0.0005).

Fig.3. ECM1-dependent upregulation of gene expression is not mediated byEgr-1.

Fig.4. ECM1 activates PKM2 via EGF-mediated ERK activation

Fig. 5. TheWarburg effect is attenuated by silencing of PKM2 in breast cancer cells

Recently, a non-glycolytic function of PKM2 was reported. Phosphorylated PKM2 at Ser37 is translocated into the nucleus after EGFR and ERK activation and regulates the expression of cyclin D1, c-Myc, LDHA, and GLUT1[19,37]. Here, we showed that ECM1 regulates the phosphorylation level and translocation of PKM2 via the EGFR/ ERK pathway. As we previously showed that ECM1 enhances the EGF response and increases EGFR expression through MUC1-dependent stabilization [17], it seemed likely that activation of the EGFR/ERK pathway by ECM1 is linked to PKM2 phosphorylation. Indeed, we show here that ECM1 regulates the phosphorylation of PKM2 at Ser37 and enhances the Warburg effect through the EGFR/ERK pathway. HIF-1α is known to be responsible for alterations in cancer cell metabolism [38] and our current studies showed that the expression level of HIF-1α is up-regulated by ECM1 (Fig. 2C and D). To determine the mechanism by which ECM1 upregulated HIF-1α expression, we focused on the induction of Egr-1 by EGFR/ERK signaling [39]. However, although Egr-1 expression was regulated by ECM1 we failed to ﬁnd evidence that Egr-1 affected the expression of genes involved in the Warburg effect (Fig. 3C). Moreover, ERK-dependent PKM2 activation did not regulate HIF-1α expression in BT-474 cells (Fig. 4D and5B). These results suggested that the upregulation of HIF-1α by ECM1 is not mediated by the EGFR/ERK pathway.

Conclusions

In the current study we showed that ECM1 altered metabolic phenotypes of breast cancer cells toward promoting the Warburg effect.

Phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of PKM2 were induced by ECM1 through the EGFR/ERK pathway. Moreover, phosphorylated PKM2 increased the expression of metabolic genes such as LDHA and GLUT1, and promoted glucose uptake and lactate production. These ﬁndings provide a new perspective on the distinct functions of ECM1 in cancer cell metabolism. Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cellsig.2014.11.004

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2.1.2.10 Glutamine Oxidation Maintains the TCA Cycle and Cell Survival during impaired Mitochondrial Pyruvate Transport

Chendong Yang, B Ko, CT. Hensley,…, J Rutter, ME. Merritt, RJ. DeBerardinis
Molec Cell 6 Nov 2014; 56(3):414–424
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molcel.2014.09.025

Highlights

Mitochondria produce acetyl-CoA from glutamine during MPC inhibition
•Alanine synthesis is suppressed during MPC inhibition
•MPC inhibition activates GDH to supply pools of TCA cycle intermediates
•GDH supports cell survival during periods of MPC inhibition

Summary

Alternative modes of metabolism enable cells to resist metabolic stress. Inhibiting these compensatory pathways may produce synthetic lethality. We previously demonstrated that glucose deprivation stimulated a pathway in which acetyl-CoA was formed from glutamine downstream of glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH). Here we show that import of pyruvate into the mitochondria suppresses GDH and glutamine-dependent acetyl-CoA formation. Inhibiting the mitochondrial pyruvate carrier (MPC) activates GDH and reroutes glutamine metabolism to generate both oxaloacetate and acetyl-CoA, enabling persistent tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle function. Pharmacological blockade of GDH elicited largely cytostatic effects in culture, but these effects became cytotoxic when combined with MPC inhibition. Concomitant administration of MPC and GDH inhibitors significantly impaired tumor growth compared to either inhibitor used as a single agent. Together, the data define a mechanism to induce glutaminolysis and uncover a survival pathway engaged during compromised supply of pyruvate to the mitochondria.

Yang et al, Graphical Abstract

Graphical abstract

Figure 1. Pyruvate Depletion Redirects Glutamine Metabolism to Produce AcetylCoA and Citrate (A) Top: Anaplerosis supplied by [U-13C]glutamine. Glutamine supplies OAA via a-KG, while acetylCoA is predominantly supplied by other nutrients, particularly glucose. Bottom: Glutamine is converted to acetyl-CoA in the absence of glucosederived pyruvate. Red circles represent carbons arising from [U-13C]glutamine, and gray circles are unlabeled. Reductive carboxylation is indicated by the green dashed line. (B) Fraction of succinate, fumarate, malate, and aspartate containing four 13C carbons after culture of SFxL cells for 6 hr with [U-13C]glutamine in the presence or absence of 10 mM unlabeled glucose (Glc). (C) Mass isotopologues of citrate after culture of SFxL cells for 6 hr with [U-13C]glutamine and 10 mM unlabeled glucose, no glucose, or no glucose plus 6 mM unlabeled pyruvate (Pyr). (D) Citrate m+5 and m+6 after culture of HeLa or Huh-7 cells for 6 hr with [U-13C]glutamine and 10 mM unlabeled glucose, no glucose, or no glucose plus 6 mM unlabeled pyruvate. Data are the average and SD of three independent cultures. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

Figure 2. Isolated Mitochondria Convert Glutamine to Citrate (A) Western blot of whole-cell lysates (Cell) and preparations of isolated mitochondria (Mito) or cytosol from SFxL cells. (B) Oxygen consumption in a representative mitochondrial sample. Rates before and after addition of ADP/GDP are indicated. (C) Mass isotopologues of citrate produced by mitochondria cultured for 30 min with [U-13C] glutamine and with or without pyruvate.

Figure 3. Blockade of Mitochondrial Pyruvate Transport Activates Glutamine-Dependent Citrate Formation (A) Dose-dependent effects of UK5099 on citrate labeling from [U-13C]glucose and [U-13C]glutamine in SFxL cells. (B) Time course of citrate labeling from [U-13C] glutamine with or without 200 mM UK5099. (C) Abundance of total citrate and citrate m+6 in cells cultured in [U-13C]glutamine with or without 200 mM UK5099. (D) Mass isotopologues of citrate in cells cultured for 6 hr in [U-13C]glutamine with or without 10 mM CHC or 200 mM UK5099. (E) Effect of silencing ME2 on citrate m+6 after 6 hr of culture in [U-13C]glutamine. Relative abundances of citrate isotopologues were determined by normalizing total citrate abundance measured by mass spectrometry against cellular protein for each sample then multiplying by the fractional abundance of each isotopologue. (F) Effect of silencing MPC1 or MPC2 on formation of citrate m+6 after 6 hr of culture in [U-13C]glutamine. (G) Citrate isotopologues in primary human ﬁbroblasts of varying MPC1 genotypes after culture in [U-13C]glutamine. Data are the average and SD of three independent cultures. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001. See also Figure S1.

Figure 4. Kinetic Analysis of the Metabolic Effects of Blocking Mitochondrial Pyruvate Transport (A) Summation of 13C spectra acquired over 2 min of exposure of SFxL cells to hyperpolarized [1-13C] pyruvate. Resonances are indicated for [1-13C] pyruvate (Pyr1), the hydrate of [1-13C]pyruvate (Pyr1-Hydr), [1-13C]lactate (Lac1), [1-13C]alanine (Ala1), and H[13C]O3 (Bicarbonate). (B) Time evolution of appearance of Lac1, Ala1, and bicarbonate in control and UK5099-treated cells. (C) Relative 13C NMR signals for Lac1, Ala1, and bicarbonate. Each signal is summed over the entire acquisition and expressed as a fraction of total 13C signal. (D) Quantity of intracellular and secreted alanine in control and UK5099-treated cells. Data are the average and SD of three independent cultures. *p < 0.05; ***p < 0.001. See also Figure S2.

Figure 5. Inhibiting Mitochondrial Pyruvate Transport Enhances the Contribution of Glutamine to Fatty Acid Synthesis (A) Mass isotopologues of palmitate extracted from cells cultured with [U-13C] glucose or [U-13C]glutamine, with or without 200 mM UK5099. For simplicity, only even-labeled isotopologues (m+2, m+4, etc.) are shown. (B) Fraction of lipogenic acetyl-CoA derived from glucose or glutamine with or without 200 mM UK5099. Data are the average and SD of three independent cultures. ***p < 0.001. See also Figure S3.

Figure 6. Blockade of Mitochondrial Pyruvate Transport Induces GDH (A) Two routes by which glutamate can be converted to AKG. Blue and green symbols are the amide (g) and amino (a) nitrogens of glutamine, respectively. (B) Utilization and secretion of glutamine (Gln), glutamate (Glu), and ammonia (NH4+) by SFxL cells with and without 200 mM UK5099. (C) Secretion of 15N-alanine and 15NH4+ derived from [a-15N]glutamine in SFxL cells expressing a control shRNA (shCtrl) or either of two shRNAs directed against GLUD1 (shGLUD1-A and shGLUD1-B). (D) Left: Phosphorylation of AMPK (T172) and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC, S79) during treatment with 200 mM UK5099. Right: Steady-state levels of ATP 24 hr after addition of vehicle or 200 mM UK5099. (E) Fractional contribution of the m+6 isotopologue to total citrate in shCtrl, shGLUD1-A, and shGLUD1-B SFxL cells cultured in [U-13C]glutamine with or without 200 mM UK5099. Data are the average and SD of three independent cultures. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001. See also Figure S4.

Figure 7. GDH Sustains Growth and Viability during Suppression of Mitochondrial Pyruvate Transport (A) Relative growth inhibition of shCtrl, shGLUD1A, and shGLUD1-B SFxL cells treated with 50 mM UK5099 for 3 days. (B) Relative growth inhibition of SFxL cells treated with combinations of 50 mM of the GDH inhibitor EGCG, 10 mM of the GLS inhibitor BPTES, and 200 mM UK5099 for 3 days. (C) Relative cell death assessed by trypan blue staining in SFxL cells treated as in (B). (D) Relative cell death assessed by trypan blue staining in SF188 cells treated as in (B) for 2 days. (E) (Left) Growth of A549-derived subcutaneous xenografts treated with vehicle (saline), EGCG, CHC, or EGCG plus CHC (n = 4 for each group). Data are the average and SEM. Right: Lactate abundance in extracts of each tumor harvested at the end of the experiment. Data in (A)–(D) are the average and SD of three independent cultures. NS, not signiﬁcant; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001. See also Figure S5.

Mitochondrial metabolism complements glycolysis as a source of energy and biosynthetic precursors. Precursors for lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are derived from the TCA cycle. Maintaining pools of these intermediates is essential, even under circumstances of nutrient limitation or impaired supply of glucose-derived pyruvate to the mitochondria. Glutamine’s ability to produce both acetyl-CoA and OAA allows it to support TCA cycle activity as a sole carbon source and imposes a greater cellular dependence on glutamine metabolism when MPC function or pyruvate supply is impaired. Other anaplerotic amino acids could also supply both OAA and acetyl-CoA, providing ﬂexible support for the TCA cycle when glucose is limiting. Although fatty acids are an important fuel in some cancer cells (Caro et al., 2012), and fatty acid oxidation is induced upon MPC inhibition, this pathway produces acetyl-CoA but not OAA. Thus, fatty acids would need to be oxidized along with an anaplerotic nutrient in order to enable the cycle to function as a biosynthetic hub. Notably, enforced MPC overexpression also impairs growth of some tumors (Schell et al., 2014), suggesting that maximal growth may require MPC activity to be maintained within a narrow window. After decades of research on mitochondrial pyruvate transport, molecular components of the MPC were recently reported (Halestrap, 2012; Schell and Rutter, 2013). MPC1 and MPC2 form a heterocomplex in the inner mitochondrial membrane, and loss of either component impairs pyruvate import, leading to citrate depletion (Bricker et al., 2012; Herzig et al., 2012). Mammalian cells lacking functional MPC1 display normal glutamine-supported respiration (Bricker et al., 2012), consistent with our observation that glutamine supplies the TCA cycle in absence of pyruvate import. We also observed that isolated mitochondria produce fully labeled citrate from glutamine, indicating that this pathway operates as a self-contained mechanism to maintain TCA cycle function. Recently, two well-known classes of drugs have unexpectedly been shown to inhibit MPC. First, thiazolidinediones, commonly used as insulin sensitizers, impair MPC function in myoblasts (Divakaruni et al.,2013). Second, the phosphodiesterase inhibitor Zaprinast inhibits MPC in the retina and brain (Du et al., 2013b). Zaprinast also induced accumulation of aspartate, suggesting that depletion of acetyl-CoA impaired the ability of a new turn of the TCA cycle to be initiated from OAA; as a consequence, OAA was transaminated to aspartate. We noted a similar phenomenon in cancer cells, suggesting that UK5099 elicits a state in which acetyl-CoA supply is insufﬁcient to avoid OAA accumulation. Unlike UK5099, Zaprinast did not induce glutamine-dependent acetyl-CoA formation. This may be related to the reliance of isolated retinas on glucose rather than glutamine to supply TCA cycle intermediates or the exquisite system used by retinas to protect glutamate from oxidation (Du et al., 2013a). Zaprinast was also recently shown to inhibit glutaminase (Elhammali et al., 2014), which would further reduce the contribution of glutamine to the acetyl-CoA pool.

Comment by reader –

The results from these studies served as a good
reason to attempt the vaccination of patients using p53-
derived peptides, and a several clinical trials are currently
in progress. The most advanced work used a long
synthetic peptide mixture derived from p53 (p53-SLP; ISA
Pharmaceuticals, Bilthoven, the Netherlands) (Speetjens
et al., 2009; Shangary et al., 2008; Van der Burg et al.,
2001). The vaccine is delivered in the adjuvant setting
and induces T helper type cells.

Read Full Post »

Warburg Effect Revisited – 2

Posted in Academic Publishing, Amino acids, Anaerobic Glycolysis, Biochemical pathways, Biological Networks, Cancer and Current Therapeutics, CANCER BIOLOGY & Innovations in Cancer Therapy, Cell Biology, Curation, Cytoskeleton, Developmental biology, Disease Biology, Enzymes and isoenzymes, Fatty acids, Gene Regulation, Lipid metabolism, Liver & Digestive Diseases Research, Metabolism, Metabolomics, Methods, Na-K-ATPase, Oxidative phosphorylation, Pentose monophosphate shunt, Phosphorylation, Proteins, Proteomics, Pyridine nucleotides, Signaling, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Ubiquitinylation, Warburg effect, tagged ATP, Cancer - General, carcinogenesis, dysfunctional cell, energetics, glutamate, Glycolysis, lactic acid, metabolism of cancer cell, mitochondria, proliferation on March 30, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Warburg Effect Revisited – 2

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Finding Dysregulation in the Cancer Cell

2.1. Warburg Effect Revisited

One of the great observations of the 20^th century was the behavior of cancer cells to proliferate and rely on anaerobic glycolysis for the source of energy. This was a restatement of the Pasteur effect, described 60 years earlier by the great French scientist in yeast experiments. The experiments with yeast were again reperformed by Jose EDS Roselino, a Brazilian biochemist, who established an explanation for it 50 years after Warburg. It is quite amazing the mitochondria were not yet discovered at the time that Warburg carried out the single-cell thickness measurements in his respiratory apparatus. He concluded from the observation that the cancer cells grew in a media that became acidic from producing lactic acid, that the cells were dysfunctional in the utilization of oxygen, as nonmalignant cells efficiently utilized oxygen. He also related the metabolic events to observations made by Meyerhof. The mitochondria and the citric acid cycle at this time had not yet been discovered, and the latter was, worked out by Hans Krebs and Albert Szent-Gyorgi, both of whom worked with him on mitochondrial metabolism. The normal cell utilizes glucose efficiently and lipids as well, generating energy through oxidative phosphorylation, with the production of ATP in a manner previously described in these posts. Greater clarity was achieved with the discovery of Coenzyme A, and finally the electron transport chain (ETC). This requires that the pyruvate be directed into the tricarboxylic acid cycle and to go through a series of reactions producing succinate and finally malate.

The following great achievements were made with regard to elucidating these processes:

1922		Archibald Vivian Hill		United Kingdom	“for his discovery relating to the production of heat in the muscle“^[26]
		Otto Fritz Meyerhof		Germany	“for his discovery of the fixed relationship between the consumption of oxygen and the metabolism of lactic acid in the muscle”^[26]
1931		Otto Heinrich Warburg		Germany	“for his discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme“^[34]
1937		Albert Szent-Györgyi von Nagyrapolt		Hungary	“for his discoveries in connection with the biological combustion processes, with special reference to vitamin C and the catalysis of fumaric acid“^[40]
1953		Sir Hans Adolf Krebs		United Kingdom	“for his discovery of the citric acid cycle“^[53]
		Fritz Albert Lipmann		United States	“for his discovery of co-enzyme A and its importance for intermediary metabolism”^[53]
1955		Axel Hugo Theodor Theorell		Sweden	“for his discoveries concerning the nature and mode of action of oxidation enzymes”^[55]
1978		Peter D. Mitchell		United Kingdom	“for his contribution to the understanding of biological energy transfer through the formulation of the chemiosmotic theory“^[77]
1997	Paul D. Boyer		United States	“for their elucidation of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)”^[96]
	John E. Walker		United Kingdom

1967 Manfred Eigen and the other half jointly to:

Ronald George Wreyford Norrish and Lord George Porter for their studies of extremely fast chemical reactions, effected by disturbing the equlibrium by means of very short pulses of energy.

1965 FRANÇOIS JACOB , ANDRÉ LWOFF And JACQUES MONOD for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis.

1964 KONRAD BLOCH And FEODOR LYNEN for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism.

If there is a more immediate need for energy (as in stressed muscular activity) with net oxygen insufficiency, the pyruvate is converted to lactic acid, with acidemia, and with much less ATP production, but the lactic academia and the energy deficit is subsequently compensated for. The observation made by Jose EDS Rosalino was that yeast grown in a soil deficient in oxygen don’t put down roots.

^I. Topisirovic and N. Sonenberg

Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology, Volume LXXVI

http://dx.doi.org:/10.1101/sqb.2011.76.010785 ”A prominent feature of cancer cells is the use of aerobic glycolysis under conditions in which oxygen levels are sufficient to support energy production in the mitochondria (Jones and Thompson 2009; Cairns et al. 2010). This phenomenon, named the “Warburg effect,” after its discoverer Otto Warburg, is thought to fuel the biosynthetic requirements of the neoplastic growth (Warburg 1956; Koppenol et al. 2011) and has recently been acknowledged as one of the hallmarks of cancer (Hanahan and Weinberg 2011). mRNA translation is the most energy-demanding process in the cell (Buttgereit and Brand 1995).

Again, the use of aerobic glycolysis expression has been twisted.”

To understand my critical observation consider this: Aerobic glycolysis is the carbon flow that goes from Glucose to CO2 and water (includes Krens cycle and respiratory chain for the restoration of NAD, FAD etc.

Anerobic glyclysis is the carbon flow that goes from glucose to lactate. It uses conversion of pyruvate to lactate to regenerate NAD.

“Pasteur effect” is an expression coined by Warburg, which refers to the reduction in the carbon flow from glucose when oxygen is offered to yeasts. The major reason for that is in general terms, derived from the fact that carbon flow is regulated by several cell requirements but mainly by the ATP needs of the cell. Therefore, as ATP is generated 10 more efficiently in aerobiosis than under anaerobiosis, less carbon flow is required under aerobiosis than under anaerobiosis to maintain ATP levels. Warburg, after searching for the same regulatory mechanism in normal and cancer cells for comparison found that transformed cell continued their large flow of glucose carbons to lactate despite the presence of oxygen.

So, it is wrong to describe that aerobic glycolysis continues in the presence of oxygen. It is what it is expected to occur. The wrong thing is that anaerobic glycolysis continues under aerobiosis.
^Aurelian Udristioiu (comment)
In cells, the immediate energy sources involve glucose oxidation. In anaerobic metabolism, the donor of the phosphate group is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and the reaction is catalyzed via the hexokinase or glucokinase: Glucose +ATP-Mg²+ = Glucose-6-phosphate (ΔGo = – 3.4 kcal/mol with hexokinase as the co-enzyme for the reaction.).

In the following step, the conversion of G-6-phosphate into F-1-6-bisphosphate is mediated by the enzyme phosphofructokinase with the co-factor ATP-Mg²+. This reaction has a large negative free energy difference and is irreversible under normal cellular conditions. In the second step of glycolysis, phosphoenolpyruvic acid in the presence of Mg²+ and K+ is transformed into pyruvic acid. In cancer cells or in the absence of oxygen, the transformation of pyruvic acid into lactic acid alters the process of glycolysis.

The energetic sum of anaerobic glycolysis is ΔGo = -34.64 kcal/mol. However a glucose molecule contains 686kcal/mol and, the energy difference (654.51 kcal) allows the potential for un-controlled reactions during carcinogenesis. The transfer of electrons from NADPH in each place of the conserved unit of energy transmits conformational exchanges in the mitochondrial ATPase. The reaction ADP³+ P²¯ + H²à ATP + H2O is reversible. The terminal oxygen from ADP binds the P2¯ by forming an intermediate pentacovalent complex, resulting in the formation of ATP and H2O. This reaction requires Mg²+ and an ATP-synthetase, which is known as the H+-ATPase or the Fo-F1-ATPase complex. Intracellular calcium induces mitochondrial swelling and aging. [12].

The known marker of monitoring of treatment in cancer diseases, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is an enzyme that is localized to the cytosol of human cells and catalyzes the reversible reduction of pyruvate to lactate via using hydrogenated nicotinamide deaminase (NADH) as co-enzyme.

The causes of high LDH and high Mg levels in the serum include neoplastic states that promote the high production of intracellular LDH and the increased use of Mg²+ during molecular synthesis in processes pf carcinogenesis (Pyruvate acid>> LDH/NADH >>Lactate acid + NAD), [13].

The material we shall discuss explores in more detail the dysmetabolism that occurs in cancer cells.

Is the Warburg Effect the Cause or the Effect of Cancer: A 21st Century View?
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/06/21/is-the-warburg-effect-the-cause-or-the-effect-of-cancer-a-21st-century-view-2/

Warburg Effect Revisited
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/28/warburg-effect-revisited/

AMPK Is a Negative Regulator of the Warburg Effect and Suppresses Tumor Growth In Vivo
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/12/ampk-is-a-negative-regulator-of-the-warburg-effect-and-suppresses-tumor-growth-in-vivo/

AKT Signaling Variable Effects
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/04/akt-signaling-variable-effects/

Otto Warburg, A Giant of Modern Cellular Biology
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/02/otto-warburg-a-giant-of-modern-cellular-biology/

The Metabolic View of Epigenetic Expression
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/03/28/the-metabolic-view-of-epigenetic-expression/

Metabolomics Summary and Perspective
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/10/16/metabolomics-summary-and-perspective/

2.1.1 Cancer Metabolism

2.1.1.1 Oncometabolites: linking altered metabolism with cancer

Ming Yang, Tomoyoshi Soga, and Patrick J. Pollard
J Clin Invest Sep 2013; 123(9):3652–3658
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1172/JCI67228

The discovery of cancer-associated mutations in genes encoding key metabolic enzymes has provided a direct link between altered metabolism and cancer. Advances in mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance technologies have facilitated high-resolution metabolite profiling of cells and tumors and identified the accumulation of metabolites associated with specific gene defects. Here we review the potential roles of such “oncometabolites” in tumor evolution and as clinical biomarkers for the detection of cancers characterized by metabolic dysregulation.

The emerging interest in metabolites whose abnormal accumulation causes both metabolic and nonmetabolic dysregulation and potential transformation to malignancy (herein termed “oncometabolites”) has been fueled by the identification of cancerassociated mutations in genes encoding enzymes with significant roles in cellular metabolism (1–5). Loss-of-function mutations in genes encoding the Krebs cycle enzymes fumarate hydratase (FH) and succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) cause the accumulation of fumarate and succinate, respectively (6), whereas gain-offunction isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) mutations increase levels of D–2-hydroxyglutarate (D-2HG) (7, 8). These metabolites have been implicated in the dysregulation of cellular processes including the competitive inhibition of α-ketoglutarate–dependent (α-KG–dependent) dioxygenase enzymes (also known as 2-oxoglutarate–dependent dioxgenases) and posttranslational modification of proteins (1, 4, 9–11). To date, several lines of biochemical and genetic evidence support roles for fumarate, succinate, and D-2HG in cellular transformation and oncogenesis (3, 12).

The Journal of Clinical Investigation http://www.jci.org Volume 123 Number 9 September 2013

ventional gene sequencing methods may lead to false positives due to genetic polymorphism and sequencing artifacts (98). In comparison, screening for elevated 2HG levels is a sensitive and specific approach to detect IDH mutations in tumors. Whereas patient sera/plasma can be assessed in the case of AML (7, 8, 21, 99), exciting advances with proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) have been made in the noninvasive detection of 2HG in patients with gliomas (100–103). Using MRS sequence optimization and spectral fitting techniques, Maher and colleagues examined 30 patients with glioma and showed that the detection of 2HG correlated 100% with the presence of IDH1 or IDH2 mutations (102). Andronesi et al. further demonstrated that two-dimensional correlation spectroscopy could effectively distinguish 2HG from chemically similar metabolites present in the brain (103). Negative IHC staining for SDHB correlates with the presence of SDH mutations, whether in SDHB, SDHC, or SDHD (104). This finding is most likely explained by the fact that mutations in any of the four subunits of SDH can destabilize the entire enzyme complex. PGLs/PCCs associated with an SDHA mutation show negative staining for SDHA as well as SDHB (105). Therefore, IHC staining for SDHB is a useful diagnostic tool to triage patients for genetic testing of any SDH mutation, and subsequent staining for the other subunits may further narrow the selection of genes to be tested. In contrast, detection of FH protein is often evident in HLRCC tumors due to retention of the nonfunctional mutant allele (106). However, staining of cysts and tumors for 2SC immunoreactivity reveals a striking correlation between FH inactivation and the presence of 2SC-modified protein (2SCP), which is absent in non-HLRCC tumors and normal tissue controls (106). IHC staining for 2SCP thus provides a robust diagnostic biomarker for FH deficiency (107).

Therapeutic targeting Because D-2HG is a product of neomorphic enzyme activities, curtailing the D-2HG supply by specifically inhibiting the mutant IDH enzymes provides an elegant approach to target IDH-mutant cancers. Indeed, recent reports of small-molecule inhibitors against mutant forms of IDH1 and IDH2 demonstrated the feasibility of this method. An inhibitor against IDH2 R140Q was shown to reduce both intracellular and extracellular levels of D-2HG, suppress cell growth, and increase differentiation of primary human AML cells (108). Similarly, small-molecule inhibition of IDH1 R132H suppressed colony formation and increased tumor cell differentiation in a xenograft model for IDH1 R132H glioma (58). The inhibitors exhibited a cytostatic rather than cytotoxic effect, and therefore their therapeutic efficacy over longer time periods may need further assessment (109). Letouzé et al. showed that the DNA methytransferase inhibitor decitabine could repress the migration capacities of SDHB-mutant cells (40). However, for SDH- and FH-associated cancers, a synthetic lethality approach is worth exploring because of the pleiotrophic effects associated with succinate and fumarate accumulation.

Outlook The application of next-generation sequencing technologies in the field of cancer genomics has substantially increased our understanding of cancer biology. Detection of germline and somatic mutations in specific tumor types not only expands the current repertoire of driver mutations and downstream effectors in tumorigenesis, but also sheds light on how oncometabolites may exert their oncogenic roles. For example, the identification of mutually exclusive mutations in IDH1 and TET2 in AML led to the characterization of TET2 as a major pathological target of D-2HG (34, 110). Additionally, the discovery of somatic CUL3, SIRT1, and NRF2 mutations in sporadic PRCC2 converges with FH mutation in HLRCC, in which NRF2 activation is a consequence of fumarate-mediated succination of KEAP1, indicating the functional prominence of the NRF2 pathway in PRCC2 (73). In light of this, the identification of somatic mutations in genes encoding the chromatin-modifying enzymes histone H3K36 methyltransferase (SETD2), histone H3K4 demethylase JARID1C (KDM5C), histone H3K27 demethylase UTX (KDM6A), and the SWI/SNF chromatin remodelling complex gene PBRM1 in clear cell renal cell carcinoma (111–113) highlights the importance of epigenetic modulation in human cancer and raises the potential for systematic testing in other types of tumors such as those associated with FH mutations. Technological advances such as those in gas and liquidchromatography mass spectrometry (114, 115) and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (102) have greatly improved the ability to measure low-molecular-weight metabolites in tumor samples with high resolution (116). Combined with metabolic flux analyses employing isotope tracers and mathematical modeling, modern-era metabolomic approaches can provide direct pathophysiological insights into tumor metabolism and serve as an excellent tool for biomarker discovery. Using a data-driven approach, Jain and colleagues constructed the metabolic profiles of 60 cancer cell lines and discovered glycine consumption as a key metabolic event in rapidly proliferating cancer cells (117), thus demonstrating the power of metabolomic analyses and the relevance to future cancer research and therapeutics.

Acknowledgments The Cancer Biology and Metabolism Group is funded by Cancer Research UK and the European Research Council under the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/20072013)/ERC grant agreement no. 310837 to Dr. Pollard. Professor Soga receives funding from a Grant-in-Aid for scientific research on Innovative Areas, Japan (no. 22134007), and the Yamagata Prefectural Government and City of Tsuruoka.

Address correspondence to: Patrick J. Pollard, Cancer Biology and Metabolism Group, Nuffield Department of Medicine, Henry Wellcome Building for Molecular Physiology, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7BN, United Kingdom. Phone: 44.0.1865287780; Fax: 44.0.1865287787; E-mail: patrick.pollard@well.ox.ac.uk.

Yang M, Soga T, Pollard PJ, Adam J. The emerging role of fumarate as an oncometabolite. Front Oncol. 2012;2:85. 2. Ward PS, Thompson CB. Metabolic reprogramming: a cancer hallmark even warburg did not anticipate. Cancer Cell. 2012;21(3):297–308. 3. Vander Heiden MG, Cantley LC, Thompson CB. Understanding the Warburg effect: the metabolic requirements of cell proliferation. Science. 2009; 324(5930):1029–1033. 4. Thompson CB. Metabolic enzymes as oncogenes or tumor suppressors. N Engl J Med. 2009; 360(8):813–815. 5. Schulze A, Harris AL. How cancer metabolism is tuned for proliferation and vulnerable to disruption. Nature. 2012;491(7424):364–373.

Pollard PJ, et al. Accumulation of Krebs cycle intermediates and over-expression of HIF1alpha in tumours which result from germline FH and SDH mutations. Hum Mol Genet. 2005; 14(15):2231–2239. 7. Ward PS, et al. The common feature of leukemiaassociated IDH1 and IDH2 mutations is a neomorphic enzyme activity converting alpha-ketoglutarate to 2-hydroxyglutarate. Cancer Cell. 2010; 17(3):225–234.

Because D-2HG is a product of neomorphic enzyme activities, curtailing the D-2HG supply by specifically inhibiting the mutant IDH enzymes provides an elegant approach to target IDH-mutant cancers. Indeed, recent reports of small-molecule inhibitors against mutant forms of IDH1 and IDH2 demonstrated the feasibility of this method. An inhibitor against IDH2 R140Q was shown to reduce both intracellular and extracellular levels of D-2HG, suppress cell growth, and increase differentiation of primary human AML cells (108). Similarly, small-molecule inhibition of IDH1 R132H suppressed colony formation and increased tumor cell differentiation in a xenograft model for IDH1 R132H glioma (58). The inhibitors exhibited a cytostatic rather than cytotoxic effect, and therefore their therapeutic efficacy over longer time periods may need further assessment (109). Letouzé et al. showed that the DNA methytransferase inhibitor decitabine could repress the migration capacities of SDHB-mutant cells (40). However, for SDH- and FH-associated cancers, a synthetic lethality approach is worth exploring because of the pleiotrophic effects associated with succinate and fumarate accumulation.

Technological advances such as those in gas and liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (114, 115) and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (102) have greatly improved the ability to measure low-molecular-weight metabolites in tumor samples with high resolution (116). Combined with metabolic flux analyses employing isotope tracers and mathematical modeling, modern-era metabolomic approaches can provide direct pathophysiological insights into tumor metabolism and serve as an excellent tool for biomarker discovery. Using a data-driven approach, Jain and colleagues constructed the metabolic profiles of 60 cancer cell lines and discovered glycine consumption as a key metabolic event in rapidly proliferating cancer cells (117), thus demonstrating the power of metabolomic analyses and the relevance to future cancer research and therapeutics.

Figure 1 D-2HG produced by mutant IDH1/2 affects metabolism and epigenetics by modulating activities of α-KG–dependent oxygenases. Wild-type IDH1 and IDH2 catalyze the NADP+-dependent reversible conversion of isocitrate to α-KG, whereas cancer-associated gain-of-function mutations enable mutant IDH1/2 (mIDH1/2) to catalyze the oxidation of α-KG to D-2HG, using NADPH as a cofactor. Because D-2HG is structurally similar to α-KG, its accumulation can modulate the activities of α-KG–utilizing dioxygenases. Inhibition of 5mC hydroxylase TET2 and the KDMs results in increased CpG island methylation and increased histone methylation marks, respectively, thus blocking lineage-specific cell differentiation. Inhibition of collagen prolyl and lysyl hydroxylases (C-P4Hs and PLODs, respectively) leads to impaired collagen maturation and disrupted basement membrane formation. D-2HG can also stimulate the activities of HIF PHDs, leading to enhanced HIF degradation and a diminished HIF response, which are associated with increased soft agar growth of human astrocytes and growth factor independence of leukemic cells. Together these processes exert pleiotrophic effects on cell signaling and gene expression that probably contribute to the malignancy of IDH1/2-mutant cells.
Figure 2 Candidate oncogenic mechanisms of succinate and fumarate accumulation. SDH and FH are Krebs cycle enzymes and tumor suppressors. Loss-of-function mutations in SDH and FH result in abnormal accumulation of Krebs cycle metabolites succinate (Succ) and fumarate (Fum), respectively, both of which can inhibit the activities of α-KG–dependent oxygenases. Inhibition of HIF PHDs leads to activation of HIF-mediated pseudohypoxic response, whereas inhibition of KDMs and TET family of 5mC hydroxylases causes epigenetic alterations. Fumarate is electrophilic and can also irreversibly modify cysteine residues in proteins by succination. Succination of KEAP1 in FH deficiency results in the constitutive activation of the antioxidant defense pathway mediated by NRF2, conferring a reductive milieu that promotes cell proliferation. Succination of the Krebs cycle enzyme Aco2 impairs aconitase activity in Fh1-deficient MEFs. Fumarate accumulation may also affect cytosolic pathways by inhibiting the reactions involved in the biosynthesis of arginine and purine. AcCoA, acetyl CoA; Mal, malate; OAA, oxaloacetate; Succ-CA, succinyl CoA.

2.1.1.2. Emerging concepts: linking hypoxic signaling and cancer metabolism.

Lyssiotis CA, Vander-Heiden MG, Muñoz-Pinedo C, Emerling BM.
Cell Death Dis. 2012 May 3; 3:e303
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/cddis.2012.41

The Joint Keystone Symposia on Cancer and Metabolism and Advances in Hypoxic Signaling: From Bench to Bedside were held in Banff, Alberta, Canada from 12 to 17 February 2012. Drs. Reuben Shaw and David Sabatini organized the Cancer and Metabolism section, and Drs. Volker Haase, Cormac Taylor, Johanna Myllyharju and Paul Schumacker organized the Advances in Hypoxic Signaling section. Accumulating data illustrate that both hypoxia and rewired metabolism influence cancer biology. Indeed, these phenomena are tightly coupled, and a joint meeting was held to foster interdisciplinary interactions and enhance our understanding of these two processes in neoplastic disease. In this report, we highlight the major themes of the conference paying particular attention to areas of intersection between hypoxia and metabolism in cancer.

One opening keynote address was delivered by Craig Thompson (Memorial Sloan-Kettering, USA), in which he provided a comprehensive perspective on the current thinking around how altered metabolism supports cancer cell growth and survival, and discussed areas likely to be important for future discovery. In particular, Thompson highlighted the essential roles of glucose and glutamine in cell growth, how glucose- and glutamine-consuming processes are rewired in cancer and how this rewiring facilitates anabolic metabolism. These topics were at the core of many of the metabolism presentations that described in detail how some metabolic alterations contribute to the properties of transformed cells.

The other keynote address was delivered by Peter Ratcliffe (University of Oxford, UK), in which he provided a historical perspective on the progress of how signaling events sense oxygen. Mammals have evolved multiple acute and long-term adaptive responses to low oxygen levels (hypoxia). This response prevents a disparity in ATP utilization and production that would otherwise result in a bioenergetic collapse when oxygen level is low. Multiple effectors have been proposed to mediate the response to hypoxia including prolyl hydroxylases, AMPK, NADPH oxidases and the mitochondrial complex III. Currently, however, the precise mechanism by which oxygen is sensed in various physiological contexts remains unknown. Indeed, this was an active point of debate, with Peter Ratcliffe favoring the prolyl hydroxylase PHD2 as the primary cellular oxygen sensor.

Anabolic glucose metabolism and the Warburg effect

Nearly a century ago, Warburg noted that cancer tissues take up glucose in excess than most normal tissues and secrete much of the carbon as lactate. Recently, headway has been made toward determining how the enhanced glucose conversion to lactate occurs and contributes to cell proliferation and survival. Heather Christofk (University of California, Los Angeles, USA) and John Cleveland (the Scripps Research Institute, USA) described a role for the lactate/pyruvate transporter MCT-1 in carbon secretion, and suggested that blocking lactate or pyruvate transport may be a strategy to target glucose metabolism in cancer cells. Kun-Liang Guan (University of California, San Diego, USA) described a novel feedback loop to control glucose metabolism in highly glycolytic cells. Specifically, he discussed how glucose-derived acetyl-CoA can be used as a substrate to modify two enzymes involved in glucose metabolism, pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPCK). In both cases, acetylation leads to protein degradation and decreased glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, respectively. Data presented from Matthew Vander Heiden’s laboratory (Koch Institute/MIT, USA) illustrated that loss of pyruvate kinase activity can accelerate tumor growth, suggesting that the regulation of glycolysis may be more complex than previously appreciated. Almut Schulze (London Research Institute, UK) discussed a novel regulatory role for phosphofructokinase in controlling glucose metabolism and Jeffrey Rathmell (Duke University, USA) discussed parallels between glucose metabolism in cancer cells and lymphocytes that suggest many of these phenotypes could be a feature of rapidly dividing cells.

Glutamine addiction

Cancer cells also consume glutamine to support proliferation and survival. Alfredo Csibi (Harvard Medical School, USA) described how mTORC1 promotes glutamine utilization by indirectly regulating the activity of glutamate dehydrogenase. This work united two major themes at the meeting, mTOR signaling and glutamine metabolism, highlighting the interconnectedness of signal transduction and metabolic regulation. Richard Cerione (Cornell University, USA) described a small molecule inhibitor of glutaminase that can be used to target glutamine-addicted cancer cells. Christian Metallo (University of California, San Diego, USA), Andrew Mullen (University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, USA) and Patrick Ward (Memorial Sloan-Kettering, USA) presented data demonstrating that the carbon skeleton of glutamine can be incorporated into newly synthesized lipids. This contribution of glutamine to lipid synthesis was most pronounced in hypoxia or when the mitochondrial electron transport chain was compromised.

Signal transduction and metabolism

The protein kinases AMPK and mTOR can function as sensors of metabolic impairment, whose activation by energy stress controls multiple cellular functions. Grahame Hardie (University of Dundee, UK) and Reuben Shaw (Salk Institute, USA) highlighted novel roles for AMPK, including inhibition of viral replication, and the control of histone acetylation via phosphorylation of class IIa HDACs, respectively. Brandon Faubert (McGill University, USA) reported on an AMPK-dependent effect on glucose metabolism in unstressed cells. Brendan Manning (Harvard Medical School, USA) found that chronic activation of mTOR in the mouse liver, due to genetic ablation of this complex, promotes the development of liver cancer. Kevin Williams (University of California, Los Angeles, USA) discussed how growth signaling can control both lipid and glucose metabolism by impinging on SREBP-1, a transcription factor downstream of mTOR. AMPK-independent control of mTOR was addressed by John Blenis (Harvard Medical School, USA), who discussed the possible role of mTOR stabilizing proteins as mediators of mTOR inactivation upon energetic stress. David Sabatini (Whitehead Institute/MIT, USA) discussed several aspects of amino-acid sensing by Rag GTPases and showed that constitutive activation of the Rag GTPases leads to metabolic defects in mice.

One of the outcomes of AMPK activation and mTOR inhibition is autophagy, which can provide amino acids and fatty acids to nutrient-deprived cells. Ana Maria Cuervo (Albert Einstein College of Medicine, USA) and Eileen White (Rutgers University, USA) illuminated the role of chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) and macroautophagy, respectively, in tumor survival. White described a role for macroautophagy in the regulation of mitochondrial fitness, maintenance of TCA cycle and tumorigenesis induced by oncogenic Ras. Cuervo described how CMA is consistently elevated in tumor cells, and how its inactivation leads to metabolic impairment via p53-mediated downregulation of glycolytic enzymes.

Oncogene-specific changes to metabolism

Lewis Cantley (Harvard Medical School, USA) described a metabolic role for oncogenic Kras in the rewiring of glucose metabolism in pancreatic cancer. Specifically, Myc-mediated transcription (downstream of MEK-ERK signaling) both enhances glucose uptake and diverts glucose carbon into the nonoxidative pentose phosphate pathway to facilitate nucleotide biosynthesis. Alejandro Sweet-Cordero (Stanford University, USA) described how oncogenic Kras increases glycolysis and represses mitochondrial respiration (via decreased pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase 1 (PDP1) expression) in colon cancer. While these studies indicate that hyperstimulation of the Erk pathway suppresses PDH flux through suppression of PDP1, Joan Brugge (Harvard Medical School, USA) described studies showing that reduction of Erk signaling in normal epithelial cells also causes suppression of PDH flux, in this case through loss of repression of PDK4. The seemingly contradictory nature of these results highlighted an important theme emphasized throughout the week-long conference—that cellular context has an important role in shaping how oncogenic mutations or pathway activation rewires metabolism.

Targeting cancer metabolism

There was extensive discussion around targeting metabolism for cancer therapy. Metformin and phenformin, which act in part by mitochondrial complex I inhibition, can activate AMPK and influence cancer cell metabolism. Kevin Struhl (Harvard Medical School, USA) described how metformin can selectively target cancer stem cells, whereas Jessica Howell (Harvard Medical School, USA) described how the therapeutic activity of metformin relies on both AMPK and mTOR signaling to mediate its effect. Similarly, David Shackelford (University of California, Los Angeles, USA) demonstrated efficacy for phenformin in LKB1-deficient mouse models.

Several presentations, including those by Taru Muranen (Harvard Medical School, USA), Karen Vousden and Eyal Gottlieb (both from the Beatson Institute for Cancer Research, UK), provided insight into genetic control mechanisms that cancer cells use to promote survival under conditions of increased biosynthesis. As an example, Vousden illustrated how p53 loss can make cancer cells more dependent on exogenous serine. Several additional presentations, including those by Gottlieb, Richard Possemato (Whitehead Institute/MIT, USA), Michael Pollak (McGill University, USA) and Kevin Marks (Agios Pharmaceuticals, USA), also included data highlighting the important role of serine biosynthesis and metabolism in cancer growth. Collectively, these data highlight a metabolic addiction that may be therapeutically exploitable. Similarly, Cristina Muñoz-Pinedo (Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica, Spain) described how mimicking glucose deprivation with 2-deoxyglucose can cause programmed cell death and may be an effective cancer treatment.

Regulation of hypoxic responses

Peter Carmeliet (University of Leuven, Belgium) highlighted the mechanisms of resistance against VEGF-targeted therapies. Roland Wenger (University of Zurich, Switzerland) discussed the oxygen-responsive transcriptional networks and, in particular, the difference between the transcription factors HIF-1α and HIF-2α. Importantly, he demonstrated a rapid role for HIF-1α, and a later and more persistent response for HIF-2α. These results were central to a recurrent theme calling for the distinction of HIF-1α and HIF-2α target genes and how these responses mediate divergent hypoxic adaptations.

Advances in hypoxic signaling

Brooke Emerling (Harvard Medical School, USA) introduced CUB domain-containing protein 1 (CDCP1) and showed persuasive data on CDCP1 being a HIF-2α target gene involved in cell migration and metastasis, and suggested CDCP1 regulation as an attractive therapeutic target. Johannes Schodel (University of Oxford, UK) described an elegant HIF-ChIP-Seq methodology to define direct transcriptional targets of HIF in renal cancer.

Randall Johnson (University of Cambridge, UK) emphasized that loss of HIF-1α results in decreased lung metastasis. Lorenz Poellinger (Karolinska Institutet, Sweden) focused on how hypoxia can alter the epigenetic landscape of cells, and furthermore, how the disruption of the histone demethylase JMJD1A and/or the H3K9 methyltransferase G9a has opposing effects on tumor growth and HIF target gene expression.

Paul Schumacker (Northwestern University, USA) further emphasized the importance of mitochondrial ROS signaling under hypoxic conditions showing that ROS could be detected in the inter-membrane space of the mitochondria before activating signaling cascades in the cytosol. He also presented evidence for mitochondria as a site of oxygen sensing in diverse cell types. Similarly, Margaret Ashcroft (University College London, UK) argued for a critical role of mitochondria in hypoxic signaling. She presented on a family of mitochondrial proteins (CHCHD4) that influence hypoxic signaling and tumorigenesis and suggested that CHCHD4 is important for HIF and tumor progression.

2.1.1.3 Glutaminolysis: supplying carbon or nitrogen or both for cancer cells?

Dang CV
Cell Cycle. 2010 Oct 1; 9(19):3884-6

A cancer cell comprising largely of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, nitrogen and sulfur requires not only glucose, which is avidly transported and converted to lactate by aerobic glycolysis or the Warburg effect, but also glutamine as a major substrate. Glutamine and essential amino acids, such as methionine, provide energy through the TCA cycle as well as nitrogen, sulfur and carbon skeletons for growing and proliferating cancer cells. The interplay between utilization of glutamine and glucose is likely to depend on the genetic make-up of a cancer cell. While the MYC oncogene induces both aerobic glycolysis and glutaminolysis, activated β-catenin induces glutamine synthesis in hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer cells that have elevated glutamine synthetase can use glutamate and ammonia to synthesize glutamine and are hence not addicted to glutamine. As such, cancer cells have many degrees of freedom for re-programming cell metabolism, which with better understanding will result in novel therapeutic approaches.

Figure 1. Glutamine, glucose and glutamate are imported into the cytoplasm of a cell. Glucose is depicted to be converted primarily (large powder blue arrow) to lactate via aerobic glycolysis or the Warburg effect or channeled into the mitochondrion as pyruvate and converted to acetyl-CoA for oxidation. Glutamine is shown imported and used for different processes including glutaminolysis, which involves the conversion of glutamine to glutamate and ammonia by glutaminase (GLS). Glutamate is further oxidized via the TCA cycle to produce ATP and contribute anabolic carbon skeletons. Some cells can import glutamate and use ammonia to generate glutamine through glutamine synthetase (GLUL); glutamine could then be used for different purposes including glutathione synthesis (not shown).

The liver is organized into lobules, which have zones of cells around the perivenous region enriched with glutamine synthetase, which detoxifies ammonia by converting it to glutamine through the amination of glutamate (Fig. 1). As such, liver cancers vary in the degree of glutamine synthetase expression depending on the extent of anaplasia or de-differentiation. Highly undifferentiated liver cancers tend to be more glycolytic than those that retain some of the differentiated characteristics of liver cells. Furthermore, glutamine synthetase (considered as a direct target of activated β-catenin, which also induces ornithine aminotransferase and glutamate transporters) expression in liver cancers has been directly linked to β-catenin activation or mutations. Hence, the work by Meng et al. illustrates, first and foremost, the metabolic heterogeneity amongst cancer cell lines, such that the ability to utilize ammonia instead of glutamine by Hep3B cells depends on the expression of glutamine synthetase. The Hep3B cells are capable of producing glutamine from glutamate and ammonia, as suggested by the observation that a glutamine-independent derivative of Hep3B has high expression of glutamine synthetase. In this regard, Hep3B could utilize glutamate directly for the production of α-ketoglutarate or to generate glutamine for protein synthesis or other metabolic processes, such as to import essential amino acids. In contrast to Hep3B, other cell lines in the Meng et al. study were not demonstrated to be glutamine independent and thus become ammonia auxotrophs. Hence, the mode of glutamine or glucose utilization is dependent on the metabolic profile of cancer cells.
The roles of glutamine in different cancer cell lines are likely to be different depending on their genetic and epigenetic composition. In fact, well-documented isotopic labeling studies have demonstrated a role for glutamine to provide anapleurotic carbons in certain cancer and mammalian cell types. But these roles of glutaminolysis, whether providing nitrogen or anabolic carbons, should not be generalized as mutually exclusive features of all cancer cells. From these considerations, it is surmised that the expression of glutamine synthetase in different cancers will determine the extent by which these cancers are addicted to exogenous glutamine.

2.1.1.4 The Warburg effect and mitochondrial stability in cancer cells

Gogvadze V, Zhivotovsky B, Orrenius S.
Mol Aspects Med. 2010 Feb; 31(1):60-74
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.mam.2009.12.004

The last decade has witnessed a renaissance of Otto Warburg’s fundamental hypothesis, which he put forward more than 80 years ago, that mitochondrial malfunction and subsequent stimulation of cellular glucose utilization lead to the development of cancer. Since most tumor cells demonstrate a remarkable resistance to drugs that kill non-malignant cells, the question has arisen whether such resistance might be a consequence of the abnormalities in tumor mitochondria predicted by Warburg. The present review discusses potential mechanisms underlying the upregulation of glycolysis and silencing of mitochondrial activity in cancer cells, and how pharmaceutical intervention in cellular energy metabolism might make tumor cells more susceptible to anti-cancer treatment.

mitochondrial stabilization gr1

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Fig. 1. (1) Oligomerization of Bax is mediated by the truncated form of the BH3-only, pro-apoptotic protein Bid (tBid); (2) Bcl-2, Bcl-XL, Mcl-1, and Bcl-w, interact with the pro-apoptotic proteins, Bax and Bak, to prevent their oligomerization; (3) The anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-XL prevents tBid-induced closure of VDAC and apoptosis by maintaining VDAC in open conﬁguration allowing ADT/ATP exchange and normal mitochondrial functioning; (4) MPT pore is a multimeric complex, composed of VDAC located in the OMM, ANT, an integral protein of the IMM, and a matrix protein, CyPD; (5) Interaction with VDAC allows hexokinase to use exclusively intramitochondrial ATP to phosphorylate glucose, thereby maintaining high rate of glycolysis.

mitochodrial stabilization gr2

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Fig. 2. Different sites of therapeutic intervention in cancer cell metabolism. (1) The non-metabolizable analog of glucose, 2-deoxyglucose, decreases ATP level in the cell; (2) 3-bromopyruvate suppresses the activity of hexokinase, and respiration in isolated mitochondria; (3) Phloretin a glucose transporter inhibitor, decreases ATP level in the cell and markedly enhances the anti-cancer effect of daunorubicin; (4) Dichloroacetate (DCA) shifts metabolism from glycolysistoglucoseoxidation;(5)Apoptolidin,aninhibitorofmitochondrialATPsynthase,inducescelldeathindifferentmalignantcelllineswhenapplied together with the LDH inhibitor oxamate (6).

Warburg Symposium

https://youtu.be/LpE6w6J3jU0

2.1.1.5 Oxidative phosphorylation in cancer cells

Giancarlo Solaini, Gianluca Sgarbi, Alessandra Baracca

BB Acta – Bioenergetics 2011 Jun; 1807(6): 534–542
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbabio.2010.09.003

Research Highlights

►Mitochondrial hallmarks of tumor cells.►Complex I of the respiratory chain is reduced in many cancer cells.►Oligomers of F1F0ATPase are reduced in cancer cells.►Mitochondrial membranes are critical to the life or death of cancer cells.

Evidence suggests that mitochondrial metabolism may play a key role in controlling cancer cells life and proliferation. Recent evidence also indicates how the altered contribution of these organelles to metabolism and the resistance of cancer mitochondria against apoptosis-associated permeabilization are closely related. The hallmarks of cancer growth, increased glycolysis and lactate production in tumours, have raised attention due to recent observations suggesting a wide spectrum of oxidative phosphorylation deficit and decreased availability of ATP associated with malignancies and tumour cell expansion. More specifically, alteration in signal transduction pathways directly affects mitochondrial proteins playing critical roles in controlling the membrane potential as UCP2 and components of both MPTP and oxphos complexes, or in controlling cells life and death as the Bcl-2 proteins family. Moreover, since mitochondrial bioenergetics and dynamics, are also involved in processes of cells life and death, proper regulation of these mitochondrial functions is crucial for tumours to grow. Therefore a better understanding of the key pathophysiological differences between mitochondria in cancer cells and in their non-cancer surrounding tissue is crucial to the finding of tools interfering with these peculiar tumour mitochondrial functions and will disclose novel approaches for the prevention and treatment of malignant diseases. Here, we review the peculiarity of tumour mitochondrial bioenergetics and the mode it is linked to the cell metabolism, providing a short overview of the evidence accumulated so far, but highlighting the more recent advances. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Bioenergetics of Cancer.

Mitochondria are essential organelles and key integrators of metabolism, but they also play vital roles in cell death and cell signaling pathways critically influencing cell fate decisions [1], [2] and [3]. Mammalian mitochondria contain their own DNA (mtDNA), which encodes 13 polypeptides of oxidative phosphorylation complexes, 12S and 16S rRNAs, and 22 tRNAs required for mitochondrial function [4]. In order to synthesize ATP through oxidative phosphorylation (oxphos), mitochondria consume most of the cellular oxygen and produce the majority of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as by-products [5]. ROS have been implicated in the etiology of carcinogenesis via oxidative damage to cell macromolecules and through modulation of mitogenic signaling pathways [6], [7] and [8]. In addition, a number of mitochondrial dysfunctions of genetic origin are implicated in a range of age-related diseases, including tumours [9]. How mitochondrial functions are associated with cancer is a crucial and complex issue in biomedicine that is still unravelled [10] and [11], but it warrants an extraordinary importance since mitochondria play a major role not only as energy suppliers and ROS “regulators”, but also because of their control on cellular life and death. This is of particular relevance since tumour cells can acquire resistance to apoptosis by a number of mechanisms, including mitochondrial dysfunction, the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins or by the down-regulation or mutation of pro-apoptotic proteins [12].

Cancer cells must adapt their metabolism to produce all molecules and energy required to promote tumor growth and to possibly modify their environment to survive. These metabolic peculiarities of cancer cells are recognized to be the outcome of mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes which regulate cellular metabolism. Mutations in genes including P53, RAS, c-MYC, phosphoinosine 3-phosphate kinase (PI3K), and mTOR can directly or through signaling pathways affect metabolic pathways in cancer cells as discussed in several recent reviews [13], [14], [15], [16] and [17]. Cancer cells harboring the genetic mutations are also able to thrive in adverse environments such as hypoxia inducing adaptive metabolic alterations which include glycolysis up-regulation and angiogenesis factor release [18] and [19]. In response to hypoxia, hypoxia-induced factor 1 (HIF-1) [20], a transcription factor, is up-regulated, which enhances expression of glycolytic enzymes and concurrently it down regulates mitochondrial respiration through up-regulation of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 (PDK1) (see recent reviews [21] and [22]). However, several tumours have been reported to display high HIF-1 activity even in normoxic condition, now referred to as pseudohypoxia [23], [24] and [25]. In addition, not only solid tumours present a changed metabolism with respect to matched normal tissues, hematological cell malignancies also are characterized by peculiar metabolisms, in which changes of mitochondrial functions are significant [26],[27] and [28], therefore indicating a pivotal role of mitochondria in tumours independently from oxygen availability.

Collectively, actual data show a great heterogeneity of metabolism changes in cancer cells, therefore comprehensive cellular and molecular basis for the association of mitochondrial bioenergetics with tumours is still undefined, despite the numerous studies carried out. This review briefly revisits the data which are accumulating to account for this association and highlights the more recent advances, particularly focusing on the metabolic and structural changes of mitochondria.

Mitochondria-related metabolic changes of cancer cells

Accumulating evidence indicate that many cancer cells have an higher glucose consumption under normoxic conditions with respect to normal differentiated cells, the so-called “aerobic glycolysis” (Warburg effect), a phenomenon that is currently exploited to detect and diagnose staging of solid and even hematological malignancies [27]. Since the initial publication by Otto Warburg over half a century ago [29], an enormous amount of studies on many different tumours have been carried out to explain the molecular basis of the Warburg effect. Although the regulatory mechanisms underlying aerobic and glycolytic pathways of energy production are complex, making the prediction of specific cellular responses rather difficult, the actual data seem to support the view that in order to favour the production of biomass, proliferating cells are commonly prone to satisfy the energy requirement utilizing substrates other than the complete oxidation of glucose (to CO2 and H2O). More precisely, only part (40 to 75%, according to [30]) of the cells need of ATP is obtained through the scarcely efficient catabolism of glucose to pyruvate/lactate in the cytoplasm and the rest of the ATP need is synthesized in the mitochondria through both the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle (one ATP produced each acetyl moiety oxidized) and the associated oxidative phosphorylation that regenerates nicotinamide- and flavin-dinucleotides in their oxidized state(NAD+ and FAD). This might be due to the substrate availability as it was shown in HeLa cells, where replacing glucose with galactose/glutamine in the culture medium induced increased expression of oxphos proteins, suggesting an enhanced energy production from glutamine [31]. As a conclusion the authors proposed that energy substrate can modulate mitochondrial oxidative capacity in cancer cells. A direct evidence of this phenomenon was provided a few years later in glioblastoma cells, in which it was demonstrated that the TCA cycle flux is significantly sustained by anaplerotic alfa-ketoglutarate produced from glutamine and by acetyl moieties derived from the pyruvate dehydrogenase reaction where pyruvate may have an origin other than glucose [32]. The above changes are the result of genetic alteration and environmental conditions that induce many cancer cells to change their metabolism in order to synthesize molecules necessary to survive, grow and proliferate, including ribose and NADPH to synthesize nucleotides, and glycerol-3 phosphate to produce phospholipids. The synthesis of the latter molecules requires major amount of acetyl moieties that are derived from beta-oxidation of fatty acids and/or from cytosolic citrate (citrate lyase reaction) and/or from the pyruvate dehydrogenase reaction. Given the important requirement for NADPH in macromolecular synthesis and redox control, NADPH production in cancer cells besides being produced through the phosphate pentose shunt, may be significantly sustained by cytosolic isocitrate dehydrogenases and by the malic enzyme (see Ref. [33] for a recent review). Therefore, many cancer cells tend to have reduced oxphos in the mitochondria due to either or both reduced flux within the tricarboxylic acid cycle and/or respiration (Fig. 1). The latter being also caused by reduced oxygen availability, a typical condition of solid tumors, that will be discussed below.

Schematic illustration of mitochondrial metabolism and metabolic reprogramming in tumours gr1

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Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of mitochondrial metabolism and metabolic reprogramming in tumours. In normal cells (A), glucose is phosphorylated by HK-I, then the major part is degraded via glycolysis to pyruvate, which prevalently enters the mitochondria, it is decarboxylated and oxidized by PDH to acetyl-coenzyme A, which enters the TCA cycle where the two carbons are completely oxidized to CO2 whereas hydrogen atoms reduce NAD+ and FAD, which feed the respiratory chain (turquoise). Minor part of glycolytic G-6P is diverted to produce ribose 5-phosphate (R-5P) and NADPH, that will be used to synthesize nucleotides, whereas triose phosphates in minimal part will be used to synthesize lipids and phospholipids with the contribution of NADPH and acetyl-coenzyme A. Amino acids, including glutamine (Gln) will follow the physiological turnover of the proteins, in minimal part will be used to synthesize the nucleotides bases, and the excess after deamination will be used to produce energy. In the mitochondria inner membranes are located the respiratory chain complexes and the ATP synthase (turquoise), which phosphorylates ADP releasing ATP, that in turn is carried to the cytosol by ANT (green) in exchange for ADP. About 1–2% O2 uptaken by the mitochondria is reduced to superoxide anion radical and ROS. In cancer cells (B), where anabolism is enhanced, glucose is mostly phosphorylated by HK-II (red), which is up-regulated and has an easy access to ATP being more strictly bound to the mitochondria. Its product, G-6P, is only in part oxidized to pyruvate. This, in turn, is mostly reduced to lactate being both LDH and PDH kinase up-regulated. A significant part of G-6P is used to synthesize nucleotides that also require amino acids and glutamine. Citrate in part is diverted from the TCA cycle to the cytosol, where it is a substrate of citrate lyase, which supplies acetyl-coenzyme A for lipid and phospholipid synthesis that also requires NADPH. As indicated, ROS levels in many cancer cells increase.

Of particular relevance in the study of the metabolic changes occurring in cancer cells, is the role of hexokinase II. This enzyme is greatly up-regulated in many tumours being its gene promoter sensitive to typical tumour markers such as HIF-1 and P53 [30]. It plays a pivotal role in both the bioenergetic metabolism and the biosynthesis of required molecules for cancer cells proliferation. Hexokinase II phosphorylates glucose using ATP synthesized by the mitochondrial oxphos and it releases the product ADP in close proximity of the adenine nucleotide translocator (ANT) to favour ATP re-synthesis within the matrix (Fig. 1). Obviously, the expression level, the location, the substrate affinity, and the kinetics of the enzyme are crucial to the balancing of the glucose fate, to either allowing intermediates of the glucose oxidation pathway towards required metabolites for tumour growth or coupling cytoplasmic glycolysis with further oxidation of pyruvate through the TCA cycle, that is strictly linked to oxphos. This might be possible if the mitochondrial-bound hexokinase activity is reduced and/or if it limits ADP availability to the mitochondrial matrix, to inhibit the TCA cycle and oxphos. However, the mechanism is still elusive, although it has been shown that elevated oncogene kinase signaling favours the binding of the enzyme to the voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC) by AKT-dependent phosphorylation [34] (Fig. 2). VDAC is a protein complex of the outer mitochondrial membrane which is in close proximity of ANT that exchanges ADP for ATP through the inner mitochondrial membrane [35]. However, the enzyme may also be detached from the mitochondrial membrane, to be redistributed to the cytosol, through the catalytic action of sirtuin-3 that deacylates cyclophilin D, a protein of the inner mitochondrial membrane required for binding hexokinase II to VDAC (Fig. 2) [36]. Removing hexokinase from the mitochondrial membrane has also another important consequence in cancer cells: whatever mechanism its removal activates, apoptosis is induced [37] and [38]. These observations indicate hexokinase II as an important tool used by cancer cells to survive and proliferate under even adverse conditions, including hypoxia, but it may result an interesting target to hit in order to induce cells cytotoxicity. Indeed, a stable RNA interference of hexokinase II gene showed enhanced apoptosis indices and inhibited growth of human colon cancer cells; in accordance in vivo experiments indicated a decreased tumour growth [39].

Schematic illustration of the main mitochondrial changes frequently occurring in cancer cells gr2

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Fig. 2. Schematic illustration of the main mitochondrial changes frequently occurring in cancer cells. The reprogramming of mitochondrial metabolism in many cancer cells comprises reduced pyruvate oxidation by PDH followed by the TCA cycle, increased anaplerotic feeding of the same cycle, mostly from Gln, whose entry in the mitochondrial matrix is facilitated by UCP2 up-regulation. This increases also the free fatty acids uptake by mitochondria, therefore β-oxidation is pushed to produce acetyl-coenzyme A, whose oxidation contributes to ATP production. In cancer cells many signals can converge on the mitochondrion to regulate the mitochondrial membrane permeability, which may respond by elevating the MPTP (PTP) threshold, with consequent enhancement of apoptosis resistance. ROS belong to this class of molecules since it can enhance Bcl2 and may induce DNA mutations. Dotted lines indicate regulation; solid lines indicate reaction(s).

Respiratory chain complexes and ATP synthase

Beyond transcriptional control of metabolic enzyme expression by oncogenes and tumour suppressors, it is becoming evident that environmental conditions affect the mitochondrial energy metabolism, and many studies in the last decade indicate that mitochondrial dysfunction is one of the more recurrent features of cancer cells, as reported at microscopic, molecular, biochemical, and genetic level [7], [40] and [41]. Although cancer cells under several conditions, including hypoxia, oncogene activation, and mDNA mutation, may substantially differ in their ability to use oxygen, only few reports have been able to identify a strict association between metabolic changes and mitochondrial complexes composition and activity. In renal oncocytomas [42] and in lung epidermoid carcinoma [43], the NADH dehydrogenase activity and protein content of Complex I were found to be strongly depressed; subsequently, in a thyroid oncocytoma cell line [44] a similar decrease of Complex I activity was ascribed to a specific mutation in the ND1 gene of mitochondrial DNA. However, among the respiratory chain complexes, significant decrease of the only Complex I content and activity was found in K-ras transformed cells in our laboratory [45], and could not be ascribed to mtDNA mutations, but rather, based on microarray analysis of oxphos genes, we proposed that a combination of genetic (low transcription of some genes) and biochemical events (assembly factors deficiency, disorganization of structured supercomplexes, and ROS-induced structural damage) might cause the Complex I defects.

In some hereditary tumours (renal cell carcinomas) a correlation has been identified between mitochondrial dysfunctions and content of oxphos complexes [46]. For instance, the low content of ATP synthase, often observed in clear cell type renal cell carcinomas and in chromophilic tumours, seems to indicate that the mitochondria are in an inefficient structural and functional state [46]. However, it cannot be excluded that, in some cases, the structural alteration of ATP synthase may offer a functional advantage to cells exhibiting a deficient respiratory chain for instance to preserve the transmembrane electrical potential (Δψm) [47]. It is likely that low levels of ATP synthases may play a significant role in cancer cell metabolism since it has been reported that in tumours from many different tissues, carcinogenesis specifically affects the expression of F1-ATPase β subunit, suggesting alterations in the mechanisms that control mitochondrial differentiation (see for a detailed review [48]). What it seems intriguing is the overexpression of the inhibitor protein, IF1, reported in hepatocellular carcinomas [49] and [50] and in Yoshida sarcoma [51]. Normally, this protein binds to the F1 domain of the ATP synthase inhibiting its activity [52], and it is believed to limit the ATP hydrolysis occurring in the mitochondria of hypoxic cells, avoiding ATP depletion and maintaining Δψm to a level capable to avoid the induction of cell death [5]. But why is its expression in cancer cells enhanced in front of a reduced F1-ATPase β subunit?

The first possibility is that IF1 has a function similar to that in normal cells, simply avoiding excessive ATP hydrolysis therefore limiting Δψm enhancement, but in cancer cells this is unlikely due to both the reduced level of ATP synthase [46] and the high affinity of IF1 for the enzyme. A second possibility might be that cancer cells need strongly reduced oxphos to adapt their metabolism and acquire a selective growth advantage under adverse environmental conditions such as hypoxia, as it has been experimentally shown [53]. Finally, IF1 might contribute to the saving of the inner mitochondrial membrane structure since it has been reported its capability to stabilize oligomers of ATP synthase, which in turn can determine cristae shapes [54]. In this regard, recent experimental evidence has shed some light on a critical role of mitochondrial morphology in the control of important mitochondrial functions including apoptosis [55] and oxidative phosphorylation [56]. In particular, dysregulated mitochondrial fusion and fission events can now be regarded as playing a role in cancer onset and progression [57]. Accordingly, mitochondria-shaping proteins seem to be an appealing target to modulate the mitochondrial phase of apoptosis in cancer cells. In fact, several cancer tissues: breast, head-and-neck, liver, ovarian, pancreatic, prostate, renal, skin, and testis, showed a pattern suggestive of enlarged mitochondria resulting from atypical fusion [58].

Mitochondrial membrane potential in cancer cells

Critical mitochondrial functions, including ATP synthesis, ion homeostasis, metabolites transport, ROS production, and cell death are highly dependent on the electrochemical transmembrane potential, a physico-chemical parameter consisting of two components, the major of which being the transmembrane electrical potential (Δψ_m) (see for a recent review [59]). In normal cells, under normoxic conditions, Δψ_m is build up by the respiratory chain and is mainly used to drive ATP synthesis, whereas in anoxia or severe hypoxia it is generated by the hydrolytic activity of the ATP synthase complex and by the electrogenic transport of ATP in exchange for ADP from the cytosol to the matrix, operated by the adenine nucleotide translocator [17]. Dissipation of the mitochondrial membrane potential (proton leak) causes uncoupling of the respiratory chain electron transport from ADP phosphorylation by the ATP synthase complex. Proton leak functions as a regulator of mitochondrial ROS production and its modulation by uncoupling proteins may be involved in pathophysiology, including tumours. In addition, Δψ_m plays a role in the control of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP), that might be critical in determining reduced sensitivity to stress stimuli that were described in neoplastic transformation [60], implying that dysregulation of pore opening might be a strategy used by tumour cells to escape death. Indeed, it has recently been reported that ERK is constitutively activated in the mitochondria of several cancer cell types, where it inhibits glycogen synthase kinase-3-dependent phosphorylation of CyP-D and renders these cells more refractory to pore opening and to the ensuing cell death [61].

It is worth mentioning a second protein of the inner mitochondrial membrane, the uncoupling protein, UCP2 (Fig. 2), which contributes to regulate Δψ_m. Indeed, recent observations evidenced its overexpression in various chemoresistent cancer cell lines and in primary human colon cancer. This overexpression was associated with an increased apoptotic threshold [62]. Moreover, UCP2 has been reported to be involved in metabolic reprogramming of cells, and appeared necessary for efficient oxidation of glutamine [63]. On the whole, these results led to hypothesize an important role of the uncoupling protein in the molecular mechanism at the basis of the Warburg effect, that suppose a reduced Δψ_m-dependent entry of pyruvate into the mitochondria accompanied by enhanced fatty acid oxidation and high oxygen consumption (see for a review [64]). However, in breast cancer Sastre-Serra et al. [65] suggested that estrogens by down-regulating UCPs, increase mitochondrial Δψ_m, that in turn enhances ROS production, therefore increasing tumorigenicity. While the two above points of view concur to support increased tumorigenicity, the mechanisms at the basis of the phenomenon appear on the opposite of the other. Therefore, although promising for the multiplicity of metabolic effects in which UCPs play a role (see for a recent review [66]), at present it seems that much more work is needed to clarify how UCPs are related to cancer.

A novel intriguing hypothesis has recently been put forward regarding effectors of mitochondrial function in tumours. Wegrzyn J et al. [67] demonstrated the location of the transcription factor STAT3 within the mitochondria and its capability to modulate respiration by regulating the activity of Complexes I and II, and Gough et al. [68] reported that human ras oncoproteins depend on mitochondrial STAT3 for full transforming potential, and that cancer cells expressing STAT3 have increased both Δψ_m and lactate dehydrogenase level, typical hallmarks of malignant transformation (Fig. 2). A similar increase of Δψ_m was recently demonstrated in K-ras transformed fibroblasts [45]. In this study, the increased Δψ_m was somehow unexpected since the cells had shown a substantial decrease of NADH-linked substrate respiration rate due to a compatible reduced Complex I activity with respect to normal fibroblasts. The authors associated the reduced activity of the enzyme to its peculiar low level in the extract of the cells that was confirmed by oxphos nuclear gene expression analysis. This significant and peculiar reduction of Complex I activity relative to other respiratory chain complexes, is recurrent in a number of cancer cells of different origin [42], [44], [45] and [69]. Significantly, all those studies evidenced an overproduction of ROS in cancer cells, which was consistent with the mechanisms proposed by Lenaz et al. [70] who suggested that whatever factor (i.e. genetic or environmental) initiate the pathway, if Complex I is altered, it does not associate with Complex III in supercomplexes, consequently it does not channel correctly electrons from NADH through coenzyme Q to Complex III redox centres, determining ROS overproduction. This, in turn, enhances respiratory chain complexes alteration resulting in further ROS production, thus establishing a vicious cycle of oxidative stress and energy depletion, which can contribute to further damaging cells pathways and structures with consequent tumour progression and metastasis [69].

Hypoxia and oxidative phosphorylation in cancer cells

Tumour cells experience an extensive heterogeneity of oxygen levels, from normoxia (around 2–4% oxygen tension), through hypoxia, to anoxia (< 0.1% oxygen tension). The growth of tumours beyond a critical mass > 1–2 mm³ is dependent on adequate blood supply to receive nutrients and oxygen by diffusion [88]. Cells adjacent to capillaries were found to exhibit a mean oxygen concentration of 2%, therefore, beyond this distance, hypoxia occurs: indeed, cells located at 200 μm displayed a mean oxygen concentration of 0.2%, which is a condition of severe hypoxia [89]. Oxygen shortage results in hypoxia-dependent inhibition of mitochondrial activity, mostly mediated by the hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1)[90] and [91]. More precisely, hypoxia affects structure, dynamics, and function of the mitochondria, and in particular it has a significant inhibitory effect on the oxidative phosphorylation machinery, which is the main energy supplier of cells (see Ref. [22] for a recent review). The activation of HIF-1 occurs in the cytoplasmic region of the cell, but the contribution of mitochondria is critical being both cells oxygen sensors and suppliers of effectors of HIF-1α prolyl hydroxylase like α-ketoglutarate and probably ROS, that inhibit HIF-1α removal [92]. As reported above, mitochondria can also promote HIF-1α stabilization if the TCA flux is severely inhibited with release of intermediate molecules like succinate and fumarate into the cytosol. On the other hand, HIF-1 can modulate mitochondrial functions through different mechanisms, that besides metabolic reprogramming [7], [22], [93] and [94], include alteration of mitochondrial structure and dynamics[58], induction of microRNA-210 that decreases the cytochrome c oxidase (COX) activity by inhibiting the gene expression of the assembly protein COX10 [95], that also increases ROS generation. Moreover, these stress conditions could induce the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2, which has also been reported to regulate COX activity and mitochondrial respiration [96] conferring resistance to cells death in tumours (Fig. 2). This effect might be further enhanced upon severe hypoxia conditions, since COX is also inhibited by NO, the product of activated nitric oxide synthases [97].

The reduced respiration rate occurring in hypoxia favours the release of ROS also by Complex III, which contribute to HIF stabilization and induction of Bcl-2 [98]. In addition, hypoxia reduces oxphos by inhibiting the ATP synthase complex through its natural protein inhibitor IF₁ (discussed in a previous section), which contributes to the enhancement of the “aerobic glycolysis”, all signatures of cancer transformation.

The observations reported to date indicate that cancer cells exhibit large varieties of metabolic changes which are associated with alterations in the mitochondrial structure, dynamics and function, and with tumour growth and survival. On one hand, mitochondria can regulate tumour growth through modulation of the TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The altered TCA cycle provides intermediates for both macromolecular biosynthesis and regulation of transcription factors such as HIF, and it allows cytosolic reductive power enhancement. Oxphos provides significant amounts of ATP which varies among tumour types. On the other hand, mitochondria are crucial in controlling redox homeostasis in the cell, inducing them to be either resistant or sensitive to apoptosis. All these reasons locate mitochondria at central stage to understanding the molecular basis of tumour growth and to seeking for novel therapeutical approaches.

Due to the complexity and variability of mitochondrial roles in cancer, careful evaluation of mitochondrial function in each cancer type is crucial. Deeper and more integrated knowledge of mitochondrial mechanisms and cancer-specific mitochondrial modulating means are expected for reducing tumorigenicity and/or improving anticancer drugs efficacy at the mitochondrial level. Although the great variability of biochemical changes found in tumour mitochondria, some highlighted peculiarities such as reduced TCA cycle flux, reduced oxphos rate, and reduced Complex I activity with respect to tissue specific normal counterparts are more frequent. In addition, deeper examination of supramolecular organization of the complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane has to be considered in relation to oxphos dysfunction.

2.1.1.6 Oxidation–reduction states of NADH in vivo: From animals to clinical use

Mayevsky A, Chance B.
Mitochondrion. 2007 Sep; 7(5):330-9
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.mito.2007.05.001

Mitochondrial dysfunction is part of many pathological states in patients, such as sepsis or stroke. Presently, the monitoring of mitochondrial function in patients is extremely rare, even though NADH redox state is routinely measured in experimental animals. In this article, we describe the scientific backgrounds and practical use of mitochondrial NADH fluorescence measurement that was applied to patients in the past few years. In addition to NADH, we optically measured the microcirculatory blood flow and volume, as well as HbO(2) oxygenation, from the same tissue area. The four detected parameters provide real time data on tissue viability, which is critical for patients monitoring.

(very important article)

2.1.1.7 Mitochondria in cancer. Not just innocent bystanders

Frezza C, and Gottlieb E
Sem Cancer Biol 2009; 19: 4-11
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.semcancer.2008.11.008

The first half of the 20th century produced substantial breakthroughs in bioenergetics and mitochondria research. During that time, Otto Warburg observed abnormally high glycolysis and lactate production in oxygenated cancer cells, leading him to suggest that defects in mitochondrial functions are at the heart of malignant cell transformation. Warburg’s hypothesis profoundly influenced the present perception of cancer metabolism, positioning what is termed aerobic glycolysis in the mainstream of clinical oncology. While some of his ideas stood the test of time, they also frequently generated misconceptions regarding the biochemical mechanisms of cell transformation. This review examines experimental evidence which supports or refutes the Warburg effect and discusses the possible advantages conferred on cancer cells by ‘metabolic transformation’.

Fig.1. Mitochondria as a crossroad for catabolic and anabolic pathways in normal and cancer cells. Glucose and glutamine are important carbon sources which are metabolized in cells for the generation of energy and anabolic precursors. The pathways discussed in the text are illustrated and colour coded: red, glycolysis; white, TCA cycle; pink, non-essential amino acids synthesis; orange, pentose phosphate pathway and nucleotide synthesis; green, fatty acid and lipid synthesis; blue, pyruvate oxidation in the mitochondria; brown, glutaminolysis; black, malic enzyme reaction. Solid arrows indicate a single step reaction;dashed-dotted arrows indicate transport across membranes and dotted arrows indicate multi-step reactions. Abbreviations: HK, hexokinase; AcCoA, acetyl co-enzyme A; OAA, oxaloacetate; αKG, α-ketoglutarate.

http://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S1044579X08001041-gr1.sml

Fig. 2. Mitochondria as a target for multiple metabolic transformation events. Principal metabolic perturbations of cancer cells are induced by genetic reprogramming and environmental changes. The activation of Akt and MYC oncogenes and the loss of p53 tumor suppressor gene are among the most frequent events in cancer. Furthermore, all solid tumors are exposed to oxidative stress and hypoxia hence to HIF activation.These frequent changes in cancer cells trigger a dramatic metabolic shift from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis. In addition, direct genetic lesions of mtDNA or of nuclear encoded mitochondrial enzyme (SDH or FH) can directly abrogate oxidative phosphorylation in cancer. 3- D structures of the respiratory complexes in the scheme were retrieved from Protein DataBank (PDB:www.rcsb.org) except for complex I which was retrieved from [87]. PDB codes are as follow: SDH (II), 1 LOV; complex III (III), 1BGY; COX (IV), 1OCC; ATP synthase (V), 1QO1.

http://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S1044579X08001041-gr2.sml

Fig. 3. The physiological roles of SDH in the TCA cycle and the ETC and its potential roles in cancer. (A) Ribbon diagram of SDH structure (PBD code: 1LOV). The catalytic subunits: the ﬂavoprotein (SDHA) and the iron-sulphur protein (SDHB) are depicted in red and yellow, respectively, and the membrane anchors and ubiquinone binding proteins SDHC and SDHD are depicted in cyan and green, respectively. (B) Other than being a TCA enzyme, SDH is an additional entry point to the ETC (most electrons are donated from NADH to complex I—not shown in this diagram). The electron ﬂow in and out of complex II and III is depicted by the yellow arrows. During succinate oxidation to fumarate by SDHA, a two-electron reduction of FAD to FADH2 occurs. Electrons are transferred through their on–Sulphur centres on SDHB to ubiquinone (Q) bound to SDHC and SDHD in the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM), reducing it to ubiquinol (QH2). Ubiquinol transfers its electrons through complex III, in a mechanism named the Q cycle, to cytochrome c (PDB: 1CXA). Electrons then ﬂow from cytochrome c to COX where the ﬁnal four-electron reduction of molecular oxygen to water occurs (not shown in this diagram). Complex III is the best characterized site of ROS production in the ETC, where a single electron reduction of oxygen to superoxide can occur (red arrow). It was proposed that obstructing electron ﬂow within complex II might support a single electron reduction of oxygen at the FAD site (red arrow). Superoxide is dismutated to hydrogen peroxide which can then leave the mitochondria and inhibit PHD in the cytosol, leading to HIF[1] stabilization. Succinate or fumarate, which accumulate in SDH- or FH-deﬁcient tumors, can also leave the mitochondria and inhibit PHD activity in the cytosol. The red dotted line represents the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM).

2.1.1.8 Mitochondria in cancer cells: what is so special about them?

Gogvadze V, Orrenius S, Zhivotovsky B.
Trends Cell Biol. 2008 Apr; 18(4):165-73
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.tcb.2008.01.006

The past decade has revealed a new role for the mitochondria in cell metabolism–regulation of cell death pathways. Considering that most tumor cells are resistant to apoptosis, one might question whether such resistance is related to the particular properties of mitochondria in cancer cells that are distinct from those of mitochondria in non-malignant cells. This scenario was originally suggested by Otto Warburg, who put forward the hypothesis that a decrease in mitochondrial energy metabolism might lead to development of cancer. This review is devoted to the analysis of mitochondrial function in cancer cells, including the mechanisms underlying the upregulation of glycolysis, and how intervention with cellular bioenergetic pathways might make tumor cells more susceptible to anticancer treatment and induction of apoptosis.

Glucose utilization pathway

http://www.cell.com/cms/attachment/591821/4554537/gr1.sml

Figure 1. Glucose utilization pathway. When glucose enters the cell, it is phosphorylated by hexokinase to glucose-6-phosphate, which is further metabolized by glycolysis to pyruvate. Under aerobic conditions, most of the pyruvate in non-malignant cells enters the mitochondria, with only a small amount being metabolized to lactic acid. In mitochondria, pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) converts pyruvate into acetyl-CoA, which feeds into the Krebs cycle. Oxidation of Krebs cycle substrates by the mitochondrial respiratory chain builds up the mitochondrial membrane potential (Dc) – the driving force for ATP synthesis. By contrast, in tumor cells, the oxidative (mitochondrial) pathway of glucose utilization is suppressed, and most of the pyruvate is converted into lactate. Thus, the fate of pyruvate is determined by the relative activities of two key enzymes – lactate dehydrogenase and pyruvate dehydrogenase.

Mechanisms of mitochondrial silencing in tumors

http://www.cell.com/cms/attachment/591821/4554539/gr2.sml

Figure 2. Mechanisms of mitochondrial silencing in tumors. The activity of PDH is regulated by pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 (PDK1), the enzyme that phosphorylates and inactivates pyruvate dehydrogenase. HIF-1 inactivates PDH through PDK1 induction, resulting in suppression of the Krebs cycle and mitochondrial respiration. In addition, HIF-1 stimulates expression of the lactate dehydrogenase A gene, facilitating conversion of pyruvate into lactate by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). Mutation of p53 can suppress the mitochondrial respiratory activity through downregulation of the Synthesis of Cytochrome c Oxidase 2 (SCO2) gene, the product of which is required for the assembly of cytochrome c oxidase (COX) of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. Thus, mutation of p53 can suppress mitochondrial respiration and shift cellular energy metabolism towards glycolysis.

Production of ROS by mitochondria

In any cell, the majority of ROS are by-products of mitochondrial respiration. Approximately 2% of the molecular oxygen consumed during respiration is converted into the superoxide anion radical, the precursor of most ROS. Normally, a four-electron reduction of O2, resulting in the production of two molecules of water, is catalyzed by complex IV (COX) of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. However, the electron transport chain contains several redox centers (e.g. in complex I and III) that can leak electrons to molecular oxygen, serving as the primary source of superoxide production in most tissues. The one-electron reduction of oxygen is thermodynamically favorable for most mitochondrial oxidoreductases. Superoxide-producing sites and enzymes were recently analyzed in detail in a comprehensive review [87]. ROS, if not detoxified, oxidize cellular proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids and, by doing so, cause cell dysfunction or death. A cascade of water and lipid soluble antioxidants and antioxidant enzymes suppresses the harmful ROS activity. An imbalance that favors the production of ROS over antioxidant defenses, defined as oxidative stress, is implicated in a wide variety of pathologies, including malignant diseases. It should be mentioned that mitochondria are not only a major source of ROS but also a sensitive target for the damaging effects of oxygen radicals. ROS produced by mitochondria can oxidize proteins and induce lipid peroxidation, compromising the barrier properties of biological membranes. One of the targets of ROS is mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which encodes several proteins essential for the function of the mitochondrial respiratory chain and, hence, for ATP synthesis by oxidative phosphorylation. mtDNA, therefore, represents a crucial cellular target for oxidative damage, which might lead to lethal cell injury through the loss of electron transport and ATP generation. mtDNA is especially susceptible to attack by ROS, owing to its close proximity to the electron transport chain, the major locus for free-radical production, and the lack of protective histones. For example, mitochondrially generated ROS can trigger the formation of 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine as a result of oxidative DNA damage; the level of oxidatively modified bases in mtDNA is 10- to 20-fold higher than that in nuclear DNA. Oxidative damage induced by ROS is probably a major source of mitochondrial genomic instability leading to respiratory dysfunction.

Figure 3. Stabilization of mitochondria against OMM permeabilization in tumor cells. OMM permeabilization is a key event in apoptotic cell death. (a) During apoptosis, tBid-mediated oligomerization of Bax causes OMM permeabilization and release of cytochrome c (red circles). (b) Bcl-2 protein binds Bax and prevents its oligomerization. A shift in the balance between pro- apoptotic and antiapoptotic proteins in cancer cells, in favor of the latter, reduces the availability of Bax and prevents OMM permeabilization. (c) Upregulation of hexokinase in tumors and its binding to VDAC in the OMM not only facilitates glucose phosphorylation using mitochondrially generated ATP but keeps VDAC in the open state, preventing its interaction with tBid (de).

http://www.cell.com/cms/attachment/591821/4554543/gr4.sml

Figure 4. Shifting metabolism from glycolysis to glucose oxidation. Utilization of pyruvate is controlled by the relative activities of two enzymes, PDH and LDH. In cancer cells, PDH activity is suppressed by PDH kinase-mediated phosphorylation, and, therefore, instead of entering the Krebs cycle, pyruvate is converted into lactate. Several attempts have been made to redirect pyruvate towards oxidation in the mitochondria. Thus, inhibition of PDK1 by dichloroacetate might stimulate the activity of PDH and, hence, direct pyruvate to the mitochondria. A similar effect can be achieved by inhibition of LDH by oxamate. Overall, suppression of PDK1 and LDH activities will stimulate mitochondrial ATP production and might be lethal to tumor cells, even if these inhibitors are used at non-toxic doses. In addition, stimulation of mitochondrial function, for example though overexpression of mitochondrial frataxin, a protein associated with Friedreich ataxia, was shown to stimulate oxidative metabolism and inhibited growth in several cancer cell lines [86].
2.1.1.9 Glucose avidity of carcinomas

Ortega AD1, Sánchez-Aragó M, Giner-Sánchez D, Sánchez-Cenizo L, et al.
Cancer Letters 276 (2009) 125–135
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.canlet.2008.08.007

The cancer cell phenotype has been summarized in six hallmarks [D. Hanahan, R.A. Weinberg, The hallmarks of cancer, Cell 100 (1) (2000) 57-70]. Following the conceptual trait established in that review towards the comprehension of cancer, herein we summarize the basis of an underlying principle that is fulfilled by cancer cells and tumors: its avidity for glucose. Our purpose is to push forward that the metabolic reprogramming that operates in the cancer cell represents a seventh hallmark of the phenotype that offers a vast array of possibilities for the future treatment of the disease. We summarize the metabolic pathways that extract matter and energy from glucose, paying special attention to the concerted regulation of these pathways by the ATP mass-action ratio. The molecular and functional evidences that support the high glucose uptake and the “abnormal” aerobic glycolysis of the carcinomas are detailed discussing also the role that some oncogenes and tumor suppressors have in these pathways. We overview past and present evidences that sustain that mitochondria of the cancer cell are impaired, supporting the original Warburg’s formulation that ascribed the high glucose uptake of cancer cells to a defective mitochondria. A simple proteomic approach designed to assess the metabolic phenotype of cancer, i.e., its bioenergetic signature, molecularly and functionally supports Warburg’s hypothesis. Furthermore, we discuss the clinical utility that the bioenergetic signature might provide. Glycolysis is presented as the “selfish” pathway used for cellular proliferation, providing both the metabolic precursors and the energy required for biosynthetic purposes, in the context of a plethora of substrates. The glucose avidity of carcinomas is thus presented as the result of both the installment of glycolysis for cellular proliferation and of the impairment of mitochondrial activity in the cancer cell. At the end, the repression of mitochondrial activity affords the cancer cell with a cell-death resistant phenotype making them prone to malignant growth.

Fig. 1. Pathways of glucose metabolism. The model shows some of the relevant aspects of the metabolism of glucose. After entering the cell by speciﬁc transporters, glucose can be (i) catabolized by the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) to obtain reducing power in the form of NADPH, (ii) used for the synthesis of carbohydrates or (iii) utilized by glycolysis to generate pyruvate and other metabolic intermediates that could be used in different anabolic processes (blue rectangles). In the cytoplasm, the generated pyruvate can be reduced to lactate and further exported from the cell or oxidized in the mitochondria by pyruvate dehydrogenase to generate acetyl-CoA, which is condensed with oxaloacetate in the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle). The operation of the TCA cycle completes the oxidation of mitochondrial pyruvate. Different pathways that drain intermediates of the TCA cycle (oxaloacetate, succinyl-CoA, a-ketoglutarate and citrate) for biosynthetic purposes (blue rectangles) are represented. The transfer of electrons obtained in biological oxidations (NADH/FADH2) to molecular oxygen by respiratory complexes of the inner mitochondrial membrane (in green) is depicted by yellow lines. The utilization of the proton gradient generated by respiration for the synthesis of ATP by the H+-ATP synthase (in orange) in oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) is also indicated. The incorporation of glutamine carbon skeletons into the TCA cycle is shown. The utilization of NADPH in anabolic pathways is also indicated.

Fig. 3. Fluxes of matter and energy in differentiated, proliferating and cancer cells. In differentiated cells, the ﬂux of glycolysis is low because the requirement for precursors for anabolic purposes is low and there is a high energy yield by the oxidation of pyruvate in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). In this situation, mitochondrial activity produces large amounts of ROS that are normally quenched by the cellular antioxidant defense. In proliferating and cancer cells, there is a high demand of glucose to provide metabolic precursors for the biosynthesis of the macromolecules of daughter cells and because most of the energy required for anabolic purposes derives from non-efﬁcient non-respiratory modes (glycolysis, pentose phosphate pathway) of energy generation. Limiting mitochondrial activity in these situations ensures less ROS production and their further downstream consequences. In addition, cancer cells have less overall mitochondrial complement or activity than normal cells by repressing the biogenesis of mitochondria.

Fig. 2. Genetic alterations underlying the glycolytic phenotype of cancer cells. The diagram represents the impact of gain-of-function mutations in oncogenes (ovals) and loss-of-function mutations in tumor suppressors (rectangles) in glycolysis and in the mitochondrial utilization of pyruvate in cancer cells. Hypoxia (low O2) induces the stabilization of HIF-1, which promotes transcriptional activation of the glucose transporter, glycolytic genes and PDK1. The expression of PDK1 results in the inactivation of pyruvate dehydrogenase and thus in a decreased oxidation of pyruvate in the TCA cycle concurrent to its enhanced cytoplasmic reduction to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase (LDHA). In addition, HIF1a reciprocally regulates the expression of two isoforms of the cytochrome c oxidase complex. The oncogen myc also supports an enhanced glycolytic pathway by transcriptional activation of glycolytic genes. High levels of c-myc could also promote the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that could damage nuclear (nDNA) and mitochondrial (mtDNA). The loss-of-function of the tumor suppressor p53 promotes an enhanced glycolytic phenotype by the repression of TIGAR expression. Likewise, loss-of-function of p53 diminished the expression of SCO2, a gene required for the appropriate assembly of cytochrome c oxidase, and thus limits the activity of mitochondria in the cancer cell.
Discussion:

Jose E S Roselino

Warburg Effect revisited
It is very interesting the series of commentaries following Warburg Effect revisited. However, it comes as no surprise that almost all of them have small or greater emphasis in the molecular biology (changes in gene expression) events of the metabolic regulation involved.
I would like to comment on some aspects: 1- Warburg did the initial experiments following Pasteur line of reasoning that aimed at carbon flow through the cell (yeast in his case) instead of describing anything inside the cell. It is worth to recall that for the sake of his study, Pasteur considered anything inside the cell under the domain of divine forces. He, at least in defence of his work, entirely made outside the cell, considered that inside the cells was beyond human capability of understanding – He has followed vitalism as his line of reasoning in defence of his work – Interestingly, the same scientist that has ruled out spontaneous generation when Pasteurization was started. Therefore, Pasteur measured everything outside the cell (mainly sugar, ethanol – the equivalent of our lactic acid end product of anaerobic metabolism) and found that as soon as yeasts were placed in the presence of oxygen, sugar was consumed at low speed in comparison with the speed measured in anaerobiosis and ethanol was also produced at reduced speed. This is an indication of a fast biological regulatory mechanism that obviously, do not require changes in gene expression. As previously said, Warburg work translated for republishing in the Journal Biological Chemistry mentioned “grana” for mitochondria calling attention on an “inside-the-cell” component. It seems that, there is not a unique, single site of metabolism, where the Pasteur Effect – Warburg Effect seems to be elicited by the shift from anaerobiosis to aerobiosis or vice versa.
In order to find a core for the mechanism the best approach seems to take into account one of the most important contributions of one of the greatest north-American biochemists, Briton Chance. He has made it with his polarographic method of following continuously the oxygen consumption of the cell´s mitochondria.
Mitochondria burn organic carbon molecules under a very stringent control mechanism of oxidative-phosphorylation ATP production. Measured in the form of changes in the speed of oxygen consumption over time as Respiratory Control Ratio (RCR). When no ATP is required by the cell, oxygen consumption goes at low speed (basal or state II or IV). When ADP is offered to the mitochondria as an indication that ATP synthesis is necessary, oxygen consumption is activated in state III respiration. Low respiration means low burning activity of organic (carbon) molecules what in this case, means indirectly low glucose consumption. While high respiration is the converse – greater glucose consumption.
Aerobic metabolism of glucose to carbonic acid and water provides a change in free energy enough for 38 molecules of ATP (the real production is +/- 32 ATP in aerobic condition) while glucose to lactic acid metabolism in anaerobiosis leads to 2 ATP production after discounting the other 2 required at initial stages of glucose metabolism.
The low ATP yield in anaerobiosis explains the fast glucose metabolism in anaerobiosis while the control by RCR in mitochondria explains the reduction in glucose metabolism under aerobiosis as long as the ATP requirements of the cell remains the same – This is what it is assumed to happen in quiescent cells. Not necessarily in fast growing cells as cancer cells are. However, this will not be discussed here. In my first experiments in the early seventies, with M. Rouxii a dimorphic mold-yeast biological system the environmental change (aerobic – anaerobic) led to morphogenetic change presented as morphogenetic expression of the Pasteur Effect. In this case, the enzyme that replaces mitochondria in ATP production (Pyruvate Kinase) converting phosphoenolpyruvate into pyruvate together with ADP into ATP, shows changes that can be interpreted as change in gene expression together with new self-assembly of enzyme subunits. (Dimer AA – yeast in anaerobic growth or sporangiospores- converted into dimer AB in aerobic mold). In Leloir opinions at that time, PK I (AA) was only highly glycosylated, while PK II (AB) was less glycosylated without changes in gene expression.

Jose E S Roselino

In case you read comments posted, you will see that the reference to aerobic glycolysis, continues to be made together with, new deranged forms of reasoning as is indicated by referring to: Mitochondrial role in ion homeostasis…
Homeostasis is a regulation of something, ions, molecules, pH etc. that is kept outside the cell, therefore any role for mitochondria on it is only made indirectly, by its ATP production.
However, mitochondria has a role together with other cell components in the regulation of for instance, intracellular Ca levels (Something that is not a homeostatic regulation). This is a very important point for the following reason: Homeostasis is maintained as a composite result of several differentiated cellular, tissue and organ functions. Differentiated function is something clearly missing in cancer cells. The best form to refer to the mitochondrial function regarding ions is to indicate a mitochondrial role in ion fluxes.
In short, to indicate how an environmental event or better saying condition could favour genetic changes instead of being caused by genetic changes is to follow the same line of reasoning that is followed in understanding the role of cardioplegia. To stop heart beating is adequate for heart surgery it is also adequate for heart cells by sparing the ATP use during surgery and therefore, offering better recovery condition to the heart afterwards.
In the case, here considered, even assuming that the genome is not made more unstable during hypoxic condition it is quite possible to understand that sharing ATP with both differentiated cell function and replication may led quality control of DNA in short supply of much needed ATP and this led to maintenance of mutations as well as less organized genome.
- edit this on March 31, 2015 at 10:42 AM | Replylarryhbern
  
  Thank you. I enjoy reading your comments. They are very instructive. I don’t really think that I comprehend the use of the term “epigenetics” and longer. In fact, it was never clear to me when I first heard it used some years ago.
  
  The term may have been closely wedded to the classic hypothesis of a unidirectional DNA–> RNA–> protein model that really has lost explanatory validity for the regulated cell in its environment. The chromatin has an influence, and protein-protein interactions are everywhere. As you point out, these are adjusting to a fast changing substrate milieu, and the genome is not involved. But in addition, the proteins may well have a role in suppression or activation of signaling pathways, and thereby, may well have an effect on gene expression. I don’t have any idea about how it would work, but mutations would appear to follow the metabolic condition of the cell over time. It would appear to be – genomic modification.
edit this on March 31, 2015 at 2:29 AM | Replyaurelianu2007

In aerobic glucose metabolism, the oxidation of citric acid requires ADP and Mg²+, which will increase the speed of the reaction: Iso-citric acid + NADP (NAD) — isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) = alpha-ketoglutaric acid. In the Krebs cycle (the citric cycle), IDH1 and IDH2 are NADP+-dependent enzymes that normally catalyze the inter-conversion of D-isocitrate and alpha-ketoglutarate (α-KG). The IDH1 and IDH2 genes are mutated in > 75% of different malignant diseases. Two distinct alterations are caused by tumor-derived mutations in IDH1 or IDH2: the loss of normal catalytic activity in the production of α-ketoglutarate (α-KG) and the gain of catalytic activity to produce 2-hydroxyglutarate (2-HG), [22].
This product is a competitive inhibitor of multiple α-KG-dependent dioxygenases, including demethylases, prolyl-4-hydroxylase and the TET enzymes family (Ten-Eleven Translocation-2), resulting in genome-wide alternations in histones and DNA methylation. [23]
IDH1 and IDH2 mutations have been observed in myeloid malignancies, including de novo and secondary AML (15%–30%), and in pre-leukemic clone malignancies, including myelodysplastic syndrome and myeloproliferative neoplasm (85% of the chronic phase and 20% of transformed cases in acute leukemia), [24].
Normally, cells in the body communicate via intra-cytoplasmic channels and maintain the energetic potential across cell membranes, which is 1-2.5 µmol of ATP in the form of ATP-ADP/ATP-ADP-IMP. These normal energetic values occur during normal cell division. If the intra-cellular and extra-cellular levels of Mg2+ are high, the extra-cellular charges of the cells will not be uniformly distributed.
This change in distribution induces a high net positive charge for the cell and induces a loss of contact inhibition via the electromagnetic induction of oscillation [28, 29, 30]. Thereafter, malignant cells become invasive and metastasize.
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
-22. Hartmann C, Meyer J, Balss J. Capper D, et al. Type and frequency of IDH1 and IDH2 mutations are related to astrocytic and oligodendroglial differentiation and age: a study of 1,010 diffuse gliomas. Acta Neuropathol 2009; 118: 464-474.

23. Raymakers R.A, Langemeijer S.M., Kuiper R.P, Berends M, et al. Acquired mutations in TET2 are common in myelodysplastic syndromes. Nat. Genet 2009; 41; 838–849.

24 Wagner K, Damm F, Gohring G., Gorlich K et al. Impact of IDH1 R132 mutations and an IDH1 single nucleotide polymorphism in cytogenetically normal acute myeloid leukemia: SNP rs11554137 is an adverse prognostic factor. J. Clin. Oncol.2010; 28: 2356–2364.
Plant Molecular Biology 1989; 1: 271–303.

29. Chien MM, Zahradka CE, Newel MC, Fred JW. Fas induced in B cells apoptosis require an increase in free cytosolic magnesium as in early event. J Biol Chem.1999; 274: 7059-7066.

30. Milionis H J, Bourantas C L, Siamopoulos C K, Elisaf MS. Acid bases and electrolytes abnormalities in Acute Leukemia. Am J Hematol 1999; (62): 201-207.

31. Thomas N Seyfried; Laura M Shelton.Cancer as a Metabolic Disease. Nutr Metab 2010; 7: 7

– Aurelian Udristioiu, M.D,
– Lab Director, EuSpLM,
– City Targu Jiu, Romania
AACC, National Academy of Biochemical Chemistry (NACB) Member, Washington D.C, USA.

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Acute Lung Injury

Posted in Biological Networks, Ca2+ triggered activation, Calcium Signaling, Calmodulin Kinase and Contraction, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Clinical Diagnostics, Curation, Cytoskeleton, Disease Biology, Disease Biology, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, Drug Toxicity, Gene Regulation, Hematology, Human Immune System in Health and in Disease, Lipid metabolism, Metabolism, Metabolomics, Microbiology, Nitric Oxide in Health and Disease, Nutrition and Phytochemistry, Pharmaceutical Analytics, Pharmaceutical Drug Discovery, Pharmacologic toxicities, Plant extract, Proteins, Regulated Clinical Trials: Design, Methods, Components and IRB related issues, tagged Acute lung injury, cell supernatant, immunomodulation, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), plasma products, platelets, PPARs, Sepsis, transfusion reaction on February 26, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Acute Lung Injury

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Introduction

Acute lung injury is a serious phenomenon only recognized as having significant relevance to allogeneic blood transfusion in the last 15 years. It is not limited to transfusion events, and is also related to SIRS and sepsis. It is simulated in experimental models by lipoprotein, such as endotoxin. It occurs in the pretransfused surgical patient, or in the medical patient as well. Why it was not recognized earlier is a matter of conjecture. The significant reduction in immune modulated blood type incompatibility reactions in Western countries is a factor. The other factor is that the lipoprotein antigenic fractions involved are associated with component transfusions other than stored red cells. The following discussion will elaborate on what is increasingly recognized as a relevant issue in medicine today.
Transfusion Related Reaction

In medicine, transfusion related acute lung injury (TRALI) is a serious blood transfusion complication characterized by the acute onset of non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema following transfusion of blood products.^[1]

Although the incidence of TRALI has decreased with modified transfusion practices, it is still the leading cause of transfusion-related fatalities in the United States from fiscal year 2008 through fiscal year 2012.

Transfusion Related Acute Lung Injury

TRALI-Hyaline_membranes_-_very_high_mag

Micrograph of diffuse alveolar damage, the histologic correlate of TRALI. H&E stain. Very high magnification micrograph of hyaline membranes, as seen in diffuse alveolar damage (DAD), the histologic correlate of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), transfusion related acute lung injury (TRALI), acute interstitial pneumonia (AIP).
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Hyaline_membranes_-_very_high_mag.jpg/1024px-Hyaline_membranes_-_very_high_mag.jpg

TRALI is defined as an acute lung injury that is temporally related to a blood transfusion; specifically, it occurs within the first six hours following a transfusion.^[3]

It is typically associated with plasma components such as platelets and Fresh Frozen Plasma, though cases have been reported with packed red blood cells since there is some residual plasma in the packed cells. The blood component transfused is not part of the case definition. Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) is an uncommon syndrome that is due to the presence of leukocyte antibodies in transfused plasma. TRALI is believed to occur in approximately one in every 5000 transfusions. Leukoagglutination and pooling of granulocytes in the recipient’s lungs may occur, with release of the contents of leukocyte granules, and resulting injury to cellular membranes, endothelial surfaces, and potentially to lung parenchyma. In most cases leukoagglutination results in mild dyspnea and pulmonary infiltrates within about 6 hours of transfusion, and spontaneously resolves;

Occasionally more severe lung injury occurs as a result of this phenomenon and Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) results. Leukocyte filters may prevent TRALI for those patients whose lung injury is due to leukoagglutination of the donor white blood cells, but because most TRALI is due to donor antibodies to leukocytes, filters are not helpful in TRALI prevention. Transfused plasma (from any component source) may also contain antibodies that cross-react with platelets in the recipient, producing usually mild forms of posttransfusion purpura or platelet aggregation after transfusion.

Another nonspecific form of immunologic transfusion complication is mild to moderate immunosuppression consequent to transfusion. This effect of transfusion is not completely understood, but appears to be more common with cellular transfusion and may result in both desirable and undesirable effects. Mild immunosuppression may benefit organ transplant recipients and patients with autoimmune diseases; however, neonates and other already immunosuppressed hosts may be more vulnerable to infection, and cancer patients may possibly have worse outcomes postoperatively.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfusion-related_acute_lung_injury

Perioperative transfusion-related acute lung injury: The Canadian Blood Services experience

Asim Alam, Mary Huang, Qi-Long Yi, Yulia Lin, Barbara Hannach
Transfusion and Apheresis Science 50 (2014) 392–398
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.transci.2014.04.008

Purpose: Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) is a devastating transfusion-associated adverse event. There is a paucity of data on the incidence and characteristics of TRALI cases that occur perioperatively. We classified suspected perioperative TRALI cases reported to Canadian Blood Services between 2001 and 2012, and compared them to non-perioperative cases to elucidate factors that may be associated with an increased risk of developing TRALI in the perioperative setting. Methods: All suspected TRALI cases reported to Canadian Blood Services (CBS) since 2001 were reviewed by two experts or, from 2006 to 2012, the CBS TRALI Medical Review Group (TMRG). These cases were classified based on the Canadian Consensus Conference (CCC) definitions and detailed in a database. Two additional reviewers further categorized them as occurring within 72 h from the onset of surgery (perioperative) or not in that period (non-perioperative). Various demographic and characteristic variables of each case were collected and compared between groups. Results: Between 2001 and 2012, a total of 469 suspected TRALI cases were reported to Canadian Blood Services; 303 were determined to be within the TRALI diagnosis spectrum. Of those, 112 (38%) were identified as occurring during the perioperative period. Patients who underwent cardiac surgery requiring cardiopulmonary bypass (25.0%), general surgery (18.0%) and orthopedics patients (12.5%) represented the three largest surgical groups. Perioperative TRALI cases comprised more men (53.6% vs. 41.4%, p = 0.04) than non-perioperative patients. Perioperative TRALI patients more often required supplemental O2 (14.3% vs. 3.1%, p = 0.0003), mechanical ventilation (18.8% vs. 3.1%), or were in the ICU (14.3% vs. 3.7%, p = 0.0043) prior to the onset of TRALI compared to non-perioperative TRALI patients. The surgical patients were transfused on average more components than non-perioperative patients (6.0 [SD = 8.3] vs. 3.6 [5.2] products per patient, p = 0.0002). Perioperative TRALI patients were transfused more plasma (152 vs. 105, p = 0.013) and cryoprecipitate (51 vs. 23, p < 0.01) than non-perioperative TRALI patients. There was no difference between donor antibody test results between the groups. Conclusion: CBS data has provided insight into the nature of TRALI cases that occur perioperatively; this group represents a large proportion of TRALI cases.

Transfusion-related acute lung injury: a clinical review

Alexander P J Vlaar, Nicole P Juffermans
Lancet 2013; 382: 984–94
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62197-7

Three decades ago, transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) was considered a rare complication of transfusion medicine. Nowadays, the US Food and Drug Administration acknowledge the syndrome as the leading cause of transfusion-related mortality. Understanding of the pathogenesis of TRALI has resulted in the design of preventive strategies from a blood-bank perspective. A major breakthrough in efforts to reduce the incidence of TRALI has been to exclude female donors of products with high plasma volume, resulting in a decrease of roughly two-thirds in incidence. However, this strategy has not completely eradicated the complication. In the past few years, research has identified patient-related risk factors for the onset of TRALI, which have empowered physicians to take an individualized approach to patients who need transfusion.

Development of an international consensus definition has aided TRALI research, yielding a higher incidence in specific patient populations than previously acknowledged Patients suffering from a clinical disorder such as sepsis are increasingly recognized as being at risk for development of TRALI. Thereby, from a diagnosis by exclusion, TRALI has become the leading cause of transfusion-related mortality. However, the syndrome is still under diagnosed and under-reported in some countries.

Although blood transfusion can be life-saving, it can also be a life-threatening intervention. Physicians use blood transfusion on a daily basis. Increased awareness of the risks of this procedure is needed, because management of patient-tailored transfusion could reduce the risk of TRALI. Such an individualized approach is now possible as insight into TRALI risk factors evolves. Furthermore, proper reporting of TRALI could prevent recurrence.

Absence of an international definition for TRALI previously contributed to underdiagnosis. As such, a consensus panel, and the US National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute Working Group in 2004, formulated a case definition of TRALI based on clinical and radiological parameters. The definition is derived from the widely used definition of acute lung injury (panel 1). Suspected TRALI is defined as fulfilment of the definition of acute lung injury within 6 h of transfusion in the absence of another risk factor (panel 1).

Although this definition seems to be straightforward, the characteristics of TRALI are indistinguishable from acute lung injury due to other causes, such as sepsis or lung contusion. Therefore, this definition would rule out the possibility of diagnosing TRALI in a patient with an underlying risk factor for acute lung injury who has also received a transfusion. To identify such cases, the term possible TRALI was developed.

Although the TRALI definition is an international consensus definition, surveillance systems in some countries, including the USA, France and the Netherlands, use an alternative in which imputability is scored. Imputability aims to identify the likelihood that transfusion is the causal factor. Imputability scores mostly imply that other causes of acute lung injury can be ruled out, so that diagnosis of TRALI is by exclusion. However, observational and animal studies suggest that risk factors for TRALI include other disorders, such as sepsis. Therefore, an imputability definition would result in underdiagnosis of TRALI. The consensus definition accommodates the uncertainty of the association of acute lung injury to the transfusion in possible TRALI. The conventional definition of TRALI uses a timeframe of 6 h in which acute lung injury needs to develop after a blood transfusion. In critically ill patients, transfusion increases the risk (odds ratio 2·13, 95% CI 1·75–2·52) for development of acute lung injury 6–72 h after transfusion. However, whether the pathogenesis of delayed TRALI is similar to that of TRALI is unclear.

A two-hit hypothesis has been proposed for TRALI. The first hit is underlying patient factors, resulting in adherence of primed neutrophils to the pulmonary endothelium. The second hit is caused by mediators in the blood transfusion that activate the endothelial cells and pulmonary neutrophils, resulting in capillary leakage and subsequent pulmonary edema. The second hit can be antibody-mediated or non-antibody-mediated.

Panel 1: Definition of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI)

Suspected TRALI

Acute onset within 6 h of blood transfusion
• PaO2/FIO2<300 mm Hg, or worsening of P to F ratio
• Bilateral infi ltrative changes on chest radiograph
• No sign of hydrostatic pulmonary oedema (pulmonary arterial occlusion
pressure ≤18 mm Hg or central venous pressure ≤15 mm Hg)
• No other risk factor for acute lung injury

Possible TRALI
Same as for suspected TRALI, but another risk factor present for acute lung injury

Delayed TRALI
Same as for (possible) TRALI and onset within 6–72 h of blood transfusion

Pathophysiology of two-hit mediated transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI). The pre-phase of the syndrome consists of a fi rst hit, which is mainly systemic. This first hit is the underlying disorder of the patient (eg, sepsis or pneumonia) causing neutrophil attraction to the capillary of the lung. Neutrophils are attracted to the lung by release of cytokines and chemokines from upregulated lung endothelium. Loose binding by L-selectin takes place. Firm adhesion is mediated by E-selectin and platelet-derived P-selectin and intracellular adhesion molecules (ICAM-1). In the acute phase of the syndrome, a second hit caused by mediators in the blood transfusion takes place. This hit results in activation of inflammation and coagulation in the pulmonary compartment. Neutrophils adhere to the injured capillary endothelium and marginate through the interstitium into the air space, which is filled with protein-rich edema fluid. In the air space, cytokines interleukin-1, -6, and -8, (IL-1, IL-6, and IL-8, respectively) are secreted, which act locally to stimulate chemotaxis and activate neutrophils resulting in formation of the elastase-α1-antitrypsin (EA) complex. Neutrophils can release oxidants, proteases, and other proinflammatory molecules, such as platelet-activating factor (PAF), and form neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Furthermore, activation of the coagulation system happens, shown by an increase in thrombin-antithrombin complexes (TATc), as does a decrease in activity of the fibrinolysis system, shown by a reduction in plasminogen activator activity. The influx of protein-rich edema fluid into the alveolus leads to the inactivation of surfactant, which contributes to the clinical picture of acute respiratory distress in the onset of TRALI. PAI-1 = plasminogen activator inhibitor-1.

Antibody-mediated TRALI is caused by passive transfusion of HLA or human neutrophil antigen (HNA) and corresponding antibodies from the donor directed against antigens of the recipient. Neutrophil activation occurs directly by binding of the antibody to the neutrophil surface (HNA antibodies) or indirectly, mainly by binding to the endothelial cells with activation of the neutrophil (HLA class I antibodies) or to monocytes with subsequent activation of the neutrophil (HLA class II antibodies). The antibody titer and the volume of antibody containing plasma both increase the risk for onset of TRALI. Although the role of donor HLA and HNA antibodies from transfused blood is widely accepted, not all TRALI cases are antibody mediated. In many patients, antibodies cannot be detected. Furthermore, many blood products containing antibodies do not lead to TRALI. This finding has led to development of an alternative hypothesis for the onset of TRALI, termed non-antibody-mediated TRALI.

Non-antibody-mediated TRALI is caused by accumulation of proinflammatory mediators during storage of blood products, and possibly by ageing of the erythrocytes and platelets themselves. Although most preclinical studies have noted a positive correlation between storage time of cell-containing blood products and TRALI, the mechanism is controversial. Two mechanisms have been suggested, including either plasma or the aged cells. In a small-case study and animal experiments, accumulation of bioactive lipids and soluble CD40 ligand (sCD40L) in the plasma layer of cell-containing blood products has been associated with TRALI. Bioactive lipids are thought to cause neutrophil activation through the G-protein coupled receptor on the neutrophil.

The two-hit model suggests that patients in a poor clinical state are at risk for development of TRALI. However, cases have been described of antibody-mediated TRALI developing in fairly healthy recipients. To explain this discrepancy, a threshold model has been suggested in which a threshold must be overcome to induce a TRALI reaction. The threshold is dependent both on the predisposition of the patient (first hit) and the quantity of antibodies in the transfusion (second hit). A large quantity of antibody that matches the recipient’s antigen can cause severe TRALI in a recipient with no predisposition.

Threshold model of antibody-mediated transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI). A specific threshold must be overcome to induce a TRALI reaction. To overcome a threshold, several factors act together: the activation status of the pulmonary neutrophils at the time of transfusion, the strength of the neutrophil-priming activity of transfused mediators (A), and the clinical status of the patient (B).

Panel 2: Clinical characteristics of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) and transfusion-associated circulatory overload (TACO)

TRALI
• Dyspnea
• Fever
• Usually hypotension
• Hypoxia
• Leukopenia
• Thrombocytopenia
• Pulmonary edema on chest x-ray
• Normal left ventricular function*
• Normal pulmonary artery occlusion pressure

TACO
• Dyspnea
• Usually hypertension
• Hypoxia
• Pulmonary edema on chest radiographs
• Normal or decreased left ventricular function
• Increased pulmonary artery occlusion pressure
• Raised brain natriuretic peptide

Restrictive transfusion policy

The most effective prevention is a restrictive transfusion strategy. In a randomised clinical trial in critically ill patients, a restrictive transfusion policy for red blood cells was associated with a decrease in incidence of acute lung injury compared with a liberal strategy (7·7% vs 11·4%), suggesting that some of these patients might have had TRALI. The restrictive threshold was well tolerated and has greatly helped in guidance of red blood cell transfusion in the intensive-care unit.

Patient-tailored transfusion policy

Transfusion cannot be avoided altogether. A multivariate analysis in patients in intensive care showed that patient related risk factors contributed more to the onset of TRALI than did transfusion-related risk factors, suggesting that development of a TRALI reaction is dependent more on host factors then on factors in the blood product. Therefore, a patient-tailored approach aimed at reducing TRALI risk factors could be effective to alleviate the risk of TRALI.

Despite limitations of diagnostic tests, TRALI incidence seems to be high in at-risk patient populations. Therefore, TRALI is an underestimated health-care problem. Preventive measures, such as mainly male donor strategies, have been successful in reducing risk of TRALI. Identification of risk factors further improves the risk–benefit assessment of a blood transfusion. Efforts to further decrease the risk of TRALI needs increased awareness of this syndrome among physicians.

Transfusion-related acute lung injury: Current understanding and preventive strategies

A.P.J. Vlaar
Transfusion Clinique et Biologique 19 (2012) 117–124
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tracli.2012.03.001

Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) is the most serious complication of transfusion medicine. TRALI is defined as the onset of acute hypoxia within 6 hours of a blood transfusion in the absence of hydrostatic pulmonary edema. The past decades have resulted in a better understanding of the pathogenesis of this potentially life-threating syndrome. The present notion is that the onset of TRALI follows a threshold model in which both patient and transfusion factors are essential. The transfusion factors can be divided into immune and non-immune mediated TRALI. Immune-mediated TRALI is caused by the passive transfer of human neutrophil antibodies (HNA) or human leukocyte antibodies (HLA) present in the blood product reacting with a matching antigen in the recipient. Non-immune mediated TRALI is caused by the transfusion of stored cell-containing blood products. Although the mechanisms behind immune-mediated TRALI are reasonably well understood, this is not the case for non-immune mediated TRALI. The increased understanding of pathways involved in the onset of immune-mediated TRALI has led to the design of preventive strategies. Preventive strategies are aimed at reducing the risk to exposure of HLA and HNA to the recipient of the transfusion. These strategies include exclusion of “at risk” donors and pooling of high plasma volume products and have shown to reduce the TRALI incidence effectively.

Studies show that, in at risk patient populations, up to 8% of transfused patients may develop TRALI. Since the syndrome TRALI has been recognized, evidence on the pathogenesis of TRALI has been accumulating. The present notion is that the onset of TRALI follows a threshold model in which both patient and transfusion factors are essential in the development of TRALI. The transfusion factors can be divided into immune and non-immune mediated TRALI. Immune-mediated TRALI is caused by the passive transfer of human neutrophil antibodies (HNA) or human leukocyte antibodies (HLA) present in the blood product, reacting with a matching antigen in the recipient. Non-immune mediated TRALI is caused by the transfusion of stored cell-containing blood products. In recent years, many countries have successfully implemented preventive strategies resulting in a decrease of the incidence of TRALI.

Definition of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI).

Acute onset within 6 hours after a blood transfusion
PaO2/FiO2 < 300 mmHg
Bilateral infiltrative changes on the chest X-ray
No sign of hydrostatic pulmonary edema (PAOP < 18 mmHg or CVP < 15 mmHg)
No other risk factor for acute lung injury present

Possible TRALI

Other risk factor for acute lung injury present

PAOP: pulmonary arterial occlusion pressure; CVP: central venous pressure

The first landmark report creating the basis for the understanding of the pathogenesis of TRALI was published by Popovsky et al. in 1983. They provided evidence on the association between the presence of leucocyte antibodies in the donor serum and onset of acute lung injury in the recipient of the transfusion. It was also recognized that multiparous blood donors whose plasma contained these antibodies represented a potential transfusion hazard. It was this research group that was the first to identify TRALI as a distinct clinical entity. Subsequently, many other authors reported on the association between the presence of HLA or HNA antibodies in donor blood and the onset of TRALI in the recipient.

Although the role of transfused blood donor HLA and HNA antibodies was widely accepted to be involved in the onset of TRALI, not all cases could be explained by this theory. A significant part of reported TRALI cases have no detectable antibodies. Also, many antibody-containing blood products fail to produce TRALI.

The alternative hypothesis proposed by the group of Silliman posed that TRALI is a “two hit” event. The “first hit” is the underlying condition of the patient, resulting in priming of the pulmonary neutrophil. The “second hit” is the transfusion of a blood product causing activation of the neutrophils in the pulmonary compartment, causing pulmonary edema finally resulting in TRALI. The transfusion factors causing the “second hit” are divided in two groups; immune and non-immune mediated TRALI.

The “second hit” is the transfusion itself and is either immune or non-immune mediated TRALI. The mechanisms behind immune-mediated TRALI are widely accepted and proven in both pre-clinical and clinical studies. The mechanisms involved in non-immune mediated TRALI are less clear.

The role of stored cell-containing blood products in the onset of non-immune TRALI has extensively been studied in preclinical and clinical studies. Although most of the pre-clinical studies find a positive correlation between the transfusion of stored cell-containing blood products in the presence of a “first hit” and the onset of TRALI, the mechanism behind the onset is controversial.

TRALI management consists mainly of preventing future adverse reactions and providing proper incidence estimates. All suspected TRALI cases should be reported to the blood bank for immunologic work-up as it is impossible to distinguish immune-mediated TRALI from non-immune mediated TRALI at bedside. Immunologic work-up includes testing of incompatibility by cross-matching donor plasma against recipient’s leucocytes. A donor with antibodies which are incompatible with the patient is excluded from further donation of blood for transfusion products. Furthermore, it is important to stress that the absence of a positive serologic work-up does not exclude the diagnosis of TRALI. TRALI is a clinical diagnosis and the immunologic work-up can be supportive but is not part of the diagnosis of TRALI. the two-event hypothesis and threshold hypothesis do not exclude the role of antibodies in the occurrence of TRALI in the presence of an inflammatory condition. Thus any patient fulfilling the TRALI definition (including possible TRALI) should be reported to the blood bank for an immunologic work-up of the recipient and the implicated donors on the presence of HLA and HNA antibodies.

Prevention of immune-mediated TRALI is achieved by exclusion of donors proven to have HLA or HNA antibodies in their plasma present or donors “at risk” to have these antibodies present.

Exclusion of HLA or HNA positive donors
Exclusion of donors “at risk” of being HLA or HNA positive
Female donors – more specifically, multiparous donors
Testing donors for HLA or HNA antibodies
Multiple plasma pooling
solvent/detergent plasma is produced from multiple donations, leading to an at least 500-fold dilution of a single plasma unit;
neither HNA nor HLA antibodies are detectable in solvent/detergent fresh frozen plasma.
To prevent non-immune mediated TRALI, the use of fresh blood only has been suggested

Strategies to prevent the onset of TRALI include the exclusion of female plasma donors and the pooling of plasma products. These strategies have already been implemented in some countries resulting in a reduction of the incidence of TRALI.
Transfusion-related immunomodulation (TRIM): An update

Eleftherios C. Vamvakas, Morris A. Blajchman
Blood Reviews (2007) 21, 327–348
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.blre.2007.07.003

Allogeneic blood transfusion (ABT)-related immunomodulation (TRIM) encompasses the laboratory immune aberrations that occur after ABT and their established or purported clinical effects. TRIM is a real biologic phenomenon resulting in at least one established beneficial clinical effect in humans, but the existence of deleterious clinical TRIM effects has not yet been confirmed. Initially, TRIM encompassed effects attributable to ABT by immunomodulatory mechanisms (e.g., cancer recurrence, postoperative infection, or virus activation). More recently, TRIM has also included effects attributable to ABT by pro-inflammatory mechanisms (e.g., multiple-organ failure or mortality). TRIM effects may be mediated by: (1) allogeneic mononuclear cells; (2) white-blood-cell (WBC)-derived soluble mediators; and/or (3) soluble HLA peptides circulating in allogeneic plasma. This review categorizes the available randomized controlled trials based on the inference(s) that they permit about possible mediator(s) of TRIM, and examines the strength of the evidence available for relying on WBC reduction or autologous transfusion to prevent TRIM effects.

Allogeneic blood transfusion (ABT) may either cause alloimmunization or induce tolerance in recipients. ABTs introduce a multitude of foreign antigens into the recipient, including HLA-DR antigens found on the donor’s dendritic antigen presenting cells (APCs). The presence or absence of recipient HLA-DR antigens on the donor’s white blood cells (WBCs) plays a decisive role as to whether alloimmunization or immune suppression will ensue following ABT. In general, allogeneic transfusions sharing at least one HLA-DR antigen with the recipient induce tolerance, while fully HLA-DR-mismatched transfusions lead to alloimmunization.

In addition to the degree of HLA-DR compatibility between donor and recipient, the immunogenicity of cellular or soluble HLA antigens associated with transfused blood components depends on the viability of the donor dendritic APCs and the presence of co-stimulatory signals for the presentation of the donor antigens to the recipient’s T cells. Nonviable APCs and/or the absence of the requisite co-stimulatory signals result in T-cell unreponsiveness. Thus, when a multitude of antigens is introduced into the host by an ABT, the host response to some of these antigens is often decreased, and immune tolerance ensues. ABT has been shown to cause decreased helper T-cell count, decreased helper/suppressor T-lymphocyte ratio, decreased lymphocyte response to mitogens, decreased natural killer (NK) cell function, reduction in delayed-type hypersensitivity, defective antigen presentation, suppression of lymphocyte blastogenesis, decreased cytokine (IL-2, interferon-c) production, decreased monocyte/macrophage phagocytic function, and increased production of antiidiotypic and anticlonotypic antibodies.

All these laboratory immune aberrations that indicate immune suppression and occur in transfused patients could potentially be associated with clinically-manifest ABT effects. Thus a variety of beneficial or deleterious clinical effects, potentially attributable to ABT-related immunosuppression, have been described over the last 30 years. The constellation of all such ABT-associated laboratory and clinical findings is known as ABT-related immunomodulation (TRIM). Initially, TRIM encompassed effects attributable to ABT by means of immunologic mechanisms only; however more recently, the term has been used more broadly, to encompass additional effects that could be related to ABT by means of ‘‘proinflammatory’’ rather than ‘‘immunomodulatory’’ mechanisms.

Over 30 years ago, it was reported that pre-transplant ABTs could improve renal-allograft survival in patients who had undergone renal transplantation. This beneficial immunosuppressive effect of ABT has been confirmed by animal data, observational clinical studies, and clinical experience worldwide, although it has not been proven in randomized controlled trials (RCTs). Before the advent of the AIDS pandemic, it had become standard policy in many renal units to deliberately expose patients on transplant waiting lists to one or more red blood cell (RBC) transfusions.

All the available data considered together indicate that TRIM is most likely a real biologic phenomenon, which results in at least one established beneficial clinical effect in humans, although the available evidence has not yet confirmed the existence and/or magnitude of the deleterious clinical TRIM effects. In fact, the debate over the existence of such deleterious clinical TRIM effects has been long and sometimes acrimonious.

Many studies tended to indicate that patients receiving perioperative transfusion (compared with those not needing transfusion) almost always had a higher risk of developing postoperative bacterial infection. The studies also indicated that patients receiving ABT differed from those not receiving a transfusion in several prognostic factors that predisposed to adverse clinical outcomes.

The specific constituent(s) of allogeneic blood that mediate(s) either or both the immunomodulatory and the pro-inflammatory effect(s) of ABT remain
(s) unknown, and the published literature suggests that these TRIM effects
may be mediated by: (1) allogeneic mononuclear cells; (2) soluble biologic response modifiers released in a time dependent manner from WBC granules or membranes into the supernatant fluid of RBC or platelet concentrates
during storage; and/or (3) soluble HLA class I peptides that circulate in allogeneic plasma. If each of these mediators do cause TRIM effects, ABT effects mediated by allogeneic mononuclear cells would be expected to be preventable by WBC reduction (performed either before or after storage of cellular blood components), as well as by autologous transfusion. The ABT effects mediated by soluble HLA peptides circulating in allogeneic plasma would be expected to be preventable only by autologous transfusion.

BENEFICIAL TRIM EFFECTS

Enhanced survival of renal allografts
Reduced recurrence rate of Crohn’s disease

DELETERIOUS

Increased recurrence rate of resected malignancies
Increased incidence of postoperative bacterial infections
Activation of endogenous CMV or HIV infection
Increased short-term (up to 3-month) mortality

Possible mechanisms and mediators of TRIM effects

Although the mechanisms of TRIM have been debated extensively, the exact mechanism(s) of this phenomenon has yet to be elucidated. A number of putative mechanisms have been postulated. The three major mechanisms accounting for much of the experimental data include:

clonal deletion,
induction of anergy, and
immune suppression.

Conceptually, clonal deletion refers to the inactivation and removal of alloreactive lymphocytes that would, for example, cause the rejection of an allograft; anergy implies immunologic nonresponsiveness; and immune suppression suggests that the responding cell is being inhibited of doing so by a cellular mechanism or by a cytokine. Antiidiotypic antibodies, which are predominantly of the V_H6 gene family, have also been demonstrated in the sera of ABT recipients and in patients with long-term functioning renal allografts.

To date, no RCT has enrolled patients with sarcomas—tumors whose growth is stimulated by TGF-β—or patients with tumors for which the immune response plays a major role. (These would include skin tumors—such as melanomas, keratoacanthomas, squamous and basal-cell carcinomas—and certain virus-induced tumors—notably Kaposi’s sarcoma and certain lymphomas.) Instead, the 3 available RCTs of ABT and cancer recurrence enrolled patients with colorectal cancer—a tumor that is not sufficiently antigenic to render an impairment of host immunity capable of facilitating tumor growth, and a tumor whose cells have not been shown to be stimulated by TGF-β.

Fig not shown. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating the association of WBC-containing allogeneic blood transfusion (ABT) with cancer recurrence. For each RCT, the figure shows the odds ratio (OR) of cancer recurrence in recipients of non-WBC-reduced allogeneic versus autologous or WBC-reduced allogeneic RBCs, as calculated from an intention-to-treat analysis. A deleterious effect of ABT (and thus a benefit from autologous transfusion or WBC reduction) exists when the OR is greater than 1 as well as statistically significant. (In the figure, each OR is surrounded by its 95% confidence interval [CI]; if the 95% CI of the OR includes the null value of 1, the TRIM effect is not statistically significant [p > 0.05]).

Fig not shown. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating the association of WBC-containing allogeneic blood transfusions with postoperative infection (n = 17). For each RCT, the figure shows the odds ratio (OR) of postoperative infection in recipients of non-WBC reduced allogeneic versus autologous or WBC-reduced allogeneic RBCs, as calculated from an intention-to-treat analysis. A deleterious effect of ABT (and thus a benefit from autologous transfusion or WBC reduction) exists when the OR is greater than 1 as well as statistically significant. (In the figure, each OR is surrounded by its 95% confidence interval [CI]; if the 95% CI of the OR includes the null value of 1, the TRIM effect is not statistically significant [p > 0.05]).

The totality of the evidence from RCTs does not demonstrate a TRIM effect manifest across all clinical settings and transfused RBC products. Instead, WBC-containing ABT is associated with an increased risk of short-term (up to 3-month post transfusion) mortality from all causes combined specifically in cardiac surgery. The additional deleterious TRIM effect detected by the latest meta-analysis (i.e., the effect on postoperative infection prevented by poststorage filtration) contradicts current theories about the pathogenesis of TRIM, because it is not accompanied by a similar or larger effect prevented by prestorage filtration.

Thus, only in cardiac surgery (Fig. 5 – not shown) are the findings of RCTs pertaining to a deleterious TRIM effect consistent. Even in this setting, however, the reasons for the excess deaths attributed to WBC containing ABT remain elusive. The initial hypothesis suggested that WBC-containing ABT may predispose to MOF which, in turn, may predispose to mortality. However, hitherto, no cardiac-surgery RCT has demonstrated an association between WBC-containing ABT and MOF, and no other cause of death specifically attributed to WBC-containing ABT has been proposed.

The TRIM effect seen in cardiac surgery deserves further study to pinpoint the cause(s) of the excess deaths, but-now that the majority of transfusions in Western Europe and North America are WBC reduced- the undertaking of further RCTs comparing recipients of non-WBC-reduced versus WBC reduced allogeneic RBCs in cardiac surgery is unlikely. For countries that have not yet converted to universal WBC reduction, whether to opt for WBC reduction of all cellular blood components transfused in cardiac surgery-in the absence of information on the specific cause(s) of death ascribed to WBC-containing ABT-is a policy decision that will have to be made based on the hitherto available data.

Regulation of alveolar fluid clearance and ENaC expression in lung by exogenous angiotensin II

Jia Denga, Dao-xin Wanga, Wang Deng, Chang-yi Li, Jin Tong, Hilary Ma
Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology 181 (2012) 53– 61
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.resp.2011.11.009

Angiotensin II (Ang II) has been demonstrated as a pro-inflammatory effect in acute lung injury, but studies of the effect of Ang II on the formation of pulmonary edema and alveolar filling remains unclear. Therefore, in this study the regulation of alveolar fluid clearance (AFC) and the expression of epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) by exogenous Ang II was verified. SD rats were anesthetized and were given Ang II with increasing doses (1, 10 and 100 [1]g/kg per min) via osmotic minipumps, whereas control rats received only saline vehicle. AT1 receptor antagonist ZD7155 (10 mg/kg) and inhibitor of cAMP degeneration rolipram (1 mg/kg) were injected intraperitoneally 30 min before administration of Ang II. The lungs were isolated for measurement of alveolar fluid clearance. The mRNA and protein expression of ENaC were detected by RT-PCR and Western blot. Exposure to higher doses of Ang II reduced AFC in a dose-dependent manner and resulted in a non-coordinate regulation of α-ENaC vs the regulation of β- and ϒ-ENaC, however Ang II type 1 (AT1) receptor antagonist ZD7155 prevented the Ang II-induced inhibition of fluid clearance and dysregulation of ENaC expression. In addition, exposure to inhibitor of cAMP degradation rolipram blunted the Ang II-induced inhibition of fluid clearance. These results indicate that through activation of AT1 receptor, exogenous Ang II promotes pulmonary edema and alveolar filling by inhibition of alveolar fluid clearance via downregulation of cAMP level and dysregulation of ENaC expression.

Effects of angiotensin II (Ang II) receptor antagonists and rolipram on AFC

Effects of angiotensin II (Ang II) receptor antagonists and rolipram on rat alveolar fluid clearance (AFC). Then AFC was measured 1 h after fluid instillation (4 mL/kg). Amiloride (100 [1]M), Ang II (10−7 M), ZD7155 (10−6 M), and rolipram (10−5 M) were added to the instillate as indicated (n = 10 per group). Mean values ± SEM. p < 0.01 vs control. p < 0.01 vs Ang II + ZD7155.
p < 0.05 vs amiloride. p < 0.05 vs Ang II.

Effects of angiotensin II (Ang II) on cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)

Effects of angiotensin II (Ang II) on cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) concentration in lung. Rats were given saline or Ang II (1, 10 and 100 µg/kg per min) for 6 h, and cAMP in lung was determined by RIA (n = 30 per group). Mean values ± SEM. p < 0.01 vs control. p < 0.05 vs 10 µg/kg Ang II.

Histological examination of lung

Histological examination of lung. Rats were given saline or Ang II (10 µg/kg per min) by osmotic minipump for 6 h. ZD7155 (10 mg/kg) was injected intraperitoneally 30 min before administration of Ang II. Shown are representative lung specimens obtained from the control (A), Ang II (B) and Ang II + ZD7155 (C) groups. All photographs are at 100× magnification. Interstitial edema and inflammatory cell infiltration were seen in Ang II group, but reduced in Ang II + ZD7155 group.
The present results demonstrate that Ang II infusion is associated with pulmonary edema and alveolar filling. Three important findings were observed:

(1) high doses of Ang II led to reduction of alveolar fluid clearance, and this effect was blunted by an AT1 receptor antagonist.
(2) Ang II infusion increased the abundance of α-ENaC, whereas decreased the abundance ofβ and ϒ-ENaC, and these effects were reversed in response to an AT1 receptor antagonist.
(3) Ang II infusion decreased cAMP concentration in lung tissue, and an inhibitor of cAMP degradation prevented inhibition of alveolar fluid clearance by Ang II, but had no effect on the dysregulation of ENaC.

Our data indicate that Ang II results in pulmonary edema by inhibition of alveolar fluid clearance via down-regulation of cellular cAMP level and dysregulation of the abundance of ENaC, whereas these effects are prevented by an AT1 receptor antagonist.

The renin-angiotensin system is a major regulator of body fluid and sodium balance, predominantly through the actions of its main effector Ang II. Several previous experimental studies demonstrated that plasma Ang II levels vary in both physiological and pathological conditions. In the kidney, Ang II added to the peritubular perfusion has a biphasic action with stimulation of sodium reabsorption at low doses (10−12–10−10M) and inhibition at high doses (10−7–10−6M) (Harris and Young, 1977). In vitro, Ang II also exerts a dose-dependent dual action on intestinal absorption (Levens, 1985). The evidence shows that the effect of Ang II on sodium and water absorption is dose-dependent. Our results showed that low intravenous doses of Ang II (<1 µg/kg per min) had no effect on alveolar fluid clearance which represents the sodium and water reabsorption in alveoli. However, with high intravenous doses, Ang II decreased alveolar fluid clearance. This finding suggests that the effect of Ang II on fluid absorption in lung is also dose-dependent.

Rat models of acute lung injury: Exhaled nitric oxide as a sensitive,noninvasive real-time biomarker of prognosis and efficacy of intervention

Fangfang Liu, Wenli Lib, Jürgen Pauluhn, Hubert Trübel, Chen Wang
Toxicology 310 (2013) 104– 114
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2013.05.016

Exhaled nitric oxide (eNO) has received increased attention in clinical settings because this technique is easy to use with instant readout. However, despite the simplicity of eNO in humans, this endpoint has not frequently been used in experimental rat models of septic (endotoxemia) or irritant acute lung injury (ALI). The focus of this study is to adapt this method to rats for studying ALI-related lung disease and whether it can serve as instant, non-invasive biomarker of ALI to study lung toxicity and pharmacological efficacy. Measurements were made in a dynamic flow of sheath air containing the exhaled breath from spontaneously breathing, conscious rats placed into a head-out volume plethysmograph. The quantity of eNO in exhaled breath was adjusted (normalized) to the physiological variables (breathing frequency, concentration of exhaled carbon dioxide) mirroring pulmonary perfusion and ventilation. eNO was examined on the instillation/inhalation exposure day and first post-exposure day in Wistar rats intratracheally instilled with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or single inhalation exposure to chlorine or phosgene gas. eNO was also examined in a Brown Norway rat asthma model using the asthmagen toluene diisocyanate (TDI). The diagnostic sensitivity of adjusted eNO was superior to the measurements not accounting forthe normalization of physiological variables. In all bioassays – whether septic, airway or alveolar irritant or allergic, the adjusted eNO was significantly increased when compared to the concurrent control. The maximum increase of the adjusted eNO occurred following exposure to the airway irritant chlorine. The specificity of adjustment was experimentally verified by decreased eNO following inhalation dosing ofthe non-selective nitric oxide synthase inhibitor amoni-guanidine. In summary, the diagnostic sensitivity of eNO can readily be applied to spontaneously breathing, conscious rats without any intervention or anesthesia. Measurements are definitely improved by accounting for the disease-related changes inexhaled CO2and breathing frequency. Accordingly, adjusted eNO appears to be a promising methodological improvement for utilizing eNO in inhalation toxicology and pharmacological disease models
with fewer animals.

Role of p38 MAP Kinase in the Development of Acute Lung Injury

J Arcaroli, Ho-Kee Yum, J Kupfner, JS Park, Kuang-Yao Yang, and E Abraham
Clinical Immunology 2001; 101(2):211–219
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1006/clim.2001.5108

Acute lung injury (ALI) is characterized by an intense pulmonary inflammatory response, in which neutrophils play a central role. The p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway is involved in the regulation of stress-induced cellular functions and appears to be important in modulating neutrophil activation, particularly in response to endotoxin. Although p38 has potent effects on neutrophil functions under in vitro conditions, there is relatively little information concerning the role of p38 in affecting neutrophil driven inflammatory responses in vivo. To examine this issue, we treated mice with the p38 inhibitor SB203580 and then examined parameters of neutrophil activation and acute lung injury after hemorrhage or endotoxemia. Although p38 was activated in lung neutrophils after hemorrhage or endotoxemia, inhibition of p38 did not decrease neutrophil accumulation in the lungs or the development of lung edema under these conditions. Similarly, the increased production of proinflammatory cytokines and activation of NF-kB in lung neutrophils induced by hemorrhage or endotoxemia was not diminished by p38 inhibition. These results indicate that p38 does not have a central role
in the development of ALI after either hemorrhage or endotoxemia.

The coagulation system and pulmonary endothelial function in acute lung injury

James H. Finigan
Microvascular Research 77 (2009) 35–38
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.mvr.2008.09.002

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a disease marked by diffuse endothelial injury and increased capillary permeability. The coagulation system is a major participant in ALI and activation of coagulation is both a consequence and contributor to ongoing lung injury. Increased coagulation and depressed fibrinolysis result in diffuse alveolar fibrin deposition which serves to amplify pulmonary inflammation. In addition, existing evidence demonstrates a direct role for different components of coagulation on vascular endothelial barrier function. In particular, the pro-coagulant protein thrombin disrupts the endothelial actin cytoskeleton resulting in increased endothelial leak. In contrast, the anti-coagulant activated protein C (APC) confers a barrier protective actin configuration and enhances the vascular barrier in vitro and in vivo. However, recent studies suggest a complex landscape with receptor cross-talk, temporal heterogeneity and pro-coagulant/anticoagulant protein interactions. In this article, the major signaling pathways governing endothelial permeability in lung injury are reviewed with a particular focus on the role that endothelial proteins, such as thrombin and APC, which play on the vascular barrier function.

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a devastating illness with an annual incidence of approximately 200,000 and a mortality of 40%. Most commonly seen in the setting of sepsis, ALI is a complex inflammatory syndrome marked by increased vascular permeability resulting in tissue edema and organ dysfunction. The vascular endothelium is a key target and critical participant in the pathogenesis of sepsis-induced organ dysfunction and disruption of the endothelial barrier is central to the pathophysiology of both sepsis and ALI. Sepsis and acute lung injury (ALI) are syndromes marked by diffuse inflammation with a key feature being endothelial cell barrier disruption and increased vascular permeability resulting in widespread organ dysfunction. The endothelial cytoskeleton has been identified as a critical regulator of vascular barrier integrity with a current model of endothelial barrier regulation suggesting a balance between barrier-disrupting cellular contractile forces and barrier-protective cell–cell and cell–matrix forces. These competing forces exert their opposing effects via manipulation of the actin-based endothelial cytoskeleton and associated endothelial regulatory proteins. Endothelial cells generate tension via an actomyosin motor, and focally distributed changes in tension/relaxation can be accomplished by spatially-defined regulation of the phosphorylation of the regulatory 20 kDa myosin light chain (MLC) catalyzed by the Ca2+/calmodulin (CaM)-dependent enzyme myosin light chain kinase (MLCK).

Thrombin is the proto-typical coagulation protein with direct effects on the endothelial barrier via alterations in the cytoskeleton. In the coagulation cascade, thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin in the final step of thrombus formation and also activated platelets. In addition, this multifunctional protease is present at sites of vascular inflammation and induces barrier dysfunction. Through its receptor, protease-activated receptor-1 (PAR1), thrombin initiates a series of events which includes MLC phosphorylation, dramatic cytoskeletal reorganization and stress fiber formation, increased cellular contractility, paracellular gap formation, and enhanced fluid and protein transport. Similarly, thrombin exposure results in increased pulmonary edema in vivo, a finding which is also seen after treatment with a PAR1 activating peptide and attenuated in PAR1 knockout mice.

Disruptions in the coagulation system have long been recognized to be an integral part of inflammation, sepsis and ALI. In 1969, Saldeen demonstrated that thrombin infusion produced canine respiratory insufficiency which was linked pathologically to emboli in the pulmonary microcirculation, a condition he labeled the “Microembolism Syndrome” (Saldeen, 1979). Elemental to the pathophysiology of sepsis and ALI is a shift towards a pro-coagulant state. Bronchoalveolar (BAL) fluid from patients with ALI reflects this increase in procoagulant activity with elevated levels of fibrinopeptide A, factor VII and d-dimer. Concomitantly, there is a decrease in fibrinolytic activity, as shown by depressed BAL levels of urokinase and increased levels of the fibrinolysis inhibitors plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI) and α2-antiplasmin.

Given that APC is a vascular endothelial protein which interacts with other coagulation proteins such as thrombin, it seems logical that it might have an effect on endothelial integrity. In cultured human pulmonary endothelial cells, while thrombin results in decreased electrical resistance, a reflection of increased permeability, pre- or post-exposure to physiologic concentrations of APC significantly attenuates this thrombin-induced drop in resistance. These APC-mediated alterations in barrier function are associated with MLC phosphorylation as well as activation of the endothelial protein Rac, and cytoskeletal re-arrangement in a barrier protective configuration all findings very reminiscent of the barrier protective signaling induced by the bioactive lipid, S1P. Interestingly, APC appears to activate sphingosine kinase and mediate its barrier protective effects through PI3 kinase and AKT-dependent ligation of the S1P receptor, S1P1. Moreover, the endothelial barrier-protective effects of APC have been observed in other tissues including brain and kidney. The barrier protection in these beds appears independent of any anti-coagulant effect of APC and is associated with decreased endothelial apoptosis.

Recently, the endothelial protein C receptor (EPCR) has been identified as a crucial participant in the protein C pathway. Structurally similar to the major histocompatibility class I/CD1 family of molecules, EPCR binds protein C, presenting it to the thrombin/TM complex, thereby increasing the activation of protein C by ∼20 fold. Importantly, APC can also bind EPCR, and while the bound form of APC loses its extra-cellular anti-coagulant activity, increasing evidence indicates that much, if not all, of APC intra-cellular signaling requires EPCR. APC-mediated increases in endothelial phosphor-MLC and activated Rac are all EPCR-dependent and APC-induced endothelial barrier protection requires ligation of EPCR.

Sepsis and ALI are significant causes of morbidity and mortality in the intensive care unit and are marked by zealous activation of the coagulation system. While this could conceivably confer certain benefits, such as enclosing and spatially controlling an infection, it is clear that this pro-coagulant environment participates in the pathophysiology of ALI, particularly via exacerbating endothelial damage and augmenting endothelial permeability. However, the biology of coagulation in ALI is incompletely understood and trials of new therapies specifically targeting coagulation in patients with ALI have been disappointing. Despite this, recent advances in the knowledge of the dynamic interplay between inflammation and coagulation in ALI as well as endothelial receptor-ligand binding and receptor cross talk have stimulated promising research and identified novel therapeutic targets for patients with ALI.

Phosphatidylserine-expressing cell by-products in transfusion: A pro-inflammatory or an anti-inflammatory effect?

Saas, F. Angelot, L. Bardiaux, E. Seilles, F. Garnache-Ottou, S. Perruche
Transfusion Clinique et Biologique 19 (2012) 90–97
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tracli.2012.02.002

Labile blood products contain phosphatidylserine-expressing cell dusts, including apoptotic cells and microparticles. These cell by-products are produced during blood product process or storage and derived from the cells of interest that exert a therapeutic effect (red blood cells or platelets). Alternatively, phosphatidylserine-expressing cell dusts may also derived from contaminating cells, such as leukocytes, or may be already present in plasma, such as platelet-derived microparticles. These cell by-products present in labile blood products can be responsible for transfusion induced immunomodulation leading to either transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) or increased occurrence of post-transfusion infections or cancer relapse. In this review, we report data from the literature and our laboratory dealing with interactions between antigen-presenting cells and phosphatidylserine-expressing cell dusts, including apoptotic leukocytes and blood cell-derived microparticles. Then, we discuss how these phosphatidylserine-expressing cell by-products may influence transfusion.

Potential consequences of phosphatidylserine-expressing cell by-products in transfusion

Potential consequences of phosphatidylserine-expressing cell by-products in transfusion. Interactions of phosphatidylserine-expressing cell dusts (apoptotic cells or microparticles) may lead to antigen-presenting cell activation or inhibition. Antigen-presenting cell activation may trigger inflammation and be involved in transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI), while antigen-presenting cell inhibition may exert transient immunosuppression or tolerance. Blood product process or storage may influence the generation of phosphatidylserine-expressing cell dusts. PtdSer: phosphatidylserine; APC: antigen-presenting cell.

Several publications report the presence of phosphatidylserine-expressing cell by-products in blood products. These cell by-products may be generated during the blood product process, such as filtration, or during storage (either cold storage for red blood cells or between 20–24 ◦C for platelets). Alternatively, they may be limited by filtration. Phosphatidylserine-expressing cell by-products can be apoptotic cells. Apoptotic cells have been found in different blood products: red blood cell units and platelet concentrates. These apoptotic cells correspond to dying cells of interest: red blood cells or platelets, both enucleated cells that can undergo apoptosis.

Immunomodulatory effects of apoptotic leukocytes

Immunomodulatory effects of apoptotic leukocytes. Early during the apoptotic program, phosphatidylserine-exposure occurs leading to apoptotic cell removal by macrophages or conventional dendritic cells. This uptake by antigen-presenting cells induces the production of anti-inflammatory factors and concomitantly inhibits the synthesis of inflammatory cytokines. These antigen-presenting cells are refractory to TLR activation. This leads to a transient immunosuppressive microenvironment. If antigen-presenting cells from this microenvironment migrate to secondary lymphoid organs, naive T cells are converted into inducible regulatory T cells. This leads to tolerance against apoptotic cell-derived antigens. M[1]: macrophage; cDC: conventional dendritic cells; PtdSer: phosphatidylserine; Treg: regulatory T cells; Th1: helper T cells; HGF: hepatocyte growth factor; IL-: interleukin; NO: nitrite oxide; PGE-2: prostaglandin-E2; TGF: transforming growth factor; TNF: tumor necrosis factor; TLR: Toll-like receptor.

Implication of phosphatidylserine in the inhibition of both inflammation and specific immune responses has been further demonstrated using phosphatidylserine-expressing liposomes and is sustained by the following observations:

phosphatidylserine-dependent ingestion of apoptotic cells induces TGF-β secretion and resolution of lung inflammation;
inhibition of phosphatidylserine recognition through annexin-V enhances the immunogenicity of irradiated tumor cells in vivo;
masking of phosphatidylserine inhibits apoptotic cell engulfment and induces autoantibody production in mice.

Based on data from our group and Peter Henson’s group, some authors have speculated that apoptotic leukocytes present in blood products may be responsible for transfusion-related immunosuppression.

The first consequences of phosphatidylserine-expressing apoptotic cells in blood products may be a transient immunosuppression−responsible for an increase in infection rate and of cancer relapse−or tolerance induction− as observed after donor-specific transfusion − when Treg have been generated. However, apoptotic leukocytes become secondarily necrotic in the absence of phagocytes. This may certainly occur in blood product bags. Necrotic cells, through the release of damage-associated molecular patterns, may become immunogenic. The same process may occur for platelets. Necrotic platelets may represent the procoagulant form of platelets. Thus, hemostatic activation of platelets or their by-products may link thrombosis and inflammation to amplify lung microvascular damage during nonimmune TRALI.

What are the next steps to answer the question on the role of phosphatidylserine-expressing cell dusts in the modulation of immune responses after transfusion?

The next steps are to characterize or identify factors involved in the triggering of inflammation or its inhibition and produced during blood product storage or process. Several factors influence the immune responses against dying cells. We can speculate on some factors, including:

the number of phosphatidylserine-expressing cell byproducts contained per blood product, as the immunogenicity of apoptotic cells may be proportional to their number;
the occurrence of secondary necrosis and so the passive release of intracellular damage-associated molecular patterns that overpasses the inhibitory signals delivered by phosphatidylserine. One of these damage associated molecular patterns can be the heme released from stored red blood cells which signals via TLR4;
the size of cell by-products and especially microparticles, since these latter exert different functions according to their size. Moreover, antigen-presenting cells, such as plasmacytoid dendritic cells, respond only to lower size synthetic particles. This may explain the different responses observed between “amateur” phagocytes (plasmacytoid dendritic cells) versus professional phagocytes (conventional dendritic cells/macrophages) after incubation with microparticles. The size of cell by-products diminishes during plasma filtration, as assessed by dynamic light scattering from 101 to 464 nm in unfiltered fresh-frozen plasma versus 21 to 182 nm after 0.2 µm filtration process;
expression of the recently described phosphatidylserine receptors on different antigen-presenting cell subsets may also explain the different responses between plasmacytoid dendritic cells versus conventional dendritic cells/macrophages and may impact on the overall immune response.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors and inflammation

Leonardo A. Moraes, Laura Piqueras, David Bishop-Bailey
Pharmacology & Therapeutics 110 (2006) 371 – 385
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2005.08.007

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are members of the nuclear hormone receptors family. PPARs are a family of 3 ligand-activated transcription factors: PPARa (NR1C1), PPARh/y (NUC1; NR1C2), and PPARg (NR1C3). PPARα, -h/y, and -ϒ are encoded by different genes but show substantial amino acid similarity, especially within the DNA and ligand binding domains. All PPARs act as heterodimers with the 9-cis-retinoic acid receptors (retinoid X receptor; RXRs) and play important roles in the regulation of metabolic pathways, including those of lipid of biosynthesis and glucose metabolism, as well as in a variety of cell differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis pathways. Recently, there has been a great deal of interest in the involvement of PPARs in inflammatory processes. PPAR ligands, in particular those of PPARα and PPARϒ, inhibit the activation of inflammatory gene expression and can negatively interfere with proinflammatory transcription factor signaling pathways in vascular and inflammatory cells. Furthermore, PPAR levels are differentially regulated in a variety of inflammatory disorders in man, where ligands appear to be promising new therapies.

Fig. not shown. Structure and transcriptional activation of PPARs. (A) Generic schematic of the structure of the PPAR family of nuclear receptors. Indicated are the N–C terminal regions subdivided in to 4 domains: the A/B, N terminal domain [also called the activation function (AF)-1 domain]; C, the DNA binding domain; D, the F hinge_region; and E, the ligand binding domain (AF-2). (B) Generic scheme for the activation of a PPAR receptor as a transcription factor. PPAR activation leads to heterodimerization with RXR and an accumulation in the nucleus. Ligand activation of PPAR results in a change from a repressed binding protein complex which may contain histone deacetylases (HDAC), the nuclear receptor corepressor (NCo-R), and the silencing mediator of retinoid and thyroid signaling (SMRT) to an activation complex that may contain the histone acetylases, steroid receptor co-activator-1 (SRC-1), the PPAR binding protein (PBP), cAMP response element binding protein (CBP/p300), TATA box binding proteins, and RNA polymerase (RNA pol) III. The activated PPAR–RXR heterodimer complex binds to DNA sequences called PPAR response elements (PPRE) in target genes initiation their transcription.

Although the nature of true endogenous PPAR ligands are still not known (Bishop-Bailey & Wray, 2003), PPARs can be activated by a wide variety of F endogenous or pharmacological ligands. PPARα activators include a variety of endogenously present fatty acids, LTB4 and hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs), and clinically used drugs, such as the fibrates, a class of first-line drugs in the treatment of dyslipidemia. Similarly, PPARg can be activated by a number of ligands, including docosahexaenoic acid, linoleic acid, the anti-diabetic glitazones, used as insulin sensitizers, and a number of lipids, including oxidized LDL, azoyle-PAF, and eicosanoids, such as 5,8,11,14-eicosatetraynoic acid and the prostanoids PGA1, PGA2, PGD2, and its dehydration products of the PGJ series of cyclopentanones (e.g., 15 deoxy-D12,14-PGJ2). Dyslipidemia and insulin-dependent diabetes are commonly found existing together as part of the metabolic X syndrome.

Because PPARa and PPARg ligands independently are useful clinical drugs in the treatment of these respective disorders, synthetic dual PPARα/ϒ ligands have recently been developed and show a combined clinical efficacy. PPAR h/y activators include fatty acids and prostacyclin and synthetic compounds L-165,041, GW501516, compound F and L-783,483. Unlike PPARα or-ϒ, there are no PPAR h/y drugs in the clinic, although ligands are in phase II clinical trials for dyslipidemia (http://www.science.gsk.com/pipeline). Indeed, part of the challenge in determining the function of PPARh/y has been the identification and availability of new ligands with more potency and selectivity for use as pharmacological tools.

Fig. not shown. Mechanisms of the anti-inflammatory effects of PPARα. PPARα ligands inhibit the activities of NF-nB, AP-1, and T-bet within cells. In sites of local inflammation, tissue and endothelial cell activity is inhibited, and expressions of adhesion molecules (ICAM-1 and VCAM-1), pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1, -6, -8, -12, and TNFα), vasoactive mediators (inducible cyclo-oxygenase, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and endothelin-1; COX-2, iNOS, and ET-1), and proteases (MMP-9) are decreased. The inflammatory responses in leukocytes are also diminished. Monocyte/macrophage activity is decreased, and lipid metabolizing pathways increased, T- and B-lymphocyte proliferation and differentiation are inhibited, and T-lymphocyte and eosinophil chemotaxis reduced. Bold italic text indicates positive regulation by the PPAR, all other text indicates a negative regulation.

Fig. not shown. Mechanisms of the anti-inflammatory effects of PPAR h/y. PPAR h/y ligands inhibit the activities of NF-nB and release the suppressor BCL-6 from PPAR h/y. In sites of local inflammation, endothelial cell adhesion molecule (VCAM-1) and chemokine (MCP-1) are reduced. PPAR h/y and its endogenous ligand(s) are induced during the inflammatory response in keratinocytes, which then promotes cell survival (integrin-linked kinase—Akt pathway) and wound healing. The inflammatory responses in monocyte/ macrophages are modulated. In the absence of ligand, PPAR h/y sequesters BCL-6 and induces MCP-1, MCP-3, and IL-1h. When PPAR h/y ligand is given, BCL-6 is released and MCP-1, -3, and IL-1h levels are reduced. Bold italic text indicates positive regulation by the PPAR, all other text indicates a negative regulation.

Fig. not shown. Mechanisms of the anti-inflammatory effects of PPARg. PPARg ligands can inhibit the activities of NF-nB, AP-1, STAT-1, N-FAT, Erg-1, Jun, and GATA-3 within cells. In sites of local inflammation, tissue and endothelial cell activity is inhibited, and expression of adhesion molecules (ICAM-1), proinflammatory cytokines (IL-8, -12, and TNFα), chemokines (MCP-1, MCP-3, IP-10, Mig, and I-TAC), vasoactive mediators (inducible nitric oxide synthase and endothelin-1; iNOS and ET-1), and proteases (MMP-9) are decreased. The inflammatory responses in leukocytes are also diminished. Monocyte/ macrophage activity is decreased, T- and B-lymphocyte proliferation and differentiation are inhibited, and T-lymphocyte and eosinophil chemotaxis reduced. Platelet activity is inhibited and dendritic cell production of IL-12, and expression of CCL3, CCL5, and CD80 is reduced, so pro-inflammatory TH1 lymphocytes maturation is inhibited. Bold italic text indicates positive regulation by the PPAR, all other text indicates a negative regulation.

The PPARs are one of the most intensely studied members of the nuclear receptor gene family, and since their initial discovery just over decade ago, the PPARs have attracted an increasing amount of experimental and clinical research by investigators from different scientific areas. PPARs through their central roles in regulating energy homeostasis regulate physiological function in many cell types, tissues, and organ systems. Many disease states from carcinogenesis to inflammation have been linked to abnormalities in the function of PPAR-regulated transcription factors. PPARs are expressed or regulate pathophysiology of diverse human disorders including atherosclerosis, inflammation, obesity, diabetes, and the immune response. PPARs have beneficial effects in many inflammatory conditions, where they regulate cytokine production, adhesion molecule expression, fibrinolysis cell proliferation, apoptosis, and differentiation. Further studies and development of novel PPAR ligands and their selective modulators may lead to novel therapeutic agents in the many conditions associated with inflammatory processes.

Regulators of endothelial and epithelial barrier integrity and function in acute lung injury

Rudolf Lucas, Alexander D. Verin, Stephen M. Black, John D. Catravas
Biochemical Pharmacology 77 (2009) 1763–1772
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.bcp.2009.01.014

Pulmonary permeability edema is a major complication of acute lung injury (ALI), severe pneumonia and ARDS. This pathology can be accompanied by

(1) a reduction of alveolar liquid clearance capacity, caused by an inhibition of the expression of crucial sodium transporters, such as the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) and the Na+-K+-ATPase,
(2) an epithelial and endothelial hyperpermeability and
(3) a disruption of the epithelial and endothelial barriers, caused by increased apoptosis or necrosis.

Since, apart from ventilation strategies, no standard treatment exists for permeability edema, the following chapters will review a selection of novel approaches aiming to improve these parameters in the capillary endothelium and the alveolar epithelium.

Apoptosis is an essential physiological process for the selective elimination of cells. However, the dysregulation of apoptotic pathways is thought to play an important role in the pathogenesis of ALI. Both delayed neutrophil apoptosis and enhanced endothelial/epithelial cell apoptosis have been identified in ALI/ARDS. In the case of neutrophils, which contribute significantly to ALI/ ARDS, studies in both animals and ARDS patients suggest that apoptosis is inhibited during the early stages (<2 h) of inflammation.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are ligand-activated transcription factors belonging to the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily, that includes receptors for steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, retinoic acid, and fat-soluble vitamins. Since their discovery in 1990, increasing data has been published on the role of PPARs in diverse processes, including lipid and glucose metabolism, diabetes and obesity, atherosclerosis, cellular proliferation and differentiation, neurological diseases, inflammation and immunity. PPARs have both gene-dependent and gene-independent effects. Gene-dependent functions involve the formation of heterodimers with the retinoid X-receptor. Activation by PPAR ligands results in the binding of the heterodimer to peroxisome proliferator response elements, located in the promoter regions of PPAR-regulated genes. Gene independent effects involve the direct binding of PPARs to transcription factors, such as NF-kB, which then alters their binding to DNA promoter elements. PPARs can also bind and sequester various cofactors for transcription factors, and thus further alter gene expression. Importantly, the precise effects of PPARs vary greatly between cell types. To date, three subtypes of PPAR have been identified: α, β, and ϒ. There is increasing data suggesting that PPAR signaling may play an important role in the pathobiology of systemic vascular disease. However, there is less data implicating PPAR signaling in diseases of the lung.

A role for PPARs in the control of inflammation was first evidenced for PPARα, where mice deficient in PPARα exhibited an increased duration of ear-swelling in response to the proinflammatory mediator, LTB4. More recently, a number of studies in mice and in humans have shown that PPAR agonists exhibit anti-inflammatory effects under a wide range of conditions. There are two main mechanisms by which PPARs exert their anti-inflammatory effect. The first involves complex formation, and the inhibition of transcription factors that positively regulate the transcription of pro-inflammatory genes. These include nuclear factor-kB (NF-kB), signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs), nuclear factor of activated T cells (NF-AT), CAAT/enhancer binding protein (C/EBP) and activator protein 1 (AP-1). These transcription factors are the main mediators of the major proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and adhesion molecules involved in inflammation. The second PPAR-mediated anti-inflammatory pathway is mediated by the sequestration of rate limiting, but essential, co-activators or co-repressors.

Recent studies have shown that PPAR signaling can attenuate the airway inflammation induced by LPS in the mouse. It was shown that mice treated with the PPARα agonist, fenofibrate, had decreases in both inflammatory cell infiltration and inflammatory mediators. Conversely, PPARα -/- mice have been shown to have a greater number of neutrophils and macrophages, and increased levels of inflammatory mediators in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALF). Other PPAR agonists, such as rosiglitazone or SB 21994 have also been shown to reduce LPS-mediated ALI in the mouse lung. PPARϒ signaling has also been shown to be protective in regulating pulmonary inflammation associated with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-induced lung injury, with the PPARϒ ligand pioglitazone decreasing neutrophil infiltration. Collectively, these data suggest that therapeutic agents that activate either or both PPARα and PPARϒ could be beneficial for the treatment of ALI.

Permeability edema is characterized by a reduced alveolar liquid clearance capacity, combined with an endothelial hyperpermeability. Various signaling pathways, such as those involving reactive oxygen species (ROS), Rho GTPases and tyrosine phosphorylation of junctional proteins, converge to regulate junctional permeability, either by affecting the stability of junctional proteins or by modulating their interactions. The regulation of junctional permeability is mainly mediated by dynamic interactions between the proteins of the adherens junctions and the actin cytoskeleton. Actin-mediated endothelial cell contraction is the result of myosin light chain (MLC) phosphorylation by MLC kinase (MLCK) in a Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent manner. RhoA additionally potentiates MLC phosphorylation, by inhibiting MLC phosphatase activity through its downstream effector Rho kinase (ROCK). As such, actin/myosin-driven contraction will generate a contractile force that pulls VE-cadherin inward. This contraction will force VE-cadherin to dissociate from its adjacent partner, as such producing interendothelial gaps.

Vascular endothelial cells can be regulated by nucleotides released from platelets. During vascular injury, broken cells are also the source of the extracellular nucleotides. Furthermore, endothelium may provide a local source of ATP within vascular beds. Primary cultures of human endothelial cells derived from multiple blood vessels release ATP constitutively and exclusively across the apical membrane under basal conditions. Hypotonic challenge or the calcium agonists (ionomycin and thapsigargin) stimulate ATP release in a reversible and regulated manner. Enhanced release of pharmacologically relevant amounts of ATP was observed in endothelial cells under such stimuli as shear stress, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and ATP itself. Pearson and Gordon demonstrated that incubation of aortic endothelial and smooth muscle cells with thrombin resulted in the specific release of ATP, which was converted to ADP by vascular hydrolases. Yang et al. showed that endothelial cells isolated from guinea pig heart release nucleotides in response to bradykinin, acetylcholine, serotonin and ADP. Nucleotide action is mediated by cell surface purinoreceptors. Once released from endothelial cells, ATP may act in the blood vessel lumen at P2 receptors on nearby endothelium downstream from the site of release. ATP is also degraded rapidly and its metabolites have also been recognized as signaling molecules, which can initiate additional receptor-mediated functions. These include ADP and the final hydrolysis product adenosine.

Signal transduction pathways implicated in ATP-mediated endothelial barrier enhancement

Signal transduction pathways implicated in ATP-mediated endothelial barrier enhancement

During the course of ALI, the alveolar space, as well as the interstitium, are sites of intense inflammation, leading to the local production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1β, TGF-β and TNF. The latter pleiotropic cytokine is a 51 kDa homotrimeric protein, binding to two types of receptors, i.e. TNF-R1 and TNF-R2 and which is mainly produced by activated macrophages and T cells. Soluble TNF, as well as the soluble TNF receptors 1 and 2, are generated upon cleavage of membrane TNF or of the membrane associated receptors, respectively, by the enzyme TNF-α convertase (TACE). TNF-R1, but not TNF-R2, contains a death domain, which signals apoptosis upon the formation of the Death Inducing Signaling Complex (DISC). In spite of its lack of a death domain, TNF-R2 can nevertheless be implicated in apoptosis induction, since its activation causes degradation of TNF Receptor Associated Factor 2 (TRAF2), an inhibitor of the TNF-R1-induced DISC formation. Moreover, apoptosis induction of lung microvascular endothelial cells by TNF was shown to require activation of both TNF receptors. TNF-R2 was also shown to be important for ICAM-1 upregulation in endothelial cells in vitro and in vivo, an activity important in the sequestration of leukocytes in the microvessels. Moreover, lung microvascular endothelial cells isolated from ARDS patients express significantly higher levels of TNF-R2 and of ICAM-1 than cells isolated from patients who had undergone a lobectomy for lung carcinoma, used as controls. These findings therefore suggest that ICAM-1 and TNF-R2 may have a particular involvement in the pathogenesis of acute lung injury.

Dichotomous activity of TNF in alveolar liquid clearance and barrier protection

Dichotomous activity of TNF in alveolar liquid clearance and barrier protection during ALI. TNF, which is induced during ALI, causes a downregulation of ENaC expression in type II alveolar epithelial cells, upon activating TNF-R1. Moreover, TNF increases permeability, by means of interfering with tight junctions (TJ) in both alveolar epithelial (AEC) and capillary endothelial cells (MVEC). ROS, the generation of which is frequently increased during ALI, were also shown to downregulate ENaC and Na+-K+-ATPase expression and moreover also lead to decreased endothelial barrier integrity. The TIP peptide, mimicking the lectin-like domain of TNF, is able to increase sodium uptake in alveolar epithelial cells and to restore endothelial barrier integrity, as such providing a significant protection against the development of permeability edema (red lines: inhibition, green arrows: activation).

Proposed mechanism of action for the anti-inflammatory and barrier-protective actions of hsp90 inhibitors.

Proposed mechanism of action for the anti-inflammatory and barrier-protective actions of hsp90 inhibitors.

Permeability edema represents a life-threatening complication of acute lung injury, severe pneumonia and ARDS, characterized by a combined dysregulation of pulmonary epithelial and endothelial apoptosis, endothelial barrier integrity and alveolar liquid clearance capacity. As such, it is likely that several of these parameters have to be targeted in order to obtain a successful therapy. This review focuses on a selection of recently discovered substances and mechanisms that might improve ALI therapy. As such, we have discussed the inhibition of apoptosis and necrosis occurring during ALI, by means of the restoration of Zn²⁺ homeostasis. PPARα and ϒ agonists can represent therapeutically promising molecules, since they inhibit transcription factors as well as essential co-activators involved in the activation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and adhesion molecules, all of which are implicated in ALI. Apart from inducing a potent inhibition of inflammation upon interfering with NF-kB activation, hsp90 inhibitors were shown to prevent and restore endothelial barrier integrity. These agents are able to significantly improve survival and lung function during LPS-induced ALI. A restoration of endothelial barrier integrity during ALI can also be obtained upon increasing extracellular levels of ATP or adenosine, which activate the purinoreceptors P2Y and P1A2, respectively, leading to a decrease in myosin light chain phosphorylation and an increase in MLC phosphatase 1 activity. The pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF is involved in endothelial apoptosis and hyperpermeability, as well as in the reduction of alveolar liquid clearance, upon activating its receptors. However, apart from its receptor binding sites, TNF harbors a lectin-like domain, which can be mimicked by the TIP peptide. This peptide has been shown to increase alveolar liquid clearance and moreover induces endothelial barrier protection. As such, TNF can be considered as a moonlighting cytokine, combining both positive and negative activities for permeability edema generation within one molecule.

The protective effect of CDDO-Me on lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in mice

Tong Chen, Yi Moua, Jiani Tan, LinlinWei, Yixue Qiao, Tingting Wei, et al.
International Immunopharmacology 25 (2015) 55–64
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2015.01.011

ALI is a clinical syndrome characterized by a disruption of epithelial integrity, neutrophil accumulation, noncardiogenic pulmonary edema, severe hypoxemia and an intense pulmonary inflammatory response with a wide array of increasing severity of lung parenchymal injury. Previous studies have shown that lots of pathogenesis contribute to ALI, such as oxidant/antioxidant dysfunction, dysregulation of inflammatory/anti-inflammatory pathway, upregulation of chemokine production and adhesion molecules. However, to date there is no effective medicine to control ALI. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a main component of the outer membrane of Gram negative bacteria. It has been reported to activate toll like receptors 4 (TLR4) and to stimulate the release of inflammatory mediators inducing ALI-like symptoms. Intratracheal administration of LPS has been used to construct animal models of ALI.

The biological importance of naturally occurring triterpenoids has long been recognized. Oleanolic acid, exhibiting modest biological activities, has been marketed in China as an oral drug for the treatment of liver disorders in humans. Among its derivatives, bardoxolonemethyl (2-cyano-3,12-dioxooleana-1,9(11)-dien-28-oic acid methylester) CDDO-Me, had completed a successful phase I clinical trial for the treatment of cancer and started a phase II trial for the treatment of patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. For its broad spectrum antiproliferative and anti-tumorigenic activities, CDDO-Me has also been reported to possess a number of pharmacological activities such as antioxidant, anti-tumor and anti-inflammatory effects. However, the mechanisms by which CDDO-Me exerted its anti-inflammatory effects on macrophage were insufficiently elucidated. More importantly, there is no available report to evaluate its therapeutic effect on acute lung injury.

CDDO-Me, initiated in a phase II clinical trial, is a potential useful therapeutic agent for cancer and inflammatory dysfunctions, whereas the therapeutic efficacy of CDDO-Me on LPS-induced acute lung injury (ALI) has not been reported as yet. The purpose of the present study was to explore the protective effect of CDDO-Me on LPS-induced ALI in mice and to investigate its possible mechanism. BalB/c mice received CDDO-Me (0.5 mg/kg, 2 mg/kg) or dexamethasone (5 mg/kg) intraperitoneally 1 h before LPS stimulation and were sacrificed 6 h later. W/D ratio, lung MPO activity, number of total cells and neutrophils, pulmonary histopathology, IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α in the BALF were assessed. Furthermore, we estimated iNOS, IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α mRNA expression and NO production as well as the activation of the three main MAPKs, AkT, IκB-α and p65. Pretreatment with CDDO-Me significantly ameliorated W/D ratio, lung MPO activity, inflammatory cell infiltration, and inflammatory cytokine production in BALF from the in vivo study. Additionally, CDDO-Me had beneficial effects on the intervention for pathogenesis process at molecular, protein and transcriptional levels in vitro. These analytical results provided evidence that CDDO-Me could be a potential therapeutic candidate for treating LPS-induced ALI.

Effects of CDDO-Me on LPS-mediated lung histopathologic changes in lung tissues. (A) The lung section from the control mice; (B) the lung section from the mice administered with LPS (8 mg/kg); (C) the lung section from the mice administered with dexamethasone (5 mg/kg) and LPS (8 mg/kg); (D) the lung section from the mice administered with CDDO-Me (0.5mg/kg) and LPS (8mg/kg); (E) the lung section from the mice administered with CDDO-Me (2mg/kg) and LPS (8mg/kg); (hematoxylin and eosin staining, magnification 200×). Control group: the green arrow indicated alveolar wall, no hyperemia. All the other groups: The black arrow indicated the inflammatory cell infiltration; the green arrow indicated alveolar wall hyperemia.

The impact of cardiac dysfunction on acute respiratory distress syndrome and mortality in mechanically ventilated patients with severe sepsis and septic shock: An observational study

Brian M. Fuller, Nicholas M. Mohr, Thomas J. Graetz, et al.
Journal of Critical Care 30 (2015) 65–70
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrc.2014.07.027

Purpose: Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is associated with significant mortality and morbidity in survivors. Treatment is only supportive, therefore elucidating modifiable factors that could prevent ARDS could have a profound impact on outcome. The impact that sepsis-associated cardiac dysfunction has on ARDS is not known. Materials and Methods: In this retrospective observational cohort study of mechanically ventilated patients with severe sepsis and septic shock, 122 patients were assessed for the impact of sepsis-associated cardiac dysfunction on incidence of ARDS (primary outcome) and mortality. Results: Sepsis-associated cardiac dysfunction occurred in 44 patients (36.1%). There was no association of sepsis-associated cardiac dysfunction with ARDS incidence (p= 0.59) or mortality, and no association with outcomes in patients that did progress to ARDS after admission. Multivariable logistic regression demonstrated that higher BMI was associated with progression to ARDS (adjusted OR 11.84, 95% CI 1.24 to 113.0, p= 0.02). Conclusions: Cardiac dysfunction in mechanically ventilated patients with sepsis did not impact ARDS incidence, clinical outcome in ARDS patients, or mortality. This contrasts against previous investigations demonstrating an influence of nonpulmonary organ dysfunction on outcome in ARDS. Given the frequency of ARDS as a sequela of sepsis, the impact of cardiac dysfunction on outcome should be further studied.

Suppression of NF-κβ pathway by crocetin contributes to attenuation of lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in mice

Ruhui Yang, Lina Yang, Xiangchun Shen, Wenyuan Cheng, et al.
European Journal of Pharmacology 674 (2012) 391–396
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.ejphar.2011.08.029

Crocetin, a carotenoid compound, has been shown to reduce expression of inflammation and inhibit the production of reactive oxygen species. In the present study, the effect of crocetin on acute lung injury induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was investigated in vivo. In the mouse model, pretreatment with crocetin at dosages of 50 and 100 mg/kg reduced the LPS-induced lung edema and histological changes, increased LPS-impaired superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, and decreased lung myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity. Furthermore, treatment with crocetin significantly attenuated LPS-induced mRNA and the protein expressions of interleukin-6 (IL-6), macrophage chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in lung tissue. In addition, crocetin at different dosages reduced phospho-IκB expression and NF-κB activity in LPS-induced lung tissue alteration. These results indicate that crocetin can provide protection against LPS-induced acute lung injury in mice.

Sauchinone, a lignan from Saururus chinensis, attenuates neutrophil pro-inflammatory activity and acute lung injury

Hui-Jing Han, Mei Li, Jong-Keun Son, Chang-Seob Seo, et al.
International Immunopharmacology 17 (2013) 471–477
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2013.07.011

Previous studies have shown that sauchinone modulates the expression of inflammatory mediators through mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways in various cell types. However, little information exists about the effect of sauchinone on neutrophils, which play a crucial role in inflammatory process such as acute lung injury (ALI). We found that sauchinone decreased the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated murine bone marrow neutrophils, but not ERK1/2 and JNK. Exposure of LPS-stimulated neutrophils to sauchinone or SB203580, a p38 inhibitor, diminished production of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-2 compared to neutrophils cultured with LPS. Treatment with sauchinone decreased the level of phosphorylated ribosomal protein S6 (rpS6) in LPS-stimulated neutrophils. Systemic administration of sauchinone to mice led to reduced levels of phosphorylation of p38 and rpS6 in mice lungs given LPS, decreased TNF-α and MIP-2 production in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and also diminished the severity of LPS-induced lung injury, as determined by reduced neutrophil accumulation in the lungs, wet/dry weight ratio, and histological analysis. These results suggest that sauchinone diminishes LPS-induced neutrophil activation and ALI.

In the present study, the systemic administration of sauchinone decreased the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK and rpS6 in mice lungs subjected to LPS and diminished the severity of LPS-induced ALI. Neutrophils play an important role in acute inflammatory processes, such as ALI, which was demonstrated by various experimental models. Previous reports suggested that p38 MAPK inhibition of murine neutrophils could lead to the loss of chemotaxis toward MIP-2, as well as the loss of TNF-αandMIP-2 production in response to LPS, and also attenuated neutrophil accumulation in LPS-induced ALI models. Therefore, the beneficial effects of sauchinone on LPS-induced ALI are likely associated with decreases in the production of pro-inflammatory mediators by neutrophils, consistent with our in vitro experiments. However, we cannot exclude that the effects of sauchinone on reducing the release of TNF-α and MIP-2 in mice lungs subjected to LPS, with the resultant prevention of ALI, could be affected by various pulmonary cell populations, such as alveolar macrophages. Also, the inhibitory effects of sauchinone on NF-κB activation through various pulmonary cell populations (Supplemental Fig. S2), in addition to p38MAPK activity in mouse lungs given LPS, might enhance the anti-inflammatory action of sauchinone in mouse lungs subjected to LPS. In conclusion, we found that sauchinone significantly diminished the release of inflammatory mediators in isolated neutrophils and lungs subjected to LPS. The anti-inflammatory action of sauchinone was associated with the prevention of p38 MAPK and rpS6 activation. These findings suggest that sauchinone may be an appropriate pharmacological candidate for the treatment of ALI as well as other neutrophil driven acute inflammatory diseases.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2013.07.011

Protective effect of dexmedetomidine in a rat model of α-naphthylthiourea- induced acute lung injury

Volkan Hancı, Gamze Yurdakan, Serhan Yurtlu, et al.
J Surg Res 178 (2012):424-430
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.jss.2012.02.027

Background: We assessed the effects of dexmedetomidine in a rat model of a-naphthylthiourea (ANTU)einduced acute lung injury. Methods: Forty Wistar Albino male rats weighing 200e240 g were divided into 5 groups (n = 8 each), including a control group. Thus, there were one ANTU group and three dexmedetomidine groups (10-, 50-, and 100-mg/kg treatment groups), plus a control group. The control group provided the normal base values. The rats in the ANTU group were given 10 mg/kg of ANTU intraperitoneally and the three treatment groups received 10, 50, or 100 mg/kg of dexmedetomidine intraperitoneally 30 min before ANTU application. The rat body weight (BW), pleural effusion (PE), and lung weight (LW) of each group were measured 4 h after ANTU administration. The histopathologic changes were evaluated using hematoxylin-eosin staining. Results: The mean PE, LW, LW/BW, and PE/BW measurements in the ANTU group were significantly greater than in the control groups and all dexmedeto-midine treatment groups (P < 0.05). There were also significant decreases in the mean PE, LW, LW/BW and PE/BW values in the dexmedetomidine 50-mg/kg group compared with those in the ANTU group (P < 0.01). The inflammation, hemorrhage, and edema scores in the ANTU group were significantly greater than those in the control or dexmedetomidine 50-mg/kg group (P < 0.01). Conclusion: Dexmedetomidine treatment has demonstrated a potential benefit by preventing ANTU-induced acute lung injury in an experimental rat model. Dexmedetomidine could have a potential protective effect on acute lung injury in intensive care patients.

Protective effects of Isofraxidin against lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in mice

Xiaofeng Niu, YuWang, Weifeng Li, Qingli Mu, et al.
International Immunopharmacology 24 (2015) 432–439
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2014.12.041

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a life-threatening disease characterized by serious lung inflammation and increased capillary permeability, which presents a high mortality worldwide. Isofraxidin (IF), a Coumarin compound isolated from the natural medicinal plants such as Sarcandra glabra and Acanthopanax senticosus, has been reported to have definite anti-bacterial, anti-oxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities. However, the effects of IF against lipopoly-saccharide-induced ALI have not been clarified. The aim of the present study is to explore the protective effects and potential mechanism of IF against LPS-induced ALI in mice. In this study, We found that pretreatment with IF significantly lowered LPS-induced mortality and lung wet-to-dry weight (W/D) ratio and reduced the levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in serum and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). We also found that total cells, neutrophils and macrophages in BALF,MPO activity in lung tissues were markedly decreased. Besides, IF obviously inhibited lung histopathological changes and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) protein expression. These results suggest that IF has a protective effect against LPS induced ALI, and the protective effect of IF seems to result from the inhibition of COX-2 protein expression in the lung, which regulates the production of PGE2.

Ingestion of LPS stimulates vascular permeability, promotes inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) from blood into lung tissues and activates numerous inflammatory cells such as neutrophils and macrophages. In macrophages, LPS challenge induces the transcription of gene encoding pro-inflammatory protein, which leads to cytokine release and synthesis of enzymes, such as cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX-2). COX-2 usually can’t be found in normal tissues, but widely induced by pro-inflammatory stimuli, such as cytokines, endotoxins, and growth factors. COX-2 plays a vital role in the regulation of inflammatory process by modulating the production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). PGE2, induced by cytokines and other initiator, is an inflammatory mediator which is produced in the regulation of COX-2. Previous researches demonstrated that inhibition of COX-2 produced a dramatically anti-inflammatory effect with little gastrointestinal toxicity. Therefore, inhibition of COX-2 protein expression has far-reaching significance in the treatment of ALI.

effects of IF on LPS-induced mortality in ALI mice

The effects of IF on LPS-induced mortality in ALI mice (n = 12/group). IF (5, 10, 15 mg/kg, i.p.) or DEX (5 mg/kg, i.p.) were given to mice 1 h prior to LPS challenge. The mortalities were observed at 0, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, and 72 h. ###P = 0.001 when compared with the control group; *P = 0.05, **P = 0.01, and ***P = 0.001 when compared with the LPS group.

Protective effects of intranasal curcumin on paraquot induced acute lung injury (ALI) in mice

Namitosh Tyagi, Asha Kumaria, D. Dash, Rashmi Singh
Environment Toxicol & Pharmacol 38 (2014) 913–921
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2014.10.003

Paraquot (PQ) is widely and commonly used as herbicide and has been reported to be hazardous as it causes lung injury. However, molecular mechanism underlying lung toxicity caused by PQ has not been elucidated. Curcumin, a known anti-inflammatory molecule derived from rhizomes of Curcuma longa has variety of pharmacological activities including free-radical scavenging properties but the protective effects of curcumin on PQ-induced acute lung injury (ALI) have not been studied. In this study, we aimed to study the effects of curcumin on ALI caused by PQ in male parke’s strain mice which were challenged acutely byPQ (50 mg/kg, i.p.) with or without curcumin an hour before (5 mg/kg, i.n.) PQ intoxication. Lung specimens and the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were isolated for pathological and biochemical analysis after 48 h of PQ exposure. Curcumin administration has significantly enhanced superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase activities. Lung wet/dry weight ratio, malondialdehyde (MDA) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) content, total cell number and myeloperoxidase (MPO) levels in BALF as well as neutrophil infiltration were attenuated by curcumin. Pathological studies also revealed that intranasal curcumin alleviate PQ-induced pulmonary damage and pro-inflammatory cytokine levels like tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and nitric oxide (NO). These results suggest that intranasal curcumin may directly target lungs and curcumin inhalers may prove to be effective in PQ-induced ALI treatment in near future.

Phillyrin attenuates LPS-induced pulmonary inflammation via suppression of MAPK and NF-κB activation in acute lung injury mice

Wei-ting Zhong, Yi-chun Wu, Xian-xing Xie, Xuan Zhou, et al.
Fitoterapia 90 (2013) 132–139
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2013.06.003

Phillyrin (Phil) is one of the main chemical constituents of Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.), which has shown to be an important traditional Chinese medicine. We tested the hypothesis that Phil modulates pulmonary inflammation in an ALI model induced by LPS. Male BALB/c mice were pretreated with or without Phil before respiratory administration with LPS, and pretreated with dexamethasone as a control. Cytokine release (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and amounts of inflammatory cell in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were detected by ELISA and cell counting separately. Pathologic changes, including neutrophil infiltration, interstitial edema, hemorrhage, hyaline membrane formation, necrosis, and congestion during acute lung injury in mice were evaluated via pathological section with HE staining. To further investigate the mechanism of Phil anti-inflammatory effects, activation of MAPK and NF-κB pathways was tested by western blot assay. Phil pretreatment significantly attenuated LPS-induced pulmonary histopathologic changes, alveolar hemorrhage, and neutrophil infiltration. The lung wet-to-dry weight ratios, as the index of pulmonary edema, were markedly decreased by Phil retreatment. In addition, Phil decreased the production of the proinflammatory cytokines including (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and the concentration of myeloperoxidase (MPO) in lung tissues. Phil pretreatment also significantly suppressed LPS-induced activation of MAPK and NF-κB pathways in lung tissues. Taken together, the results suggest that Phil may have a protective effect on LPS-induced ALI, and it potentially contributes to the suppression of the activation of MAPK and NF-κB pathways. Phil may be a new preventive agent of ALI in the clinical setting.

A mass of studies have been reported basically on alleviating LPS-induced acute lung injury in models. Phillyrin (Fig. 1), a lignin, is one of the main chemical constituents of Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.), which is an important traditional Chinese medicine (“Lianqiao” in Chinese), and has long been used for gonorrhea, erysipelas, inflammation, pyrexia and ulcer. Previous studies indicated that Phil significantly inhibited NO production in LPS-activated macrophage cells. But there is not much evidence showing the anti-inflammatory properties of phillyrin. In the present study, we sought to investigate the effects of phillyrin on LPS-induced pulmonary inflammation in mice.

Fig. not shown. A: Effects of Phil on histopathological changes in lung tissues in LPS-induced ALI mice. Mice were given an intragastric administration of Phil (10 and 20 mg/kg) or Dex (5 mg/kg) 1 h prior to an intranasal administration of LPS. Then mice were anesthetized and lung tissue samples were collected at 6 h after LPS challenge for histological evaluation. These representative histological changes of the lung were obtained from mice of different groups (hematoxylin and eosin staining, original magnification 200×, Scale bar: 50 μm). B: Effects of Phil on LPS-induced lung morphology. The slides were histopathologically evaluated using a semi-quantitative scoring method. Lung injury was graded from 0 (normal) to 4 (severe) in four categories: congestion, edema, interstitial inflammation and inflammatory cell infiltration. The total lung injury score was calculated by adding up the individual scores of each category. The values presented are the means ± S.E.M. (n = 4–6 in each group). ##P b 0.01 vs. the control group, **P b 0.01 vs. the LPS group. Cont: control group; LPS: LPS group; Phil + LPS: Phil + LPS group; Dex + LPS: Dex + LPS group.

In summary, the present study indicated that Phil has a protective effect on LPS-induced acute lung injury. Phil significantly attenuated histopathological changes initiated by LPS via reducing over inflammatory responses. We also demonstrated that MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways are the important targets of Phil to perform its actions. Phil acts by preventing NF-κB translocation to the nucleus or inhibiting the activation of MAPKs directly or indirectly, which is to be investigated in further studies. All these results suggest that Phil may be a new therapeutic agent for the prevention of inflammation during acute lung injury.

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The Reconstruction of Life Processes requires both Genomics and Metabolomics to explain Phenotypes and Phylogenetics

Posted in Amino acids, Ca2+ triggered activation, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Curation, Cytoskeleton, De novo synthesis, Developmental biology, Dialectic, Discovery process, Disease Biology, Embryology, Epigenetics and Cardiovascular Risks, Evolutionary cognition, Explanatory, Gene Regulation and Evolution, Genome Biology, Historical relevance, Innovations in Neurophysiology & Neuropsychology, Metabolism, Metabolomics, Mutant Gene Expression, Na-K-ATPase, Nitric Oxide in Health and Disease, Nutrition, Pentose monophosphate shunt, Proteins, Proteomics, RNA Biology, Signaling, Signaling & Cell Circuits, tagged adaptiaton, Evolution, habitats, metabolites, oligomers, oligonucleotides, phenotypes, predators, protein conformation, protein interactions, protein synthesis, respiration, temperature, trrain, water salinity on February 25, 2015| Leave a Comment »

The Reconstruction of Life Processes requires both Genomics and Metabolomics to explain Phenotypes and Phylogenetics

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

phylogenetics

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified.svg/200px-CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified.svg.png

This discussion that completes and is an epicrisis (summary and critical evaluation) of the series of discussions that preceded it.

Innervation of Heart and Heart Rate
Action of hormones on the circulation
Allogeneic Transfusion Reactions
Graft-versus Host reaction
Unique problems of perinatal period
High altitude sickness
Deep water adaptation
Heart-Lung-and Kidney
Acute Lung Injury

The concept inherent in this series is that the genetic code is an imprint that is translated into a message. It is much the same as a blueprint, or a darkroom photographic image that has to be converted to a print. It is biologically an innovation of evolutionary nature because it establishes a simple and reproducible standard for the transcription of the message through the transcription of the message using strings of nucleotides (oligonucleotides) that systematically transfer the message through ribonucleotides that communicate in the cytoplasm with the cytoskeleton based endoplasmic reticulum (ER), composing a primary amino acid sequence. This process is a quite simple and convenient method of biological activity. However, the simplicity ends at this step. The metabolic components of the cell are organelles consisting of lipoprotein membranes and a cytosol which have particularly aligned active proteins, as in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion, or as in the liposome or phagosome, or the structure of the ER, each of which is critical for energy transduction and respiration, in particular, for the mitochondria, cellular remodeling or cell death, with respect to the phagosome, and construction of proteins with respect to the ER, and anaerobic glycolysis and the hexose monophosphate shunt in the cytoplasmic domain. All of this refers to structure and function, not to leave out the membrane assigned transport of inorganic, and organic ions (electrolytes and metabolites).

I have identified a specific role of the ER, the organelles, and cellular transactions within and between cells that is orchestrated. But what I have outlined is a somewhat limited and rigid model that does not reach into the dynamics of cellular transactions. The DNA has expression that may be old, no longer used messages, and this is perhaps only part of a significant portion of “dark matter”. There is also nuclear DNA that is enmeshed with protein, mRNA that is a copy of DNA, and mDNA is copied to ribosomal RNA (rRNA). There is also rDNA. The classic model is DNA to RNA to protein. However, there is also noncoding RNA, which plays an important role in regulation of transcription.

This has been discussed in other articles. But the important point is that proteins have secondary structure through disulfide bonds, which is determined by position of sulfur amino acids, and by van der Waal forces, attraction and repulsion. They have tertiary structure, which is critical for 3-D structure. When like subunits associate, or dissimilar oligomers, then you have heterodimers and oligomers. These constructs that have emerged over time interact with metabolites within the cell, and also have an important interaction with the extracellular environment.

When you take this into consideration then a more complete picture emerges. The primitive cell or the multicellular organism lives in an environment that has the following characteristics – air composition, water and salinity, natural habitat, temperature, exposure to radiation, availability of nutrients, and exposure to chemical toxins or to predators. In addition, there is a time dimension that proceeds from embryonic stage to birth in mammals, a rapid growth phase, a tapering, and a decline. The time span is determined by body size, fluidity of adaptation, and environmental factors. This is covered in great detail in this work. The last two pieces are in the writing stage that completes the series. Much content has already be presented in previous articles.

The function of the heart, kidneys and metabolism of stressful conditions have already been extensively covered in http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com in the following and more:

The Amazing Structure and Adaptive Functioning of the Kidneys: Nitric Oxide – Part I

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/the-amazing-structure-and-adaptive-functioning-of-the-kidneys/

Nitric Oxide and iNOS have Key Roles in Kidney Diseases – Part II

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/nitric-oxide-and-inos-have-key-roles-in-kidney-diseases/

The pathological role of IL-18Rα in renal ischemia/reperfusion injury – Nature.com

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/10/24/the-pathological-role-of-il-18r%CE%B1-in-renal-ischemiareperfusion-injury-nature-com/

Summary, Metabolic Pathways

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/10/23/summary-metabolic-pathways/

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Neonatal Pathophysiology

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Neonatal Pathophysiology

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Introduction

This curation deals with a large and specialized branch of medicine that grew since the mid 20th century in concert with the developments in genetics and as a result of a growing population, with large urban populations, increasing problems of premature deliveries. The problems of prematurity grew very preterm to very low birth weight babies with special problems. While there were nurseries, the need for intensive care nurseries became evident in the 1960s, and the need for perinatal care of pregnant mothers also grew as a result of metabolic problems of the mother, intrauterine positioning of the fetus, and increasing numbers of teen age pregnancies as well as nutritional problems of the mother. There was also a period when the manufacturers of nutritional products displaced the customary use of breast feeding, which was consequential. This discussion is quite comprehensive, as it involves a consideration of the heart, the lungs, the brain, and the liver, to a large extent, and also the kidneys and skeletal development.

It is possible to outline, with a proportionate emphasis based on frequency and severity, this as follows:

Genetic and metabolic diseases
Nervous system
Cardiovascular
Pulmonary
Skeletal – bone and muscle
Hematological
Liver
Esophagus, stomach, and intestines
Kidneys
Immune system

Fetal Development

Gestation is the period of time between conception and birth when a baby grows and develops inside the mother’s womb. Because it’s impossible to know exactly when conception occurs, gestational age is measured from the first day of the mother’s last menstrual cycle to the current date. It is measured in weeks. A normal gestation lasts anywhere from 37 to 41 weeks.

Week 5 is the start of the “embryonic period.” This is when all the baby’s major systems and structures develop. The embryo’s cells multiply and start to take on specific functions. This is called differentiation. Blood cells, kidney cells, and nerve cells all develop. The embryo grows rapidly, and the baby’s external features begin to form.

Week 6-9: Brain forms into five different areas. Some cranial nerves are visible. Eyes and ears begin to form. Tissue grows that will the baby’s spine and other bones. Baby’s heart continues to grow and now beats at a regular rhythm. Blood pumps through the main vessels. Your baby’s brain continues to grow. The lungs start to form. Limbs look like paddles. Essential organs begin to grow.

Weeks 11-18: Limbs extended. Baby makes sucking motion. Movement of limbs. Liver and pancreas produce secretions. Muscle and bones developing.

Week 19-21: Baby can hear. Mom feels baby – and quickening.

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002398.htm

fetal-development

https://polination.files.wordpress.com/2014/02/abortion-new-research-into-fetal-development.jpg

Inherited Metabolic Disorders

The original cause of most genetic metabolic disorders is a gene mutation that occurred many, many generations ago. The gene mutation is passed along through the generations, ensuring its preservation.

Each inherited metabolic disorder is quite rare in the general population. Considered all together, inherited metabolic disorders may affect about 1 in 1,000 to 2,500 newborns. In certain ethnic populations, such as Ashkenazi Jews (Jews of central and eastern European ancestry), the rate of inherited metabolic disorders is higher.

Hundreds of inherited metabolic disorders have been identified, and new ones continue to be discovered. Some of the more common and important genetic metabolic disorders include:

Lysosomal storage disorders : Lysosomes are spaces inside cells that break down waste products of metabolism. Various enzyme deficiencies inside lysosomes can result in buildup of toxic substances, causing metabolic disorders including:

Hurler syndrome (abnormal bone structure and developmental delay)
Niemann-Pick disease (babies develop liver enlargement, difficulty feeding, and nerve damage)
Tay-Sachs disease (progressive weakness in a months-old child, progressing to severe nerve damage; the child usually lives only until age 4 or 5)
Gauchers disease and others

Galactosemia: Impaired breakdown of the sugar galactose leads to jaundice, vomiting, and liver enlargement after breast or formula feeding by a newborn.

Maple syrup urine disease: Deficiency of an enzyme called BCKD causes buildup of amino acids in the body. Nerve damage results, and the urine smells like syrup.

Phenylketonuria (PKU): Deficiency of the enzyme PAH results in high levels of phenylalanine in the blood. Mental retardation results if the condition is not recognized.

Glycogen storage diseases: Problems with sugar storage lead to low blood sugar levels, muscle pain, and weakness.

Metal metabolism disorders: Levels of trace metals in the blood are controlled by special proteins. Inherited metabolic disorders can result in protein malfunction and toxic accumulation of metal in the body:

Wilson disease (toxic copper levels accumulate in the liver, brain, and other organs)

Hemochromatosis (the intestines absorb excessive iron, which builds up in the liver, pancreas, joints, and heart, causing damage)

Organic acidemias: methylmalonic acidemia and propionic acidemia.

Urea cycle disorders: ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency and citrullinemia

Hemoglobinopathies – thalassemias, sickle cell disease

Red cell enzyme disorders – glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, pyruvate kinase

This list is by no means complete.

http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/inherited-metabolic-disorder-types-and-treatments

New variations in the galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (GALT) gene

Clinical and molecular spectra in galactosemic patients from neonatal screening in northeastern Italy: Structural and functional characterization of new variations in the galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (GALT) gene

E Viggiano, A Marabotti, AP Burlina, C Cazzorla, MR D’Apice, et al.
Gene 559 (2015) 112–118
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2015.01.013
Galactosemia (OMIM 230400) is a rare autosomal recessive inherited disorder caused by deficiency of galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (GALT; OMIM 606999) activity. The incidence of galactosemia is 1 in 30,000–60,000, with a prevalence of 1 in 47,000 in the white population. Neonates with galactosemia can present acute symptoms, such as severe hepatic and renal failure, cataract and sepsis after milk introduction. Dietary restriction of galactose determines the clinical improvement in these patients. However, despite early diagnosis by neonatal screening and dietary treatment, a high percentage of patients develop long-term complications such as cognitive disability, speech problems, neurological and/or movement disorders and, in females, ovarian dysfunction.

With the benefit of early diagnosis by neonatal screening and early therapy, the acute presentation of classical galactosemia can be prevented. The objectives of the current study were to report our experience with a group of galactosemic patients identified through the neonatal screening programs in northeastern Italy during the last 30 years.

No neonatal deaths due to galactosemia complications occurred after the introduction of the neonatal screening program. However, despite the early diagnosis and dietary treatment, the patients with classical galactosemia showed one or more long-term complications.

A total of 18 different variations in the GALT gene were found in the patient cohort: 12 missense, 2 frameshift, 1 nonsense, 1 deletion, 1 silent variation, and 1 intronic. Six (p.R33P, p.G83V, p.P244S, p.L267R, p.L267V, p.E271D) were new variations. The most common variation was p.Q188R (12 alleles, 31.5%), followed by p.K285N (6 alleles, 15.7%) and p.N314D (6 alleles, 15.7%). The other variations comprised 1 or 2 alleles. In the patients carrying a new mutation, the biochemical analysis of GALT activity in erythrocytes showed an activity of < 1%. In silico analysis (SIFT, PolyPhen-2 and the computational analysis on the static protein structure) showed potentially damaging effects of the six new variations on the GALT protein, thus expanding the genetic spectrum of GALT variations in Italy. The study emphasizes the difficulty in establishing a genotype–phenotype correlation in classical galactosemia and underlines the importance of molecular diagnostic testing prior to making any treatment.

Diagnosis and Management of Hereditary Hemochromatosis

Reena J. Salgia, Kimberly Brown
Clin Liver Dis 19 (2015) 187–198
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cld.2014.09.011

Hereditary hemochromatosis (HH) is a diagnosis most commonly made in patients with elevated iron indices (transferrin saturation and ferritin), and HFE genetic mutation testing showing C282Y homozygosity.

The HFE mutation is believed to result in clinical iron overload through altering hepcidin levels resulting in increased iron absorption.

The most common clinical complications of HH include cirrhosis, diabetes, nonischemic cardiomyopathy, and hepatocellular carcinoma.

Liver biopsy should be performed in patients with HH if the liver enzymes are elevated or serum ferritin is greater than 1000 mg/L. This is useful to determine the degree of iron overload and stage the fibrosis.

Treatment of HH with clinical iron overload involves a combination of phlebotomy and/or chelation therapy. Liver transplantation should be considered for patients with HH-related decompensated cirrhosis.

Health economic evaluation of plasma oxysterol screening in the diagnosis of Niemann–Pick Type C disease among intellectually disabled using discrete event simulation

CDM van Karnebeek, Tima Mohammadi, Nicole Tsaod, Graham Sinclair, et al.
Molecular Genetics and Metabolism 114 (2015) 226–232
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ymgme.2014.07.004

Background: Recently a less invasive method of screening and diagnosing Niemann–Pick C (NP-C) disease has emerged. This approach involves the use of a metabolic screening test (oxysterol assay) instead of the current practice of clinical assessment of patients suspected of NP-C (review of medical history, family history and clinical examination for the signs and symptoms). Our objective is to compare costs and outcomes of plasma oxysterol screening versus current practice in diagnosis of NP-C disease among intellectually disabled (ID) patients using decision-analytic methods.
Methods: A discrete event simulation model was conducted to follow ID patients through the diagnosis and treatment of NP-C, forecast the costs and effectiveness for a cohort of ID patients and compare the outcomes and costs in two different arms of the model: plasma oxysterol screening and routine diagnosis procedure (anno 2013) over 5 years of follow up. Data from published sources and clinical trials were used in simulation model. Unit costs and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) were discounted at a 3% annual rate in the base case analysis. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were conducted.
Results: The outcomes of the base case model showed that using plasma oxysterol screening for diagnosis of NP-C disease among ID patients is a dominant strategy. It would result in lower total cost and would slightly improve patients’ quality of life. The average amount of cost saving was $3642 CAD and the incremental QALYs per each individual ID patient in oxysterol screening arm versus current practice of diagnosis NP-C was 0.0022 QALYs. Results of sensitivity analysis demonstrated robustness of the outcomes over the wide range of changes in model inputs.
Conclusion: Whilst acknowledging the limitations of this study, we conclude that screening ID children and adolescents with oxysterol tests compared to current practice for the diagnosis of NP-C is a dominant strategy with clinical and economic benefits. The less costly, more sensitive and specific oxysterol test has potential to save costs to the healthcare system while improving patients’ quality of life and may be considered as a routine tool in the NP-C diagnosis armamentarium for ID. Further research is needed to elucidate its effectiveness in patients presenting characteristics other than ID in childhood and adolescence.

Neurological and Behavioral Disorders

Estrogen receptor signaling during vertebrate development

Maria Bondesson, Ruixin Hao, Chin-Yo Lin, Cecilia Williams, Jan-Åke Gustafsson
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1849 (2015) 142–151
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbagrm.2014.06.005

Estrogen receptors are expressed and their cognate ligands produced in all vertebrates, indicative of important and conserved functions. Through evolution estrogen has been involved in controlling reproduction, affectingboth the development of reproductive organs and reproductive behavior. This review broadly describes the synthesis of estrogens and the expression patterns of aromatase and the estrogen receptors, in relation to estrogen functions in the developing fetus and child. We focus on the role of estrogens for the development of reproductive tissues, as well as non-reproductive effects on the developing brain. We collate data from human, rodent, bird and fish studies and highlight common and species-specific effects of estrogen signaling on fetal development. Morphological malformations originating from perturbed estrogen signaling in estrogen receptor and aromatase knockout mice are discussed, as well as the clinical manifestations of rare estrogen receptor alpha and aromatase gene mutations in humans. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Nuclear receptors in animal development.

Memory function and hippocampal volumes in preterm born very-low-birth-weight (VLBW) young adults

Synne Aanes, Knut Jørgen Bjuland, Jon Skranes, Gro C.C. Løhaugen
NeuroImage 105 (2015) 76–83
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.10.023

The hippocampi are regarded as core structures for learning and memory functions, which is important for daily functioning and educational achievements. Previous studies have linked reduction in hippocampal volume to working memory problems in very low birth weight (VLBW; ≤1500 g) children and reduced general cognitive ability in VLBW adolescents. However, the relationship between memory function and hippocampal volume has not been described in VLBW subjects reaching adulthood. The aim of the study was to investigate memory function and hippocampal volume in VLBW young adults, both in relation to perinatal risk factors and compared to term born controls, and to look for structure–function relationships. Using Wechsler Memory Scale-III and MRI, we included 42 non-disabled VLBW and 61 control individuals at age 19–20 years, and related our findings to perinatal risk factors in the VLBW-group. The VLBW young adults achieved lower scores on several subtests of the Wechsler Memory Scale-III, resulting in lower results in the immediate memory indices (visual and auditory), the working memory index, and in the visual delayed and general memory delayed indices, but not in the auditory delayed and auditory recognition delayed indices. The VLBW group had smaller absolute and relative hippocampal volumes than the controls. In the VLBW group inferior memory function, especially for the working memory index, was related to smaller hippocampal volume, and both correlated with lower birth weight and more days in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Our results may indicate a structural–functional relationship in the VLBW group due to aberrant hippocampal development and functioning after preterm birth.

The relation of infant attachment to attachment and cognitive and behavioural outcomes in early childhood

Yan-hua Ding, Xiu Xua, Zheng-yan Wang, Hui-rong Li, Wei-ping Wang
Early Human Development 90 (2014) 459–464
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2014.06.004

Background: In China, research on the relation of mother–infant attachment to children’s development is scarce.
Aims: This study sought to investigate the relation of mother–infant attachment to attachment, cognitive and behavioral development in young children. Study design: This study used a longitudinal study design.
Subjects: The subjects included healthy infants (n=160) aged 12 to 18 months.
Outcome measures: Ainsworth’s “Strange Situation Procedure” was used to evaluate mother–infant attachment types. The attachment Q-set (AQS) was used to evaluate the attachment between young children and their mothers. The Bayley scale of infant development-second edition (BSID-II) was used to evaluate cognitive developmental level in early childhood. Achenbach’s child behavior checklist (CBCL) for 2- to 3-year-oldswas used to investigate behavioral problems.
Results: In total, 118 young children (73.8%) completed the follow-up; 89.7% of infants with secure attachment and 85.0% of infants with insecure attachment still demonstrated this type of attachment in early childhood (κ = 0.738, p b 0.05). Infants with insecure attachment collectively exhibited a significantly lower mental development index (MDI) in early childhood than did infants with secure attachment, especially the resistant type. In addition, resistant infants were reported to have greater social withdrawal, sleep problems and aggressive behavior in early childhood.
Conclusion: There is a high consistency in attachment development from infancy to early childhood. Secure mother–infant attachment predicts a better cognitive and behavioral outcome; whereas insecure attachment, especially the resistant attachment, may lead to a lower cognitive level and greater behavioral problems in early childhood.

representations of the HPA axis

representations of limbic stress-integrative pathways from the prefrontal cortex, amygdala and hippocampus

Fetal programming of schizophrenia: Select mechanisms

Monojit Debnatha, Ganesan Venkatasubramanian, Michael Berk
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 49 (2015) 90–104
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.12.003

Mounting evidence indicates that schizophrenia is associated with adverse intrauterine experiences. An adverse or suboptimal fetal environment can cause irreversible changes in brain that can subsequently exert long-lasting effects through resetting a diverse array of biological systems including endocrine, immune and nervous. It is evident from animal and imaging studies that subtle variations in the intrauterine environment can cause recognizable differences in brain structure and cognitive functions in the offspring. A wide variety of environmental factors may play a role in precipitating the emergent developmental dysregulation and the consequent evolution of psychiatric traits in early adulthood by inducing inflammatory, oxidative and nitrosative stress (IO&NS) pathways, mitochondrial dysfunction, apoptosis, and epigenetic dysregulation. However, the precise mechanisms behind such relationships and the specificity of the risk factors for schizophrenia remain exploratory. Considering the paucity of knowledge on fetal programming of schizophrenia, it is timely to consolidate the recent advances in the field and put forward an integrated overview of the mechanisms associated with fetal origin of schizophrenia.

NMDA receptor dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders

Eun-Jae Lee, Su Yeon Choi and Eunjoon Kim
Current Opinion in Pharmacology 2015, 20:8–13
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coph.2014.10.007

Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) represent neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by two core symptoms;

(1) impaired social interaction and communication, and
(2) restricted and repetitive behaviors, interests, and activities.

ASDs affect ~ 1% of the population, and are considered to be highly genetic in nature. A large number (~600) of ASD-related genetic variations have been identified (sfari.org), and target gene functions are apparently quite diverse. However, some fall onto common pathways, including synaptic function and chromosome remodeling, suggesting that core mechanisms may exist.

Abnormalities and imbalances in neuronal excitatory and inhibitory synapses have been implicated in diverse neuropsychiatric disorders including autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Increasing evidence indicates that dysfunction of NMDA receptors (NMDARs) at excitatory synapses is associated with ASDs. In support of this, human ASD-associated genetic variations are found in genes encoding NMDAR subunits. Pharmacological enhancement or suppression of NMDAR function ameliorates ASD symptoms in humans. Animal models of ASD display bidirectional NMDAR dysfunction, and correcting this deficit rescues ASD-like behaviors. These findings suggest that deviation of NMDAR function in either direction contributes to the development of ASDs, and that correcting NMDAR dysfunction has therapeutic potential for ASDs.

Among known synaptic proteins implicated in ASD are metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). Functional enhancement and suppression of mGluR5 are associated with fragile X syndrome and tuberous sclerosis, respectively, which share autism as a common phenotype. More recently, ionotropic glutamate receptors, namely NMDA receptors (NMDARs) and AMPA receptors (AMPARs), have also been implicated in ASDs. In this review, we will focus on NMDA receptors and summarize evidence supporting the hypothesis that NMDAR dysfunction contributes to ASDs, and, by extension, that correcting NMDAR dysfunction has therapeutic potential for ASDs. ASD-related human NMDAR genetic variants.

Chemokines roles within the hippocampus

IL-1 mediates stress-induced activation of the HPA axis

A systemic model of the beneficial role of immune processes in behavioral and neural plasticity

Three Classes of Glutamate Receptors

Clinical studies on ASDs have identified genetic variants of NMDAR subunit genes. Specifically, de novo mutations have been identified in the GRIN2B gene, encoding the GluN2B subunit. In addition, SNP analyses have linked both GRIN2A (GluN2A subunit) and GRIN2B with ASDs. Because assembled NMDARs contain four subunits, each with distinct properties, ASD-related GRIN2A/ GRIN2B variants likely alter the functional properties of NMDARs and/or NMDAR-dependent plasticity.

Pharmacological modulation of NMDAR function can improve ASD symptoms. D-cycloserine (DCS), an NMDAR agonist, significantly ameliorates social withdrawal and repetitive behavior in individuals with ASD. These results suggest that reduced NMDAR function may contribute to the development of ASDs in humans.

We can divide animal studies into two groups. The first group consists of animals in which NMDAR modulators were shown to normalize both NMDAR dysfunction and ASD-like behaviors, establishing strong association between NMDARs and ASD phenotypes (Fig.). In the second group, NMDAR modulators were shown to rescue ASD-like behaviors, but NMDAR dysfunction and its correction have not been demonstrated.

ASD models with data showing rescue of both NMDAR dysfunction and ASD like behaviors Mice lacking neuroligin-1, an excitatory postsynaptic adhesion molecule, show reduced NMDAR function in the hippocampus and striatum, as evidenced by a decrease in NMDA/AMPA ratio and long-term potentiation (LTP). Neuroligin-1 is thought to enhance synaptic NMDAR function, by directly interacting with and promoting synaptic localization of NMDARs.

Fig not shown.

Bidirectional NMDAR dysfunction in animal models of ASD. Animal models of ASD with bidirectional NMDAR dysfunction can be positioned on either side of an NMDAR function curve. Model animals were divided into two groups.

Group 1: NMDAR modulators normalize both NMDAR dysfunction and ASD-like behaviors (green).

Group 2: NMDAR modulators rescue ASD-like behaviors, but NMDAR dysfunction and its rescue have not been demonstrated (orange). Note that Group 2 animals are tentatively placed on the left-hand side of the slope based on the observed DCS rescue of their ASD-like phenotypes, but the directions of their NMDAR dysfunctions remain to be experimentally determined.

ASD models with data showing rescue of ASD-like behaviors but no demonstrated NMDAR dysfunction

Tbr1 is a transcriptional regulator, one of whose targets is the gene encoding the GluN2B subunit of NMDARs. Mice haploinsufficient for Tbr1 (Tbr1+/-) show structural abnormalities in the amygdala and limited GluN2B induction upon behavioral stimulation. Both systemic injection and local amygdalar infusion of DCS rescue social deficits and impaired associative memory in Tbr1+/- mice. However, reduced NMDAR function and its DCS-dependent correction have not been demonstrated.

Spatial working memory and attention skills are predicted by maternal stress during pregnancy

André Plamondon, Emis Akbari, Leslie Atkinson, Meir Steiner
Early Human Development 91 (2015) 23–29
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2014.11.004

Introduction: Experimental evidence in rodents shows that maternal stress during pregnancy (MSDP) negatively impacts spatial learning and memory in the offspring. We aim to investigate the association between MSDP (i.e., life events) and spatial working memory, as well as attention skills (attention shifting and attention focusing), in humans. The moderating roles of child sex, maternal anxiety during pregnancy and postnatal care are also investigated. Methods: Participants were 236mother–child dyads that were followed from the second trimester of pregnancy until 4 years postpartum. Measurements included questionnaires and independent observations.
Results: MSDP was negatively associated with attention shifting at 18monthswhen concurrent maternal anxiety was low. MSDP was associated with poorer spatial working memory at 4 years of age, but only for boys who experienced poorer postnatal care.
Conclusion: Consistent with results observed in rodents, MSDP was found to be associated with spatial working memory and attention skills. These results point to postnatal care and maternal anxiety during pregnancy as potential targets for interventions that aim to buffer children from the detrimental effects of MSDP.

Acute and massive bleeding from placenta previa and infants’ brain damage

Ken Furuta, Shuichi Tokunaga, Seishi Furukawa, Hiroshi Sameshima
Early Human Development 90 (2014) 455–458
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2014.06.002

Background: Among the causes of third trimester bleeding, the impact of placenta previa on cerebral palsy is not well known.
Aims: To clarify the effect ofmaternal bleeding fromplacenta previa on cerebral palsy, and in particular when and how it occurs.
Study design: A descriptive study.
Subjects: Sixty infants born to mothers with placenta previa in our regional population-based study of 160,000 deliveries from 1998 to 2012. Premature deliveries occurring atb26 weeks of gestation and placenta accrete were excluded.
Outcome measures: Prevalence of cystic periventricular leukomalacia (PVL) and cerebral palsy (CP).
Results: Five infants had PVL and 4 of these infants developed CP (1/40,000 deliveries). Acute and massive bleeding (>500 g) within 8 h) occurred at around 30–31 weeks of gestation, and was severe enough to deliver the fetus. None of the 5 infants with PVL underwent antenatal corticosteroid treatment, and 1 infant had mild neonatal hypocapnia with a PaCO2 < 25 mm Hg. However, none of the 5 PVL infants showed umbilical arterial academia with pH < 7.2, an abnormal fetal heart rate monitoring pattern, or neonatal hypotension.
Conclusions: Our descriptive study showed that acute and massive bleeding from placenta previa at around 30 weeks of gestation may be a risk factor for CP, and requires careful neonatal follow-up. The underlying process connecting massive placental bleeding and PVL requires further investigation.

Impact of bilirubin-induced neurologic dysfunction on neurodevelopmental outcomes

Courtney J. Wusthoff, Irene M. Loe
Seminars in Fetal & Neonatal Medicine 20 (2015) 52e57
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.siny.2014.12.003

Extreme neonatal hyperbilirubinemia has long been known to cause the clinical syndrome of kernicterus, or chronic bilirubin encephalopathy (CBE). Kernicterus most usually is characterized by choreoathetoid cerebral palsy (CP), impaired upward gaze, and sensorineural hearing loss, whereas cognition is relatively spared. The chronic condition of kernicterus may be, but is not always, preceded in the acute stage by acute bilirubin encephalopathy (ABE). This acute neonatal condition is also due to hyperbilirubinemia, and is characterized by lethargy and abnormal behavior, evolving to frank neonatal encephalopathy, opisthotonus, and seizures. Less completely defined is the syndrome of bilirubin-induced neurologic dysfunction (BIND).

Bilirubin-induced neurologic dysfunction (BIND) is the constellation of neurologic sequelae following milder degrees of neonatal hyperbilirubinemia than are associated with kernicterus. Clinically, BIND may manifest after the neonatal period as developmental delay, cognitive impairment, disordered executive function, and behavioral and psychiatric disorders. However, there is controversy regarding the relative contribution of neonatal hyperbilirubinemia versus other risk factors to the development of later neurodevelopmental disorders in children with BIND. In this review, we focus on the empiric data from the past 25 years regarding neurodevelopmental outcomes and BIND, including specific effects on developmental delay, cognition, speech and language development, executive function, and the neurobehavioral disorders, such as attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism.

As noted in a technical report by the American Academy of Pediatrics Subcommittee on Hyperbilirubinemia, “it is apparent that the use of a single total serum bilirubin level to predict long-term outcomes is inadequate and will lead to conflicting results”. As described above, this has certainly been the case in research to date. To clarify how hyperbilirubinemia influences neurodevelopmental outcome, more sophisticated consideration is needed both of how to assess bilirubin exposure leading to neurotoxicity, and of those comorbid conditions which may lower the threshold for brain injury.

For example, premature infants are known to be especially susceptible to bilirubin neurotoxicity, with kernicterus reported following TB levels far lower than the threshold expected in term neonates. Similarly, among extremely preterm neonates, BBC is proportional to gestational age, meaning that the most premature infants have the highest UB, even for similar TB levels. Thus, future studies must be adequately powered to examine preterm infants separately from term infants, and should consider not just peak TB, but also BBC, as independent variables in neonates with hyperbilirubinemia. Similarly, an analysis by the NICHD NRN found that, among ELBW infants, higher UB levels were associated with a higher risk of death or NDI. However, increased TB levels were only associated with death or NDI in unstable infants. Again, UB or BBC appeared to be more useful than TB.

Are the neuromotor disabilities of bilirubin-induced neurologic dysfunction disorders related to the cerebellum and its connections?

Jon F. Watchko, Michael J. Painter, Ashok Panigrahy
Seminars in Fetal & Neonatal Medicine 20 (2015) 47e51
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.siny.2014.12.004

Investigators have hypothesized a range of subcortical neuropathology in the genesis of bilirubin induced neurologic dysfunction (BIND). The current review builds on this speculation with a specific focus on the cerebellum and its connections in the development of the subtle neuromotor disabilities of BIND. The focus on the cerebellum derives from the following observations:
(i) the cerebellum is vulnerable to bilirubin-induced injury; perhaps the most vulnerable region within the central nervous system;
(ii) infants with cerebellar injury exhibit a neuromotor phenotype similar to BIND; and (iii) the cerebellum has extensive bidirectional circuitry projections to motor and non-motor regions of the brain-stem and cerebral cortex that impact a variety of neurobehaviors.
Future study using advanced magnetic resonance neuroimaging techniques have the potential to shed new insights into bilirubin’s effect on neural network topology via both structural and functional brain connectivity measurements.

Bilirubin-induced neurologic damage is most often thought of in terms of severe adverse neuromotor (dystonia with or without athetosis) and auditory (hearing impairment or deafness) sequelae. Observed together, they comprise the classic neurodevelopmental phenotype of chronic bilirubin encephalopathy or kernicterus, and may also be seen individually as motor or auditory predominant subtypes. These injuries reflect both a predilection of bilirubin toxicity for neurons (relative to glial cells) and the regional topography of bilirubin-induced neuronal damage characterized by prominent involvement of the globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus, VIII cranial nerve, and cochlear nucleus.

It is also asserted that bilirubin neurotoxicity may be associated with other less severe neurodevelopmental disabilities, a condition termed “subtle kernicterus” or “bilirubin-induced neurologic dysfunction” (BIND). BIND is defined by a constellation of “subtle neurodevelopmental disabilities without the classical findings of kernicterus that, after careful evaluation and exclusion of other possible etiologies, appear to be due to bilirubin neurotoxicity”. These purportedly include:

(i) mild-to-moderate disorders of movement (e.g., incoordination, clumsiness, gait abnormalities, disturbances in static and dynamic balance, impaired fine motor skills, and ataxia); (ii) disturbances in muscle tone; and
(iii) altered sensorimotor integration. Isolated disturbances of central auditory processing are also included in the spectrum of BIND.

Cerebellar vulnerability to bilirubin-induced injury
Cerebellar injury phenotypes and BIND
Cerebellar projections

Transverse section of cerebellum and brainstem

Transverse section of cerebellum and brain-stem from a 34 gestational-week premature kernicteric infant formalin-fixed for two weeks. Yellow staining is evident in the cerebellar dentate nuclei (upper arrow) and vestibular nuclei at the pontomedullary junction (lower arrowhead). Photo is courtesy of Mahmdouha Ahdab-Barmada and reprinted with permission from Taylor-Francis Group (Ahdab Barmada M. The neuropathology of kernicterus: definitions and debate. In: Maisel MJ, Watchko JF editors. Neonatal jaundice. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers; 2000. p. 75e88

Whether cerebellar injury is primal or an integral part of disturbed neural circuitry in bilirubin-induced CNS damage is unclear. Movement disorders, however, are increasingly recognized to arise from abnormalities of neuronal circuitry rather than localized, circumscribed lesions. The cerebellum has extensive bidirectional circuitry projections to an array of brainstem nuclei and the cerebral cortex that modulate and refine motor activities. In this regard, the cerebellum is characteristically subdivided into three lobes based on neuroanatomic and phylogenetic criteria as well as by their primary afferent and efferent connections. They include:
(i) flocculonodular lobe (archicerebellum);
(ii) anterior lobe (paleocerebellum); and
(iii) posterior lobe (neocerebellum).

The archicerebellum, the oldest division phylogenically, receives extensive input from the vestibular system and is therefore also known as the vestibulocerebellum and is important for equilibrium control. The paleocerebellum, also a primitive region, receives extensive somatosensory input from the spinal cord, including the anterior and posterior spinocerebellar pathways that convey unconscious proprioception, and is therefore also known as the spinocerebellum. The neocerebellum is the most recently evolved region, receives most of the input from the cerebral cortex, and is thus termed the cerebrocerebellum. This area has greatly expanded in association with the extensive development of the cerebral cortex in mammals and especially primates. To cause serious longstanding dysfunction, cerebellar injury must typically involve the deep cerebellar nuclei and their projections.

Schematic of the bidirectional connectivity between the cerebellum and other

Schematic of the bidirectional connectivity between the cerebellum and other brain regions including the cerebral cortex. Most cerebro-cerebellar afferent projections pass through the basal (anterior or ventral) pontine nuclei and intermediate cerebellar peduncle, whereas most cerebello-cerebral efferent projections pass through the dentate and ventrolateral thalamic nuclei. DCN, deep cerebellar nuclei; RN, red nucleus; ATN, anterior thalamic nucleus; PFC, prefrontal cortex; MC, motor cortex; PC, parietal cortex; TC, temporal cortex; STN, subthalamic nucleus; APN, anterior pontine nuclei. Reprinted under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License from D’Angelo E, Casali S. Seeking a unified framework for cerebellar function and dysfunction: from circuit to cognition. Front Neural Circuits 2013; 6:116.

Given the vulnerability of the cerebellum to bilirubin-induced injury, cerebellar involvement should also be evident in classic kernicterus, contributing to neuromotor deficits observed therein. It is of interest, therefore, that cerebellar damage may play a role in the genesis of bilirubin-induced dystonia, a prominent neuromotor feature of chronic bilirubin encephalopathy in preterm and term neonates alike. This complex movement disorder is characterized by involuntary sustained muscle contractions that result in abnormal position and posture. Moreover, dystonia that is brief in duration results in chorea, and, if brief and repetitive, leads to athetosis ‒ conditions also classically observed in kernicterus. Recent evidence suggests that dystonic movements may depend on disruption of both basal ganglia and cerebellar neuronal networks, rather than isolated dysfunction of only one motor system.

Dystonia is also a prominent feature in Gunn rat pups and neonatal Ugt1‒/‒-deficient mice both robust models of kernicterus. The former is used as an experimental model of dystonia. Although these models show basal ganglia injury, the sine qua non of bilirubin-induced murine neuropathology is cerebellar damage and resultant cerebellar hypoplasia.

Studies are needed to define more precisely the motor network abnormalities in kernicterus and BIND. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been widely used in evaluating infants at risk for bilirubin-induced brain injury using conventional structural T1-and T2-weighted imaging. Infants with chronic bilirubin encephalopathy often demonstrate abnormal bilateral, symmetric, high-signal intensity on T2-weighted MRI of the globus pallidus and subthalamic nucleus, consistent with the neuropathology of kernicterus. Early postnatal MRI of at-risk infants, although frequently showing increased T1-signal in these regions, may give false-positive findings due to the presence of myelin in these structures.

Diffusion tensor imaging and tractography could be used to delineate long-term changes involving specific white matter pathways, further elucidating the neural basis of long-term disability in infants and children with chronic bilirubin encephalopathy and BIND. It will be equally valuable to use blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) “resting state” functional MRI to study intrinsic connectivity in order to identify vulnerable brain networks in neonates with kernicterus and BIND. Structural networks of the CNS (connectome) and functional network topology can be characterized in infants with kernicterus and BIND to determine disease-related pattern(s) with respect to both long- and short-range connectivity. These findings have the potential to shed novel insights into the pathogenesis of these disorders and their impact on complex anatomical connections and resultant functional deficits.

Audiologic impairment associated with bilirubin-induced neurologic damage

Cristen Olds, John S. Oghalai
Seminars in Fetal & Neonatal Medicine 20 (2015) 42e46
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.siny.2014.12.006

Hyperbilirubinemia affects up to 84% of term and late preterm infants in the first week of life. The elevation of total serum/plasma bilirubin (TB) levels is generally mild, transitory, and, for most children, inconsequential. However, a subset of infants experiences lifelong neurological sequelae. Although the prevalence of classic kernicterus has fallen steadily in the USA in recent years, the incidence of jaundice in term and premature infants has increased, and kernicterus remains a significant problem in the global arena. Bilirubin-induced neurologic dysfunction (BIND) is a spectrum of neurological injury due to acute or sustained exposure of the central nervous system(CNS) to bilirubin. The BIND spectrum includes kernicterus, acute bilirubin encephalopathy, and isolated neural pathway dysfunction.

Animal studies have shown that unconjugated bilirubin passively diffuses across cell membranes and the blood‒brain barrier (BBB), and bilirubin not removed by organic anion efflux pumps accumulates within the cytoplasm and becomes toxic. Exposure of neurons to bilirubin results in increased oxidative stress and decreased neuronal proliferation and presynaptic neuro-degeneration at central glutaminergic synapses. Furthermore, bilirubin administration results in smaller spiral ganglion cell bodies, with decreased cellular density and selective loss of large cranial nerve VIII myelinated fibers. When exposed to bilirubin, neuronal supporting cells have been found to secrete inflammatory markers, which contribute to increased BBB permeability and bilirubin loading.

The jaundiced Gunn rat is the classic animal model of bilirubin toxicity. It is homozygous for a premature stop codon within the gene for UDP-glucuronosyltransferase family 1 (UGT1). The resultant gene product has reduced bilirubin-conjugating activity, leading to a state of hyperbilirubinemia. Studies with this rat model have led to the concept that impaired calcium homeostasis is an important mechanism of neuronal toxicity, with reduced expression of calcium-binding proteins in affected cells being a sensitive index of bilirubin-induced neurotoxicity. Similarly, application of bilirubin to cultured auditory neurons from brainstem cochlear nuclei results in hyperexcitability and excitotoxicity.

The auditory pathway and normal auditory brainstem response (ABR).

The auditory pathway and normal auditory brain-stem response (ABR). The ipsilateral (green) and contralateral (blue) auditory pathways are shown, with structures that are known to be affected by hyperbilirubinemia highlighted in red. Roman numerals in parentheses indicate corresponding waves in the normal human ABR (inset). Illustration adapted from the “Ear Anatomy” series by Robert Jackler and Christine Gralapp, with permission.

Bilirubin-induced neurologic dysfunction (BIND)

Vinod K. Bhutani, Ronald Wong
Seminars in Fetal & Neonatal Medicine 20 (2015) 1
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.siny.2014.12.010

Beyond the traditional recognized areas of fulminant injury to the globus pallidus as seen in infants with kernicterus, other vulnerable areas include the cerebellum, hippocampus, and subthalamic nuclear bodies as well as certain cranial nerves. The hippocampus is a brain region that is particularly affected by age related morphological changes. It is generally assumed that a loss in hippocampal volume results in functional deficits that contribute to age-related cognitive deficits. Lower grey matter volumes within the limbic-striato-thalamic circuitry are common to other etiological mechanisms of subtle neurologic injury. Lower grey matter volumes in the amygdala, caudate, frontal and medial gyrus are found in schizophrenia and in the putamen in autism. Thus, in terms of brain volumetrics, schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorders have a clear degree of overlap that may reflect shared etiological mechanisms. Overlap with injuries observed in infants with BIND raises the question about how these lesions are arrived at in the context of the impact of common etiologies.

Stress-induced perinatal and transgenerational epigenetic programming of brain development and mental health

Olena Babenko, Igor Kovalchuk, Gerlinde A.S. Metz
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 48 (2015) 70–91
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.11.013

Research efforts during the past decades have provided intriguing evidence suggesting that stressful experiences during pregnancy exert long-term consequences on the future mental wellbeing of both the mother and her baby. Recent human epidemiological and animal studies indicate that stressful experiences in utero or during early life may increase the risk of neurological and psychiatric disorders, arguably via altered epigenetic regulation. Epigenetic mechanisms, such as miRNA expression, DNA methylation, and histone modifications are prone to changes in response to stressful experiences and hostile environmental factors. Altered epigenetic regulation may potentially influence fetal endocrine programming and brain development across several generations. Only recently, however, more attention has been paid to possible transgenerational effects of stress. In this review we discuss the evidence of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance of stress exposure in human studies and animal models. We highlight the complex interplay between prenatal stress exposure, associated changes in miRNA expression and DNA methylation in placenta and brain and possible links to greater risks of schizophrenia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism, anxiety- or depression-related disorders later in life. Based on existing evidence, we propose that prenatal stress, through the generation of epigenetic alterations, becomes one of the most powerful influences on mental health in later life. The consideration of ancestral and prenatal stress effects on lifetime health trajectories is critical for improving strategies that support healthy development and successful aging.

Sensitive time-windows for susceptibility in neurodevelopmental disorders

Rhiannon M. Meredith, Julia Dawitz and Ioannis Kramvis
Trends in Neurosciences, June 2012; 35(6): 335-344
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.tins.2012.03.005

Many neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are characterized by age-dependent symptom onset and regression, particularly during early postnatal periods of life. The neurobiological mechanisms preceding and underlying these developmental cognitive and behavioral impairments are, however, not clearly understood. Recent evidence using animal models for monogenic NDDs demonstrates the existence of time-regulated windows of neuronal and synaptic impairments. We propose that these developmentally-dependent impairments can be unified into a key concept: namely, time-restricted windows for impaired synaptic phenotypes exist in NDDs, akin to critical periods during normal sensory development in the brain. Existence of sensitive time-windows has significant implications for our understanding of early brain development underlying NDDs and may indicate vulnerable periods when the brain is more susceptible to current therapeutic treatments.

Fig (not shown)

Misregulated mechanisms underlying spine morphology in NDDs. Several proteins implicated in monogenic NDDs (highlighted in red) are linked to the regulation of the synaptic cytoskeleton via F-actin through different Rho-mediated signaling pathways (highlighted in green). Mutations in OPHN1, TSC1/2, FMRP, p21-activated kinase (PAK) are directly linked to human NDDs of intellectual disability. For instance, point mutations in OPHN1 and a PAK isoform are linked to non-syndromic mental retardation, whereas mutations or altered expression of TSC1/2 and FMRP are linked to TSC and FXS, respectively. Cytoplasmic interacting protein (CYFIP) and LIM-domain kinase 1 (LIMK1) are known to interact with FMRP and PAK, respectively [105]. LIMK1 is one of many dysregulated proteins contributing to the NDD Williams syndrome. Mouse models are available for all highlighted (red) proteins and reveal specific synaptic and behavioral deficits. Local protein synthesis in synapses, dendrites and glia is also regulated by proteins such as TSC1/2 and the FMRP/CYFIP complex. Abbreviations: 4EBP, 4E binding protein; eIF4E, eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E.

Fig (not shown)

Sensitive time-windows, synaptic phenotypes and NDD gene targets. Sensitive time-windows exist in neural circuits, during which gene targets implicated in NDDs are normally expressed. Misregulation of these genes can affect multiple synaptic phenotypes during a restricted developmental period. The effect upon synaptic phenotypes is dependent upon the temporal expression of these NDD genes and their targets. (a) Expression outside a critical period of development will have no effect upon synaptic phenotypes. (b,c) A temporal expression pattern that overlaps with the onset (b) or closure (c) of a known critical period can alter the synaptic phenotype during that developmental time-window.

Outstanding questions

(1) Can treatment at early presymptomatic stages in animal models for NDDs prevent or ease the later synaptic, neuronal, and behavioral impairments?

(2) Are all sensory critical periods equally misregulated in mouse models for a specific NDD? Are there different susceptibilities for auditory, visual and somatosensory neurocircuits that reflect the degree of impairments observed in patients?

(3) If one critical period is missed or delayed during formation of a layer-specific connection in a network, does the network overcome this misregulated connectivity or plasticity window?

(4) In monogenic NDDs, does the severity of misregulating one particular time-window for synaptic establishment during development correlate with the importance of that gene for that synaptic circuit?

(5) Why do critical periods close in brain development?

(6) What underlies the regression of some altered synaptic phenotypes in Fmr1-KO mice?

(7) Can the concept of susceptible time-windows be applied to other NDDs, including schizophrenia and Tourette’s syndrome?

Cardiovascular

Cardiac output monitoring in newborns

Willem-Pieter de Boode
Early Human Development 86 (2010) 143–148
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2010.01.032

There is an increased interest in methods of objective cardiac output measurement in critically ill patients. Several techniques are available for measurement of cardiac output in children, although this remains very complex in newborns. Cardiac output monitoring could provide essential information to guide hemodynamic management. An overview is given of various methods of cardiac output monitoring with advantages and major limitations of each technology together with a short explanation of the basic principles.

Fick principle

According to the Fick principle the volume of blood flow in a given period equals the amount of substance entering the blood stream in the same period divided by the difference in concentrations of the substrate upstream respectively downstream to the point of entry in the circulation. This substance can be oxygen (O2-Fick) or carbon dioxide (CO2-FICK), so cardiac output can be calculated by dividing measured pulmonary oxygen uptake by the arteriovenous oxygen concentration difference. The direct O2-Fick method is regarded as gold standard in cardiac output monitoring in a research setting, despite its limitations. When the Fick principle is applied for carbon dioxide (CO2 Fick), the pulmonary carbon dioxide exchange is divided by the venoarterial CO2 concentration difference to calculate cardiac output.

In the modified CO2 Fick method pulmonary CO2 exchange is measured at the endotracheal tube. Measurement of total CO2 concentration in blood is more complex and simultaneous sampling of arterial and central venous blood is required. However, frequent blood sampling will result in an unacceptable blood loss in the neonatal population.

Blood flow can be calculated if the change in concentration of a known quantity of injected indicator is measured in time distal to the point of injection, so an indicator dilution curve can be obtained. Cardiac output can then be calculated with the use of the Stewart–Hamilton equation. Several indicators are used, such as indocyanine green, Evans blue and brilliant red in dye dilution, cold solutions in thermodilution, lithium in lithium dilution, and isotonic saline in ultrasound dilution.

Cardiovascular adaptation to extra uterine life

Alice Lawford, Robert MR Tulloh
Paediatrics And Child Health 2014; 25(1): 1-6.

The adaptation to extra uterine life is of interest because of its complexity and the ability to cause significant health concerns. In this article we describe the normal changes that occur and the commoner abnormalities that are due to failure of normal development and the effect of congenital cardiac disease. Abnormal development may occur as a result of problems with the mother, or with the fetus before birth. After birth it is essential to determine whether there is an underlying abnormality of the fetal pulmonary or cardiac development and to determine the best course of management of pulmonary hypertension or congenital cardiac disease. Causes of underdevelopment, maldevelopment and maladaptation are described as are the causes of critical congenital heart disease. The methods of diagnosis and management are described to allow the neonatologist to successfully manage such newborns.

Fetal vascular structures that exist to direct blood flow

Fetal structure	Function
Arterial duct	Connects pulmonary artery to the aorta and shunts blood right to left; diverting flow away from fetal lungs
Foramen ovale	Opening between the two atria thatdirects blood flow returning to right atrium through the septal wall into the left atrium bypassing lungs
Ductus venosus	Receives oxygenated blood fromumbilical vein and directs it to the inferior vena cava and right atrium
Umbilical arteries	Carrying deoxygenated blood fromthe fetus to the placenta
Umbilical vein	Carrying oxygenated blood from theplacenta to the fetus

Maternal causes of congenital heart disease

Maternal disorders	rubella, SLE, diabetes mellitus
Maternal drug use	Warfarin, alcohol
Chromosomal abnormality	Down, Edward, Patau, Turner, William, Noonan

Fetal and Neonatal Circulation The fetal circulation is specifically adapted to efficiently exchange gases, nutrients, and wastes through placental circulation. Upon birth, the shunts (foramen ovale, ductus arteriosus, and ductus venosus) close and the placental circulation is disrupted, producing the series circulation of blood through the lungs, left atrium, left ventricle, systemic circulation, right heart, and back to the lungs.

Clinical monitoring of systemic hemodynamics in critically ill newborns

Willem-Pieter de Boode
Early Human Development 86 (2010) 137–141
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2010.01.031

Circulatory failure is a major cause of mortality and morbidity in critically ill newborn infants. Since objective measurement of systemic blood flow remains very challenging, neonatal hemodynamics is usually assessed by the interpretation of various clinical and biochemical parameters. An overview is given about the predictive value of the most used indicators of circulatory failure, which are blood pressure, heart rate, urine output, capillary refill time, serum lactate concentration, central–peripheral temperature difference, pH, standard base excess, central venous oxygen saturation and color.

Key guidelines

➢ The clinical assessment of cardiac output by the interpretation of indirect parameters of systemic blood flow is inaccurate, irrespective of the level of experience of the clinician

➢ Using blood pressure to diagnose low systemic blood flow will consequently mean that too many patients will potentially be undertreated or overtreated, both with substantial risk of adverse effects and iatrogenic damage.

➢ Combining different clinical hemodynamic parameters enhances the predictive value in the detection of circulatory failure, although accuracy is still limited.

➢ Variation in time (trend monitoring) might possibly be more informative than individual, static values of clinical and biochemical parameters to evaluate the adequacy of neonatal circulation.

Monitoring oxygen saturation and heart rate in the early neonatal period

J.A. Dawson, C.J. Morley
Seminars in Fetal & Neonatal Medicine 15 (2010) 203e207
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.siny.2010.03.004

Pulse oximetry is commonly used to assist clinicians in assessment and management of newly born infants in the delivery room (DR). In many DRs, pulse oximetry is now the standard of care for managing high risk infants, enabling immediate and dynamic assessment of oxygenation and heart rate. However, there is little evidence that using pulse oximetry in the DR improves short and long term outcomes. We review the current literature on using pulse oximetry to measure oxygen saturation and heart rate and how to apply current evidence to management in the DR.

Practice points

Understand how SpO2 changes in the first minutes after birth.
Apply a sensor to an infant’s right wrist as soon as possible after birth.
Attach sensor to infant then to oximeter cable.
Use two second averaging and maximum sensitivity.

Using pulse oximetry assists clinicians:

Assess changes in HR in real time during transition.
Assess oxygenation and titrate the administration of oxygen to maintain oxygenation within the appropriate range for SpO2 during the first minutes after birth.

Research directions

What are the appropriate centiles to target during the minutes after birth to prevent hypoxia and hyperoxia: 25th to 75th, or 10th to 90th, or just the 50th (median)?
Can the inspired oxygen be titrated against the SpO2 to keep the SpO2 in the ‘normal range’?
Does the use of centile charts in the DR for HR and oxygen saturation reduce the rate of hyperoxia when infants are treated with oxygen.
Does the use of pulse oximetry immediately after birth improve short term outcomes, e.g. efficacy of immediate respiratory support, intubation rates in the DR, percentage of inspired oxygen, rate of use of adrenalin or chest compressions, duration of hypoxia/hyperoxia and bradycardia.
Does the use of pulse oximetry in the DR improve short term respiratory and long term neurodevelopmental outcomes for preterm infants, e.g. rate of intubation, use of surfactant, and duration of ventilation, continuous positive airway pressure, or supplemental oxygen?
Can all modern pulse oximeters be used effectively in the DR or do some have a longer delay before giving an accurate signal and more movement artefact?
Would a longer averaging time result in more stable data?

Peripheral haemodynamics in newborns: Best practice guidelines

Michael Weindling, Fauzia Paize
Early Human Development 86 (2010) 159–165
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2010.01.033

Peripheral hemodynamics refers to blood flow, which determines oxygen and nutrient delivery to the tissues. Peripheral blood flow is affected by vascular resistance and blood pressure, which in turn varies with cardiac function. Arterial oxygen content depends on the blood hemoglobin concentration (Hb) and arterial pO2; tissue oxygen delivery depends on the position of the oxygen-dissociation curve, which is determined by temperature and the amount of adult or fetal hemoglobin. Methods available to study tissue perfusion include near-infrared spectroscopy, Doppler flowmetry, orthogonal polarization spectral imaging and the peripheral perfusion index. Cardiac function, blood gases, Hb, and peripheral temperature all affect blood flow and oxygen extraction. Blood pressure appears to be less important. Other factors likely to play a role are the administration of vasoactive medications and ventilation strategies, which affect blood gases and cardiac output by changing the intrathoracic pressure.

graphic

NIRS with partial venous occlusion to measure venous oxygen saturation

NIRS with partial venous occlusion to measure venous oxygen saturation. Taken from Yoxall and Weindling

Schematic representation of the biphasic relationship between oxygen delivery and oxygen consumption in tissue

graphic

Schematic representation of the biphasic relationship between oxygen delivery and oxygen consumption in tissue. (a) oxygen delivery (DO2). (b) As DO2 decreases, VO2 is dependent on DO2. The slope of the line indicates the FOE, which in this case is about 0.50. (c) The slope of the line indicates the FOE in the normal situation where oxygenation is DO2 independent, usually < 0.35

The oxygen-dissociation curve

graphic

The oxygen-dissociation curve

Considerable information about the response of the peripheral circulation has been obtained using NIRS with venous occlusion. Although these measurements were validated against blood co-oximetry in human adults and infants, they can only be made intermittently by a trained operator and are thus not appropriate for general clinical use. Further research is needed to find other better measures of peripheral perfusion and oxygenation which may be easily and continuously monitored, and which could be useful in a clinical setting.

Peripheral oxygenation and management in the perinatal period

Michael Weindling
Seminars in Fetal & Neonatal Medicine 15 (2010) 208e215
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.siny.2010.03.005

The mechanisms for the adequate provision of oxygen to the peripheral tissues are complex. They involve control of the microcirculation and peripheral blood flow, the position of the oxygen dissociation curve including the proportion of fetal and adult hemoglobin, blood gases and viscosity. Systemic blood pressure appears to have little effect, at least in the non-shocked state. The adequate delivery of oxygen (DO2) depends on consumption (VO2), which is variable. The balance between VO2 and DO2 is given by fractional oxygen extraction (FOE ¼ VO2/DO2). FOE varies from organ to organ and with levels of activity. Measurements of FOE for the whole body produce a range of about 0.15-0.33, i.e. the body consumes 15-33% of oxygen transported.

Fig (not shown)

Biphasic relationship between oxygen delivery (DO2) and oxygen consumption (VO2) in tissue. Dotted lines show fractional oxygen extraction (FOE). ‘A’ indicates the normal situation when VO2 is independent ofDO2 and FOE is about 0.30. AsDO2 decreases in the direction of the arrow, VO2 remains independent of DO2 until the critical point is reached at ‘B’; in this illustration, FOE is about 0.50. The slope of the dotted line indicates the FOE (¼ VO2/DO2), which increases progressively as DO2 decreases.

$Relationship between haemoglobin F fraction (HbF) and peripheral fractional oxygen extraction$

Relationship between haemoglobin F fraction (HbF) and peripheral fractional oxygen extraction

Graphic
(A)Relationship between haemoglobin F fraction (HbF) and peripheral fractional oxygen extraction in anaemic and control infants. (From Wardle et al.) (B) HbF synthesis and concentration. (From Bard and Widness.) (C) Oxygen dissociation curve.

$Peripheral fractional oxygen extraction in babies$

Peripheral fractional oxygen extraction in babies

graphic

Peripheral fractional oxygen extraction in babies with asymptomatic or symptomatic anemia compared to controls. Bars represent the median for each group. (From Wardle et al.)

Practice points

Peripheral tissue DO2 is complex: cardiac function, blood gases, Hb concentration and the proportion of HbF, and peripheral temperature all play a part in determining blood flow and oxygen extraction in the sick, preterm infant. Blood pressure appears to be less important.
Other factors likely to play a role are the administration of vasoactive medications and ventilation strategies, which affect blood gases and cardiac output by changing intrathoracic pressure.
Central blood pressure is a poor surrogate measurement for the adequacy of DO2 to the periphery. Direct measurement, using NIRS, laser Doppler flowmetry or other means, may give more useful information.
Reasons for total hemoglobin concentration (Hb) being a relatively poor indicator of the adequacy of the provision of oxygen to the tissues:

Hb is only indirectly related to red blood cell volume, which may be a better indicator of the body’s oxygen delivering capacity.
Hb-dependent oxygen availability depends on the position of the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve.
An individual’s oxygen requirements vary with time and from organ to organ. This means that DO2 also needs to vary.
It is possible to compensate for a low Hb by increasing cardiac output and ventilation, and so the ability to compensate for anemia depends on an individual’s cardio-respiratory reserve as well as Hb.
The normal decrease of Hb during the first few weeks of life in both full-term and preterm babies usually occurs without symptoms or signs of anemia or clinical consequences.

The relationship between VO2 and DO2 is complex and various factors need to be taken into account, including the position of the oxygen dissociation curve, determined by the proportion of HbA and HbF, temperature and pH. Furthermore, diffusion of oxygen from capillaries to the cell depends on the oxygen tension gradient between erythrocytes and the mitochondria, which depends on microcirculatory conditions, e.g. capillary PO2, distance of the cell from the capillary (characterized by intercapillary distances) and the surface area of open capillaries. The latter can change rapidly, for example, in septic shock where arteriovenous shunting occurs associated with tissue hypoxia in spite of high DO2 and a low FOE.

Changes in local temperature deserve particular consideration. When the blood pressure is low, there may be peripheral vasoconstriction with decreased local perfusion and DO2. However, the fall in local tissue temperature would also be expected to be associated with a decreased metabolic rate and a consequent decrease in VO2. Thus a decreased DO2 may still be appropriate for tissue needs.

Pulmonary

Accurate Measurements of Oxygen Saturation in Neonates: Paired Arterial and Venous Blood Analyses

Shyang-Yun Pamela K. Shiao
Newborn and Infant Nurs Rev, 2005; 5(4): 170–178
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1053/j.nainr.2005.09.001

Oxygen saturation (So2) measurements (functional measurement, So2; and fractional measurement, oxyhemoglobin [Hbo2]) and monitoring are commonly investigated as a method of assessing oxygenation in neonates. Differences exist between the So2 and Hbo2 when blood tests are performed, and clinical monitors indicate So2 values. Oxyhemoglobin will decrease with the increased levels of carbon monoxide hemoglobin (Hbco) and methemo-globin (MetHb), and it is the most accurate measurements of oxygen (O2) association of hemoglobin (Hb). Pulse oximeter (for pulse oximetry saturation [Spo2] measurement) is commonly used in neonates. However, it will not detect the changes of Hb variations in the blood for accurate So2 measurements. Thus, the measurements from clinical oximeters should be used with caution. In neonates, fetal hemoglobin (HbF) accounts for most of the circulating Hb in their blood. Fetal hemoglobin has a high O2 affinity, thus releases less O2 to the body tissues, presenting a left-shifted Hbo2 dissociation curve.5,6 To date, however, limited data are available with HbF correction, for accurate arterial and venous (AV) So2 measurements (arterial oxygen saturation [Sao2] and venous oxygen saturation [Svo2]) in neonates, using paired AV blood samples.

In a study of critically ill adult patients, increased pulmonary CO production and elevation in arterial Hbco but not venous Hbco were documented by inflammatory stimuli inducing pulmonary heme oxygenase–1. In normal adults, venous Hbco level might be slightly higher than or equal to arterial Hbco because of production of CO by enzyme heme oxygenase–2, which is predominantly produced in the liver and spleen. However, hypoxia or pulmonary inflammation could induce heme oxygenase–1 to increase endogenous CO, thus elevating pulmonary arterial and systemic arterial Hbco levels in adults. Both endogenous and exogenous CO can suppress proliferation of pulmonary smooth muscles, a significant consideration for the prevention of chronic lung diseases in newborns. Despite these considerations, a later study in healthy adults indicated that the AV differences in Hbco were from technical artifacts and perhaps from inadequate control of different instruments. Thus, further studies are needed to provide more definitive answers for the AV differences of Hbco for adults and neonates with acute and chronic lung diseases.

Methemoglobin is an indicator of Hb oxidation and is essential for accurate measurement of Hbo2, So2, and oxygenation status. No evidence exists to show the AV MetHb difference, although this difference was elucidated with the potential changes of MetHb with different O2 levels. Methemoglobin can be increased with nitric oxide (NO) therapy, used in respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) to reduce pulmonary hypertension and during heart surgery. Nitric oxide, in vitro, is an oxidant of Hb, with increased O2 during ischemia reperfusion. In hypoxemic conditions in vivo, nitrohemoglobin is a product generated by vessel responsiveness to nitrovasodilators. Nitro-hemoglobin can be spontaneously reversible in vivo, requiring no chemical agents or reductase. However, when O2 levels were increased experimentally in vitro following acidic conditions (pH 6.5) to simulate reperfusion conditions, MetHb levels were increased for the hemolysates (broken red cells). Nitrite-induced oxidation of Hb was associated with an increase in red blood cell membrane rigidity, thus contributing to Hb breakdown. A newer in vitro study of whole blood cells, however, concluded that MetHb formation is not dependent on increased O2 levels. Additional studies are needed to examine in vivo reperfusion of O2 and MetHb effects.

Purpose: The aim of this study was to examine the accuracy of arterial oxygen saturation (Sao2) and venous oxygen saturation (Svo2) with paired arterial and venous (AV) blood in relation to pulse oximetry saturation (Spo2) and oxyhemoglobin (Hbo2) with fetal hemoglobin determination, and their Hbo2 dissociation curves. Method: Twelve preterm neonates with gestational ages ranging from 27 to 34 weeks at birth, who had umbilical AV lines inserted, were investigated. Analyses were performed with 37 pairs of AV blood samples by using a blood volume safety protocol. Results: The mean differences between Sao2 and Svo2, and AV Hbo2 were both 6 percent (F6.9 and F6.7 percent, respectively), with higher Svo2 than those reported for adults. Biases were 2.1 – 0.49 for Sao2, 2.0 – 0.44 for Svo2, and 3.1 – 0.45 for Spo2, compared against Hbo2. With left-shifted Hbo2 dissociation curves in neonates, for the critical values of oxygen tension values between 50 and 75 millimeters of mercury, Hbo2 ranged from 92 to 93.4 percent; Sao2 ranged from 94.5 to 95.7 percent; and Spo2 ranged from 93.7 to 96.3 percent (compared to 85–94 percent in healthy adults). Conclusions: In neonates, both left-shifted Hbo2 dissociation curve and lower AV differences of oxygen saturation measurements indicated low flow of oxygen to the body tissues. These findings demonstrate the importance of accurate assessment of oxygenation statues in neonates.

In these neonates, the mean AV blood differences for both So2 and Hbo2 were about 6 percent, which was much lower than those reported for healthy adults (23 percent) for O2 supply and demand. In addition, with very high levels of HbF releasing less O2 to the body tissue, the results of blood analyses are worrisome for these critically ill neonates for low systemic oxygen states. O’Connor and Hall determined AV So2 in neonates without HbF determination. Much of the AV So2 difference is dependent on Svo2 measurement. The ranges of Svo2 spanned for 35 percent, and the ranges of Sao2 spanned 6 percent in these neonates. The greater intervals for Svo2 measurements contribute to greater sensitivity for the measurements (than Sao2 measurements) in responding to nursing care and changes of O2 demand. Thus, Svo2 measurement is essential for better assessment of oxygenation status in neonates.

The findings of this study on AV differences of So2 were limited with very small number of paired AV blood samples. However, critically ill neonates need accurate assessment of oxygenation status because of HbF, which releases less O2 to the tissues. Decreased differences of AV So2 measurements added further possibilities of lower flow of O2 to the body tissues and demonstrated the greater need to accurately assess the proper oxygenation in the neonates. The findings of this study continued to clarify the accuracy of So2 measurements for neonates. Additional studies are needed to examine So2 levels in neonates to further validate these findings by using larger sample sizes.

Neonatal ventilation strategies and long-term respiratory outcomes

Sandeep Shetty, Anne Greenough
Early Human Development 90 (2014) 735–739
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2014.08.020

Long-term respiratory morbidity is common, particularly in those born very prematurely and who have developed bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), but it does occur in those without BPD and in infants born at term. A variety of neonatal strategies have been developed, all with short-term advantages, but meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have demonstrated that only volume-targeted ventilation and prophylactic high-frequency oscillatory ventilation (HFOV) may reduce BPD. Few RCTs have incorporated long-term follow-up, but one has demonstrated that prophylactic HFOV improves respiratory and functional outcomes at school age, despite not reducing BPD. Results from other neonatal interventions have demonstrated that any impact on BPD may not translate into changes in long-term outcomes. All future neonatal ventilation RCTs should have long-term outcomes rather than BPD as their primary outcome if they are to impact on clinical practice.

A Model Analysis of Arterial Oxygen Desaturation during Apnea in Preterm Infants

Scott A. Sands, BA Edwards, VJ Kelly, MR Davidson, MH Wilkinson, PJ Berger
PLoS Comput Biol 5(12): e1000588
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000588

Rapid arterial O2 desaturation during apnea in the preterm infant has obvious clinical implications but to date no adequate explanation for why it exists. Understanding the factors influencing the rate of arterial O2 desaturation during apnea (_SSaO2 ) is complicated by the non-linear O2 dissociation curve, falling pulmonary O2 uptake, and by the fact that O2 desaturation is biphasic, exhibiting a rapid phase (stage 1) followed by a slower phase when severe desaturation develops (stage 2). Using a mathematical model incorporating pulmonary uptake dynamics, we found that elevated metabolic O2 consumption accelerates _SSaO2 throughout the entire desaturation process. By contrast, the remaining factors have a restricted temporal influence: low pre-apneic alveolar PO2 causes an early onset of desaturation, but thereafter has little impact; reduced lung volume, hemoglobin content or cardiac output, accelerates _SSaO2 during stage 1, and finally, total blood O2 capacity (blood volume and hemoglobin content) alone determines _SSaO2 during stage 2. Preterm infants with elevated metabolic rate, respiratory depression, low lung volume, impaired cardiac reserve, anemia, or hypovolemia, are at risk for rapid and profound apneic hypoxemia. Our insights provide a basic physiological framework that may guide clinical interpretation and design of interventions for preventing sudden apneic hypoxemia.

A novel approach to study oxidative stress in neonatal respiratory distress syndrome

Reena Negi, D Pande, K Karki, A Kumar, RS Khanna, HD Khanna
BBA Clinical 3 (2015) 65–69
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbacli.2014.12.001

Oxidative stress is an imbalance between the systemic manifestation of reactive oxygen species and a biological system’s ability to readily detoxify the reactive intermediates or to repair the resulting damage. It is a physiological event in the fetal-to-neonatal transition, which is actually a great stress to the fetus. These physiological changes and processes greatly increase the production of free radicals, which must be controlled by the antioxidant defense system, the maturation of which follows the course of the gestation. This could lead to several functional alterations with important repercussions for the infants. Adequately mature and healthy infants are able to tolerate this drastic change in the oxygen concentration. A problem occurs when the intrauterine development is incomplete or abnormal. Preterm or intrauterine growth retarded (IUGR) and low birth weight neonates are typically of this kind. An oxidant/antioxidant imbalance in infants is implicated in the pathogenesis of the major complications of prematurity including respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), chronic lung disease, retinopathy of prematurity and intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH).

Background: Respiratory distress syndrome of the neonate (neonatal RDS) is still an important problem in treatment of preterm infants. It is accompanied by inflammatory processes with free radical generation and oxidative stress. The aim of study was to determine the role of oxidative stress in the development of neonatal RDS. Methods: Markers of oxidative stress and antioxidant activity in umbilical cord blood were studied in infants with neonatal respiratory distress syndrome with reference to healthy newborns. Results: Status of markers of oxidative stress (malondialdehyde, protein carbonyl and 8-hydroxy-2-deoxy guanosine) showed a significant increase with depleted levels of total antioxidant capacity in neonatal RDS when compared to healthy newborns. Conclusion: The study provides convincing evidence of oxidative damage and diminished antioxidant defenses in newborns with RDS. Neonatal RDS is characterized by damage of lipid, protein and DNA, which indicates the augmentation of oxidative stress. General significance: The identification of the potential biomarker of oxidative stress consists of a promising strategy to study the pathophysiology of neonatal RDS.

Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome represents the major lung complications of newborn babies. Preterm neonates suffer from respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) due to immature lungs and require assisted ventilation with high concentrations of oxygen. The pathogenesis of this disorder is based on the rapid formation of the oxygen reactive species, which surpasses the detoxification capacity of antioxidative defense system. The high chemical reactivity of free radical leads to damage to a variety of cellular macro molecules including proteins, lipids and nucleic acid. This results in cell injury and may induce respiratory cell death.

Malondialdehyde (MDA) is one of the final products of polyunsaturated fatty acids peroxidation. The present study showed increased concentration of MDA in neonates with respiratory disorders than that of control in consonance with the reported study.

Anemia, Apnea of Prematurity, and Blood Transfusions

Kelley Zagol, Douglas E. Lake, Brooke Vergales, Marion E. Moorman, et al
J Pediatr 2012;161:417-21
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.jpeds.2012.02.044

The etiology of apnea of prematurity is multifactorial; however, decreased oxygen carrying capacity may play a role. The respiratory neuronal network in neonates is immature, particularly in those born preterm, as demonstrated by their paradoxical response to hypoxemia. Although adults increase the minute ventilation in response to hypoxemia, newborns have a brief increase in ventilation followed by periodic breathing, respiratory depression, and occasionally cessation of respiratory effort. This phenomenon may be exacerbated by anemia in preterm newborns, where a decreased oxygen carrying capacity may result in decreased oxygen delivery to the central nervous system, a decreased efferent output of the respiratory neuronal network, and an increase in apnea.

Objective Compare the frequency and severity of apneic events in very low birth weight (VLBW) infants before and after blood transfusions using continuous electronic waveform analysis. Study design We continuously collected waveform, heart rate, and oxygen saturation data from patients in all 45 neonatal intensive care unit beds at the University of Virginia for 120 weeks. Central apneas were detected using continuous computer processing of chest impedance, electrocardiographic, and oximetry signals. Apnea was defined as respiratory pauses of >10, >20, and >30 seconds when accompanied by bradycardia (<100 beats per minute) and hypoxemia (<80% oxyhemoglobin saturation as detected by pulse oximetry). Times of packed red blood cell transfusions were determined from bedside charts. Two cohorts were analyzed. In the transfusion cohort, waveforms were analyzed for 3 days before and after the transfusion for all VLBW infants who received a blood transfusion while also breathing spontaneously. Mean apnea rates for the previous 12 hours were quantified and differences for 12 hours before and after transfusion were compared. In the hematocrit cohort, 1453 hematocrit values from all VLBW infants admitted and breathing spontaneously during the time period were retrieved, and the association of hematocrit and apnea in the next 12 hours was tested using logistic regression. Results Sixty-seven infants had 110 blood transfusions during times when complete monitoring data were available. Transfusion was associated with fewer computer-detected apneic events (P < .01). Probability of future apnea occurring within 12 hours increased with decreasing hematocrit values (P < .001). Conclusions Blood transfusions are associated with decreased apnea in VLBW infants, and apneas are less frequent at higher hematocrits.

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia: The earliest and perhaps the longest lasting obstructive lung disease in humans

Silvia Carraro, M Filippone, L Da Dalt, V Ferraro, M Maretti, S Bressan, et al.
Early Human Development 89 (2013) S3–S5
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2013.07.015

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is one of the most important sequelae of premature birth and the most common form of chronic lung disease of infancy, an umbrella term for a number of different diseases that evolve as a consequence of a neonatal respiratory disorder. BPD is defined as the need for supplemental oxygen for at least 28 days after birth, and its severity is graded according to the respiratory support required at 36 post-menstrual weeks.

BPD was initially described as a chronic respiratory disease occurring in premature infants exposed to mechanical ventilation and oxygen supplementation. This respiratory disease (later named “old BPD”) occurred in relatively large premature newborn and, from a pathological standpoint, it was characterized by intense airway inflammation, disruption of normal pulmonary structures and lung fibrosis.

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is one of the most important sequelae of premature birth and the most common form of chronic lung disease of infancy. From a clinical standpoint BPD subjects are characterized by recurrent respiratory symptoms, which are very frequent during the first years of life and, although becoming less severe as children grow up, they remain more common than in term-born controls throughout childhood, adolescence and into adulthood. From a functional point of view BPD subjects show a significant airflow limitation that persists during adolescence and adulthood and they may experience an earlier and steeper decline in lung function during adulthood. Interestingly, patients born prematurely but not developing BPD usually fare better, but they too have airflow limitations during childhood and later on, suggesting that also prematurity per se has life-long detrimental effects on pulmonary function. For the time being, little is known about the presence and nature of pathological mechanisms underlying the clinical and functional picture presented by BPD survivors. Nonetheless, recent data suggest the presence of persistent neutrophilic airway inflammation and oxidative stress and it has been suggested that BPD may be sustained in the long term by inflammatory pathogenic mechanisms similar to those underlying COPD. This hypothesis is intriguing but more pathological data are needed. A better understanding of these pathogenetic mechanisms, in fact, may be able to orient the development of novel targeted therapies or prevention strategies to improve the overall respiratory health of BPD patients.

We have a limited understanding of the presence and nature of pathological mechanisms in the lung of BPD survivors. The possible role of asthma-like inflammation has been investigated because BPD subjects often present with recurrent wheezing and other symptoms resembling asthma during their childhood and adolescence. But BPD subjects have normal or lower than normal exhaled nitric oxide levels and exhaled air temperatures, whereas they are higher than normal in asthmatic patients.

Of all obstructive lung diseases in humans, BPD has the earliest onset and is possibly the longest lasting. Given its frequent association with other conditions related to preterm birth (e.g. growth retardation, pulmonary hypertension, neurodevelopmental delay, hearing defects, and retinopathy of prematurity), it often warrants a multidisciplinary management.

Effects of Sustained Lung Inflation, a lung recruitment maneuver in primary acute respiratory distress syndrome, in respiratory and cerebral outcomes in preterm infants

Chiara Grasso, Pietro Sciacca, Valentina Giacchi, Caterina Carpinato, et al.
Early Human Development 91 (2015) 71–75
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2014.12.002

Background: Sustained Lung Inflation (SLI) is a maneuver of lung recruitment in preterm newborns at birth that can facilitate the achieving of larger inflation volumes, leading to the clearance of lung fluid and formation of functional residual capacity (FRC). Aim: To investigate if Sustained Lung Inflation (SLI) reduces the need of invasive procedures and iatrogenic risks. Study design: 78 newborns (gestational age ≤ 34 weeks, weighing ≤ 2000 g) who didn’t breathe adequately at birth and needed to receive SLI in addition to other resuscitation maneuvers (2010 guidelines). Subjects: 78 preterm infants born one after the other in our department of Neonatology of Catania University from 2010 to 2012. Outcome measures: The need of intubation and surfactant, the ventilation required, radiological signs, the incidence of intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH), periventricular leukomalacia, retinopathy in prematurity from III to IV plus grades, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, patent ductus arteriosus, pneumothorax and necrotizing enterocolitis. Results: In the SLI group infants needed less intubation in the delivery room (6% vs 21%; p b 0.01), less invasive mechanical ventilation (14% vs 55%; p ≤ 0.001) and shorter duration of ventilation (9.1 days vs 13.8 days; p ≤ 0.001). There wasn’t any difference for nasal continuous positive airway pressure (82% vs 77%; p = 0.43); but there was less surfactant administration (54% vs 85%; p ≤ 0.001) and more infants received INSURE (40% vs 29%; p=0.17). We didn’t found any differences in the outcomes, except for more mild intraventricular hemorrhage in the SLI group (23% vs 14%; p = 0.15; OR= 1.83). Conclusion: SLI is easier to perform even with a single operator, it reduces the necessity of more complicated maneuvers and surfactant without statistically evident adverse effects.

Long-term respiratory consequences of premature birth at less than 32 weeks of gestation

Anne Greenough
Early Human Development 89 (2013) S25–S27
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2013.07.004

Chronic respiratory morbidity is a common adverse outcome of very premature birth, particularly in infants who had developed bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). Prematurely born infants who had BPD may require supplementary oxygen at home for many months and affected infants have increased healthcare utilization until school age. Chest radiograph abnormalities are common; computed tomography of the chest gives predictive information in children with ongoing respiratory problems. Readmission to hospital is common, particularly for those who have BPD and suffer respiratory syncytial virus lower respiratory infections (RSV LRTIs). Recurrent respiratory symptoms requiring treatment are common and are associated with evidence of airways obstruction and gas trapping. Pulmonary function improves with increasing age, but children with BPD may have ongoing airflow limitation. Lung function abnormalities may be more severe in those who had RSV LRTIs, although this may partly be explained by worse premorbid lung function. Worryingly, lung function may deteriorate during the first year. Longitudinal studies are required to determine if there is catch up growth.

Long-term pulmonary outcomes of patients with bronchopulmonary dysplasia

Anita Bhandari and Sharon McGrath-Morrow
Seminars in Perinatology 37 (2013)132–137
http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.semperi.2013.01.010

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is the commonest cause of chronic lung disease in infancy. The incidence of BPD has remained unchanged despite many advances in neonatal care. BPD starts in the neonatal period but its effects can persist long term. Premature infants with BPD have a greater incidence of hospitalization, and continue to have a greater respiratory morbidity and need for respiratory medications, compared to those without BPD. Lung function abnormalities, especially small airway abnormalities, often persist. Even in the absence of clinical symptoms, BPD survivors have persistent radiological abnormalities and presence of emphysema has been reported on chest computed tomography scans. Concern regarding their exercise tolerance remains. Long-term effects of BPD are still unknown, but given reports of a more rapid decline in lung function and their susceptibility to develop chronic obstructive pulmonary disease phenotype with aging, it is imperative that lung function of survivors of BPD be closely monitored.

Neonatal ventilation strategies and long-term respiratory outcomes

Sandeep Shetty, Anne Greenough
Early Human Development 90 (2014) 735–739
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2014.08.020

Long-term respiratory morbidity is common, particularly in those born very prematurely and who have developed bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), but it does occur in those without BPD and in infants born at term. A variety of neonatal strategies have been developed, all with short-term advantages, but meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have demonstrated that only volume-targeted ventilation and prophylactic high-frequency oscillatory ventilation (HFOV) may reduce BPD. Few RCTs have incorporated long-term follow-up, but one has demonstrated that prophylactic HFOV improves respiratory and functional outcomes at school age, despite not reducing BPD. Results from other neonatal interventions have demonstrated that any impact on BPD may not translate into changes in long-term outcomes. All future neonatal ventilation RCTs should have long-term outcomes rather than BPD as their primary outcome if they are to impact on clinical practice.

Prediction of neonatal respiratory distress syndrome in term pregnancies by assessment of fetal lung volume and pulmonary artery resistance index

Mohamed Laban, GM Mansour, MSE Elsafty, AS Hassanin, SS EzzElarab
International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 128 (2015) 246–250
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgo.2014.09.018

Objective: To develop reference cutoff values for mean fetal lung volume (FLV) and pulmonary artery resistance index (PA-RI) for prediction of neonatal respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) in low-risk term pregnancies. Methods: As part of a cross-sectional study, women aged 20–35 years were enrolled and admitted to a tertiary hospital in Cairo, Egypt, for elective repeat cesarean at 37–40 weeks of pregnancy between January 1, 2012, and July 31, 2013. FLV was calculated by virtual organ computer-aided analysis, and PA-RI was measured by Doppler ultrasonography before delivery. Results: A total of 80 women were enrolled. Neonatal RDS developed in 11 (13.8%) of the 80 newborns. Compared with neonates with RDS, healthy neonates had significantly higher FLVs (P b 0.001) and lower PA-RIs (P b 0.001). Neonatal RDS is less likely with FLV of at least 32 cm³ or PA-RI less than or equal to 0.74. Combining these two measures improved the accuracy of prediction. Conclusion: The use of either FLV or PA-RI predicted neonatal RDS. The predictive value increased when these two measures were combined

Pulmonary surfactant – a front line of lung host defense, 2003 JCI0318650.f2

Pulmonary hypertension in bronchopulmonary dysplasia

Sara K.Berkelhamer, Karen K.Mestan, and Robin H. Steinhorn
Seminars In Perinatology 37 (2013)124–131
http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.semperi.2013.01.009

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a common complication of neonatal respiratory diseases, including bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), and recent studies have increased aware- ness that PH worsens the clinical course, morbidity and mortality of BPD. Recent evidence indicates that up to 18% of all extremely low-birth-weight infants will develop some degree of PH during their hospitalization, and the incidence rises to 25–40% of the infants with established BPD. Risk factors are not yet well understood, but new evidence shows that fetal growth restriction is a significant predictor of PH. Echocardiography remains the primary method for evaluation of BPD-associated PH, and the development of standardized screening timelines and techniques for identification of infants with BPD-associated PH remains an important ongoing topic of investigation. The use of pulmonary vasodilator medications, such as nitric oxide, sildenafil, and others, in the BPD population is steadily growing, but additional studies are needed regarding their long-term safety and efficacy.
An update on pharmacologic approaches to bronchopulmonary dysplasia

Sailaja Ghanta, Kristen Tropea Leeman, and Helen Christou
Seminars In Perinatology 37 (2013)115–123
http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.semperi.2013.01.008

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is the most prevalent long-term morbidity in surviving extremely preterm infants and is linked to increased risk of reactive airways disease, pulmonary hypertension, post-neonatal mortality, and adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes. BPD affects approximately 20% of premature newborns, and up to 60% of premature infants born before completing 26 weeks of gestation. It is characterized by the need for assisted ventilation and/or supplemental oxygen at 36 weeks postmenstrual age. Approaches to prevention and treatment of BPD have evolved with improved understanding of its pathogenesis. This review will focus on recent advancements and detail current research in pharmacotherapy for BPD. The evidence for both current and potential future experimental therapies will be reviewed in detail. As our understanding of the complex and multifactorial pathophysiology of BPD changes, research into these current and future approaches must continue to evolve.

Methylxanthines

Diuretics and bronchodilators

Corticosteroids

Macrolide antibiotics

Recombinant human Clara cell 10-kilodalton protein(rhCC10)

Vitamin A

Surfactant

Leukotriene receptor antagonist

Pulmonary vasodilators

Skeletal and Muscle

Skeletal Stem Cells in Space and Time

Moustapha Kassem and Paolo Bianco
Cell Jan 15, 2015; 160: 17-19
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.12.034

The nature, biological characteristics, and contribution to organ physiology of skeletal stem cells are not completely determined. Chan et al. and Worthley et al. demonstrate that a stem cell for skeletal tissues, and a system of more restricted, downstream progenitors, can be identified in mice and demonstrate its role in skeletal tissue maintenance and regeneration.

The groundbreaking concept that bone, cartilage, marrow adipocytes, and hematopoiesis-supporting stroma could originate from a common progenitor and putative stem cell was surprising at the time when it was formulated (Owen and Friedenstein, 1988). The putative stem cell, nonhematopoietic in nature, would be found in the postnatal bone marrow stroma, generate tissues previously thought of as foreign to each other, and support the turnover of tissues and organs that self-renew at a much slower rate compared to other tissues associated with stem cells (blood, epithelia). This concept also connected bone and bone marrow as parts of a single-organ system, implying their functional interplay. For many years, the evidence underpinning the concept has been incomplete.

While multipotency of stromal progenitors has been demonstrated by in vivo transplantation experiments, self-renewal, the defining property of a stem cell, has not been easily demonstrated until recently in humans (Sacchetti et al., 2007) and mice (Mendez-Ferrer et al., 2010). Meanwhile, a confusing and plethoric terminology has been introduced into the literature, which diverted and confounded the search for a skeletal stem cell and its physiological significance (Bianco et al., 2013).

Two studies in this issue of Cell (Chan et al., 2015; Worthley et al., 2015), using a combination of rigorous single-cell analyses and lineage tracing technologies, mark significant steps toward rectifying the course of skeletal stem cell discovery by making several important points, within and beyond skeletal physiology.

First, a stem cell for skeletal tissues, and a system of more restricted, downstream progenitors can in fact be identified and linked to defined phenotype(s) in the mouse. The system is framed conceptually, and approached experimentally, similar to the hematopoietic system.

Second, based on its assayable functions and potential, the stem cell at the top of the hierarchy is defined as a skeletal stem cell (SSC). As noted earlier (Sacchetti et al., 2007) (Bianco et al., 2013), this term clarifies, well beyond semantics, that the range of tissues that the self-renewing stromal progenitor (originally referred to as an ‘‘osteogenic’’ or ‘‘stromal’’ stem cell) (Owen and Friedenstein, 1988) can actually generate in vivo, overlaps with the range of tissues that make up the skeleton.

Third, these cells are spatially restricted, local residents of the bone/bone marrow organ. The systemic circulation is not a sizable contributor to their recruitment to locally deployed functions.

Fourth, a native skeletogenic potential is inherent to the system of progenitor/ stem cells found in the skeleton, and internally regulated by bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling. This is reflected in the expression of regulators and antagonists of BMP signaling within the system, highlighting potential feedback mechanisms modulating expansion or quiescence of specific cell compartments.

Fifth, in cells isolated from other tissues, an assayable skeletogenic potential is not inherent: it can only be induced de novo by BMP reprogramming. These two studies (Chan et al., 2015, Worthley et al., 2015) corroborate the classical concept of ‘‘determined’’ and ‘‘inducible’’ skeletal progenitors (Owen and Friedenstein, 1988): the former residing in the skeleton, the latter found in nonskeletal tissues; the former capable of generating skeletal tissues, in vivo and spontaneously, the latter requiring reprogramming signals in order to acquire a skeletogenic capacity; the former operating in physiological bone formation, the latter in unwanted, ectopic bone formation in diseases such as fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva.

To optimize our ability to obtain specific skeletal tissues for medical application, the study by Chan et al. offers a glimpse of another facet of the biology of SSC lineages and progenitors. Chan et al. show that a homogeneous cell population inherently committed to chondrogenesis can alter its output to generate bone if cotransplanted with multipotent progenitors. Conversely, osteogenic cells can be shifted to a chondrogenic fate by blockade of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor, consistent with the avascular and hypoxic milieu of cartilage. This has two important implications:

commitment is flexible in the system;
the choir is as important as the soloist and can modulate the solo tune.

Reversibility and population behavior thus emerge as two features that may be characteristic, albeit not unique, of the stromal system, resonating with conceptually comparable evidence in the human system.

The two studies by Chan et al. and Worthely et al. emphasize the relevance not only of their new data, but also of a proper concept of a skeletal stem cell per se, for proper clinical use. Confusion arising from improper conceptualization of skeletal stem cells has markedly limited clinical development of skeletal stem cell biology.

Gremlin 1 Identifies a Skeletal Stem Cell with Bone, Cartilage, and Reticular Stromal Potential

Daniel L. Worthley, Michael Churchill, Jocelyn T. Compton, Yagnesh Tailor, et al.
Cell, Jan 15, 2015; 160: 269–284
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.11.042

The stem cells that maintain and repair the postnatal skeleton remain undefined. One model suggests that perisinusoidal mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) give rise to osteoblasts, chondrocytes, marrow stromal cells, and adipocytes, although the existence of these cells has not been proven through fate-mapping experiments. We demonstrate here that expression of the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) antagonist gremlin 1 defines a population of osteochondroreticular (OCR) stem cells in the bone marrow. OCR stem cells self-renew and generate osteoblasts, chondrocytes, and reticular marrow stromal cells, but not adipocytes. OCR stem cells are concentrated within the metaphysis of long bones not in the perisinusoidal space and are needed for bone development, bone remodeling, and fracture repair. Grem1 expression also identifies intestinal reticular stem cells (iRSCs) that are cells of origin for the periepithelial intestinal mesenchymal sheath. Grem1 expression identifies distinct connective tissue stem cells in both the bone (OCR stem cells) and the intestine (iRSCs).

Identification and Specification of the Mouse Skeletal Stem Cell

Charles K.F. Chan, Eun Young Seo, James Y. Chen, David Lo, A McArdle, et al.
Cell, Jan 15, 2015; 160: 285–298
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.12.002

How are skeletal tissues derived from skeletal stem cells? Here, we map bone, cartilage, and stromal development from a population of highly pure, postnatal skeletal stem cells (mouse skeletal stem cells, mSSCs) to their downstream progenitors of bone, cartilage, and stromal tissue. We then investigated the transcriptome of the stem/progenitor cells for unique gene-expression patterns that would indicate potential regulators of mSSC lineage commitment. We demonstrate that mSSC niche factors can be potent inducers of osteogenesis, and several specific combinations of recombinant mSSC niche factors can activate mSSC genetic programs in situ, even in nonskeletal tissues, resulting in de novo formation of cartilage or bone and bone marrow stroma. Inducing mSSC formation with soluble factors and subsequently regulating the mSSC niche to specify its differentiation toward bone, cartilage, or stromal cells could represent a paradigm shift in the therapeutic regeneration of skeletal tissues.

Bone mesenchymal development

The bone-remodeling cycle

Nuclear receptor modulation – Role of coregulators in selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) actions

Qin Feng, Bert W. O’Malley
Steroids 90 (2014) 39–43
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.steroids.2014.06.008

Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) are a class of small-molecule chemical compounds that bind to estrogen receptor (ER) ligand binding domain (LBD) with high affinity and selectively modulate ER transcriptional activity in a cell- and tissue-dependent manner. The prototype of SERMs is tamoxifen, which has agonist activity in bone, but has antagonist activity in breast. Tamoxifen can reduce the risk of breast cancer and, at same time, prevent osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. Tamoxifen is widely prescribed for treatment and prevention of breast cancer. Mechanistically the activity of SERMs is determined by the selective recruitment of coactivators and corepressors in different cell types and tissues. Therefore, understanding the coregulator function is the key to understanding the tissue selective activity of SERMs.

Hematopoietic

Hematopoietic Stem Cell Arrival Triggers Dynamic Remodeling of the Perivascular Niche

Owen J. Tamplin, Ellen M. Durand, Logan A. Carr, Sarah J. Childs, et al.
Cell, Jan 15, 2015; 160: 241–252
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.12.032

Hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) can reconstitute and sustain the entire blood system. We generated a highly specific transgenic reporter of HSPCs in zebrafish. This allowed us to perform high resolution live imaging on endogenous HSPCs not currently possible in mammalian bone marrow. Using this system, we have uncovered distinct interactions between single HSPCs and their niche. When an HSPC arrives in the perivascular niche, a group of endothelial cells remodel to form a surrounding pocket. This structure appears conserved in mouse fetal liver. Correlative light and electron microscopy revealed that endothelial cells surround a single HSPC attached to a single mesenchymal stromal cell. Live imaging showed that mesenchymal stromal cells anchor HSPCs and orient their divisions. A chemical genetic screen found that the compound lycorine promotes HSPC-niche interactions during development and ultimately expands the stem cell pool into adulthood. Our studies provide evidence for dynamic niche interactions upon stem cell colonization.

Neonatal anemia

Sanjay Aher, Kedar Malwatkar, Sandeep Kadam
Seminars in Fetal & Neonatal Medicine (2008) 13, 239e247
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.siny.2008.02.009

Neonatal anemia and the need for red blood cell (RBC) transfusions are very common in neonatal intensive care units. Neonatal anemia can be due to blood loss, decreased RBC production, or increased destruction of erythrocytes. Physiologic anemia of the newborn and anemia of prematurity are the two most common causes of anemia in neonates. Phlebotomy losses result in much of the anemia seen in extremely low birthweight infants (ELBW). Accepting a lower threshold level for transfusion in ELBW infants can prevent these infants being exposed to multiple donors.

Management of anemia in the newborn

Naomi L.C. Luban
Early Human Development (2008) 84, 493–498
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2008.06.007

Red blood cell (RBC) transfusions are administered to neonates and premature infants using poorly defined indications that may result in unintentional adverse consequences. Blood products are often manipulated to limit potential adverse events, and meet the unique needs of neonates with specific diagnoses. Selection of RBCs for small volume (5–20 mL/kg) transfusions and for massive transfusion, defined as extracorporeal bypass and exchange transfusions, are of particular concern to neonatologists. Mechanisms and therapeutic treatments to avoid transfusion are another area of significant investigation. RBCs collected in anticoagulant additive solutions and administered in small aliquots to neonates over the shelf life of the product can decrease donor exposure and has supplanted the use of fresh RBCs where each transfusion resulted in a donor exposure. The safety of this practice has been documented and procedures established to aid transfusion services in ensuring that these products are available. Less well established are the indications for transfusion in this population; hemoglobin or hematocrit alone are insufficient indications unless clinical criteria (e.g. oxygen desaturation, apnea and bradycardia, poor weight gain) also augment the justification to transfuse. Comorbidities increase oxygen consumption demands in these infants and include bronchopulmonary dysplasia, rapid growth and cardiac dysfunction. Noninvasive methods or assays have been developed to measure tissue oxygenation; however, a true measure of peripheral oxygen offloading is needed to improve transfusion practice and determine the value of recombinant products that stimulate erythropoiesis. The development of such noninvasive methods is especially important since randomized, controlled clinical trials to support specific practices are often lacking, due at least in part, to the difficulty of performing such studies in tiny infants.
The Effect of Blood Transfusion on the Hemoglobin Oxygen Dissociation Curve of Very Early Preterm Infants During the First Week of Life

Virginie De HaUeux, Anita Truttmann, Carmen Gagnon, and Harry Bard
Seminars in Perinatology, 2002; 26(6): 411-415
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1053/sper.2002.37313

This study was conducted during the first week of life to determine the changes in Ps0 (PO2 required to achieve a saturation of 50% at pH 7.4 and 37~ and the proportions of fetal hemoglobin (I-IbF) and adult hemoglobin (HbA) prior to and after transfusion in very early preterm infants. Eleven infants with a gestational age <–27 weeks have been included in study. The hemoglobin dissociation curve and the Ps0 was determined by Hemox-analyser. Liquid chromatography was also performed to determine the proportions of HbF and HbA. The mean gestational age of the 11 infants was 25.1 weeks (-+1 weeks) and their mean birth weight was 736 g (-+125 g). They received 26.9 mL/kg of packed red cells. The mean Ps0 prior and after transfusion was 18.5 +- 0.8 and 21.0 + 1 mm Hg (P = .0003) while the mean percentage of HbF was 92.9 -+ 1.1 and 42.6 -+ 5.7%, respectively. The data of this study show a decrease of hemoglobin oxygen affinity as a result of blood transfusion in very early preterm infants prone to O 2 toxicity. The shift in HbO 2 curve after transfusion should be taken into consideration when oxygen therapy is being regulated for these infants.

Effect of neonatal hemoglobin concentration on long-term outcome of infants affected by fetomaternal hemorrhage

Mizuho Kadooka, H Katob, A Kato, S Ibara, H Minakami, Yuko Maruyama
Early Human Development 90 (2014) 431–434
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2014.05.010

Background: Fetomaternal hemorrhage (FMH) can cause severe morbidity. However, perinatal risk factors for long-term poor outcome due to FMH have not been extensively studied. Aims: To determine which FMH infants are likely to have neurological sequelae.
Study design: A single-center retrospective observational study. Perinatal factors, including demographic characteristics, Kleihauer–Betke test, blood gas analysis, and neonatal blood hemoglobin concentration ([Hb]), were analyzed in association with long-term outcomes.
Subjects: All 18 neonates referred to a Neonatal Intensive Care Unit of Kagoshima City Hospital and diagnosed with FMH during a 15-year study period. All had a neonatal [Hb] b7.5 g/dL and 15 of 17 neonates tested had Kleihauer–Betke test result N4.0%.
Outcome measures: Poor long-term outcome was defined as any of the following determined at 12 month old or more: cerebral palsy, mental retardation, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and epilepsy.
Results: Nine of the 18 neonates exhibited poor outcomes. Among demographic characteristics and blood variables compared between two groups with poor and favorable outcomes, significant differences were observed in [Hb] (3.6 ± 1.4 vs. 5.4 ± 1.1 g/dL, P = 0.01), pH (7.09 ± 0.11 vs. 7.25 ± 0.13, P = 0.02) and base deficits (17.5 ± 5.4 vs. 10.4 ± 6.0 mmol/L, P = 0.02) in neonatal blood, and a number of infants with [Hb] ≤ 4.5 g/dL (78%[7/9] vs. 22%[2/9], P= 0.03), respectively. The base deficit in neonatal arterial blood increased significantly with decreasing neonatal [Hb].
Conclusions: Severe anemia causing severe base deficit is associated with neurological sequelae in FMH infants

Clinical and hematological presentation among Indian patients with common hemoglobin variants

Khushnooma Italia, Dipti Upadhye, Pooja Dabke, Harshada Kangane, et al.
Clinica Chimica Acta 431 (2014) 46–51
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2014.01.028

Background: Co-inheritance of structural hemoglobin variants like HbS, HbD Punjab and HbE can lead to a variable clinical presentation and only few cases have been described so far in the Indian population.
Methods: We present the varied clinical and hematological presentation of 22 cases (HbSD Punjab disease-15, HbSE disease-4, HbD Punjab E disease-3) referred to us for diagnosis.
Results: Two of the 15 HbSDPunjab disease patients had moderate crisis, one presented with mild hemolytic anemia; however, the other 12 patients had a severe clinical presentation with frequent blood transfusion requirements, vaso occlusive crisis, avascular necrosis of the femur and febrile illness. The 4 HbSE disease patients had a mild to moderate presentation. Two of the 3 HbD Punjab E patients were asymptomatic with one patient’s sibling having a mild presentation. The hemoglobin levels of the HbSD Punjab disease patients ranged from 2.3 to 8.5 g/dl and MCV from 76.3 to 111.6 fl. The hemoglobin levels of the HbD Punjab E and HbSE patients ranged from 10.8 to 11.9 and 9.8 to 10.0 g/dl whereas MCV ranged from 67.1 to 78.2 and 74.5 to 76.0 fl respectively.
Conclusions: HbSD Punjab disease patients should be identified during newborn screening programs and managed in a way similar to sickle cell disease. Couple at risk of having HbSD Punjab disease children may be given the option of prenatal diagnosis in subsequent pregnancies.

Sickle cell anemia is the most common hemoglobinopathy seen across the world. It is caused by a point mutation in the 6th codon of the beta (β) globin gene leading to the substitution of the amino acid glutamic acid to valine. The sickle gene is frequently seen in Africa, some Mediterranean countries, India, Middle East—Saudi Arabia and North America. In India the prevalence of hemoglobin S (HbS) carriers varies from 2 to 40% among different population groups and HbS is mainly seen among the scheduled tribe, scheduled caste and other backward class populations in the western, central and parts of eastern and southern India. Sickle cell anemia has a variable clinical presentation in India with the most severe clinical presentation seen in central India whereas patients in the western region show a mild to moderate clinical presentation.

Hemoglobin D Punjab (HbD Punjab) (also known as HbD Los-Angeles, HbD Portugal, HbD North Carolina, D Oak Ridge and D Chicago) is another hemoglobin variant due to a point mutation in codon 121 of the β globin gene resulting in the substitution of the amino acid glutamic acid to glycine. It is a widely distributed hemoglobin with a relatively low prevalence of 0.86% in the Indo-Pak subcontinent, 1–3% in north-western India, 1–3% in the Black population in the Caribbean and North America and has also been reported among the English. It accounts for 55.6% of all the Hb variants seen in the Xenjiang province of China.

Hemoglobin E (HbE) is the most common abnormal hemoglobin in Southeast Asia. In India, the frequency ranges from 4% to 51% in the north eastern region and 3% to 4% in West Bengal in the east. The HbE mutation (β26 GAG→AAG) creates an alternative splice site and the βE chain is insufficiently synthesized, hence the phenotype of this disorder is that of a mild form of β thalassemia.

Though these 3 structural variants are prevalent in different regions of India, their interaction is increasingly seen in all states of the country due to migration of people to different regions for a better livelihood. There are very few reports on interaction of these commonly seen Hb variants and the phenotypic–genotypic presentation of these cases is important for genetic counseling and management.

HbF of patients with HbSD Punjab disease with variable clinical severity. The HbF values of 4 patients are not included as they were post blood transfusion

The genotypes of the patients were confirmed by restriction enzyme digestion and ARMS (Fig). Patients 1 to 15 were characterized as compound heterozygous for HbS and HbD Punjab whereas patients 16 to 19 were characterized as compound heterozygous for HbS and HbE. Patient nos. 20 to 22 were characterized as compound heterozygous for HbE and HbD Punjab.

Molecular characterization of HbS and HbDPunjab by restriction enzyme digestion and of HbE by ARMS.

The 3 common β globin gene variants of hemoglobin, HbS, HbE and HbD Punjab are commonly seen in India, with HbS having a high prevalence in the central belt and some parts of western, eastern and southern India, HbE in the eastern and north eastern region whereas HbD is mostly seen in the north western part of India. These hemoglobin variants have been reported in different population groups. However, with migration and intermixing of the different populations from different geographic regions, occasional cases of HbSD Punjab and HbSE are being reported. There are several HbD variants like HbD Punjab, HbD Iran, HbD Ibadan. However, of these only HbD Punjab interacts with HbS to form a clinically significant condition as the glutamine residue facilitates polymerization of HbS. HbD Iran and HbD Ibadan are non-interacting and produce benign conditions like the sickle cell trait. The first case of HbSD Punjab disease was a brother and sister considered to have atypical sickle cell disease in 1934. This family was further reinvestigated and reported as the first case of HbD Los Angeles which has the same mutation as the HbD Punjab. Serjeant et al. reported HbD Punjab in an English parent in 6 out of 11 HbSD-Punjab disease cases. This has been suggested to be due to the stationing of nearly 50,000 British troops on the Indian continent for a period of 200 y and the introduction into Britain of their Anglo-Indian children.

HbSD Punjab disease shows a similar pattern to HbS homozygous on alkaline hemoglobin electrophoresis but can be differentiated on acid agar gel electrophoresis and on HPLC. In HbSD Punjab disease cases, the peripheral blood films show anisocytosis, poikilocytosis, target cells and irreversibly sickled cells. Values of HbF and HbA2 are similar to those in sickle homozygous cases. HbSD Punjab disease is characterized by a moderately severe hemolytic anemia.

Twenty-one cases of HbSDPunjab were reported by Serjeant of which 16 were reported by different workers among patients originating from Caucasian, Spanish, Australian, Irish, English, Portuguese, Black, American, Venezuelan, Caribbean, Mexican, Turkish and Jamaican backgrounds. Yavarian et al. 2009 reported a multi centric origin of HbD Punjab which in combination with HbS results in sickle cell disease. Patel et al. 2010 have also reported 12 cases of HbSD Punjab from the Orissa state of eastern India. Majority of these cases were symptomatic, presenting with chronic hemolytic anemia and frequent painful crises.

HbF levels >20% were seen in 4 out of our 11 clinically severe patients of HbSD-Punjab disease with the mean HbF levels of 16.8% in 8 clinically severe patients, while 3 clinically severe patients were post transfused. However, the 3 patients with a mild to moderate clinical presentation showed a mean HbF level of 8.6%. This is in contrast to the relatively milder clinical presentation associated with high HbF seen in patients with sickle cell anemia. This was also reported by Adekile et al. 2010 in 5 cases of HbS-DLos Angeles where high HbF did not ameliorate the severe clinical presentation seen in these patients.

These 15 cases of HbSD^Punjab disease give us an overall idea of the severe clinical presentation of the disease in different regions of India. However the HbD^PunjabE cases were milder or asymptomatic and the HbSE cases were moderately symptomatic. Since most of the cases of HbSD^Punjab disease were clinically severe, it is important to pick up these cases during newborn screening and enroll them into a comprehensive care program with the other sickle cell disease patients with introduction of therapeutic interventions such as penicillin prophylaxis if required and pneumococcal immunization. In fact, 2 of our cases (No. 6 and 7) were identified during newborn screening for sickle cell disorders. The parents can be given information on home care and educated to detect symptoms that may lead to serious medical emergencies. The parents of these patients as well as the couples who are at risk of having a child with HbSD^Punjab disease could also be counseled about the option of prenatal diagnosis in subsequent pregnancies. It is thus important to document the clinical and hematological presentation of compound heterozygotes with these common β globin chain variants.

Common Hematologic Problems in the Newborn Nursery

Jon F. Watchko
Pediatr Clin N Am – (2015) xxx-xxx
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2014.11.011

Common RBC disorders include hemolytic disease of the newborn, anemia, and polycythemia. Another clinically relevant hematologic issue in neonates to be covered herein is thrombocytopenia. Disorders of white blood cells will not be reviewed.

KEY POINTS

(1) Early clinical jaundice or rapidly developing hyperbilirubinemia are often signs of hemolysis, the differential diagnosis of which commonly includes immune-mediated disorders, red-cell enzyme deficiencies, and red-cell membrane defects.

(2) Knowledge of the maternal blood type and antibody screen is critical in identifying non-ABO alloantibodies in the maternal serum that may pose a risk for severe hemolytic disease in the newborn.

(3) Moderate to severe thrombocytopenia in an otherwise well-appearing newborn strongly suggests immune-mediated (alloimmune or autoimmune) thrombocytopenia.

Hemolytic conditions in the neonate

1. Immune-mediated (positive direct Coombs test) a. Rhesus blood group: Anti-D, -c, -C, -e, -E, CW, and several others

b. Non-Rhesus blood groups: Kell, Duffy, Kidd, Xg, Lewis, MNS, and others

c. ABO blood group: Anti-A, -B

2. Red blood cell (RBC) enzyme defects

a. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency

b. Pyruvate kinase deficiency

c. Others

3. RBC membrane defects

a. Hereditary spherocytosis

b. Elliptocytosis

c. Stomatocytosis

d. Pyknocytosis

e. Others

4. Hemoglobinopathies

a. alpha-thalassemia

b. gamma-thalassemia

Standard maternal antibody screeningAlloantibody Blood Group

D, C, c, E, e, f, CW, V Rhesus

K, k, Kpa, Jsa Kell

Fya, Fyb Duffy

Jka, Jkb Kidd

Xga Xg

Lea, Leb Lewis

S, s, M, N MNS

P1 P

Lub Lutheran

Non-ABO alloantibodies reported to cause moderate to severe hemolytic disease of the newbornWithin Rh system: Anti-D, -c, -C, -Cw, -Cx, -e, -E, -Ew, -ce, -Ces, -Rh29, -Rh32, -Rh42, -f, -G, -Goa, -Bea, -Evans, -Rh17, -Hro, -Hr, -Tar, -Sec, -JAL, -STEM

Outside Rh system: Anti-LW, -K, -k, -Kpa, -Kpb, -Jka, -Jsa, -Jsb, -Ku, -K11, -K22, -Fya, -M, -N, -S, -s, -U, -PP1 pk, -Dib, -Far, -MUT, -En3, -Hut, -Hil, -Vel, -MAM, -JONES, -HJK, -REIT

Red Blood Cell Enzymopathies

G6PD9 and pyruvate kinase (PK) deficiency are the 2 most common red-cell enzyme disorders associated with marked neonatal hyperbilirubinemia. Of these, G6PD deficiency is the more frequently encountered and it remains an important cause of kernicterus worldwide, including the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, the prevalence in Western countries a reflection in part of immigration patterns and intermarriage. The risk of kernicterus in G6PD deficiency also relates to the potential for unexpected rapidly developing extreme hyperbilirubinemia in this disorder associated with acute severe hemolysis.

Red Blood Cell Membrane Defects

Establishing a diagnosis of RBC membrane defects is classically based on the development of Coombs-negative hyperbilirubinemia, a positive family history, and abnormal RBC smear, albeit it is often difficult because newborns normally exhibit a marked variation in red-cell membrane size and shape. Spherocytes, however, are not often seen on RBC smears of hematologically normal newborns and this morphologic abnormality, when prominent, may yield a diagnosis of hereditary spherocytosis (HS) in the immediate neonatal period. Given that approximately 75% of families affected with hereditary spherocytosis manifest an autosomal dominant phenotype, a positive family history can often be elicited and provide further support for this diagnosis. More recently, Christensen and Henry highlighted the use of an elevated mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) (>36.0 g/dL) and/or elevated ratio of MCHC to mean corpuscular volume, the latter they term the “neonatal HS index” (>0.36, likely >0.40) as screening tools for HS. An index of greater than 0.36 had 97% sensitivity, greater than 99% specificity, and greater than 99% negative predictive value for identifying HS in neonates. Christensen and colleagues also provided a concise update of morphologic RBC features that may be helpful in diagnosing this and other underlying hemolytic conditions in newborns.

The diagnosis of HS can be confirmed using the incubated osmotic fragility test when coupled with fetal red-cell controls or eosin-5-maleimide flow cytometry. One must rule out symptomatic ABO hemolytic disease by performing a direct Coombs test, as infants so affected also may manifest prominent micro-spherocytosis. Moreover, HS and symptomatic ABO hemolytic disease can occur in the same infant and result in severe hyperbilirubinemia and anemia. Of other red-cell membrane defects, only hereditary elliptocytosis, stomato-cytosis, and infantile pyknocytosis have been reported to exhibit significant hemolysis in the newborn period. Hereditary elliptocytosis and stomatocytosis are both rare. Infantile pyknocytosis, a transient red-cell membrane abnormality manifesting itself during the first few months of life, is more common.

Risk factors for bilirubin neurotoxicityIsoimmune hemolytic disease

G6PD deficiency

Asphyxia

Sepsis

Acidosis

Albumin less than 3.0 g/dL
Data from Maisels MJ, Bhutani VK, Bogen D, et al. Hyperbilirubinemia in the newborn infant > or 535 weeks’ gestation: an update with clarifications. Pediatrics 2009; 124:1193–8.

Polycythemia

Polycythemia (venous hematocrit 65%) in seen in infants across a range of conditions associated with active erythropoiesis or passive transfusion.76,77 They include, among others, placental insufficiency, the infant of a diabetic mother, recipient in twin-twin transfusion syndrome, and several aneuploidies, including trisomy. The clinical concern related to polycythemia is the risk for microcirculatory complications of hyperviscosity. However, determining which polycythemic infants are hyperviscous and when to intervene is a challenge.

Liver

Metabolic disorders presenting as liver disease

Germaine Pierre, Efstathia Chronopoulou
Paediatrics and Child Health 2013; 23(12): 509-514
The liver is a highly metabolically active organ and many inherited metabolic disorders have hepatic manifestations. The clinical presentation in these patients cannot usually be distinguished from liver disease due to acquired causes like infection, drugs or hematological disorders. Manifestations include acute and chronic liver failure, cholestasis and hepatomegaly. Metabolic causes of acute liver failure in childhood can be as high as 35%. Certain disorders like citrin deficiency and Niemann-Pick C disease may present in infancy with self-limiting cholestasis before presenting in later childhood or adulthood with irreversible disease. This article reviews important details from the history and clinical examination when evaluating the pediatric patient with suspected metabolic disease, the specialist and genetic tests when investigating, and also discusses specific disorders, their clinical course and treatment. The role of liver transplantation is also briefly discussed. Increased awareness of this group of disorders is important as in many cases, early diagnosis leads to early intervention with improved outcome. Diagnosis also allows genetic counselling and future family planning.

Adult liver disorders caused by inborn errors of metabolism: Review and update

Sirisak Chanprasert, Fernando Scaglia
Molecular Genetics and Metabolism 114 (2015) 1–10
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ymgme.2014.10.011

Inborn errors of metabolism (IEMs) are a group of genetic diseases that have protean clinical manifestations and can involve several organ systems. The age of onset is highly variable but IEMs afflict mostly the pediatric population. However, in the past decades, the advancement in management and new therapeutic approaches have led to the improvement in IEM patient care. As a result, many patients with IEMs are surviving into adulthood and developing their own set of complications. In addition, some IEMs will present in adulthood. It is important for internists to have the knowledge and be familiar with these conditions because it is predicted that more and more adult patients with IEMs will need continuity of care in the near future. The review will focus on Wilson disease, alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, citrin deficiency, and HFE-associated hemochromatosis which are typically found in the adult population. Clinical manifestations and pathophysiology, particularly those that relate to hepatic disease as well as diagnosis and management will be discussed in detail.

Inborn errors of metabolism (IEMs) are a group of genetic diseases characterized by abnormal processing of biochemical reactions, resulting in accumulation of toxic substances that could interfere with normal organ functions, and failure to synthesize essential compounds. IEMs are individually rare, but collectively numerous. The clinical presentations cover a broad spectrum and can involve almost any organ system. The age of onset is highly variable but IEMs afflict mostly the pediatric population.

Wilson disease is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder of copper metabolism. It is characterized by an abnormal accumulation of inorganic copper in various tissues, most notably in the liver and the brain, especially in the basal ganglia. The disease was first described in 1912 by Kinnier Wilson, and affects between 1 in 30,000 and 1 in 100,000 individuals. Clinical features are variable and depend on the extent and the severity of copper deposition. Typically, patients tend to develop hepatic disease at a younger age than the neuropsychiatric manifestations. Individuals withWilson disease eventually succumb to complications of end stage liver disease or become debilitated from neurological problems, if they are left untreated.

The clinical presentations of Wilson disease are varied affecting many organ systems. However, the overwhelming majority of cases display hepatic and neurologic symptoms. In general, patients with hepatic disease present between the first and second decades of life although patients as young as 3 years old or over 50 years old have also been reported. The most common modes of presentations are acute self-limited hepatitis and chronic active hepatitis that are indistinguishable from other hepatic disorders although liver aminotransferases are generally much lower than in autoimmune or viral hepatitis. Acute fulminant hepatic failure is less common but is observed in approximately 3% of all cases of acute liver failure. Symptoms of acute liver failure include jaundice, coagulopathy, and hepatic encephalopathy. Cirrhosis can develop over time and may be clinically silent. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is rarely associated with Wilson disease, but may occur in the setting of cirrhosis and chronic inflammation.

Copper is an essential element, and is required for the proper functioning of various proteins and enzymes. The total body content of copper in a healthy adult individual is approximately 70–100 mg, while the daily requirements are estimated to be between 1 and 5 mg. Absorption occurs in the small intestine. Copper is taken up to the hepatocytes via the copper transporter hTR1. Once inside the cell, copper is bound to various proteins including metallothionein and glutathione, however, it is the metal chaperone, ATOX1 that helps direct copper to the ATP7B protein for intracellular transport and excretion. At the steady state, copper will be bound to ATP7B and is then incorporated to ceruloplasmin and secreted into the systemic circulation. When the cellular copper concentration arises, ATP7B protein will be redistributed from the trans-Golgi network to the prelysosomal vesicles facilitating copper excretion into the bile. The molecular defects in ATP7B lead to a reduction of copper excretion. Excess copper is accumulated in the liver causing tissue injury. The rate of accumulation of copper varies among individuals, and it may depend on other factors such as alcohol consumption, or viral hepatitis infections. If the liver damage is not severe, patients will accumulate copper in various tissues including the brain, the kidney, the eyes, and the musculoskeletal system leading to clinical disease. A failure of copper to incorporate into ceruloplasmin leads to secretion of the unsteady protein that has a shorter half-life, resulting in the reduced concentrations of ceruloplasmin seen in most patients with Wilson disease.

Wilson disease used to be a progressive fatal condition during the first half of the 20th century because there was no effective treatment available at that time. Penicillamine was the first pharmacologic agent introduced in 1956 for treating this condition. Penicillamine is a sulfhydryl-bearing amino acid cysteine doubly substituted with methyl groups. This drug acts as a chelating agent that promotes the urinary excretion of copper. It is rapidly absorbed in the gastrointestinal track, and over 80% of circulating penicillamine is excreted via the kidneys. Although it is very effective, approximately 10%–50% of Wilson disease patients with neuropsychiatric presentations may experience worsening of their symptoms, and often times the worsening symptoms may not be reversible.

Alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency

Alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) is one of the most common genetic liver diseases in children and adults, affecting 1 in 2000 to 1 in 3000 live births worldwide. It is transmitted in an autosomal co-dominant fashion with variable expressivity. Alpha1 antitrypsin (A1AT) is a member of the serine protease inhibitor (SERPIN) family. Its function is to counteract the proteolytic effect of neutrophil elastase and other neutrophil proteases. Mutations in the SERPINA1, the gene encoding A1AT, result in changes in the protein structure with the PiZZ phenotype being the most common cause of liver and lung disease-associated AATDs. Although, it classically causes early onset chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in adults, liver disease characterized by chronic inflammation, hepatic fibrosis, and cirrhosis is not uncommon in the adult population. Decreased plasma concentration of A1AT predisposes lung tissue to be more susceptible to injury from protease enzymes. However, the underlying mechanism of liver injury is different, and is believed to be caused by accumulation of polymerized mutant A1AT in the hepatocyte endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Currently, there is no specific treatment for liver disease-associated AATD, but A1AT augmentation therapy is available for patients affected with pulmonary involvement.

A1AT is a single-chain, 52-kDa polypeptide of approximately 394 amino acids [56]. It is synthesized in the liver, circulates in the plasma, and functions as an inhibitor of neutrophil elastase and other proteases such as cathepsin G, and proteinase 3. A1AT has a globular shape composed of two central β sheets surrounded by a small β sheet and nine α helices. The pathophysiology underlying liver disease is thought to be a toxic gain-of-function mutation associated with the PiZZ phenotypes. This hypothesis has been supported by the fact that null alleles which produce no detectable plasma A1AT, are not associated with liver disease. In addition, the transgenic mouse model of AATD PiZZ developed periodic acid-Schiff-positive diastase-resistant intrahepatic globule early in life similar to AATD patients. The PiZZ phenotype results in the blockade of the final processing of A1AT in the liver, as only 15% of the A1AT reaches the circulation whereas 85% of non-secreted protein is accumulated in the hepatocytes.

Citrin deficiency

Citrin deficiency is a relatively newly-defined autosomal recessive disease. It encompasses two different sub-groups of patients, neonatal intrahepatic cholestasis caused by citrin deficiency (NICCD), and adult onset citrullinemia type 2 (CTLN 2).

AGC2 exports aspartate out of the mitochondrial matrix in exchange for glutamate and a proton. Thus, this protein has an important role in ureagenesis and gluconeogenesis. In CTLN2, a defect in this protein is believed to limit the supply of aspartate for the formation of argininosuccinate in the cytosol resulting in impairment of ureagenesis. Interestingly, the mouse model of citrin deficiency (Ctrn−/−) fails to develop symptoms of CTLN2 suggesting that the mitochondrial aspartate is not the only source of ureagenesis. However, it should be noted that the rodent liver expresses higher glycerol-phosphate shuttle activity than the human counterpart. With the intact glycerol-phosphate dehydrogenase, it can compensate for the deficiency of AGC2, as demonstrated by the AGC2 and glycerol-phosphate dehydrogenase double knock-out mice that exhibit similar features to those observed in human CTLN2.

HFE-associated hemochromatosis

HFE-associated hemochromatosis is an inborn error of iron metabolism characterized by excessive iron storage resulting in tissue and organ damage. It is the most common autosomal recessive disorder in the Caucasian population, affecting 0.3%–0.5% of individuals of Northern European descent. The term “hemochromatosis” was coined in 1889 by the German pathologist Friedrich Daniel Von Recklinghausen, who described it as bronze stain of organs caused by a blood borne pigment.

The classic clinical triad of cirrhosis, diabetes, and bronze skin pigmentation is rarely observed nowadays given the early recognition, diagnosis, and treatment of this condition. The most common presenting symptoms are nonspecific including weakness, lethargy, and arthralgia.

The liver is a major site of iron storage in healthy individuals and as such it is the organ that is universally affected in HFE-associated hemochromatosis. Elevation of liver aminotransferases indicative of hepatocyte injury is the most common mode of presentation and it can be indistinguishable from other causes of hepatitis. Approximately 15%–40% of patients with HFE-associated hemochromatosis have other liver conditions, including chronic viral hepatitis B or C infection, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and alcoholic liver disease.

The liver in haemochromatosis

Rune J. Ulvik
Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2014.08.005

The review deals with genetic, regulatory and clinical aspects of iron homeostasis and hereditary hemochromatosis. Hemochromatosis was first described in the second half of the 19th century as a clinical entity characterized by excessive iron overload in the liver. Later, increased absorption of iron from the diet was identified as the pathophysiological hallmark. In the 1970s genetic evidence emerged supporting the apparent inheritable feature of the disease. And finally in 1996 a new “hemochromato-sis gene” called HFE was described which was mutated in about 85% of the patients. From the year2000 onward remarkable progress was made in revealing the complex molecular regulation of iron trafficking in the human body and its disturbance in hemochromatosis. The discovery of hepcidin and ferroportin and their interaction in regulating the release of iron from enterocytes and macrophages to plasma were important milestones. The discovery of new, rare variants of non-HFE-hemochromatosis was explained by mutations in the multicomponent signal transduction pathway controlling hepcidin transcription. Inhibited transcription induced by the altered function of mutated gene products, results in low plasma levels of hepcidin which facilitate entry of iron from enterocytes into plasma. In time this leads to progressive accumulation of iron and subsequently development of disease in the liver and other parenchymatous organs. Being the major site of excess iron storage and hepcidin synthesis the liver is a cornerstone in maintaining normal systemic iron homeostasis. Its central pathophysiological role in HFE-hemochromatosis with downgraded hepcidin synthesis, was recently shown by the finding that liver transplantation normalized the hepcidin levels in plasma and there was no sign of iron accumulation in the new liver.

Gastrointestinal

Decoding the enigma of necrotizing enterocolitis in premature infants

Roberto Murgas Torrazza, Nan Li, Josef Neu
Pathophysiology 21 (2014) 21–27
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pathophys.2013.11.011

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is an enigmatic disease that affects primarily premature infants. It often occurs suddenly and when it occurs, treatment attempts at treatment often fail and results in death. If the infant survives, there is a significant risk of long term sequelae including neurodevelopmental delays. The pathophysiology of NEC is poorly understood and thus prevention has been difficult. In this review, we will provide an overview of why progress may be slow in our understanding of this disease, provide a brief review diagnosis, treatment and some of the current concepts about the pathophysiology of this disease.

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) has been reported since special care units began to house preterm infants .With the advent of modern neonatal intensive care approximately 40 years ago, the occurrence and recognition of the disease markedly increased. It is currently the most common and deadly gastro-intestinal illness seen in preterm infants. Despite major efforts to better understand, treat and prevent this devastating disease, little if any progress has been made during these 4 decades. Underlying this lack of progress is the fact that what is termed “NEC” is likely more than one disease, or mimicked by other diseases, each with a different etiopathogenesis.

Human gut microbiome

Term or near term infants with “NEC” when compared to matched controls usually have occurrence of their disease in the first week after birth, have a significantly higher frequency of prolonged rupture of membranes, chorio-amnionitis, Apgar score <7 at 1 and 5 min, respiratory problems, congenital heart disease, hypoglycemia, and exchange transfusions. When a “NEC” like illness presents in term or near term infants, it should be noted that these are likely to be distinct in pathogenesis than the most common form of NEC and should be differentiated as such.

The infants who suffer primary ischemic necrosis are term or near term infants (although this can occur in preterms) who have concomitant congenital heart disease, often related to poor left ventricular output or obstruction. Other factors that have been associated with primary ischemia are maternal cocaine use, hyperviscosity caused by polycythemia or a severe antecedent hypoxic–ischemic event. Whether the dis-ease entity that results from this should be termed NEC can be debated on historical grounds, but the etiology is clearly different from the NEC seen in most preterm infants.

The pathogenesis of NEC is uncertain, and the etiology seems to be multifactorial. The “classic” form of NEC is highly associated with prematurity; intestinal barrier immaturity, immature immune response, and an immature regulation of intestinal blood flow (Fig.). Although genetics appears to play a role, the environment, especially a dysbiotic intestinal microbiota acting in concert with host immaturities predisposes the preterm infant to disruption of the intestinal epithelia, increased permeability of tight junctions, and release of inflammatory mediators that leads to intestinal mucosa injury and therefore development of necrotizing enterocolitis.

NEC is a multifactorial disease

What causes NEC? NEC is a multifactorial disease with an interaction of several etiophathologies

It is clear from this review that there are several entities that have been described as NEC. What is also clear is that despite having some overlap in the final parts of the pathophysiologic cascade that lead to necrosis, the disease that is most commonly seen in the preterm infant is likely to have an origin that differs markedly from that seen in term infants with congenital heart disease or severe hypoxic–ischemic injury. Thus, epidemiologic studies will need to differentiate these entities, if the aim is to dissect common features that are most highly associated with development of the disease. At this juncture, we areleft with more of a population based preventative approach, where the use of human milk, evidence based feeding guide-lines, considerations for microbial therapy once these are proved safe and effective and approved as such by regulatory authorities, and perhaps even measures that prevent prematurity will have a major impact on this devastating disease.

Influenced by the microbiota, intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) elaborate cytokines

Influenced by the microbiota, intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) elaborate cytokines, including thymic stromal lymphoprotein (TSLP), transforming growthfactor (TGF), and interleukin-10 (IL-10), that can influence pro-inflammatory cytokine production by dendritic cells (DC) and macrophages present in the laminapropria (GALT) and Peyer’s patches. Signals from commensal organisms may influence tissue-specific functions, resulting in T-cell expansion and regulation of the numbers of Th-1,
Th-2, and Th-3 cells. Also modulated by the microbiota, other IEC derived factors, including APRIL (a proliferation-inducing ligand),B-cell activating factor (BAFF), secretory leukocyte peptidase inhibitor (SLPI), prostaglandin E2(PGE2), and other metabolites, directly regulate functions ofboth antigen presenting cells and lymphocytes in the intestinal ecosystem. NK: natural killer cell; LN: lymph node; DC: dendritic cells.Modified from R. Sharma, C. Young, M. Mshvildadze, J. Neu, Intestinal microbiota does it play a role in diseases of the neonate? NeoReviews 10 (4) (2009)e166, with permission

Cross-talk between monocyte.macrophage cells and T.NK lymphocytes

Current Issues in the Management of Necrotizing Enterocolitis

Marion C. W. Henry and R. Lawrence Moss
Seminars in Perinatology, 2004; 28(3): 221-233
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1053/j.semperi.2004.03.010

Necrotizing enterocolitis is almost exclusively a disease of prematurity, with 90% of all cases occurring in premature infants and 90% of those infants weighing less than 2000 g. Prematurity is the only risk factor for necrotizing enterocolitis consistently identified in case control studies and the disease is rare in countries where prematurity is uncommon such as Japan and Sweden. When necrotizing enterocolitis does occur in full-term infants, it appears to by a somewhat different disease, typically associated with some predisposing condition.

NEC occurs in one to three in 1,000 live births and most commonly affects babies born between 30-32 weeks. It is most often diagnosed during the second week of life and occurs more often in previously fed infants. The mortality from NEC has been cited as 10% to 50% of all NEC cases. Surgical mortality has decreased over the last several decades from 70% to between 20 and 50%. The incremental cost per case of acute hospital care is estimated at $74 to 186 thousand compared to age matched controls, not including additional costs of long term care for the infants’ with lifelong morbidity. Survivors may develop short bowel syndrome, recurrent bouts of catheter-related sepsis, malabsorption, malnutrition, and TPN induced liver failure.

Although extensive research concerning the pathophysiology of necrotizing enterocolitis has occurred, a complete understanding has not been fully elucidated. The classic histologic finding is coagulation necrosis; present in over 90% of specimens. This finding suggests the importance of ischemia in the pathogenesis of NEC. Inflammation and bacterial overgrowth also are present. These findings support the assumptions by Kosloske that NEC occurs by the interaction of 3 events:

intestinal ischemia,
colonization by pathogenic bacteria and
excess protein substrate in the intestinal lumen.

Additionally, the immunologic immaturity of the neonatal gut has been implicated in the development of NEC. Reparative tissue changes including epithelial regeneration, formation of granulation tissue and fibrosis, and mixed areas of acute and chronic inflammatory changes suggest that the pathogenesis of NEC may involve a chronic process of injury and repair.

Premature newborns born prior to the 32^nd week of gestational age may have compromised intestinal peristalsis and decreased motility. These motility problems may lead to poor clearance of bacteria, and subsequent bacterial overgrowth. Premature infants also have an immature intestinal tract in terms of immunologic immunity.

There are fewer functional B lymphocytes present and the ability to produce sufficient secretory IgA is reduced. Pepsin, gastric acid and mucus are also not produced as well in prematurity. All of these factors may contribute to the limited proliferation of intestinal flora and the decreased binding of these flora to mucosal cells (Fig).

Role of nitric oxide in the pathogenesis of NEC

Role of nitric oxide in the pathogenesis of NEC.

Characteristics of the immature gut leading to increased risk of necrotizing enterocolitis

Characteristics of the immature gut leading to increased risk of necrotizing enterocolitis.

As understanding of the pathophysiology of necrotizing enterocolitis continues to evolve, a unifying concept is emerging. Initially, there is likely a subclinical insult leading to NEC. This may arise from a brief episode of hypoxia or infection. With colonization of the intestines, bacteria bind to the injured mucosa eliciting an inflammatory response which leads to further inflammation.

Intestinal Microbiota Development in Preterm Neonates and Effect of Perinatal Antibiotics

Silvia Arboleya, Borja Sanchez,, Christian Milani, Sabrina Duranti, et al.
Pediatr 2014;-:—). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2014.09.041

Objectives Assess the establishment of the intestinal microbiota in very low birth-weight preterm infants and to evaluate the impact of perinatal factors, such as delivery mode and perinatal antibiotics.
Study design We used 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequence-based microbiota analysis and quantitative polymerase chain reaction to evaluate the establishment of the intestinal microbiota. We also evaluated factors affecting the microbiota, during the first 3 months of life in preterm infants (n = 27) compared with full-term babies (n = 13).
Results Immaturity affects the microbiota as indicated by a reduced percentage of the family Bacteroidaceae during the first months of life and by a higher initial percentage of Lactobacillaceae in preterm infants compared with full term infants. Perinatal antibiotics, including intrapartum antimicrobial prophylaxis, affects the gut microbiota, as indicated by increased Enterobacteriaceae family organisms in the infants.

Human gut microbiome

Conclusions Prematurity and perinatal antibiotic administration strongly affect the initial establishment of microbiota with potential consequences for later health.

Ischemia and necrotizing enterocolitis: where, when, and how

Philip T. Nowicki
Seminars in Pediatric Surgery (2005) 14, 152-158
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1053/j.sempedsurg.2005.05.003

While it is accepted that ischemia contributes to the pathogenesis of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), three important questions regarding this role subsist. First, where within the intestinal circulation does the vascular pathophysiology occur? It is most likely that this event begins within the intramural microcirculation, particularly the small arteries that pierce the gut wall and the submucosal arteriolar plexus insofar as these represent the principal sites of resistance regulation in the gut. Mucosal damage might also disrupt the integrity or function of downstream villous arterioles leading to damage thereto; thereafter, noxious stimuli might ascend into the submucosal vessels via downstream venules and lymphatics. Second, when during the course of pathogenesis does ischemia occur? Ischemia is unlikely to the sole initiating factor of NEC; instead, it is more likely that ischemia is triggered by other events, such as inflammation at the mucosal surface. In this context, it is likely that ischemia plays a secondary, albeit critical role in disease extension. Third, how does the ischemia occur? Regulation of vascular resistance within newborn intestine is principally determined by a balance between the endothelial production of the vasoconstrictor peptide endothelin-1 (ET-1) and endothelial production of the vasodilator free radical nitric oxide (NO). Under normal conditions, the balance heavily favors NO-induced vasodilation, leading to a low resting resistance and high rate of flow. However, factors that disrupt endothelial cell function, eg, ischemia-reperfusion, sustained low-flow perfusion, or proinflammatory mediators, alter the ET-1:NO balance in favor of constriction. The unique ET-1–NO interaction thereafter might facilitate rapid extension of this constriction, generating a viscous cascade wherein ischemia rapidly extends into larger portions of the intestine.

Schematic representation of the intestinal microcirculation

Schematic representation of the intestinal microcirculation. Small mesenteric arteries pierce the muscularis layers and terminate in the submucosa where they give rise to 1A (1st order) arterioles. 2A (2nd order) arterioles arise from the 1A. Although not shown here, these 2A arterioles connect merge with several 1A arterioles, thus generating an arteriolar plexus, or manifold that serves to pressurize the terminal downstream microvasculature. 3A (3rd order) arterioles arise from the 2A and proceed to the mucosa, giving off a 4A branch just before descent into the mucosa. This 4A vessel travels to the muscularis layers. Each 3A vessel becomes the single arteriole perfusing each villus.

Collectively, these studies indicate that disruption of endothelial cell function has the potential to disrupt the normal balance between NO and ET-1 within the newborn intestinal circulation, and that such an event can generate significant ischemia. In this context, it is important to note that NO and ET-1 each regulate the expression and activity of the other. An increased [NO] within the microvascular environment reduces ET-1 expression and compromises ligand binding to the ETA receptor (thus decreasing its contractile efficacy), while ET-1 compromises eNOS expression. Thus, factors that upset the balance between NO and ET-1 will have an immediate and direct effect on vascular tone, but also exert an additional indirect effect by extenuating the disruption of balance between these two factors.

It is not difficult to construct a hypothesis that links the perturbations of I/R and sustained low-flow perfusion with an initial inflammatory insult. Initiation of an inflammatory process at the mucosal–luminal interface could have a direct impact on villus and mucosal 3A arterioles, damaging arteriolar integrity and disrupting villus hemodynamics. Ascent of proinflammatory mediators to the submucosal 1A–2A arteriolar plexus could occur via draining venules and lymphatics, generating damage to vascular effector systems therein; these mediators might include cytokines and platelet activating factor, as these elements have been recovered from human infants with NEC. This event, coupled with a generalized loss of 3A flow throughout a large portion of the mucosal surface, could compromise flow rate within the submucosal arteriolar plexus.

Necrotizing enterocolitis: An update

Loren Berman, R. Lawrence Moss
Seminars in Fetal & Neonatal Medicine 16 (2011) 145e150
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.siny.2011.02.002

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a leading cause of death among patients in the neonatal intensive care unit, carrying a mortality rate of 15e30%. Its pathogenesis is multifactorial and involves an over reactive response of the immune system to an insult. This leads to increased intestinal permeability, bacterial translocation, and sepsis. There are many inflammatory mediators involved in this process, but thus far none has been shown to be a suitable target for preventive or therapeutic measures. NEC usually occurs in the second week of life after the initiation of enteral feeds, and the diagnosis is made based on physical examination findings, laboratory studies, and abdominal radiographs. Neonates with NEC are followed with serial abdominal examinations and radiographs, and may require surgery or primary peritoneal drainage for perforation or necrosis. Many survivors are plagued with long term complications including short bowel syndrome, abnormal growth, and neurodevelopmental delay. Several evidence-based strategies exist that may decrease the incidence of NEC including promotion of human breast milk feeding, careful feeding advancement, and prophylactic probiotic administration in at-risk patients. Prevention is likely to have the greatest impact on decreasing mortality and morbidity related to NEC, as little progress has been made with regard to improving outcomes for neonates once the disease process is underway.

Immune Deficiencies

Primary immunodeficiencies: A rapidly evolving story

Nima Parvaneh, Jean-Laurent Casanova, LD Notarangelo, ME Conley
J Allergy Clin Immunol 2013;131:314-23.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2012.11.051

The characterization of primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs) in human subjects is crucial for a better understanding of the biology of the immune response. New achievements in this field have been possible in light of collaborative studies; attention paid to new phenotypes, infectious and otherwise; improved immunologic techniques; and use of exome sequencing technology. The International Union of Immunological Societies Expert Committee on PIDs recently reported on the updated classification of PIDs. However, new PIDs are being discovered at an ever-increasing rate. A series of 19 novel primary defects of immunity that have been discovered after release of the International Union of Immunological Societies report are discussed here. These new findings highlight the molecular pathways that are associated with clinical phenotypes and suggest potential therapies for affected patients.

Combined Immunodeficiencies

T-cell receptor a gene mutation: T-cell receptor ab1 T-cell depletion

T cells comprise 2 distinct lineages that express either ab or gd T-cell receptor (TCR) complexes that perform different tasks in immune responses. During T-cell maturation, the precise order and efficacy of TCR gene rearrangements determine the fate of the cells. Productive β-chain gene rearrangement produces a pre-TCR on the cell surface in association with pre-Tα invariant peptide (β-selection). Pre-TCR signals promote α-chain recombination and transition to a double-positive stage (CD41CD81). This is the prerequisite for central tolerance achieved through positive and negative selection of thymocytes.

Ras homolog gene family member H deficiency: Loss of naive T cells and persistent human papilloma virus infections
MST1 deficiency: Loss of naive T cells

New insight into the role of MST1 as a critical regulator of T-cell homing and function was provided by the characterization of 8 patients from 4 unrelated families who had homozygous nonsense mutations in STK4, the gene encoding MST1. MST1 was originally identified as an ubiquitously expressed kinase with structural homology to yeast Ste. MST1 is the mammalian homolog of the Drosophila Hippo protein, controlling cell growth, apoptosis, and tumorigenesis. It has both proapoptotic and antiapoptotic functions.

Lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase deficiency: T-cell deficiency with CD41 lymphopenia

Defects in pre-TCR– and TCR-mediated signaling lead to aberrant T-cell development and function (Fig). One of the earliest biochemical events occurring after engagement of the (pre)-TCR is the activation of lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase (LCK), a member of the SRC family of protein tyrosine kinases. This kinase then phosphorylates immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motifs of intracellular domains of CD3 subunits. Phosphorylated immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motifs recruit z-chain associated protein kinase of 70 kDa, which, after being phosphorylated by LCK, is responsible for activation of critical downstream events. Major consequences include activation of the membrane-associated enzyme phospholipase Cg1, activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase, nuclear translocation of nuclear factor kB (NFkB), and Ca21/Mg21 mobilization. Through these pathways, LCK controls T-cell development and activation. In mice lacking LCK, T-cell development in the thymus is profoundly blocked at an early double-negative stage.

TCR signaling

TCR signaling. Multiple signal transduction pathways are stimulated through the TCR. These pathways collectively activate transcription factors that organize T-cell survival, proliferation, differentiation, homeostasis, and migration. Mutant molecules in patients with TCR-related defects are indicated in red.

Uncoordinated 119 deficiency: Idiopathic CD41 lymphopenia

Idiopathic CD41 lymphopenia (ICL) is a very heterogeneous clinical entity that is defined, by default, by persistent CD41 T-cell lymphopenia (<300 cells/mL or <20% of total T cells) in the absence of HIV infection or any other known cause of immunodeficiency.

Well-Defined Syndromes with Immunodeficiency

Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein–interacting protein deficiency: Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome-like phenotype

In hematopoietic cells Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASP) is stabilized through forming a complex with WASP interacting protein (WIP).

Phospholipase Cg2 gain-of-function mutations: Cold urticaria, immunodeficiency, and autoimmunity/autoinflammatory

This is a unique phenotype, sharing features of antibody deficiency, autoinflammatory diseases, and immune dysregulatory disorders, making its classification difficult. Two recent studies validated the pleiotropy of genetic alterations in the same gene.

Predominantly Antibody Defects

Defect in the p85a subunit of phosphoinositide 3-kinase: Agammaglobulinemia and absent B cells
CD21 deficiency: Hypogammaglobulinemia
LPS-responsive beige-like anchor deficiency:
Hypogammaglobulinemia with autoimmunity and

early colitis

Defects Of Immune Dysregulation

Pallidin deficiency: Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome type 9
CD27 deficiency: Immune dysregulation and
persistent EBV infection

Congenital Defects Of Phagocyte Number, Function, Or Both

Interferon-stimulated gene 15 deficiency: Mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial diseases

Defects In Innate Immunity

NKX2-5 deficiency: Isolated congenital asplenia
Toll/IL-1 receptor domain–containing adaptor inducing IFN-b and TANK-binding kinase 1 deficiencies: Herpes simplex encephalitis
Minichromosome maintenance complex component 4 deficiency: NK cell deficiency associated with growth retardation and adrenal insufficiency

Autoinflammatory Disorders

A disintegrin and metalloproteinase 17 deficiency: Inflammatory skin and bowel disease

Cross-talk between monocyte.macrophage cells and T.NK lymphocytes

Cross-talk between monocyte/macrophage cells and T/NK lymphocytes. Genes in the IL-12/IFN-g pathway are particularly important for protection against mycobacterial disease. IRF8 is an IFN-g–inducible transcription factor required for the induction of various target genes, including IL-12. The NF-kB essential modulator (NEMO) mutations in the LZ domain impair CD40-NEMO–dependent pathways. Some gp91phox mutations specifically abolish the respiratory burst in monocyte-derived macrophages. ISG15 is secreted by neutrophils and potentiates IFN-g production by NK/T cells. Genetic defects that preclude monocyte development (eg, GATA2) can also predispose to mycobacterial infections (not shown). Mutant molecules in patients with unusual susceptibility to infection are indicated in red.

The field of PIDs is advancing at full speed in 2 directions. New genetic causes of known PIDs are being discovered (eg, CD21 and TRIF). Moreover, new phenotypes qualify as PIDs with the identification of a first genetic cause (eg, generalized pustular psoriasis). Recent findings contribute fundamental knowledge about immune system biology and its perturbation in disease. They are also of considerable clinical benefit for the patients and their families. A priority is to further translate these new discoveries into improved diagnostic methods and more effective therapeutic strategies, promoting the well-being of patients with PIDs.

Primary immunodeficiencies

Luigi D. Notarangelo
J Allergy Clin Immunol 2010; 125(2): S182-194
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.jaci.2009.07.053

In the last years, advances in molecular genetics and immunology have resulted in the identification of a growing number of genes causing primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs) in human subjects and a better understanding of the pathophysiology of these disorders. Characterization of the molecular mechanisms of PIDs has also facilitated the development of novel diagnostic assays based on analysis of the expression of the protein encoded by the PID-specific gene. Pilot newborn screening programs for the identification of infants with severe combined immunodeficiency have been initiated. Finally, significant advances have been made in the treatment of PIDs based on the use of subcutaneous immunoglobulins, hematopoietic cell transplantation from unrelated donors and cord blood, and gene therapy. In this review we will discuss the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of PIDs, with special attention to recent advances in the field.

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Action of Hormones on the Circulation

Posted in Ca2+ triggered activation, Calcium Signaling, Calmodulin, Calmodulin Kinase and Contraction, Cardiovascular Pharmacogenomics, Cardiovascular Research, Cell Biology, Curation, Cytoskeleton, Disease Biology, Frontiers in Cardiology and Cardiovascular Disorders, Gene Regulation, Genetics & Pharmaceutical, Genomic Endocrinology, Innovations, Metabolism, Metabolomics, Molecular Genetics & Pharmaceutical, Myocardial Ischemia, Myocardial Metabolism, Nephrology, Neurohumoral Transmission, Nitric Oxide in Health and Disease, Pharmaceutical Discovery, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, tagged brochospasm, curculation, Endothelin Receptors, endothelins, Endothelium, GPR signaling, maocardium, receptor binding, vasoconstriction, vasospasm on February 17, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Action of Hormones on the Circulation

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Introduction

This is perhaps the most difficult piece to write, unexpectedly. I have done a careful search for related material using different search phrases. It is perhaps because of the great complexity of the topic, which is inextricably linked to sepsis, the Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome SIRS), and is poised differently than the neural innervation of the hormonal response and circulation, as in the previous piece. In the SIRS mechanism, we find a very large factor in glucocorticoids, the cytokine shower (IL-1, IL-6, TNF-α), and gluconeogenesis, with circulatory changes. In this sequence, it appears that we are focused on the arteriolar and bronchial smooth muscle architecture, the adrenal medulla, vasoconstriction and vasodilation, and another set of peptide interactions. This may be concurrent with the other effects described.

Related articles in Pharmaceutical Intelligence Journal:

Endothelial Function and Cardiovascular Disease

Pathologist and Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/25/endothelial-function-and-cardiovascular-disease/

Clinical Trials Results for Endothelin System: Pathophysiological role in Chronic Heart Failure, Acute Coronary Syndromes and MI – Marker of Disease Severity or Genetic Determination?

Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/19/clinical-trials-results-for-endothelin-system-pathophysiological-role-in-chronic-heart-failure-acute-coronary-syndromes-and-mi-marker-of-disease-severity-or-genetic-determination/

Endothelin Receptors in Cardiovascular Diseases: The Role of eNOS Stimulation

Author and Curator of an Investigator Initiated Study: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/04/endothelin-receptors-in-cardiovascular-diseases-the-role-of-enos-stimulation/

Inhibition of ET-1, ETA and ETA-ETB, Induction of NO production, stimulation of eNOS and Treatment Regime with PPAR-gamma agonists (TZD): cEPCs Endogenous Augmentation for Cardiovascular Risk Reduction – A Bibliography

Curator of an Investigator Initiated Study: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/04/inhibition-of-et-1-eta-and-eta-etb-induction-of-no-production-and-stimulation-of-enos-and-treatment-regime-with-ppar-gamma-agonists-tzd-cepcs-endogenous-augmentation-for-cardiovascular-risk-reduc/

Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) and the Role of Agent Alternatives in endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase (eNOS) Activation and Nitric Oxide Production

Curator and Investigator Initiated Study: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/07/19/cardiovascular-disease-cvd-and-the-role-of-agent-alternatives-in-endothelial-nitric-oxide-synthase-enos-activation-and-nitric-oxide-production/

Innervation of Heart and Heart Rate

Writer and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/02/15/innervation-of-heart-and-heart-rate/

αllbβ3 Antagonists As An Example of Translational Medicine Therapeutics

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter and curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/10/12/%CE%B1llb%CE%B23-antagonists-as-an-example-of-translational-medicine-therapeutics/

Cardiac Contractility & Myocardium Performance: Therapeutic Implications for Ryanopathy (Calcium Release-related Contractile Dysfunction) and Catecholamine Responses

Author, and Content Consultant to e-SERIES A: Cardiovascular Diseases: Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/28/cardiac-contractility-myocardium-performance-ventricular-arrhythmias-and-non-ischemic-heart-failure-therapeutic-implications-for-cardiomyocyte-ryanopathy-calcium-release-related-contractile/

The Centrality of Ca(2+) Signaling and Cytoskeleton Involving Calmodulin Kinases and Ryanodine Receptors in Cardiac Failure, Arterial Smooth Muscle, Post-ischemic Arrhythmia, Similarities and Differences, and Pharmaceutical Targets

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/09/08/the-centrality-of-ca2-signaling-and-cytoskeleton-involving-calmodulin-kinases-and-ryanodine-receptors-in-cardiac-failure-arterial-smooth-muscle-post-ischemic-arrhythmia-similarities-and-differences/

Ca2+-Stimulated Exocytosis: The Role of Calmodulin and Protein Kinase C in Ca2+ Regulation of Hormone and Neurotransmitter

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/23/calmodulin-and-protein-kinase-c-drive-the-ca2-regulation-of-hormone-and-neurotransmitter-release-that-triggers-ca2-stimulated-exocytosis/

Cardiac Contractility & Myocardium Performance: Ventricular Arrhythmias and Non-ischemic Heart Failure – Therapeutic Implications for Cardiomyocyte Ryanopathy (Calcium Release-related Contractile Dysfunction) and Catecholamine Responses

Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Disruption of Calcium Homeostasis: Cardiomyocytes and Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells: The Cardiac and Cardiovascular Calcium Signaling Mechanism

Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/09/12/disruption-of-calcium-homeostasis-cardiomyocytes-and-vascular-smooth-muscle-cells-the-cardiac-and-cardiovascular-calcium-signaling-mechanism/

Calcium-Channel Blockers, Calcium Release-related Contractile Dysfunction (Ryanopathy) and Calcium as Neurotransmitter Sensor

Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/09/16/calcium-channel-blocker-calcium-as-neurotransmitter-sensor-and-calcium-release-related-contractile-dysfunction-ryanopathy/

Synaptotagmin functions as a Calcium Sensor: How Calcium Ions Regulate the fusion of vesicles with cell membranes during Neurotransmission

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/09/10/synaptotagmin-functions-as-a-calcium-sensor-how-calcium-ions-regulate-the-fusion-of-vesicles-with-cell-membranes-during-neurotransmission/

Advanced Topics in Sepsis and the Cardiovascular System at its End Stage

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/18/advanced-topics-in-sepsis-and-the-cardiovascular-system-at-its-end-stage/

For most comprehensive Bibliography on the Ryanodine receptor calcium release channel complex and for FIGURES illustrating the phenomenon, see

Pharmacol Ther. 2009 August; 123(2): 151–177.

http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2009.03.006

PMCID: PMC2704947

Ryanodine receptor-mediated arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death

Lynda M. Blayney[low asterisk] and F. Anthony Lai

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2704947/

Oxidized Calcium Calmodulin Kinase and Atrial Fibrillation

Author: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/10/26/oxidized-calcium-calmodulin-kinase-and-atrial-fibrillation/

Contributions to cardiomyocyte interactions and signaling

Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/10/21/contributions-to-cardiomyocyte-interactions-and-signaling/

Cardiac Contractility & Myocardium Performance: Therapeutic Implications for Ryanopathy (Calcium Release-related Contractile Dysfunction) and Catecholamine Responses

Editor: Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC, Author and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, and Article Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Action of hormones on the circulation

Limbic system mechanisms of stress regulation: Hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis

James P. Herman, Michelle M. Ostrander, Nancy K. Muelle, Helmer Figueiredo
Prog in Neuro-Psychopharmacol & Biol Psychiatry 29 (2005) 1201 – 1213
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2005.08.006

Limbic dysfunction and hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis dysregulation are key features of affective disorders. The following review summarizes our current understanding of the relationship between limbic structures and control of ACTH and glucocorticoid release, focusing on the hippocampus, medial prefrontal cortex and amygdala. In general, the hippocampus and anterior cingulate/prelimbic cortex inhibit stress-induced HPA activation, whereas the amygdala and perhaps the infralimbic cortex may enhance glucocorticoid secretion. Several characteristics of limbic–HPA interaction are notable: first, in all cases, the role of given limbic structures is both region- and stimulus-specific. Second, limbic sites have minimal direct projections to HPA effector neurons of the paraventricular nucleus (PVN); hippocampal, cortical and amygdalar efferents apparently relay with neurons in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, hypothalamus and brainstem to access corticotropin releasing hormone neurons. Third, hippocampal, cortical and amygdalar projection pathways show extensive overlap in regions such as the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, hypothalamus and perhaps brainstem, implying that limbic information may be integrated at subcortical relay sites prior to accessing the PVN. Fourth, these limbic sites also show divergent projections, with the various structures having distinct subcortical targets. Finally, all regions express both glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptors, allowing for glucocorticoid modulation of limbic signaling patterns. Overall, the influence of the limbic system on the HPA axis is likely the end result of the overall patterning of responses to given stimuli and glucocorticoids, with the magnitude of the secretory response determined with respect to the relative contributions of the various structures.

representations of the HPA axis

Diagrammatic representations of the HPA axis of the rat. HPA responses are initiated by neurosecretory neurons of medial parvocellular paraventricular nucleus (mpPVN), which secretes ACTH secretagogues such as corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) and arginine vasopressin (AVP) in the hypophysial portal circulation at the level of the median eminence. These secretagogues promote release of ACTH into the systemic circulation, whereby it promotes synthesis and release of glucocorticoids at the adrenal cortex.

When exposed to chronic stress, the HPA axis can show both response Fhabituation_ and response Ffacilitation_. FHabituation_ occurs when the same (homotypic) stressor is delivered repeatedly, and is characterized by progressive diminution of glucocorticoid responses to the stimulus. Systemic administration of a mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist is sufficient to block habituation, implying a role for MR signaling in this process. It should be noted that HPA axis habituation is highly dependent on both the intensity and predictability of the stressful stimulus. FFacilitation_ is observed when animals repeatedly exposed to one stimulus are presented with a novel (heterotypic). In chronically stressed animals, exposure to a novel stimulus results in rise in glucocorticoids that is as large as or greater than that seen in a chronic stress naıve animal. Importantly, facilitation can occur in the context of chronic stress-induced elevations in resting glucocorticoids levels, suggesting that this process involves a bypass or override of negative feedback signals.

Hippocampal regulation of the HPA axis appears to be both region- and stressor-specific. Using a sequential lesion approach, our group has noted that the inhibitory effects of the hippocampus on stress-induced corticosterone release and CRH/AVP mRNA expression are likely subserved by neurons resident in the ventral subiculum-caudotemporal CA1. In addition to spatial specificity, hippocampal regulation of the HPA axis also appears to be specific to certain stress modalities; our studies indicate that ventral subiculum lesions cause elevated glucocorticoid secretion following restraint, open field or elevated plus maze exposure, but not to ether inhalation or hypoxia.

The research posits an intricate topographical organization of prefrontal cortex output to HPA regulatory circuits. The anatomy of medial prefrontal cortex efferents may illuminate this issue. The infralimbic cortex projects extensively to the anterior bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, medial and central amygdala and the nucleus of the solitary tract, all of which are implicated in stress excitation. In contrast, the prelimbic cortex has minimal input to these structures, but projects to the ventrolateral preoptic area, dorsomedial hypothalamus and peri-PVN region, areas implicated in stress inhibition. Thus, the infralimbic and prelimbic/anterior cingulate components of the prefrontal cortex may play very different roles in HPA axis regulation. Like other limbic regions, the influence of the amygdala on the HPA axis is stressor- and region-specific. The medial amygdala shows intense c-fos induction following stressors such as restraint, swimming, predator exposure and social interaction.

Despite the prominent involvement of the hippocampus, medial prefrontal cortex and amygdala in HPA axis regulation, there is limited evidence of direct innervation of the PVN by these structures. Rather, these regions appear to project to a number of basal forebrain, hypothalamic and brainstem cell populations that in turn innervate the medial parvocellular PVN. Thus, in order to access principle stress effector neurons, information from the limbic system requires an intermediary synapse. In the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and hypothalamus, the majority of these intermediary neurons are GABAergic. For example, the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, ventrolateral preoptic area, dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus and peri-PVN region all contain rich populations of neurons expressing the GABA marker glutamatic acid decarboxylase (GAD) 65/67.

The organization of the peri-PVN cell groups is particularly interesting. In the case of the ventral subiculum and to a lesser extent, the medial prefrontal cortex, terminal fields can be observed in the immediate surround of the PVN, corresponding to areas containing substantial numbers of GABA neurons. Importantly, dendrites of PVN neurons are largely confined within the nucleus proper, indicating that limbic afferents are unlikely to interact directly with the PVN neurons themselves. The peri-PVN GABA neurons are activated by glutamate, and likely express glutamate receptor subunits. These neurons also up-regulate GAD65 mRNA following chronic stress, commensurate with involvement in long-term HPA regulation. Injections of a general ionotroptic glutamate receptor antagonist into the PVN surround potentiates glucocorticoid responses to restraint, consistent with blockade of glutamate excitation of these GABA neurons. The data are consistent with an interaction between the excitatory limbic structures and inhibitory PVN-regulatory cells at the level of the PVN surround.

Brainstem stress-modulatory pathways likely relay excitatory information to the PVN. For example, the nucleus of the solitary tract provides both catecholaminergic (norepinephrine) and non-catecholaminergic (e.g., glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) input to the medial parvocellular. Norepinephrine is released into the PVN following stress and is believed to activate CRH neurons via alpha-1 adrenergic receptors. The role of this pathway is thought to be associated with systemic stressors, as selective destruction of PVN norepinephrine input using anti-dopamine beta hydroxylase-saporin conjugate blocks responses to 2-deoxy-glucose but not restraint. In contrast, blockade of central GLP-1 receptors using exendin 9–36 markedly inhibits responsiveness to both lithium chloride and novelty, suggesting that this non-catecholaminergic cell population may play a more general role in stress integration.

The existence of these putative two-neuron circuits lends important insight into the nature of stress information processing. Anatomical data support the hypothesis that the vast majority of medial prefrontal cortex and ventral subicular inputs to subcortical stress relays are glutamate-containing. As can be appreciated, pyramidal cells of the medial prefrontal cortex and subiculum richly express mRNA encoding vesicular glutamate transporter-1 (VGlut1), a specific marker of glutamate neurons. Combined retrograde tracing/in situ hybridization studies performed in our lab indicate that the vast majority of cortical and hippocampal afferents to PVN-projecting regions (e.g., bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, dorsomedial hypothalamus, ventrolateral medial preoptic area) indeed contain VGlut1, verifying a glutamatergic input to these areas. In contrast, the majority of amygdalar areas implicated in stress regulation express glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) 65 or 67 mRNA, suggesting a GABAergic phenotype; indeed, the vast majority of medial and central amygdaloid projections to PVN relays are GABAergic.

representations of limbic stress-integrative pathways from the prefrontal cortex, amygdala and hippocampus

Diagrammatic representations of limbic stress-integrative pathways from the prefrontal cortex, amygdala and hippocampus. The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) subsumes neurons of the prelimbic (pl), anterior cingulate (ac) and infralimbic cortices (il), which appear to have different actions on the HPA axis stress response. The pl/ac send excitatory projections (designated as dark circles, filled line with arrows) to regions such as the peri-PVN zone and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST), both of which send direct GABAergic projections to the medial parvocellular PVN (delineated as open circles, dotted lines ending in squares). This two-neuron chain is likely to be inhibitory in nature. In contrast, the infralimbic cortex projects to regions such as the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS), which sends excitatory projections to the PVN, implying a means of PVN excitation from this cortical region. The ventral subiculum (vSUB) sends excitatory projections to numerous subcortical regions, including the posterior BST, peri-PVN region, ventrolateral region of the medial preoptic area (vlPOA) and ventrolateral region of the dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus (vlDMH), all of which send GABAergic projections to the PVN and are likely to communicate transsynaptic inhibition. The medial amygdaloid nucleus (MeA) sends inhibitory projections to GABAergic PVN-projecting populations, such as the BST, vlPOA and peri-PVN, eliciting a transsynaptic disinhibition. A similar arrangement likely exists for the central amygdaloid nucleus (CeA), which sends GABAergic outflow to the ventrolateral BST and to a lesser extent, the vlDMH. The CeA also projects to GABAergic neurons in the NTS, which may disinhibit ascending projections to the PVN.

Inotropes and vasopressors: more than haemodynamics!

Hendrik Bracht, E Calzia, M Georgieff, J Singer, P Radermacher and JA Russell
British Journal of Pharmacology (2012) 165 2009–2011
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01776.x

Circulatory shock is characterized by arterial hypotension requiring fluid resuscitation combined with inotropes and/or vasopressors to correct the otherwise life-threatening impairment of oxygen supply to peripheral tissues. Catecholamines represent the current therapeutic choice, but this standard is only based on empirical clinical experience. Although there is evidence that some catecholamines may be better than others, it is a matter of debate which one may be the most effective and/or the safest for the different situations. In their review in this issue of the British Journal of Pharmacology, Bangash et al. provide an overview of the pharmacology as well as the available clinical data on the therapeutic use of endogenous catecholamines, their synthetic derivatives and a range of other agents (vasopressin and its analogues, PDE inhibitors and levosimendan). The authors point out that, despite well-established receptor pharmacology, the clinical effects of these treatments are poorly understood. Hence, further investigations are essential to determine which catecholamine, or, in a broader sense, which alternative vasopressor and/or inotrope is the most appropriate for a particular clinical condition.

LINKED ARTICLES This article is a commentary on Bangash et al., pp. 2015–2033 of this issue and is commented on by De Backer and Scolletta, pp. 2012–2014 of this issue. To view Bangash et al. visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01588.x and to view De Backer and Scolletta visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01746.x

In the present issue of the British Journal of Pharmacology, Bangash et al. (2012) review the pharmacology as well as the available clinical data on the therapeutic use of various inotropes and vasopressor agents used for the hemodynamic management of (septic) shock. By definition, circulatory shock is characterized by arterial hypotension that necessitates immediate intervention to maintain the balance of tissue oxygen supply and demand. In practice, the longer and the more frequent periods of hypotension are present in a patient, the less likely is survival, and early aggressive resuscitation is associated with improved outcome. Besides fluid administration to increase the circulating blood volume, in most cases, vasoactive drugs are required to restore an adequate perfusion pressure, and up to now, catecholamines represent the current therapeutic choice. According to their pharmacological profile, catecholamines are traditionally used for their predominant inotropic, vasodilating or constrictor effects.

Clinicians should not forget two fundamental aspects of catecholamine action. First, because of the ubiquitous presence of adrenoceptors, endogenous catecholamines. as well as their synthetic derivatives, have pronounced effects on virtually all tissues (many of which were described several years ago), in particular on the immune system (van der Poll et al., 1996; Flierl et al., 2008), on energy metabolism (Cori and Cori, 1928; Bearn et al., 1951) and on gastrointestinal motility (McDougal and West, 1954). Second, the adrenoceptor density and responsiveness to catecholamines are markedly altered by both the underlying disease and the ongoing catecholamine. Bangash et al. (2012) have to be commended that they not only describe the various endogenous catecholamines and their synthetic derivatives but also thoroughly discuss possible alternatives, such as vasopressin and its analogues, PDE inhibitors and levosimendan.

Inhibitory effects of cortisone and hydrocortisone on human Kv1.5 channel currents

Jing Yu, Mi-Hyeong Park, Su-Hyun Jo
Eur J Pharmacol 746 (2015) 158–166 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.11.007

Glucocorticoids are the primary hormones that respond to stress and protect organisms from dangerous situations. The glucocorticoids hydrocortisone and its dormant form, cortisone, affect the cardiovascular system with changes such as increased blood pressure and cardioprotection. Kv1.5 channels play a critical role in the maintenance of cellular membrane potential and are widely expressed in pancreatic β-cells, neurons, myocytes, and smooth muscle cells of the pulmonary vasculature. We examined the electrophysiological effects of both cortisone and hydrocortisone on human Kv1.5 channels expressed in Xenopus oocytes using a two-microelectrode voltage clamp technique. Both cortisone and hydrocortisone rapidly and irreversibly suppressed the amplitude of Kv1.5 channel current with IC50 values of 50.2 + 74.2 μM and 33.4 + 73.2 μM, respectively, while sustained the current trace shape of Kv1.5 current. The inhibitory effect of cortisone on Kv1.5 decreased progressively from – 10mV to +30 mV, while hydrocortisone’s inhibition of the channel did not change across the same voltage range. Both cortisone and hydrocortisone blocked Kv1.5 channel currents in a non-use-dependent manner and neither altered the channel’s steady-state activation or inactivation curves. These results show that cortisone and hydrocortisone inhibited Kv1.5 channel currents differently. Kv1.5 channels were more sensitive to hydrocortisone than to cortisone.

In conclusion, cortisone and hydrocortisones rapidly and irreversibly blocked human Kv1.5 channels expressed in Xenopus oocytes in a closed state without altering activation and inactivation gating. These data provide a possible mechanism for GC effects on the cardiovascular system. The detailed mechanism of the interaction between GCs and human Kv1.5 channels merits further exploration.

Inflammasome and cytokine blocking strategies in autoinflammatory disorders

Monika Moll, Jasmin B. Kuemmerle-Deschner
Clinical Immunology (2013) 147, 242–275 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clim.2013.04.008

Autoinflammatory disorders are characterized by usually unprovoked recurrent episodes of features of inflammation caused by activation of the innate immune system. Many autoinflammatory disorders – the monogenetic defects in particular – are associated with alterations of inflammasomes. Inflammasomes are complex multimolecular structures, which respond to “danger” signals by activation of cytokines. Among these, IL-1 is the key player of the innate immune response and inflammation. Consequently, IL-1 blocking strategies are specific pathway targeting therapies in autoinflammatory diseases and applied in CAPS, colchicine-resistant FMF, TRAPS, HIDS and DIRA. A number of rare genetic disorders involve inflammasome malfunction resulting in enhanced inflammatory response. IL-1 inhibition to date is the most successful specific therapy in autoinflammatory disorders. Here, current treatment strategies in autoinflammatory disorders are reviewed with a focus on inflammasome and cytokine inhibition.

Autoinflammatory disorders have been defined as “clinical disorders marked by abnormally increased inflammation, mediated predominantly by the cells and molecules of the innate immune system.” This means that in autoinflammatory disorders autoantibodies or antigen related T-cells are usually absent. These are features of the adaptive immune system and found in autoimmune diseases.
In general, autoinflammatory disorders are characterized by a large spectrum of rather non-specific systemic and organ-specific signs and symptoms of inflammation. In some diseases specific symptoms are observed like hearing loss in Muckle–Wells syndrome or CNS-disease in NOMID/CINCA. Most autoinflammatory disorders are associated with high levels of serum amyloid A (SAA) during inflammatory attacks and high risk of life-threatening amyloidosis. In most cases the disease will start in infancy and childhood. Only rarely primary manifestations in adulthood are reported.
Because recurrent fevers have been the most prominent feature of this group of diseases, historically they have been summarized under the term “hereditary periodic fever syndromes”. With the deeper understanding of the underlying pathophysiologic mechanisms on the genetic and cellular level, the more comprehensive term “autoinflammatory syndromes”.
Along with the detection of the genetic origin of the autoinflammatory disorders, the cellular pathomechanism leading to the resulting inflammation has been described. A number of genes, which are affected by mutations in autoinflammatory disorders, encode proteins forming intracellular complexes called inflammasomes. External and endogenous “dangers” are recognized by these “danger sensors” and are able to induce an inflammatory reaction. Microbial components from infectious agents such as LPS, flagellin, lipoteichoic acid from bacteria, peptidoglycan or double-stranded DNA from viruses, or inorganic crystalline structures such as uric acid crystals, display pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). These and endogenous damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) like heat-shock proteins, the chromatin-associated protein high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), hyaluronan fragments, ATP, uric acid, and DNA which are released with cellular waste and injury stimulate the inflammasome. Also, the myeloid related proteins MRP8 and 14 (also known as S100A8 and S100A9) which are used as biomarkers, belong to the group of DAMPs. In addition to PAMPs and DAMPs, the inflammasome may interact with and be stimulated by proteins such as pyrin, proline–serine–threonine phosphatase interacting protein 1 (PSTPIP1), mevalonate kinase (MK) and NLRP7. All of these may also be altered in structure and function by monogenetic mutations.
As a consequence of inflammasome activation, a large variety of cytokines are produced and released by cells of the innate immune system (monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells). They include the IL-1 family (IL-1, IL-18, IL-33), the TNF family (TNF-α, LT-α), the IL-6 family (IL-6, IL-11), the IL-17 family (IL-17A, IL-25), and type 1 IFNs (IFN-α, IFN-β). These cytokines play redundant roles depending on the cause and pathway of inflammation in the respective disease. Therefore, therapeutic strategies targeting only one cytokine should be expected to be inadequate to treat inflammatory disorders. However, improvement observed in diabetes mellitus Type 2 after blockade of IL-1 indicates that targeting one cytokine, even in a polygenic, complex inflammatory disorder, may cause beneficial effects. Regarding the inflammatory pathogenesis involved in the disease, Goldbach–Mansky and co-workers have classified the monogenetic autoinflammatory disorders as IL-1 mediated (CAPS and DIRA), partially IL-1 mediated (FMF, HIDS, PAPA) and mediated by other pathways (TRAPS, Blau-syndrome, Majeed’s syndrome, cherubism and IL-10 receptor deficiency).

Intracellular signaling pathways and therapeutic targets in autoinflammatory diseases. In autoinflammatory diseases, complex intracellular pathways lead to activation of the inflammatory response, particularly IL-1β activation and release, but also induction of NFκB and TNFα. Several mechanisms may activate the inflammasome, one crucial step in the IL-1 pathway. These include DAMPs (1), K+-efflux (2), activation of ROS (3) by ATP, anorganic crystals, membrane perturbation and proteases which are released from lysosomes damaged by β-amyloid, and heat shock proteins (4). NFκB may be induced by PAMPs via toll like receptors (5), IL-1β-signaling (6) or UPR (7). Activated NFκB eventually leads to the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL-1, IL-6 and TNFα (8). Most of these steps to activation have been identified as targets for anti-inflammatory therapies, which are either already used in clinical practice or still experimental. IL-1- (a), TNF- (b), and IL-6 (c) inhibition are established safe and effective treatment strategies in many autoinflammatory diseases. Thalidomide (d) probably inhibits activation of IκB and is also part of routine treatment. Still experimental strategies include inhibition of PAMPs (e), DAMPs (f), potassium efflux (g), ROS by antioxidants (h), heat shock proteins (i), or caspase-1 (k). Caspase-inhibitors have entered clinical trials.

Colchicine has been used for the treatment of inflammatory disorders for centuries. Colchicine is effective in gout, but also in Behcet’s disease and FMF, where it is able to prevent amyloidosis. The drug affects many cell types and accumulates preferentially in neutrophils. Although its mode of action is still unclear it has microtubule destabilizing properties which may be part of its effects. Additional effects such as alteration of adhesion molecule expression, chemotaxis, and ROS generation also impact inflammation. Colchicine is generally tolerated well. However gastrointestinal, hematologic, and neuromuscular side-effects occur, when the administered dose is too high.

Inflammasome activation by heat shock proteins may be prevented by direct inhibition of HSP. HSP90 inhibition was effective in reducing gout-like arthritis in an animal model. Targeting caspase-1 (caspase-1-inhibitors) may be a strategy which has even greater potential in the treatment of autoimmune diseases and autoinflammatory disorders. IL-1 converting enzyme/caspase inhibitor VX-765 was able to inhibit IL-β-secretion in LPS-stimulated cells from FCAS and control subjects. A new IL-1 inhibitor, gevokizumab or Xoma 052 has entered clinical pilot trials. Therapeutic targets particularly for the protein-misfolding autoinflammatory diseases could be chemical chaperones and drugs that stimulate autophagy. Also inhibiting the signaling molecules that mediate the UPR activation which causes activation of the innate immune system and exacerbate inflammation could be a target.

To date IL-1 blockade is the most effective therapy in most monogenetic autoinflammatory diseases — in intrinsic and in extrinsic inflammasom-opathies. The most favorable effects are seen in the treatment of cryopyrin associated periodic syndromes like FACS, MWS and CINCA. But IL-1-blockade is also effective in other diseases like DIRA, TRAPS, PFAPA, colchicine-resistant FMF etc. IL-1 inhibition also has a role in multifactorial and common autoinflammatory diseases like diabetes, gout and artherosclerosis.

Endothelin—Biology and disease

Al-karim Khimji, Don C. Rockey
Cellular Signalling 22 (2010) 1615–1625
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.cellsig.2010.05.002

Endothelins are important mediators of physiological and pathophysiologic processes including cardiovascular disorders, pulmonary disease, renal diseases and many others. Additionally, endothelins are involved in many other important processes such as development, cancer biology, wound healing, and even neurotransmission. Here, we review the cell and molecular biology as well as the prominent pathophysiological aspects of the endothelin system.

Endothelin-1 (ET-1) was originally isolated from porcine aortic endothelial cells and is a 21 amino acid cyclic peptide, with two disulphide bridges joining the cysteine amino acids (positions 1–15 and 3–11) at the N-terminal end and hydrophobic amino acids at the c-terminal end of the peptide (Fig. 1). The C-terminal end contains the amino acids that bind to the receptor, the N-terminal end determines the peptide’s binding affinity to the receptor (see Fig. 1). There appear to be at least 2 other endothelin isoforms including endothelin-2 (ET-2) and endothelin-3 (ET-3), which differ from ET-1 in two and six amino acid residues, respectively.

Endothelin (ET) structure

Endothelin (ET) structure. Endothelin is a 21 amino acid cyclic peptide, with two disulphide bridges joining the cysteine residues at positions 1–15 and 3–11. The C-terminal end containsamino acids that appear tomediate receptor binding,while the N-terminal residues determine the peptide’s binding affinity to the receptor. The amino acids highlighted in black in panels (b) and (c) show differences in ET-2 and ET-3 compared to ET-1. As can be seen, the remainder of the primary sequence of the different family members is identical.

Endothelin-1 biosynthetic pathway

Endothelin-1 biosynthetic pathway. Preproendothelin mRNA is synthesized via transcriptional activation of the preproendothelin gene. The translational product is a 203-amino acid peptide known as preproendothelin, which is cleaved at dibasic sites by furin-like endopeptidases to form big endothelins. These biologically inactive, 37- to 41-amino acid intermediates, are cleaved at Trp21–Val 22 by a family of endothelin-converting enzymes (ECE) to produce mature ET-1. The pathway for endothelin-2 and -3 is presumed to be similar.

The endothelin peptides are produced through a set of complex molecular processes. Preproendothelins are synthesized via transcriptional activation of the preproendothelin gene, which is regulated by c-fos and c-jun, nuclear factor-1, AP-1 and GATA-2. The translational product is a 203-amino acid peptide known as preproendothelin which is cleaved at dibasic sites by furin-like endopeptidases to form big endothelins. These biologically inactive 37- to 41-amino acid intermediates are cleaved at Trp21–Val 22 by a family of endothelin-converting enzymes (ECE) to produce mature ET-1.

Three isoforms of ECE have been reported, namely ECE-1, ECE-2 and ECE-3; ECE-1 and ECE-2 are most prominent. (Endothelin receptors are widely distributed in many different tissues and cells, there is a marked difference in cell and tissue distribution patterns between the two receptor subtypes i.e. ETA and ETB. [ET Receptors: Endothelial cells -ETB Vascular tone, clearance of circulating ET-1]). ECEs belong to the M13 group of proteins—which is a family that includes neutral endopeptidases, kell blood group antigens (Kell), a peptide from phosphate regulating gene (PEX), X-converting enzyme (XCE), “secreted” endopeptidases, and the ECEs. M13 family members contain type II integral membrane proteins with zinc metalloprotease activity, and their function is inhibited by phosphoramidon. Four variants of ECE-1 have been reported in humans, namely ECE-1a, ECE-1b, ECE-1c and ECE-1d which are a result of alternate splicing of ECE-1mRNA. ECE-1 appears to be localized in the plasma cell membrane and its optimal activity is atpH7; it processes big ETs both intracellularly and on the cell surface. It is distributed predominantly in smooth muscle cells. ECE-1 can also hydrolyze other proteins including bradykinin, substance P, and insulin. ECE-2 is localized to the trans-Golgi network and is expressed abundantly in neural tissues and endothelial cells. Its optimal activity is at pH5; the acidic activity marks ECE-2 as an intracellular enzyme. Substrate selectivity experiments indicate that both ECE-1 and ECE-2 show preference for big ET-1 over big ET-2 or big ET-3.

Although there has been controversy about the precise repertoire of endothelin receptors, it appears that the endothelins exert their actions through two major receptor subtypes known as ETA and ETB receptors. ETA and ETB receptors belong to the superfamily of G-protein coupled receptors and contain seven transmembrane domains of 22–26 hydrophobic amino acids among approximately 400 total amino acids. The ETA receptor is found predominantly in smooth muscle cells and cardiac muscles, whereas the ETB receptor is abundantly expressed in endothelial cells.

ET-1 signaling is extremely complicated and ET receptor activation leads to diverse cellular responses through interaction in a chain of pathways that includes the G-protein-activated cell surface receptor, coupling G-proteins and phospholipase (PLC) pathway and other G protein-activated effectors. In one of the canonical signaling pathways, ETA induced activation of phospholipase C leads to the formation of inositol triphosphate and diacylglcerol from phosphatidylinositol. Inositol 1,4,5 triphosphate (IP3) then diffuses to specific receptors on the endoplasmic reticulum and releases stored Ca2+ into the cytosol. This causes a rapid elevation in intracellular Ca2+, which in turn causes cellular contraction and then vasoconstriction; the vasoconstrictive effects of ET persist despite dissociation of ET-1 from the receptor, perhaps because the levels of intracellular calcium remain elevated or because endothelin signaling pathways remain activated for prolonged time periods.

Endothelin signaling – smooth muscle cells

Endothelin signaling – smooth muscle cells. ET receptor stimulation leads to diverse cellular responses in a chain of pathways that include the G protein bg activation. This is followed by activation of a variety of different downstream cascades. For example, shown on the left, ETA induced activation of phosphatidyl inositol specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC) leads to the formation of inositol triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglcerol (DAG) from phosphoinositol 4,5 bisphosphate (PIP2). Inositol 1, 4, 5 triphosphate (IP3) then diffuses to specific receptors on the endoplasmic reticulum and releases stored Ca2+ into the cytosol. This causes a rapid elevation in intracellular Ca2+, which in turn causes cellular contraction

Endothelin signaling – endothelial cells.

Endothelin signaling – endothelial cells. ET-1 stimulates NO production in endothelial cells by activation of endothelial cell NO synthase (eNOS). This occurs via ET-1’s activation of the ET-B receptor and the PI3-K/Akt pathway, which in turn stimulates phosphorylation of eNOS, with subequent conversion of L-arginine to L-citrulline and at the same time, generating NO. In addition shear stress, G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR), transient receptor potential channel (TRPC) and receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) are also activators of eNOS. As a result, NO diffuses to stellate cell, where it directly activates the heme moiety of soluble guanylate cyclase, leading to the production of cyclic GMP. Intracellular cyclic GMP leads to activation of protein kinase G (PKG) resulting in relaxation of stellate cells – offsetting ET’s contractile effect on stellate cells.

The plasma levels of endothelin do not correlate with either the presence of essential hypertension or its severity, presumably, due to the fact that endothelin appears to be biologically active in a paracrine or autocrine fashion (i.e., rather than in an endocrine fashion. Systemic administration of ET-1 in low doses produces a modest increase in blood pressure which is normalized by selective ETA receptor blockade. In experimental models, long-term infusion with ET-1 leads to stroke and renal injury, which can be prevented with long-term administration of selective ETA receptor antagonists. Apart from its direct vasoconstrictor effects, mediated by smooth muscle cell contraction in the arterial system, ET-1 also indirectly enhances the vasoconstrictor effects of other neurohumoral and endocrine factors and may potentiate essential hypertension via this mechanism. For example, ET-1 induces conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II in in vitro models and stimulates adrenal synthesis of epinephrine and aldosterone. Thus there is cross-talk between the endothelin and renin–angiotensin–aldosterone systems—to synergistically act to facilitate vasoconstriction. In aggregate, the data suggest that dysregulation of the endothelin system contributes to multisystem complications of hypertension such as progressive renal disease, cerebrovascular diseases, atherosclerosis, and cardiac disease.

ET-1 in the renal system is synthesized in vascular endothelial cells and epithelial cells of the collecting ducts. Both ET receptors are present in renal vasculature and epithelial cells where ETB is the predominant receptor type. Renal vasculature is relatively more sensitive to the vasoconstrictive effects of ET-1 than any other vasculature and it causes constriction of both afferent and efferent renal arterioles.

ET-1 administration in humans significantly reduces renal blood flow, glomerular filtration rate and urine volume. In addition to its hemodynamic effects, ET-1 system is also involved in salt and water reabsorption, acid-base balance, promotion of mesangial cell growth and activation of inflammatory cells. ET-1 has been implicated in the pathophysiology of acute renal injury, chronic renal failure as well as renal remodeling. Transgenic mice overexpressing ET-1 develop glomerulosclerosis, interstitial fibrosis and reduced renal function. Increased ET-1 and ET receptor upregulation has been described in various animal models of acute renal injury and also in patients with chronic renal failure. Additionally, plasma ET-1 levels have been shown to correlate with the severity of chronic renal failure.

ET-1 is produced and released by airway epithelial cells, macrophages, and pulmonary vascular endothelial cells. Endothelin receptors are similarly widely distributed in airway smooth muscle cells, the pulmonary vasculature, and in the autonomic neuronal network lining tracheal muscles. ET-1 has a potent bronchoconstrictor effect. In animal models, intravenous ET-1 injection led to a dose-dependent increase in airway resistance. The increase in airway resistance is in part due to enhanced production of thromboxanes with subsequent activation of thromboxane receptors and smooth muscle cell proliferation. The ET system has been emphasized in a number of pulmonary disorders, including asthma, cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis, and pulmonary hypertension. Increased lung vasculature ET-1 immunoreactivity has been reported in both animals and patients with pulmonary hypertension and increases in ET-1 immunoreactivity correlate with the degree of pulmonary vascular resistance, disorders such as pulmonary hypertension, myocardial infarction, heart failure, neoplasia, vascular disorders, wound healing, and many others.

Endothelin and endothelin antagonism: Roles in cardiovascular health and disease

Praveen Tamirisa, William H. Frishman, and Anil Kumar
Am Heart J 1995;130:601-10

Endothelin is a naturally occurring polypeptide substance with potent vasoconstrictive actions. It was originally described as endotensin or endothelial contracting factor in 1985 by Hickey et al., who reported on the finding of a potent stable vasoconstricting substance produced by cultured endothelial cells. Subsequently, Yanagisawa et al. isolated and purified the substance from the supernatant of cultured porcine aortic and endothelial
cells and then went on to prepare its complementary deoxyribonucleic acid (cDNA). This substance was renamed endothelin.

Endothelin is the most potent vasoconstrictor known to date. Its chemical structure is closely related to certain neurotoxins (sarafotoxins) produced by scorpions and the burrowing asp (Atractaspis engaddensis). Endothelins have now been isolated in various cell lines from several organisms. They are now considered to be autocoids or cytokines 4 because of their wide distribution, their expression during ontogeny and adult life, their primary role as intracellular factors, and the complexity of their biologic effects.

The superfamily of endothelins and sarafotoxins have two main branches with four members each. Endothelin is a polypeptide consisting of 21 amino acids. There are three closely related isoforms endothelin-1, endothelin-2, and endothelin-3 (ET1, ET2, and ET3, respectively), which differ in a few of the amino acid constituents. The fourth member, called ET4 or vasoactive intestinal constrictor, is considered to be the murine form ofET2. The endothelin molecules have several conserved amino acids, including the last six carboxyl (C)-terminal amino acids and four cysteine residues, which form two intrachain disulfide bonds between residues 1 and 15 and 3 and 11. These residues may have biologic implications particularly in relation to three dimensional structure and function. The main differences in the endothelin isopeptides reside in their amino (N)-terminal segments. There is a very high degree of sequence similarity between the two branches (approximately 60%) and within the constituent members of a branch (71% to 95%).

Endothelin has been demonstrated to be produced from endothelial and nonendothelial cells. The synthesis of endothelins parallels that of the various peptide hormones in that a precursor polypeptide is sequentially cleaved to generate the active form. Recently, endothelin-converting enzyme (ECE) was cloned. ECE acts at an essential step in the production of active forms of endothelins. The fully formed molecule is then broken down into inactive peptides by as yet uncharacterized proteases. Some candidates are the lysosomal protective protein (deamidase) and enkephalinase (neutral endopeptidase EC 24.11). The regulation of endothelin production occurs predominantly at the levels of transcription and translation. No storage
vesicles containing endothelin have been identified. The genes for the various endothelin isoforms have been sequenced and are found to be scattered in different chromosomes. Current evidence suggests that they arose from a common ancestor by exon duplication.

Factors known to release endothelinThrombinTransforming growth factor-~Arginine vasopressinHypoxia

Phorbol ester

Glucose

Angiotensin II

Cyclosporin

Insulinlike growth factor

Bombesin

Cortisol

Low-density lipeprotein cholesterol

Hypercholesterolemia

Changes in shear stress on vascular wall

Receptor affinities
Receptor	Affinity
ETA	ET1 > ET2 > ET3
ETB	ET1 = ET2 = ET3
ETC	ET3 > ET1

Intracellular signal transduction pathways activated by endothelins (ETs)

Intracellular signal transduction pathways activated by endothelins (ETs). Activated ET receptor stimulates phospholipase C (PLC) and phospholipase A₂ (PLA2). Activated ET receptor also stimulates voltage-dependent calcium channels (VDC) and probably receptor-operated calcium channel (ROC). Inositol triphosphate (IP3) elicits release of calcium ion from caffeine-sensitive calcium store. Protein kinase C (PKC) activated by diacylglycerol (DG) sensitizes contractile apparatus. Increased concentration of intracellular free calcium ion ([Ca2+]_i induces contraction. Cyclooxygenase products (prostacyclin [PGI₂], prostaglandin E₂[PGE₂], and thromboxane A₂ [TXA₂]) modify contraction. G, G protein; IP₂, inositol biphosphate; IP₃, inositol triphosphate; PIP₂, phosphatidyl inositol biphosphate. (From Masaki T et al. Circulation 1991;84: 1460.)

Systemic hypertension. Endothelin is the most potent vasoconstrictor known to date and has an exceptionally long duration of physiologic action. The influence of endothelin in maintaining normal blood pressure and its role in the cause of systemic hypertension remain unclear. Intravenous injections of endothelin in animals cause a transient decrease in systolic blood pressure (ETB) followed by a prolonged pressor response (ETA). The vasoconstrictor action is mediated by ETA receptors in the vascular smooth muscle, whereas the predominant vasodilation effect is mediated by the ETB receptors on the endothelial cells that cause release of prostacyclin and nitric oxide. Therefore the overall predominant hemodynamic effect of endothelin in a given organ depends on the receptor type being stimulated, its location, and its relative abundance.

Angiotensin II has been found to increase endothelin concentrations in vitro from endo thelial cells, suggesting one mechanism by which angiotensin-converting-enzyme (ACE) inhibition could function in vivo. ACE inhibitors also can indirectly interfere with endothelin: increased concentrations of bradykinin decrease endothelin release (by acting through bradykinin 2 receptors, stimulation of which cause increased nitric oxide release). ACE inhibitors can cause regression of intimal hyperplasia, whereas other antihypertensive drugs are ineffective in this regard.

Myocardial ischemia. Myocardial ischemia can enhance the release of endothelin by cardiomyocytes and increase its vasoactive effects. Infusion of the ET1 isoform directly into the coronary circulation of animals results in the development of myocardial infarction, with impaired ventricular functioning and the development of arrhythmias. Endothelin has been shown to lower the threshold for ventricular fibrillation in dogs. An increase in ET1 has been observed in cardiac tissue after experimental myocardial infarction in rats, and pretreatment with an antiendothelin ϒ-globulin in this model can reduce infarct size by as much as 40%. Infusion of ETA receptor antagonist drugs before an ischemic insult can also reduce infarct size in animals.

Plasma endothelin concentrations can predict hemodynamic complications in patients with myocardial infarction. Patients with the highest plasma endothelin concentrations after myocardial infarction have the highest creatine phosphokinase (CPK) and CPK MB-isoenzyme concentrations and the lowest angiographically determined ejection fractions.

Left ventricular function and congestive heart failure. Endothelin exhibits potent inotropic activity in isolated hearts, cardiac muscle strips, isolated cells, and instrumented intact animals. High-affinity receptors for endothelin have been demonstrated in the atria and the ventricles. Intravenous administration of the ET1 isoform produces delayed prolonged augmentation of left ventricular performance in addition to its biphasic vasoactive effects of transient vasodilation followed by sustained vasocontraction.

Endothelin is a potent secretogogue of atrial natriuretic factor, which is a naturally occurring antagonist of endothelin. The ETA receptor appears to mediate endothelin’s actions of vasoconstriction and the stimulation of atrial natriuretic factor secretion, and the ETB receptor mediates endothelin-induced vasodilation and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Urinary water excretion is mediated through both receptors, but sodium excretion is mediated through the ETA receptor.

Increased concentrations of endothelin described in patients with congestive heart failure are predictive of increased mortality risk. It also has been suggested that increased concentrations of endothelin may play an important role in the increased systemic vascular resistance observed in congestive heart failure.

There is early clinical evidence that treatment with ETA receptor antagonists and ECE inhibitors can influence favorably the course of human heart failure. ACE inhibitors may also benefit patients with heart failure because of their antiendothelin actions.

Pulmonary hypertension. Expression of ET1 in the lung has been studied by immunocytochemistry and hybridization in situ in specimens from patients with pulmonary hypertension of primary or secondary causes. In contrast to normal lung, specimens from patients with pulmonary hypertension exhibit abundant ET2 immunostaining, particularly over endothelium of markedly hypertrophied muscular pulmonary arteries and plexogenic lesions. Endothelin has been suggested as a potent vasoconstrictor and growth-promoting factor in the pathophysiologic pathophysiologic mechanisms of pulmonary hypertension.

Ventricular and vascular hypertrophy. Endothelin increases DNA synthesis in vascular smooth-muscle ceils, cardiomyocytes, fibroblasts, glial cells, mesangial cells, and other cells; causes expression of protooncogenes; causes cell proliferation; and causes hypertrophy. It acts in synergy with various factors such as transforming growth factor, epidermal growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, basic fibroblast growth factor and insulin to potentiate cellular transformation and replication. This synergy suggests that all of these factors act through common pathways involving PKC and cyclic adenosine monophosphate. Endothelin per se may not be a direct mediator of angiogenesis but may function as a comitogenic factor.

Neointima formation after vascular wall trauma. The efficacy of coronary angioplasty is limited by the high incidence of restenosis. ET1 induces cultured vascular smooth-muscle cell proliferation by activation of the ETA-receptor subtype, a response that normally is attenuated by an intact, functional endothelium. In addition, ET1 also induces the expression and release of several protooncogenes and growth factors that modulate smooth-muscle cell migration, proliferation, and matrix formulation. In addition to inhibiting smooth-muscle cell proliferation in vitro, endothelin-receptor antagonism with SB 209670 ameliorates the degree of neointima formation observed after rat carotid artery angioplasty. The observations raise the possibility that ET1 antagonists will serve as novel therapeutic agents in the control of restenosis.

Nonspecific endothelin antagonists
ECE inhibitorsAngiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitorsAngiotensin II receptor blocking agentsCalcium-entry blocking agentsPotassium-channel opening agentsAdenosineNitroglycerin

SUMMARY

Endothelin is the most potent mammalian vasoconstrictor yet discovered. Its three isoforms play leading roles in regulating vascular tone and causing mitogenesis. The isoforms bind to two major receptor subtypes (ETA and ETB), which mediate a wide variety of physiologic actions in several organ systems. Endothelin may also be a disease marker or an etiologic factor in ischemic heart disease, atherosclerosis, congestive heart failure, renal failure, myocardial and vascular wall hypertrophy, systemic hypertension, pulmonary hypertension, and subarachnoid hemorrhage. Specific and nonspecific receptor antagonists and ECE inhibitors that have been developed interfere with endothelin’s function. Many available cardiovascular therapeutic agents, such as angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors, calcium-entry blocking drugs, and nitroglycerin, also may interfere with endothelin release or may modify its activity. The endothelin antagonists have great potential as agents for use in the treatment of a wide spectrum of disease entities and as biologic probes for understanding the actions of endothelin in human beings.

Endothelin receptor antagonists

Sophie Motte, Kathleen McEntee, Robert Naeije
Pharmacology & Therapeutics 110 (2006) 386 – 414
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2005.08.012

Endothelin receptor antagonists (ERAs) have been developed to block the effects of endothelin-1 (ET-1) in a variety of cardiovascular conditions. ET-1 is a powerful vasoconstrictor with mitogenic or co-mitogenic properties, which acts through the stimulation of 2 subtypes of receptors [endothelin receptor subtype A (ETA) and endothelin receptor subtype B (ETB) receptors]. Endogenous ET-1 is involved in a variety of conditions including systemic and pulmonary hypertension (PH), congestive heart failure (CHF), vascular remodeling (restenosis, atherosclerosis), renal failure, cancer, and cerebrovascular disease. The first dual ETA/ETB receptor blocker, bosentan, has already been approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). Trials of endothelin receptor antagonists in heart failure have been completed with mixed results so far. Studies are ongoing on the effects of selective ETA antagonists or dual ETA/ETB antagonists in lung fibrosis, cancer, and subarachnoid hemorrhage. While non-peptidic ET-1 receptor antagonists suitable for oral intake with excellent bioavailability have become available, proven efficacy is limited to pulmonary hypertension, but it is possible that these agents might find a place in the treatment of several cardiovascular and non-cardiovascular diseases in the coming future.

Proposed mechanism by which ET-1 triggers vasoconstriction and vascular remodeling. Activation of G-protein-coupled endothelin receptors leads to stimulation of phospholipase C (PLC) which hydrolyses phosphatidyl inositol biphosphate (PIP2) into inositol triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). DAG opens receptor-operated Ca++ channels (ROC) while IP3 induces Ca++ mobilization from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) and opens store-operated Ca++ channels (SOC) directly or indirectly by store depletion to further increase cytosolic Ca++. This Ca++ increase may also trigger Ca++ release from the SR through ryanodine receptors. Depolarization induced by the opening of non-selective cationic channels (NSCC) via ET-1 and Ca++-activated Cl[1] channels as well as by the inhibition of voltage-gated K+ channels (Kv), opens voltage-dependent Ca++ channels (VDCC) to further increase the Ca++ entry across the plasma membrane. The cytosolic Ca++ increase may also activate Na/H exchangers resulting in alkalinization of the cells and promoting Ca++ influx by activating the Na/Ca exchanger. In addition, the elevated cytosolic Ca++ concentrations and DAG activate the protein kinase C and thus promote cell cycle progression by the Ca++/calmodulin complex (Ca++/CaM) and induction of proto-oncogenes. The intracellular signaling cascade induced by activation of ETB receptor is similar to the ETA receptor one, in stimulating the activation of PLC, generating IP3 and DAG and mobilizing of calcium. However, the PLA2 is also activated via ETB receptors to release prostaglandins (PG) and thromboxane A2 (TXA2).

Endothelin-1 increases isoprenaline-enhanced cyclic AMP levels in cerebral cortex

Marıa J. Perez-Alvareza, MC Calcerrada, F Hernandez, RE Catalan, AM Martınez
Regulatory Peptides 88 (2000) 41–46 PII: S0167-0115(99)00118-4

We examined the effect of ET-1 on cyclic AMP levels in rat cerebral cortex. The peptide caused a concentration-dependent increase of [³ H] cyclic AMP accumulation after 10 min of treatment. This effect was due to adenosine accumulation since it was inhibited by the treatment with adenosine deaminase. ET-1, apart from being able to increase cyclic AMP, also potentiated the cyclic AMP generated by isoprenaline in the presence of adenosine deaminase. Experiments performed in the presence of BQ-123 or BQ-788, specific ET_A or ET_B receptor antagonists respectively indicated that ET was the receptor involved. This effect was dependent on extracellular and B intracellular calcium concentration. These findings suggest that ET-1 plays a modulatory role in cyclic AMP generation systems in cerebral cortex.

Endothelins And Asthma

Roy G. Goldie and Peter J. Henry
Life Sciences I999; 65(1), pp. I-15, PI1 SOO24-3205(98)00614-6

In the decade since endothelin-1 (ET-l) and related endogenous peptides were first identified as vascular endothelium-derived spasmogens, with potential pathophysiological roles in vascular diseases, there has been a significant accumulation of evidence pointing to mediator roles in obstructive respiratory diseases such as asthma. Critical pieces of evidence for this concept include the fact that ET-l is an extremely potent spasmogen in human and animal airway smooth muscle and that it is synthesised in and released from the bronchial epithelium. Importantly, symptomatic asthma involves a marked enhancement of these processes, whereas asthmatics treated with anti-inflammatory glucocorticoids exhibit reductions in these previously elevated indices. Despite this profile, a causal link between ET-l and asthma has not been definitively established. This review attempts to bring together some of the evidence suggesting the potential mediator roles for ET-l in this disease.

Endothelial Cell Peroxisome Proliferator–Activated Receptor ϒ Reduces Endotoxemic Pulmonary Inflammation and Injury

Aravind T. Reddy, SP Lakshmi, JM Kleinhenz, RL Sutliff, CM Hart, and R. Reddy
J Immunol 2012; 189:5411-5420
http://www.jimmunol.org/content/189/11/5411

Bacterial endotoxin (LPS)-mediated sepsis involves severe, dysregulated inflammation that injures the lungs and other organs Bacterial endotoxin (LPS)-mediated sepsis involves severe, dysregulated inflammation that injures the lungs and other organs, often fatally. Vascular endothelial cells are both key mediators and targets of LPS-induced inflammatory responses. The nuclear hormone receptor peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor ϒ (PPARϒ) exerts anti-inflammatory actions in various cells, but it is unknown whether it modulates inflammation through actions within endothelial cells. To determine whether PPARϒ acts within endothelial cells to diminish endotoxemic lung inflammation and injury, we measured inflammatory responses and mediators in mice with endothelial-targeted deletion of PPARϒ. Endothelial cell PPARϒ (ePPARϒ) knockout exacerbated LPS-induced pulmonary inflammation and injury as shown by several measures, including infiltration of inflammatory cells, edema, and production of reactive oxygen species and proinflammatory cytokines, along with upregulation of the LPS receptor TLR4 in lung tissue and increased activation of its downstream signaling pathways. In isolated LPS-stimulated endothelial cells in vitro, absence of PPARϒ enhanced the production of numerous inflammatory markers. We hypothesized that the observed in vivo activity of the ligand-activated ePPARϒ may arise, in part, from nitrated fatty acids (NFAs), a novel class of endogenous PPARϒ ligands.
Supporting this idea, we found that treating isolated endothelial cells with physiologically relevant concentrations of the endogenous NFA 10-nitro-oleate reduced LPS-induced expression of a wide range of inflammatory markers in the presence of PPARϒ, but not in its absence, and also inhibited neutrophil mobility in a PPARϒ-dependent manner. Our results demonstrate a key protective role of ePPARϒ against endotoxemic injury and a potential ePPARϒ-mediated anti-inflammatory role for NFAs.

Endothelins in health and disease

Rahman Shah
European Journal of Internal Medicine 18 (2007) 272–282
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.ejim.2007.04.002

Endothelins are powerful vasoconstrictor peptides that also play numerous other roles. The endothelin (ET) family consists of three peptides produced by a variety of tissues. Endothelin-1 (ET-1) is the principal isoform produced by the endothelium in the human cardiovascular system, and it exerts its actions through binding to specific receptors, the so-called type A (ETA) and type B (ETB) receptors. ET-1 is primarily a locally acting paracrine substance that appears to contribute to the maintenance of basal vascular tone. It is also activated in several diseases, including congestive heart failure, arterial hypertension, atherosclerosis, endothelial dysfunction, coronary artery diseases, renal failure, cerebrovascular disease, pulmonary arterial hypertension, and sepsis. Thus, ET-1 antagonists are promising new agents. They have been shown to be effective in the management of primary pulmonary hypertension, but disappointing in heart failure. Clinical trials are needed to determine whether manipulation of the ET system will be beneficial in other diseases.

The production of ET receptors is affected by several factors. Hypoxia, cyclosporine, epidermal growth factor, basic fibroblast growth factor, cyclic AMP, and estrogen upregulate ET_A receptors in some tissues, and C-type natriuretic hormone, angiotensin II, and perhaps basic fibroblast growth factor up-regulate ET_B receptors. In contrast, the endothelins, angiotensin II, platelet-derived growth factor, and transforming growth factor down-regulate ET_Areceptors, whereas cyclic AMP and catecholamines down-regulate ET_Breceptors.

The ET_A receptor contains 427 amino acids and binds with the following affinity: ET-1N>T-2>ET-3. It is predominantly expressed in vascular smooth muscle cells and cardiac myocytes. Its interaction with ET-1 results in vasoconstriction and cell proliferation. In contrast, the ET_B receptor contains 442 amino acids and binds all endothelins with equal affinity. It is predominantly expressed on vascular endothelial cells and is linked to an inhibitory G protein. Activation of ET_B receptors stimulates the release of NO and prostacyclin, prevents apoptosis, and inhibits ECE-1 expression in endothelial cells. ET_B receptors also mediate the pulmonary clearance of circulating ET-1 and the re-uptake of ET-1 by endothelial cells.

All three endothelins cause transient endothelium dependent vasodilatation before the development of constriction, though this is most apparent for ET-1. Endothelins induce vasodilatation via the endothelial cell ET_B receptors through generation of endothelium-derived dilator substances (Fig. 3), including nitric oxide (NO), which perhaps acts by physiologically antagonizing ETA receptor mediated vasoconstriction. The transient early vasodilator actions of the endothelins are attenuated by NO synthase inhibitors. Additionally, ET-1 increases generation of prostacyclin by cultured endothelial cells, whereas cyclo-oxygenase inhibitors potentiate ET-1-induced constriction, suggesting that vasodilator prostaglandins play a similar modulatory role.

It has been proposed that ET-1 can affect vascular tone indirectly through its effect on the sympathetic nervous system, and it has been shown that that ET-1 may increase peripheral sympathetic activity through postsynaptic potentiation of the effects of norepinephrine. While in vitro low concentrations of ET-1 potentiate the effects of other vasoconstrictor hormones, including norepinephrine and serotonin, these findings have not been confirmed in vivo in the forearm resistance bed of healthy subjects. In addition to its action on vascular vasomotion, ET-1 is thought to be a mediator in the vascular remodeling process. It seems that ET-1 interactions with the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system play a significant role in this remodeling process.

Vascular actions of endothelin-1

Vascular actions of endothelin-1. Modified from – Galie N, Manes A, Branzi A; The endothelin system in pulmonary arterial hypertension. Cardiovasc Res 2004;61:227–37.

ET-1 appears to have a diverse role as a modulator of vascular tone and growth and as a mediator in many cardiovascular and non-cardiovascular diseases. To date, no disease entity, however, has been attributed solely to an abnormality in ET-1. Yet, ET-1 receptor antagonists have been studied in clinical trials involving a wide spectrum of cardiovascular diseases, though the only proven efficacy has been in patients with PAH.

Learning points

Endothelins are powerful vasoconstrictors and major regulators of vascular tone.
The endothelin (ET) family consists of three peptides (ET-1 ∼60%, ET-2 ∼30%, and ET-3 ∼10%) produced by a variety of tissues.
ET-1 is the principal isoform produced by the endothelium in the human cardiovascular system and appears to be foremost a locally acting paracrine substance rather than a circulating endocrine hormone.
Several human studies suggest that circulating ET-1 levels, which are elevated in heart failure and pulmonary hypertension, correlate with the prognosis of the disease.
ET-1 antagonists have been shown to be effective in the management of primary pulmonary hypertension, but disappointing in heart failure.
Clinical trials are needed to investigate the role of ET-1 receptor antagonists for other conditions, as ET-1 levels have been shown to be elevated in arterial hypertension, atherosclerosis, endothelial dysfunction, coronary artery disease, renal failure, cerebrovascular disease, and sepsis.

In Vitro Stability and Intestinal Absorption Characteristics of Hexapeptide Endothelin Receptor Antagonists

Hyo-kyung Han, BH Stewart, AM Doherty, WL Cody and GL Amidon
Life Sciences. I998; 63(18), pp. 1599-1609. PI1 SOO24-3205(98)00429-9

Endothelins are potent vasoconstrictor peptides which have a wide range of tissue distribution and three receptor subtypes (ET_A ET_B and ET_C). Among the linear hexapeptide ET_A / ET_B receptor antagonists, PD 145065 (Ac-D-Bhg-L-Leu-L-Asp-L-Ile-L-Ile-L-Trp, Bhg = (10,ll -dihydro-5H-dibenzo[a,d]cyclohepten-5-yl)-Gly) and PD 156252 (Ac-o-Bhg-L-Leu-L-Asp-L-Ile-(N-methyl)-L-Ile-L-Trp) were selected to evaluate the metabolic stability and intestinal absorption in the absence and/or in the presence of protease inhibitors. In vitro stability of both compounds was investigated in fresh plasma, lumenal perfusate, intestinal and liver homogenates. PD 156252 was more stable than PD 145065 in intestinal tissue homogenate (63.4% vs. 20.5% remaining) and liver homogenate (74.4% vs. 35.5 % remaining), while both compounds showed relatively good stability in the fresh plasma (94.5% vs. 86.7% remaining) and lumenal perfusate (85.8% vs. 72.3% remaining). The effect of protease inhibitors on the degradation of PD 145065 and PD 156252 was also investigated. Amastatin, thiorphan, chymostatin and the mixture of these three inhibitors were effective in reducing the degradation of both compounds. The pharmacokinetic parameters of PD 156252, calculated by using a non-compartmental model, were 6.95 min (terminal half-life), 191 mL (V_ss), and 25.5 mL/min (Cl_tot) after intravenous administration in rats. The intestinal absorption of PD 156252 in rats was evaluated in the absence and/or in the presence of protease inhibitors. The results indicate that the major elimination pathway of PD 156252 appears to be the biliary excretion and protease inhibitors increase the intestinal absorption of PD 156252 through increasing metabolic stability.

Inhibitory and facilitatory presynaptic effects of endothelin on sympathetic cotransmission in the rat isolated tail artery

Violeta N. Mutafova-Yambolieva & David P. Westfall
British Journal of Pharmacology (1998) 123, 136 – 142

1 The present study was undertaken to determine the modulatory effects of the endothelin peptides on the neurogenically-induced release of endogenous noradrenaline (NA) and the cotransmitter adenosine 5′-triphosphate (ATP) from the sympathetic nerves of endothelium-free segments of the rat isolated tail artery. The electrical field stimulation (EFS, 8 Hz, 0.5 ms, 3 min) evoked over¯ow of NA and ATP, in the absence of endothelins, was 0.035+0.002 pmol mg71 tissue and 0.026+0.002 pmol mg71 tissue, respectively.

2 Endothelin-1 (ET-1; 1 ± 30 nM) significantly reduced the EFS evoked overflow of both NA and ATP. The maximum inhibitory effect was produced by a peptide concentration of 10 nM, the amount of NA overflow being 0.020+0.002 pmol mg71 and that of ATP overflow 0.015+0.001 pmol mg71. Higher peptide concentrations (100 and 300 nM) reversed the EFS-evoked overflow of NA to control levels and that of ATP to above control levels. The inhibitory effect of ET-1 (10 nM) was resistant to the selective ETA receptor antagonist cyclo-D-Trp-D-Asp(ONa)-Pro-D-Val-Leu (BQ-123) but was prevented by ETB receptor desensitization with sarafotoxin S6c (StxS6c) or by ETB receptor blockade with N, cis-2,6-dimethyl-piperidinocarbonyl-L-gmethylleucyl-D-1-methoxycarbonyl-tryptophanyl-D-norleucine (BQ-788).

3 StxS6c, upon acute application, exerted a dual effect on transmitter release. At concentrations of 0.001 ± 0.3 nM the peptide significantly reduced the EFS-evoked NA overflow, whereas at concentrations of 1 ± 10 nM it caused a significant increase in the evoked overflow of both ATP and NA. Both the maximum inhibitory effect of StxS6c at a concentration of 0.003 nM approximately 85% reduction of NA overflow and 40% of ATP overflow) and the maximum facilitatory effect of the peptide at a concentration of 3 nM (approximately 400% increase of ATP overflow and 200% of NA overflow) were completely antagonized by either BQ-788 or by StxS6c-induced ETB receptor desensitization.

4 ET-3 (10 ± 100 nM) did not aect the EFS evoked overflow of either ATP or NA, but at a concentration of 300 nM significantly potentiated the release of both transmitters (0.118+ 0.02 pmol mg71 tissue ATP overflow and .077+0.004 pmol mg71 NA overflow). This effect was prevented either by BQ-123 or by BQ-788.

5 In summary, the endothelin peptides exerted both facilitatory and inhibitory effects on the neurogenically-induced release of the sympathetic cotransmitters ATP and NA in the rat tail artery. Both transmitters were modulated in parallel indicating that the endothelins do not differentially modulate the release of NA and ATP in this tissue.

Involvement of the central adrenomedullin peptides in the baroreflex

Meghan M. Taylo, Cynthia A. Keown, Willis K. Samson
Regulatory Peptides 112 (2003) 87– 93
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/S0167-0115(03)00026-0

The peptides derived from post-translational processing of preproadreno-medullin are produced in and act on areas of the autonomic nervous system important for blood pressure regulation. We examined the role of endogenous, brain-derived adrenomedullin (AM) and proadrenomedullin N-terminal 20 peptide (PAMP) in the central nervous system arm of the baroreflex by using passive immunoneutralization to block the actions of the endogenous peptides. Our results indicate that the preproadrenomedullin-derived peptides do not play a role in sensing changes in blood pressure (baroreflex sensitivity), but the adrenomedullin peptides do regulate the speed with which an animal returns to a normal, stable blood pressure. These findings suggest that endogenous, brain-derived AM and PAMP participate in the regulation of autonomic activity in response to baroreceptor activation and inactivation.

Pharmacological characterization of cardiovascular responses induced by endothelin-1 in the perfused rat heart

Keiji Kusumoto, A Fujiwara, S Ikeda, T Watanabe, M Fujino
Eur J Pharmacology 296 (1996) 65-74 SSDI 0014-2999(95)00680-X

The effects of the endothelin receptor antagonist TAK-044 (cyclo[D-α-aspartyl-3-[(4-phenylpiperazin-l-yl)carbonyl]-L-alanyl-L-α-aspartyl-D-2-(2-thienyl)-glycyl-L-leucyl-D-tryptophyl] disodium salt) and BQ-123 (cyclo[D-Asp-Pro-D-VaI-Leu-D-Trp]) were studied in the rat heart to characterize the receptor subtypes responsible for the cardiovascular actions of endothelin-1. Endothelin-1 induced a transient decrease and subsequent increase in perfusion pressure in perfused rat hearts, and increased left ventricular developed pressure. TAK-044 diminished these endothelin-l-induced responses (100 pmol/heart) with IC50 values of 140, 57 and 1.3 nM, respectively. BQ-123 (1-30/µM) partially inhibited the endothelin-l-induced hypertension (30-40%) in the rat heart, and failed to inhibit the hypotension. The positive inotropic effect of endothelin-1 was abolished by BQ-123. Neither indomethacin (10/µM) nor N’°-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (100/_pM) attenuated the endothelin-l-induced hypotension. TAK-044 and BQ-123 attenuated the positive inotropic effect of endothelin-1 in rat papillary muscles. In rat cardiac membrane fractions, TAK-044 and BQ-123 inhibited [¹²⁵I]endothelin-1 binding to endothelin ET A receptors with IC₅₀ values of 0.39 + 0.6 and 36 + 9 nM, respectively, whereas only TAK-044 potently blocked the endothelin ET B receptor subtype (IC50 value: 370 + 180 nM). These results suggest that endothelin-1 modulates cardiovascular functions in the rat heart by activating both endothelin ET A and endothelin ET B receptors, all of which are sensitive to TAK-044.

Molecular Pharmacology and Pathophysiological Significance of Endothelin

Katsutoshi Goto, Hiroshi Hama and Yoshitoshi Kasuya
Jp J Pharmacol 1996; 72: 261-290

Since the discovery of the most potent vasoconstrictor peptide, endothelin, in 1988, explosive investigations have rapidly clarified much of the basic pharmacological, biochemical and molecular biological features of endothelin, including the presence and structure of isopeptides and their genes (endothelin- 1, -2 and -3), regulation of gene expression, intracellular processing, specific endothelia converting enzyme (ECE), receptor subtypes (ET_A and ET_B), intracellular signal transduction following receptor activation, etc. ECE was recently cloned, and its structure was shown to be a single transmembrane protein with a short intracellular N-terminal and a long extracellular C-terminal that contains the catalytic domain and numerous N-glycosylation sites. In addition to acute contractile or secretory actions, endothelin has been shown to exert long-term proliferative actions on many cell types. In this case, intracellular signal transduction appears to converge to activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase. As a recent dramatic advance, a number of non-peptide and orally active receptor antagonists have been developed. They, as well as current peptide antagonists, markedly accelerated the pace of investigations into the true pathophysiological roles of endogenous endothelin-1 in mature animals.

The discovery of endothelin in 1988 soon triggered explosive investigations of a worldwide scale, presumably due to its unusual characteristics; i.e., marked potency and long-lasting pressor actions. As a result, most of the basic problems concerned with the science of endothelin have rapidly been solved; e.g., features and regulations of the expression of endothelin genes, biosynthetic pathways including characterization and cloning of endothelin converting enzyme, pharmacological, biochemical and molecular-biological identification of endothelin receptor subtypes, intracellular signal transduction following receptor activation, and discovery of various receptor agonists and antagonists. In addition to its potent cardiovascular actions, endothelin-1 shows a wide variety of biological effects, including contraction of nonvascular smooth muscle (intestinal, tracheal, broncheal, mesangial, bladder, uterine and prostatic smooth muscle), stimulation of neuropeptides, pituitary hormone and atrial natriuretic peptide release and aldosterone biosynthesis, modulation of neurotransmitter release, and increase of bone resorption. Furthermore, endothelin-1 has mitogenic properties and causes proliferation and hypertrophy of a number of cell types, including vascular smooth muscle cells, cardiac myocytes, mesangial cells, bronchial smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts. Endothelin-1 also induces the expression of several protooncogenes (c fos, C -Jun, c-myc, etc.).

These actions, whereby endothelin- 1 might influence the development of cellular hypertrophy/hyperplasia, are of potential significance in pathophysiological conditions associated with long-term changes in cardiovascular tissues, e.g., hypertension, myocardial infarction, chronic heart failure, vascular restenosis following balloon angioplasty, and atherosclerosis. These pathophysiological conditions are usually associated with increased plasma levels of endothelin-1, although the correlation is relatively poor. Nevertheless, a considerable increase in the tissue content of endothelin-1 has been gradually uncovered in many cases of these conditions. Even if the concentration of endothelin-1 at the cell surface is not high enough to induce contraction, it is well known that subthreshold concentrations of endothelin will enhance or potentiate the contraction produced by other vasoconstrictors (e.g., norepinephrine, serotonin, angiotensin II), indicating the existence of cross-talk among various vasoactive substances. Another important cross-talk among these substances may be mutual enhancement or inhibition of their expression in various tissues. In addition to these interactions, the true physiological and/or pathophysiological roles of each of the endothelin family peptide and receptor subtypes remain to be investigated.

Hydrogen Sulfide and Endothelium-Dependent Vasorelaxation

Jerzy Bełtowski, and Anna Jamroz-Wiśniewska
Molecules 2014, 19, 21183-21199; http://dx.doi.org:/10.3390/molecules191221183

In addition to nitric oxide and carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), synthesized enzymatically from L-cysteine or L-homocysteine, is the third gasotransmitter in mammals. Endogenous H₂S is involved in the regulation of many physiological processes, including vascular tone. Although initially it was suggested that in the vascular wall H₂S is synthesized only by smooth muscle cells and relaxes them by activating ATP-sensitive potassium channels, more recent studies indicate that H₂S is synthesized in endothelial cells as well. Endothelial H₂S production is stimulated by many factors, including acetylcholine, shear stress, adipose tissue hormone leptin, estrogens and plant flavonoids. In some vascular preparations H₂S plays a role of endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor by activating small and intermediate-conductance calcium-activated potassium channels. Endothelial H₂S signaling is up-regulated in some pathologies, such as obesity and cerebral ischemia-reperfusion. In addition, H₂S activates endothelial NO synthase and inhibits cGMP degradation by phosphodiesterase thus potentiating the effect of NO-cGMP pathway. Moreover, H₂S-derived polysulfides directly activate protein kinase G. Finally, H₂S interacts with NO to form nitroxyl (HNO)—a potent vasorelaxant. H₂S appears to play an important and multidimensional role in endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation.

GPCR modulation by RAMPs

Debbie L. Hay, David R. Poyner, Patrick M. Sexton
Pharmacology & Therapeutics 109 (2006) 173 – 197
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2005.06.015

Our conceptual understanding of the molecular architecture of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) has transformed over the last decade. Once considered as largely independent functional units (aside from their interaction with the G-protein itself), it is now clear that a single GPCR is but part of a multifaceted signaling complex, each component providing an additional layer of sophistication. Receptor activity modifying proteins (RAMPs) provide a notable example of proteins that interact with GPCRs to modify their function. They act as pharmacological switches, modifying GPCR pharmacology for a particular subset of receptors. However, there is accumulating evidence that these ubiquitous proteins have a broader role, regulating signaling and receptor trafficking. This article aims to provide the reader with a comprehensive appraisal of RAMP literature and perhaps some insight into
the impact that their discovery has had on those who study GPCRs.

RAMPs were first identified during attempts to expression clone a receptor for the neuropeptide calcitonin gene related peptide (CGRP; McLatchie et al., 1998). Historical evidence had suggested that CGRP acted through a GPCR, as its binding had proven sensitive to GTP analogues and stimulation of various tissues and cells led to the accumulation of cAMP, suggesting activation of a Gs-coupled GPCR. However, attempts to clone such a receptor proved difficult. A putative canine CGRP receptor, RDC-1, was identified in 1995, but the original findings have not been replicated and current IUPHAR guidelines do not consider this receptor a genuine CGRP receptor (Kapas & Clark, 1995; Poyner et al., 2002). Shortly afterward, a further orphan receptor (CL, a close homologue of the calcitonin receptor) was shown to be activated by CGRP when transfected into HEK293 cells (Aiyar et al., 1996). This finding posed something of a conundrum since earlier attempts to examine the function of this receptor (or its rat homologue) in Cos 7 cells had not given positive results with CGRP.
Given the apparent functionality of the human CL receptor in HEK293 cells, the rat homologue was also transfected into this cell type and now responded to CGRP (Han et al., 1997). The authors speculated that there was a factor present in HEK293 cells that conferred high affinity for CGRP on the receptor.

In 1998, McLatchie and colleagues confirmed this speculation and provided new insights into the way that GPCRs and their pharmacology can be regulated (McLatchie et al., 1998). It was discovered that a novel family of single transmembrane domain proteins, termed RAMPs, was required for functional expression of CL at the cell surface, explaining why it had been so difficult to observe CGRP binding or function when CL was transfected into cells lacking RAMP expression (Fluhmann et al., 1995; Han et al., 1997; McLatchie et al., 1998). RAMPs were first identified from a library derived from SK-N-MC cells, cells known to express CGRP receptors. An expression-cloning strategy was utilized, whereby an SK-N-MC cDNA library was transcribed and the corresponding cRNA was used for injection into Xenopus oocytes. Cystic
fibrosis transmembrane regulator chloride conductance, a reporter for cAMP formation, was strongly potentiated by a single cRNA pool (in the presence of CGRP). Subsequently, a single cDNA encoding a 148-amino-acid protein comprising RAMP1 was isolated. The structure of the protein was unexpected, as it was not a GPCR and it did not respond to CGRP in mammalian cells. Thus, it was postulated that RAMP1 might potentiate CGRP receptors. A CL/RAMP1 co-transfection experiment supported this hypothesis.

CGRP/AM on the outside of the cell and did not simply act as anchoring/chaperone proteins for CL. RAMPs therefore provide a novel mechanism for modulating receptor–ligand specificity. The unique pharmacological profiles supported by RAMPs are discussed in later sections.

Fig. (not shown). CGRP1 receptor-specific small molecule antagonists. The small molecule antagonist BIBN4096 BS (brown) is a specific antagonist of the CGRP1 receptor, acting at the interface between RAMP1 and the CL receptor to inhibit CGRP action. At least part of the binding affinity for BIBN4096 BS arises from interaction with Trp74 (red) of RAMP1. In contrast, antagonists that bind principally to the CL component of the complex will not discriminate between different CL/RAMP complexes.

The classic function attributed to RAMPs is their ability to switch the pharmacology of CL, thus providing a novel mechanism for modulating receptor specificity. Thus, the CL/RAMP1 complex is a high affinity CGRP receptor, but in the presence of RAMP2, CL specificity is radically altered, the related peptide AM being recognized with the highest affinity and the affinity for CGRP being reduced ¨100-fold. While AM is the highest affinity peptide, CGRP is recognized with moderate, rather than low affinity. Indeed, depending on the species and the form of CGRP (h vs. a), the separation between the 2 peptides can be as little as 10-fold (Hay et al., 2003a). This may particularly be true if receptor components of mixed species are used. The detailed pharmacology of the CGRP and AM receptors formed by RAMP interaction with CL has recently been reviewed (Born et al., 2002; Poyner et al., 2002; Hay et al., 2004; Kuwasako et al., 2004).

Fig. (not shown). The broadening spectrum of RAMP–receptor interactions. RAMPs can interact with multiple receptor partners. All RAMPs interact with the calcitonin receptor-like receptor (CL-R), the calcitonin receptor (CTR), and the VPAC1 receptor, while the glucagon and PTH1 receptors interact with RAMP2, the PTH2 receptor with RAMP3, and the calcium sensing receptor (CalS-R) with RAMP1 or RAMP3. The consequence of RAMP interaction varies. For the CL and CalS receptors, RAMPs play a chaperone role, allowing cell surface expression. For the CL and calcitonin receptors, RAMP interaction leads to novel receptor binding phenotypes . There is also evidence that RAMP interaction will modify signaling, and this has been seen for the VPAC1–RAMP2 heterodimer and for calcitonin receptor/RAMP complexes. In many instances, however, the consequence of RAMP interaction has yet to be defined.

Overall, the distribution data presented so far are supportive of the hypothesis that RAMP and CL or calcitonin receptor combinations are able to account for the observed CGRP, AM, and AMY pharmacology. A salient point for CGRP receptors relates to the cerebellum, where the lack of CL mRNA in some studies despite abundant CGRP binding has prompted speculation of alternative CGRP receptors (Oliver et al., 2001; Chauhan et al., 2003). Nevertheless, this apparent lack is study dependent and CL has been identified in cerebellum in other studies.

Some consideration has been given to the potential role that RAMPs may have in modifying receptor behaviors other than ligand binding pharmacology. An additional functional consequence might be that of alteration of receptor signaling characteristics.

While there is currently little evidence for signaling modifications of CL-based receptors in association with RAMPs, a completely different paradigm is evident for the VPAC1 receptor. This receptor has strong interactions with all 3 RAMPs, but its pharmacology, in terms of agonist binding, does not appear to be modified by their presence. On the other hand, there was a clear functional consequence of RAMP2 overexpression with the VPAC1 receptor where PI hydrolysis was specifically augmented relative to cAMP, which did not change. The potency of the response (EC50 of vasoactive intestinal peptide) was not altered, but the maximal PI hydrolysis response was elevated in the presence of RAMP2 . It has been suggested that this may reflect a change in compartmentalization of the receptor signaling complex. Such augmentation was not evident for the interaction of the VPAC1 receptor with RAMP1 or RAMP3; in these cases, the outcome of heterodimerization may be more subtle or involve the modification of different receptor parameters such as trafficking.

RAMPs transformed our understanding of how receptor pharmacology can be modulated and provided a novel mechanism for generating receptor subtypes within a subset of family B GPCRs. Their role has now broadened and they have been shown to interact with several other family B GPCRs, in 1 case modifying signaling parameters. There is now evidence to suggest that their interactions also reach into family C, and possibly family A, GPCRs, indicating that their function may not be restricted to modulation of a highly specific subset of receptors. Indeed, many aspects of RAMP function remain poorly understood, and the full extent of their action remains to be explored.

Receptor activity modifying proteins

Patrick M. Sexton, Anthony Albiston, Maria Morfis, Nanda Tilakaratne
Cellular Signalling 13 (2001) 73-83 PII: S0898-6568(00)00143-1

Our understanding of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) function has recently expanded to encompass novel protein interactions that underlie both cell-surface receptor expression and the exhibited phenotype. The most notable examples are those involving receptor activity modifying proteins (RAMPs). RAMP association with the calcitonin (CT) receptor-like receptor (CRLR) traffics this receptor to the cell surface where individual RAMPs dictate the expression of unique phenotypes. A similar function has been ascribed to RAMP interaction with the CT receptor (CTR) gene product. This review examines
our current state of knowledge of the mechanisms underlying RAMP function.

It is now evident that RAMPs can interact with receptors other than CRLR. Expression of amylin receptor phenotypes requires the coexpression of
RAMPs with the CTR gene product. However, as seen in CRLR, the phenotype engendered by individual RAMPs was distinct. In COS-7 or rabbit aortic endothelial cells (RAECs), RAMP1 and RAMP3 induced amylin receptors that differ in their affinity for CGRP, while RAMP2 was relatively ineffective in inducing amylin receptor phenotype. RAMP2 can also induce an amylin receptor phenotype, which is distinct from either the RAMP1- or RAMP3-induced receptors. However, the efficacy of RAMP2 was highly dependent upon the cellular background and the isoform of CTR used in the study.

In humans, the major CTR variants differ by the presence or absence of a 16 amino acid insert in the first intracellular domain, with the insert negative isoform (hCTRI1ÿ) being the most commonly expressed form and the variant used for initial studies with RAMPs. Unlike hCTRI1ÿ, cotransfection of the hCTRI1+ variant with any of the RAMPs into COS-7 cells caused strong induction of amylin receptor phenotype. The hCTR isoforms differ in their ability to activate signaling pathways (presumably due to an effect on G protein coupling) and to internalize in response to agonist treatment, which may suggest a role for G proteins in the ability of RAMPs to alter receptor phenotype.

There are at least three potential consequences of RAMP interaction with its associating receptors. The first is trafficking of receptor protein from an intracellular compartment to the cell surface. The second is an alteration in
the terminal glycosylation of the receptor, and the third is alteration of receptor phenotype, presumably through a direct or indirect effect on the ligand-binding site.

potential actions of RAMPs

Schematic diagram illustrating potential actions of RAMPs. (A) RAMPs facilitate the trafficking of CRLR from an intracellular compartment to the cell surface. (B) RAMP1 (but not RAMP2 or RAMP3) modifies the terminal glycosylation
of CRLR. (C) The cell surface RAMP1±CRLR complex is a Type 1 CGRP receptor, which displays a 1:1 stoichiometry. (D,E) Cell surface RAMP2±CRLR and RAMP3±CRLR complexes are adrenomedullin receptors. (F,G) For at least RAMP1 and RAMP3, RAMPs form stable homodimers, although the function
of these complexes is unknown. (H) Unlike CRLR, the CTR gene product is trafficked to the cell surface in the absence of RAMPs, where it displays classical CTR phenotype. (I,J) RAMP1± and RAMP3±CTR complexes form distinct amylin receptors. RAMP2 can also generate a separate amylin receptor phenotype (not illustrated). (C ±E,I,J) RAMPs are trafficked with either receptor to the plasma membrane. (K) For all three RAMP±CRLR complexes, agonist treatment causes clathrin-mediated internalization of both CRLR and RAMP.
(L) The majority of the internalized complex is targeted to the lysosomal-degradation pathway.

The data from Zumpe et al. suggest that RAMP2 interacts more weakly with the hCTRI1ÿ than RAMP1, and that the affinity of this interaction derives principally from the transmembrane domain/C-terminus (Ct) of the RAMPs. As RAMP3 induces an amylin receptor phenotype in COS-7 cells where RAMP2 is relatively weak, it is inferred that RAMP3 interaction with the hCTRI1ÿ is probably greater than that of RAMP2. Nonetheless, this has not been examined empirically. Given the recent data suggesting a potential role for G protein coupling in expression of RAMP-induced phenotype, it is also possible that the strength of RAMP interaction is, at least partially, dictated by receptor-G protein or RAMP-G protein interaction.

The discovery of RAMPs has led to a greater understanding of the nature of receptor diversity. However, although much progress has been made into elucidating the molecular mechanism of RAMP action, emerging data continue to open up new areas for investigation. These include identification of other RAMP-interacting receptors, understanding of the role of specific G proteins in RAMP-receptor function and the potential importance of RAMP regulation in disease progression. It also seems likely that the RAMP-receptor interface can provide a useful target for future drug development.

Cardiovascular endothelins: Essential regulators of cardiovascular homeostasis

Friedrich Brunner, C Bras-Silva, AS Cerdeira, AF Leite-Moreira
Pharmacology & Therapeutics 111 (2006) 508 – 531
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2005.11.001

The endothelin (ET) system consists of 3 ET isopeptides, several isoforms of activating peptidases, and 2 G-protein-coupled receptors, ETA and ETB, that are linked to multiple signaling pathways. In the cardiovascular system, the components of the ET family are expressed in several tissues, notably the vascular endothelium, smooth muscle cells, and cardiomyocytes. There is general agreement that ETs play important physiological roles in the regulation of normal cardiovascular function, and excessive generation of ET isopeptides has been linked to major cardiovascular pathologies, including hypertension and heart failure. However, several recent clinical trials with ET receptor antagonists were disappointing.

In the present review, the authors take the stance that ETs are mainly and foremost essential regulators of cardiovascular function, hence that antagonizing normal ET actions, even in patients, will potentially do more harm than good. To support this notion, we describe the predominant roles of ETs in blood vessels, which are (indirect) vasodilatation and ET clearance from plasma and interstitial spaces, against the background of the subcellular mechanisms mediating these effects. Furthermore, important roles of ETs in regulating and adapting heart functions to different needs are addressed, including recent progress in understanding the effects of ETs on diastolic function, adaptations to changes in preload, and the interactions between endocardial-derived ET-1 and myocardial pump function. Finally, the potential dangers (and gains) resulting from the suppression of excessive generation or activity of ETs occurring in some cardiovascular pathological states, such as hypertension, myocardial ischemia, and heart failure, are discussed.

Figure (not shown): Synthesis of ET and its regulation. The release of active ET-1 is controlled via regulation of gene transcription and/or endothelin converting enzyme activity. ET-1 synthesis is stimulated by several factors, of which hypoxia seems to be the most potent in humans (see text). ET-1 formation is down-regulated by activators of the NO/cGMP pathway and other factors.

Figure (not shown): Vascular actions of ET. In healthy blood vessels, the main action of ET-1 is indirect vasodilatation mediated by ETB receptors located on endothelial cells. Their activation generates a Ca2+ signal via PLC that turns on the generation of NO, prostacyclin, adrenomedullin, and other mediators that are powerful relaxants of smooth muscle. On the other hand, binding of ET-1 to ETA receptors located on smooth muscle cells will lead to vascular contraction (physiological effect) and/or wall thickening, inflammation, and tissue remodeling (pathological effects). These latter effects may partly be mediated by vascular ETB2 receptors in certain disease states. Smooth muscle cell signaling involves DAG formation, PKC activation, and extracellular Ca2+ recruited via different cation channels. The specificity of the cellular response resides at the level of G proteins, that is, G-as or G-aq in the case of ETA, G-ai or G-aq for ETB.

signal transduction mechanisms involved in ET-1-mediated positive (left) and negative (right) inotropic effects

Summary of proposed signal transduction mechanisms involved in ET-1-mediated positive (left) and negative (right) inotropic effects. Left: Stimulation of ETA receptors causes Gq protein-directed activation of PLC, formation of IP3 and DAG, and activation of NHE-1. Increased contractile force is the result of (i) Ca2+ release from the sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum, (ii) sensitization of cardiac myofilaments to Ca2+ due to cellular alkalosis, and (iii) increased Ca2+ influx through the NCX operating in reverse mode. The contribution of voltage-gated L-type Ca2+ channels to the systolic Ca2+ transient is unknown, as is the role of myocyte ETB2 receptors. Right: The ET receptor subtypes mediating negative inotropic effects are poorly known. Two main signaling mechanisms involve (i) inhibition of adenylyl cyclase (AC), guided by a G protein, of unknown binding preference, which results in decreased levels of cAMP; (ii) cGMP-mediated activation of phosphatases that dephosphorylate putative targets resulting from cAMP/protein kinase A (PKA) activation. Other kinases like PKC and PKG have also been implicated in accentuated force antagonism.

Adrenomedullin (11–26): a novel endogenous hypertensive peptide isolated from bovine adrenal medulla

Kazuo Kitamuraa,*, Eizaburo Matsuia, Jhoji Katoa, Fumi Katoha
Peptides 22 (2001) 1713–1718 PII: S0196-9781(01)00529-0

Adrenomedullin (AM) is a potent hypotensive peptide originally isolated from pheochromocytoma tissue. Both the ring structure and the C-terminal amide structure of AM are essential for its hypotensive activity. We have developed an RIA which recognizes the ring structure of human AM. Using this RIA, we have characterized the molecular form of AM in bovine adrenal medulla. Gel filtration chromatography revealed that three major peaks of immunoreactive AM existed in the adrenal medulla. The peptide corresponding to Mr 1500 Da was further purified to homogeneity. The peptide was determined to be AM (11–26) which has one intramolecular disulfide bond. Amino acid sequences of bovine AM and its precursor were deduced from the analyses of cDNA encoding bovine AM precursor. The synthetic AM (11–26) produced dose-dependent strong pressor responses in unanesthetized rats in vivo. The hypertensive activity lasted about one minute, and a dose dependent increase in heart rate was also observed. The present data indicate that AM (11–26) is a major component of immunoreactive AM in bovine adrenal medulla and shows pressor activity.

The pressor effect of AM(11–26) was examined by methods similar to those reported for Neuropeptide Y.

We have established a sensitive RIA system using a monoclonal antibody which recognizes the ring structure of human AM. Human AM antiserum recognized the peptide with high affinity at a final dilution of 1:2,800,000. The half maximal inhibition of radioiodinated ligand binding by human AM was observed at 10 fmol/tube. From 1 to 128 fmol/tube of AM was measurable by this RIA system. The intra- and inter-assay coefficients of variance were less than 6% and 9%, respectively. This RIA had 100% cross-reactivity with human AM(13–31), (1–25), (1–52)Gly and AM(1–52)CONH2, but less than 1% cross-reactivity with rat AM.

Sephadex G-50 gel-filtration of strongly basic peptide extract (SP-III) in bovine adrenal medulla identified three major peaks of immunoreactive AM. One emerged at the identical position of authentic AM, the other two unknown peaks were eluted later at molecular weights estimated to be 3000 and 1500 Da, respectively. The peptide corresponding to Mr 1500 Da was further purified.

The purified peptide (20 pmol) was subjected to a gas phase sequencer, and the amino acid sequence was determined up to the 16th residue, which was found to be C terminus . It was found that the purified peptide was AM (11–26). The structure of AM (11–26) was confirmed by chromatographic comparison with native AM (11–26) as well as a synthetic AM (11–26), which has one intramolecular disulfide bond.

3 clones were isolated, and the clone designated pBAM-2, which harbored the longest insert of 1,438 base, was used for sequencing. The bovine AM cDNA contained a single open reading frame encoding a putative 188 amino acid polypeptide. The first 21-residue peptide is thought to be a signal peptide. The bovine AM propeptide contains three signals of dibasic amino acid sequences, Lys-Arg or Arg-Arg. The first Lys-Arg followed proadrenomedullin N-terminal 20 peptide (PAMP) sequences. AM is located between the second signal of Lys-Arg and the third signal of Arg-Arg. Gly residues, which are donors of C-terminal amide structure of PAMP and AM, are found before the first and third signal of Lys-Arg and Arg-Arg. Bovine AM consists of 52 amino acids and is identical to human AM with exception of four amino acids. Bovine PAMP consists of 20 amino acids and is identical to human PAMP with exception of one amino acid. The present cDNA sequence encoding bovine AM precursor is almost identical to those of the reported AM cDNA sequences from bovine aortic endothelial cells. However, a difference in one amino acid was found in the sequences of signal peptide. In addition, three different residues of nucleotides were found in the noncoding region of cDNA encoding bovine preproadreno-medullin.

AM(11–26) elicited a potent hypertensive effects in unanesthetized rats.
When AM(11–26) at 20 nmol/kg was injected i.v., the maximum increase of mean blood pressure was 50 7.1 mmHg. Similarly, the synthetic AM(11–26) produced dose-dependent strong pressor responses in unanesthetized rats in vivo. (Blood pressure increase; F(3, 20 = 13.845, P < 0.0001). Injection of saline did not affects blood pressure and heart rate. The hypertensive activity lasted about 70 s, and a dose dependent increase of heart rate was also observed (Heart rate increase; F(3, 20) = 6.151, P = 0.0039).

We have isolated and characterized bovine AM(11–26) from bovine adrenal medulla as an endogenous peptide. The hallmark biological effects of AM are vasodilation and hypotensive effects in the vascular systems of most species. The mature form of AM has one ring structure formed by an intramolecular disulfide bond and a C terminal amide structure, both of which are essential for the hypotensive and other biological activities of AM. Watanabe et al. reported that the synthetic N-terminal fragment of human AM, AM (1–25)COOH and other related peptides, show vasopressor activity in anesthetized rats. The present purification and characterization of AM(11–26) indicate that the ring structure of AM may function as a biologically active endogenous peptide. The peptide corresponding to Mr 1,500 Da was further purified to homogeneity.

The purified peptide was found to be AM(11–26) which has one intramolecular disulfide bond. The structure of AM(11–26) was confirmed by chromatographic comparison with native AM(11–26) as well as a synthetic specimen which was prepared according to the determined sequence. The structure of bovine AM and related peptides were determined by cDNA analysis encoding bovine AM. Bovine AM consists of 52 amino acids whose sequence is identical to the human sequences with the exception of four amino acids. Furthermore, according to the cDNA analysis and chromatographic comparison of the synthetic AM(11–26) and purified AM, is now determined to be cystine. It should be noted that the structure of bovine AM(11–26) is identical to human AM(11–26).

It is well known that many peptide hormones and neuropeptides are processed from larger, biologically inactive precursors by the specific processing enzyme. It usually recognizes pairs of basic amino acids, processing signals, such as primarily Lys-Arg and Arg-Arg. AM (11–26) is not flanked by such a processing signal, but it was reproducibly observed in bovine adrenal medulla peptide extract. The molar ratio of AM(11–26)/AM was estimated to be 40%. The ratio varied from 5% to 50% according to the individual specimen, but the minor peak corresponding to 1,500 Da was reproducibly observed, suggesting that AM(11–26) is an endogenous peptide. It is likely that AM(11–26) is biosynthesized from AM or AM precursor by a specific enzyme.

In contrast to AM, synthetic bovine AM(11–26) caused potent hypertensive effects in unanesthetized rats. The hypertensive activity of AM(11–26) seems to be comparable to that of AM(1–25) as reported by Watanabe et al. It was unexpected that AM(11–26) would cause a dose dependent increase of heart rate in unanesthetized rats because vasopressor activity normally causes bradycardia through baroreceptor activation. The hypertensive mechanism is not fully understood, but it has been reported that the vasopressor effect of AM(1–25) might be caused by the release of endogenous catecholamine. We speculate that the released catecholamine counters the baroreceptor function resulting in an increased heart rate and blood pressure. It is possible that AM(11–26) participates in blood pressure control as an endogenous peptide.

A review of the biological properties and clinical implications of adrenomedullin and proadrenomedullin N-terminal 20 peptide (PAMP), hypotensive and vasodilating peptides.

Tanenao Eto
Peptides 22 (2001) 1693–1711 PII: S0196-9781(01)00513-7

Adrenomedullin (AM), identified from pheochromocytoma and having 52 amino acids, elicits a long-lasting vasodilatation and diuresis. AM is mainly mediated by the intracellular adenylate cyclase coupled with cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and nitric oxide (NO) -cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) pathway through its specific receptor. The calcitonin receptor-like receptor (CLCR) and receptor-activity modifying protein (RAMP) 2 or RAMP3 models have been proposed as the candidate receptor. AM is produced mainly in cardiovascular tissues in response to stimuli such as shear stress and stretch, hormonal factors and cytokines. Recently established AM knockout mice lines revealed that AM is essential for development of vitelline vessels of embryo. Plasma AM levels elevate in cardiovascular diseases such as heart failure, hypertension and septic shock, where AM may play protective roles through its characteristic biological activities. Human AM gene delivery improves hypertension, renal function, cardiac hypertrophy and nephrosclerosis in the hypertensive rats. AM decreases cardiac preload and afterload and improves cardiac contractility and diuresis in patients with heart failure and hypertension. Advances in gene engineering and receptor studies may contribute to further understandings of biological implication and therapeutic availability of AM.

AM acts as a circulating hormone as well as elicits multiple biological activities in a paracrine or autocrine manner. Among them the most characteristic biological activity of AM is a very powerful hypotensive activity caused by dilatation of resistance vessels. A sensitive and specific radioimmunoassay demonstrated that AM circulates in blood and occurs in a variety of tissues. Plasma AM levels elevate in various diseases including cardiovascular and renal disorders or septic shock. Thus, AM may be involved in pathophysiological processes in these diseases, especially in disorders controlling circulation and body fluid. In this short review, the history of AM and proadrenomedullin N-terminal 20 peptide (PAMP) will be reviewed with special references to biological properties and function, receptors, gene engineering and clinical viewpoints. This review includes oral presentations from the aforementioned symposium; some of which have not yet been published. These unpublished oral presentations are quoted in this paper from the abstracts of this symposium.

Preproadrenomedullin, which consists of 185 amino acids and contains a 21-amino acid signal peptide, is processed to synthesize proadrenomedullin and finally AM. In the proadrenomedullin, a unique twenty amino acid sequence followed by a typical amidation signal known as Gly-Lys-Arg, is included in the N-terminal region. This novel 20 residues peptide with carboxyl terminus of Arg-CONH2 is also present in vivo and is termed “proadrenomedullin N-terminal 20 peptide (PAMP).” PAMP elicits a potent hypotensive activity in anesthetized rats.

Although widely distributed in the adenophypophysis and the neural lobe of pituitary glands, AM and PAMP occur in cell-specific, but not overlapping, patterns in the anterior pituitary. This cell-specific expression of each peptide may be explained by differences in posttranslational processing of AM gene. As such, potential pituitary specific transcription factor binding sites, gonadotropic-specific element (GSE) and a binding site for steroidogenic factor-l (SF-1) are found in the 5flanking region of human and mouse AM gene. SF-1 is a member of the steroid receptor superfamily that has been shown necessary for gonadotrope differentiation within the pituitary. In addition, one putative binding sequence of Pit-1 has been reported in mouse AM gene promoter position.

A specific AM binding protein (AMBP-1) in human plasma was isolated and the purified protein was identified as human complement factor H. AM and factor H interaction may interfere with the radioimmunoassay quantification of circulating AM. Factor H enhances AM-mediated induction of cAMP in fibroblast; augments the AM-mediated growth of a cancer cell line; and suppresses the bactericidal capability of AM on Escherichia coli. Conversely, AM influences the complement regulatory function of factor H by enhancing the cleavage of C3b via factor I. The augmentation of AM actions indicates that AMBP may facilitate the binding of AM to its receptor. In addition, the existence of AMBP suggests that large amounts of AM may circulate bound to this plasma protein.

In rat vascular smooth muscle cells, the CGRP, CGRP1 receptor antagonist, competitively inhibits the intracellular accumulation of cAMP induced by AM. Vasodilation of the rat mesenteric vascular bed elicited by AM and CGRP is also blocked by CGRP. Similar effects of CGRP are observed in the isolated rat heart and its microvasculature. Thus, CGRP1 receptor can mediate some effects of AM, but AM has a low affinity at CGRP2 receptor. Two distinct AM labeled bands with a molecular weight of 120 and 70 kDa was reported in the cultured rat vascular smooth muscle cell membrane. Therefore, the binding specificity and characteristics of the AM receptor may differ regionally by organ or tissue.

Two more RAMP proteins, RAMP2 and RAMP3, were discovered from database searches. These proteins share approximately 30% homology with RAMP1. Co-expression of RAMP2 or RAMP3 with CRLR appears to constitute AM receptor. RAMP2 and RAMP3 are indistinguishable in terms of AM binding. The RAMPs are required to transport CRLR to the plasma membrane. RAMP1 presents CRLR as a mature glycoprotein at the cell surface to form a CGRP receptor. However, receptors transported by RAMP2 or RAMP3 are core glycosylated and then become AM receptors. Three putative N-glycosylation sites Asn 60, Asn 112 and Asn 117 are present in the amino-terminal extracellular domain of the human CRLR. When the glycosylation of a myc-tagged CRLR was inhibited, specific ¹²⁵I-CGRP and -AM binding were blocked in parallel. Substitution of the Asn 117 by threonine abolished CGRP and AM binding in the face of intact N-glycosylation and cell surface expression. RAMPs are accessory proteins of CTR and CRLR at the cell surface where they define AM, amylin, calcitonin and CGRP specificity.

The receptor component protein (RCP) was cloned on the basis of its ability to potentiate the endogenous Xenopus oocyte CGRP receptor. RCP is a cytosolic protein with no similarity to RAMPs, consists of a hydrophobic 146 amino acids and is obtained from the Corti organ of guinea pig. RCF plays an essential role for signal-transduction of CGRP and AM, and interacts with CRLR directly within the cells. Thus, a functional AM or CGRP receptor seems to consist of at least three proteins: CRLR, RAMP and RCP, coupling the receptor to the intracellular signal-transduction pathway.

By using a chimera of the CRLR and green fluorescent protein (GFP), the study demonstrated that CRLR-GFP failed to generate responses to CGRP or AM without RAMP2 or RAMP3 in HEK 293 cells. When coexpressed with RAMP2 or RAMP3, CRLR-GFP appeared on the cell membrane and activated an intracellular cAMP production and calcium mobilization. Agonist-mediated internalization of CRLR-GFP was observed in RAMP1/CGRP or AM, RAMP2/AM, and RAMP3/AM, which occurred with similar kinetics, indicating the existence of ligand-specific regulation of CRLR internalization by RAMPs.

The discovery of RAMPs has promoted our understandingthat some of the biological activities of AM are blocked by CGRP receptor antagonist, whereas other biological activities are blocked only by AM receptor antagonist, which indicates the possible existence of AM receptor in dual nature. RAMP association with CRLR traffics this receptor to the cell surface where individual RAMPs dictate the expression of unique phenotypes such as CGRP receptor or AM receptors. Apart from receptor trafficking and glycosylation, the RAMPs may interact directly with the receptors in the cell surface modifying their affinities for the ligands.

Since AM was discovered by monitoring the elevating activity of cAMP in rat platelets, cAMP appears to be its major second messenger. Dose-dependent intracellular production of cAMP induced by AM has been confirmed in various tissues and cells. Moreover, information on the role of NO in alternative signal-transduction pathways for AM is available.

The vasodilating effect of AM is reduced by the blockade of NO synthetase activity with NG-nitro-L-arginine methylester (L-NAME), indicating that NO may at least partly contribute to the AM-induced vasodilation. However, the degree of NO contribution to vasodilation varies depending upon the organ or tissue and the species. NO synthetase inhibitor in the pulmonary vascular beds of rat significantly attenuates the AM-induced vasodilation, but it does not occur in cats. Thus, NO seems to be an important AM mediator despite regional and interspecies variation.

In bovine aortic endothelial cells, AM increases intracellular ionic calcium (Ca²⁺) and causes the accumulation of cAMP. This increase in intracellular Ca²⁺ may be involved in the activation of phospholipase C, thereby producing inducible NO synthetase and subsequently NO. NO transferred to medial smooth muscle cells may activate cGMP-mediating smooth muscle cells vasodilatation. In contrast, AM lowers both cytosolic Ca²⁺ and Ca²⁺ sensitivity in smooth muscle cells of pig coronary arteries and intracellular Ca²⁺ in rat renal arterial smooth muscle cells.

Among the multi-functional properties of AM, the most characteristic one is an intensive, long-lasting hypotension that is dose-dependent in humans, rats, rabbits, dogs, cats and sheep. AM dilates resistance vessels in the kidneys, brain, lung, hindlimbs in animals as well as in the mesentery. Moreover, AM elicits relaxation of ring preparations of the aorta and cerebral arteries. An i.v. injection of human AM to conscious sheep causes a dose dependent fall of blood pressure, an increase in heart rate and cardiac output with a small reduction in stroke volume, as well as a marked decrease in total peripheral resistance. Coronary blood flow increases in parallel with the increase in coronary conductance. These cardiovascular responses return to the control level by 40 min after the injection.

The low-dose infusion of AM administered to conscious sheep on a low-salt diet antagonizes the vasopressor actions of administered angiotensin II while stimulating cardiac output and heart rate. AM may control cardiovascular homeostasis in part through antagonism of the vasopressor action of angiotensin II. AM inhibits the secretion of endothelin-1 from the vascular endothelial cells and proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells. In the cultured cardiomyocytes as well as cardiac fibroblasts, AM inhibits protein synthesis in these cells in an autocrine or a paracrine manner, which may result in modulating the cardiac growth. AM inhibits bronchial constriction induced by acetylcholine or histamine in a dose-dependent manner, indicating the important role of AM on airway function and its usefulness for the management of bronchial asthma. AM inhibits secretion of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex. When infused directly into the adrenal arterial supply of conscious sheep, AM directly inhibits the acute stimulation of aldosterone by angiotensin II, KCl and ACTH while not affecting basal or chronic aldosterone secretion or cortisol secretion stimulated by ACTH. AM co-exists in insulin-producing cells and it inhibits insulin secretion dose-dependently in isolated rat islets.

The N-terminal region of preproadrenomedullin, the precursor of AM, contains a unique 20-residue sequence followed by Gly-Lys-Arg, a typical amidation signal, which was termed as proadrenomedullin N-terminal 20 peptide (PAMP). PAMP was purified from porcine adrenal medulla and human pheochromo-cytoma by using radioimmunoassay for the peptide and its complete amino acid sequence was determined. In addition to the original form of PAMP [1–20], PAMP [9–20] has recently been purified from the bovine adrenal medulla. The amino acid sequences of both forms of PAMP are identical to amino acid sequences deduced by cDNA analysis and their carboxyl terminus of Arg is amidated. The distribution of PAMP is similar to that of human AM, due to the fact that PAMP as well as human AM is biosynthesized from an AM precursor.

AM is processed from its precursor, proadrenomedullin, as the intermediate or immature form, AM-glycine (AM[1–52]-COOH, immature AM). Subsequently, immature AM is converted to the biologically active mature form, AM [1–52]-CONH2 (mature AM) by enzymatic amidation. The AM circulating in the human blood stream (total AM), thus, consists of both mature AM and immature AM. In earlier studies, plasma AM levels were measured by using radioimmunoassay recognizing the entire AM molecule (AM [1–52]), which reflects plasma total AM levels, as previously described.

In healthy volunteers severe exercise elevates the plasma AM levels with an increase in plasma norepinephrine and exaggerated sympathetic nerve activity. In heart transplant recipients, maximal exercise induces an increase in plasma AM that is inversely related to mean blood pressure. AM, therefore, may participate in blood pressure regulation during exercise even after heart transplantation.

When compared with healthy controls, the plasma AM levels are increased in patients with a variety of diseases: congestive heart failure, myocardial infarction, renal diseases, hypertensive diseases, diabetes mellitus, acute phase of stroke, and septic shock.

Adrenomedullin and central cardiovascular regulation

Meghan M. Taylor, Willis K. Samson
Peptides 22 (2001) 1803–1807 PII: S0196-9781(01)00522-8

Adrenomedullin gene products have been localized to neurons in brain that innervate sites known to be important in the regulation of cardiovascular function. Those sites also have been demonstrated to possess receptors for the peptide and central administrations of adrenomedullin (AM) and proadrenomedullin N-terminal 20 peptide (PAMP) elevate blood pressure and heart rate in both conscious and anesthetized animals. The accumulated evidence points to a role of the sympathetic nervous system in these cardiovascular effects. These sympathostimulatory actions of AM and PAMP have been hypothesized to be cardioprotective in nature and to reflect the central nervous system (CNS) equivalent of the direct cardiostimulatory effects of the peptides in the periphery. This review summarizes the most recent data on the CNS actions of the adrenomedullin gene-derived peptides and suggests future strategies for the elucidation of the physiologic relevance of the already demonstrated, pharmacologic actions of these peptides.

Adrenomedullin and related peptides: receptors and accessory proteins

Roman Muff, Walter Born, Jan A. Fischer
Peptides 22 (2001) 1765–1772 PII: S0196-9781(01)00515-0
Adrenomedullin (AM), α- and β-calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), amylin and calcitonin (CT) are structurally and functionally related peptides. The structure of a receptor for CT (CTR) was elucidated in 1991 through molecular cloning, but the structures of the receptors for the other three peptides had yet to be elucidated. The discovery of receptor-activity-modifying proteins (RAMP) 1 and -2 and their co-expression with an orphan receptor, calcitonin receptor-like receptor (CRLR) has led to the elucidation of functional CGRP and AM receptors, respectively. RAMP1 and -3 which are co-expressed with CTR revealed two amylin receptor isotypes. Molecular interactions between CRLR and RAMPs are involved in their transport to the cell surface. Heterodimeric complexes between CRLR or CTR and RAMPs are required for ligand recognition.

Pharmacological profiles of receptors of the adrenomedullin peptidefamily
AMR	AM>CGRP>>amylin=CT
CTR	CT>amylin>>CGRP=AM
CGRPR	CGRP>AM>>amylin=CT
AmylinR	AmylinsCTCGRP>>hCT>AM

Specific AM binding sites have been identified in many tissues including the heart, blood vessels, lung and spleen. Based on pharmacological evidence two receptor isotypes have been distinguished, for instance in rat astrocytes and NG108–15 cells. One AM receptor isotype recognizes CGRP and CGRP(8–37). The other receptor isotype specific for the AM ligand and antagonized by AM(22–52) does not recognize CGRP to any great extent. Both isotypes of the receptors have been shown to interact poorly with amylin and CT (Table). Biological actions of AM include vaso- and bronchodilation, and CNS transmitted inhibition of water intake.

CGRP receptors are widely distributed in the nervous and cardiovascular systems. To date, two isotypes have been described. On pharmacological evidence, CGRP1 receptors, such as those identified in human SK-N-MC neuroblastoma cells, recognize intact CGRP and CGRP(8–37) with similar potency, unlike a linear analog lacking the disulfide bridge. CGRP2 receptors,
on the other hand, interact with the linear analog but not with CGRP(8–37). These CGRP receptor isotypes cross-react with AM to some extent, but only minimally with amylin and CT. CGRP shares potent vasodilatory actions with AM, and has chronotropic and inotropic actions in the heart. The ionotropic actions are indirectly brought about via activation of the sympathetic nervous system. There is evidence to suggest the existence of α- or β-CGRP preferring receptor isotypes in both the central nervous system and peripheral tissues.

RAMP1, -2 and -3 are widely expressed, suggesting that RAMPs may have
important functions beyond those of the adrenomedullin family of receptors. To this end, RAMP1 and -3 are thought to reduce cell surface expression of angiotensin (AT) AT1 and AT2 receptors.

RAMP2 and CRLR are expressed in vascular smooth muscle cells, and RAMP1 expression was increased by dexamethasone. Moreover, increased levels of RAMP2 and CRLR were observed in the kidney and heart of rats with obstructive nephropathy and congestive heart failure, respectively. RAMP2
and CRLR levels were reduced, and RAMP3 levels were increased during lipopolysaccharide induced sepsis in rats.

The GABAB receptor 1 is retained as an immature glycoprotein in the cytosol unless co-expressed with GABAB receptor 2 isotype. Heterodimers of fully functional opioid receptors δ and κ result in a novel receptor displaying binding and functional properties distinct from those of the δ or κ receptors alone. Heterodimerization therefore facilitates receptor expression and defines ligand specificity also in G protein-coupled receptor families A and C. Moreover, heterodimers of metabotropic glutamate 1receptor (family C) and adenosine A1 receptors (family A) have been observed. As yet there is no evidence for homo or heterodimerization of family B receptors. Cysteines conserved in the extracellular N-terminal domain in all the receptors of family B and RAMPs suggest that RAMPs are truncated forms of receptors that interact as heterodimers with CRLR and CTR.

The discovery of RAMPs in combination with CRLR and CTR has led to the molecular identification of CGRP1, CGRP/amylin, AM and amylin receptor complexes. The physiological advantage of heterodimers between seven transmembrane domain receptors and the RAMPs required for the functional expression of the adrenomedullin, CGRP and amylin receptors remains to be demonstrated.

Angiotensin II, From Vasoconstrictor to Growth Factor: A Paradigm Shift

Sasa Vukelic, Kathy K. Griendling
Circ Res. 2014;114:754-757
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.114.303045

Angiotensin II (Ang II) is today considered as one of the essential factors in the pathophysiology of cardiovascular disease, producing acute hemodynamic and chronic pleiotropic effects. Although now it is widely accepted that these chronic effects are important, Ang II was initially considered only a short-acting, vasoactive hormone. This view was modified a quarter of a century ago when Dr Owens and his group published an article in Circulation Research with initial evidence that Ang II can act as a growth factor that regulates cell hypertrophy. They showed in a series of elegant experiments that Ang II promotes hypertrophy and hyperploidy of cultured rat aortic smooth muscle cells. However, Ang II had no effect on hyperplasia. These findings led to a paradigm shift in our understanding of the roles of growth factors and vasoactive substances in cardiovascular pathology and helped to redirect basic and clinical renin–angiotensin system research during the next 25 years. Ang II is now known to be a pleiotropic hormone that uses multiple signaling pathways to influence most processes that contribute to the development and progression of cardiovascular diseases, ranging from hypertrophy, endothelial dysfunction, cardiac remodeling, fibrosis, and inflammation to oxidative stress.

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Innervation of Heart and Heart Rate

Posted in Ca2+ triggered activation, Calcium Signaling, Calmodulin Kinase and Contraction, Cardiovascular Research, Curation, Cytoskeleton, Diabetes Mellitus, Disease Biology, Electrophysiology, Frontiers in Cardiology and Cardiovascular Disorders, HTN, Innovations in Neurophysiology & Neuropsychology, Metabolism, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, tagged cardiopulmonary physiology, HCN channels, Heart rate, Hypertension, Physical exercise, regulation of heart rhythm, sinoatrial node, treadmill test on February 15, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Innervation of Heart and Heart Rate

Writer and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

The heart is a four-chambered 350 gm semi-oval muscular organ composed of syncytial myocardium, innervated by the vagus nerve with a sino-atrial (SA) and a atrial ventricular (AV) node. The blood circulates through it by way of the pulmonary artery and aorta, carrying blood away from the ventricles, to the lungs and the systemic circulation, respectively, and two veins, the vena cava and pulmonary, carrying blood to the atria from the systemic circulation and lungs, respectively. The coronary arterial supply is the left anterior and left circumflex artery, and posteriorly, the right coronary artery, supplied by the aorta. Much of the pathology has been referred to in the introduction, except for the molecular pathology of atherosclerosis, which has been well covered in this journal. The chambers are divided centrally by the interventricular septum, which is not completely closed in the blue-baby syndrome, which was repaired surgically by Helen Taussig and Richard Bing. The piece that follows is primarily directed to the sympathetic innervation of the heart, variation in heart rate, and exercise or reaction to external threats.

What are the common observable events that stimulate or relax the heart:

Running or a treadmill test
Rowing or arm movement exercise
A whole body workout
Yoga or Ayurveda
Sleep – normal or disruptive

Some things that can cause a disruption of balance in integrated circulation, neural innervation, innate immune and hormonal response are:

Traumatic experience and/or Injuries
Climate and seasonal changes
Age
Emotions

The basis for the physiological distress has long been the primary basis for acupuncture, holistic and transcendental medicine, and stress management.

I shall here examine the experimental work that supports such an approach – in principle.

Seattle Heart Watch: Initial Clinical, Circulatory and Electrocardiographic Responses to Maximal Exercise

Robert A Bruce, G0 Gey, Jr., Mn Cooper, Ld Fisher, Dr Peterson
Amer J Cardiol 1974; 33(4): 459-469.

A network of 15 maximal exercise testing facilities in four teaching hospitals, 10 private offices and clinics and an industrial medical department was organized in July 1971 to study prospectively the antecedents of myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death. Within 18 months 2,332 men were tested: 1,275 healthy “normal” subjects, 97 with prior myocardial infarction, 306 with angina pectoris, 193 with hypertension and 461 with various mutually exclusive combinations of these diagnoses; among these clinical groups were five patients who had had a prior episode of ventricular fibrillation.
Historical, physical and laboratory data were recorded on self-teaching printed forms, with normal, borderline and abnormal responses arranged in three columns. Classification with respect to “unlikely,” “questionable” or “likely” risk of future cardiac events was assessed from the highest tally of items in these columns.
Analysis showed computer-averaged S-T segment responses were more consistent and reliable predictors than visual interpretations. Cardiac manifestations in healthy men varled with age and risk assessment, and in patients with cardiovascular disease varied with diagnosis and natural history of disease. Many significant differences provided insights into mechanisms of impaired cardiac function in relation to type of clinical disease. Testing was responsible for one post-exertional cardiac arrest. Recovery was effected promptly by defibrillation; there was no mortality.

Normal and Abnormal Heart Rate Responses to Exercise

Kirk Hammond and Victor F. Froelicher
Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1985; XXVII(4) (January/February), pp 27l-296

Of the many factors ultimately important in determining the cardiac output, the heart rate is certainly the easiest to measure. By analysis of the heart rate response to exercise in a variety of disease states we felt that the interrelationships of inotropic state, stroke volume, autonomic dysfunction, and myocardial disease could be clarified. This paper reviews the normal and abnormal heart rate responses to exercise.

The normal heart rate is determined by the frequency of depolarization of specialized cells within the sino-atrial node (S-A node). The S-A node, the vestigal sinus venosus, lies in the posterior portion of the heart near the demarcation between the right atrium and the superior vena cava. In about 80% of humans it receives its primary source of blood from a branch of the right coronary artery. Unlike other myocardial cells, the specialized cells of the S-A node have a slow sodium channel and a low resting potential which give these cells their special property. The slowly rising diastolic depolarization (stage four) leads to a rhythmic slow rising action potential.

The autonomic nervous system plays a key role in the regulation of heart rate (Fig 1). The sympathetic nervous system input to the heart originates in a nucleus in the medulla oblongata. Stimulation of this area with implanted electrodes results in increased heart rate and systemic vascular resistance due to increased sympathetic output. Axons from these nuclei descend to the sympathetic trunk via the intermediolateral columns of the spinal cord. From their synapses in cervical ganglia, postganglionic fibers directly innervate the atrial and ventricular musculature, the S-A node, and the A-V node. The effector neurotransmitter is norepinephrine and the receptors are of the beta adrenergic type. There is evidence from competitive binding studies that the postganglionic fibers are predominantly associated with type I beta receptors. The parasympathetic influence to the S-A node and the myocardium originates from nuclei very near the origin of the sympathetic nerves. From the motor nuclei of the vagus and the nucleus solitarius come fibers that form part of the vagus nerve. These fibers terminate at ganglia in the wall of the heart. The postganglionic cholinergic fibers end mostly near the S-A node and the A-V node; there is little evidence for the distribution of parasympathetic nerves to the ventricular myocardium although cholinergic muscarinic receptors have been characterized. In normal conditions there exists a well balanced autonomic tone influencing the S-A node.

There is a complex interrelation among many systems to determine the autonomic tone at the S-A node (Fig 2). [Arterial mechanoreceptors of the carotid sinus and aortic arch respond to changes in arterial pressure and result in appropriate adjustment in the sympathetic and vagal outflow to the heart and resistance and capacitance vessels. (Reprinted with permission from Shepherd JT, Van Houlte PM: The Human Cardiovascular System, Facts and Concepts. New York, Raven Press, 1979).]

There are cortical inputs to the medullary centers; for example, fear results in tachycardia by this pathway. Visceral afferent inputs increase parasympathetic tone resulting in bradycardia. Several reflexes are present for homeostasis. For example, the baroreflex is important in sensing changes in blood pressure and increasing or decreasing the heart rate via autonomic influences at the S-A node to maintain appropriate cardiac output.

Arterial mechanoreceptors of the carotid sinus and aortic arch respond to changes in arterial pressure and result in appropriate adjustment in the sympathetic and vagal outflow to the heart and resistance and capacitance vessels. (Reprinted with permission from Shepherd JT, Van Houlte PM: The Human Cardiovascular System, Facts and Concepts. New York, Raven Press, 1979).

Although the importance of autonomic influence is well accepted in the usual cardioacceleration to exercise, the role of the recovery or deceleration of heart rate following exercise may not be influenced by autonomic input. Six men were studied after peak treadmill exercise. To assess the contribution of autonomic factors in heart rate recovery, the men were given atropine, propranolol, or both agents. It was found that exponential cardio-deceleration occurred under each experimental condition. They concluded that heart rate recovery after exercise is regulated by changes in venous return mediated through atrial stretch receptors of pacemaker tissue. This study implies that deceleration depends primarily on factors intrinsic to the intact circulation that are independent of autonomic control.

The control of heart rate is complex; autonomic tone, central and peripheral reflexes, hormonal influences, and factors intrinsic to the heart are all important. Although easily measured, the heart rate reflects an integrated physiologic response.

The physiologic response to exercise depends on the type of exercise performed; the two major types are isometric and isotonic. Creating muscle tension with no movement against resistance is a pure form of isometric exercise; this results in increased muscle mass and strength. Isotonic exercise is the repetitive, rhythmic movement of large muscle masses against little resistance, known also as dynamic or aerobic exercise. Although most activities involve degrees of both, running is predominantly dynamic, and weight lifting is predominantly isometric.

Bezucha and colleagues investigated the cardiovascular responses to isometric (static) exercise (leg extension) and compared these to those observed during static-dynamic exercise (one arm cranking) and dynamic exercise (leg cycling) in normal men. Heart rate responses to these three tasks were markedly different with static exercise (holding a 30% of maximum voluntary contraction for 3 minutes) resulting in a mean heart rate of 110 + 6 compared with 164 + 4 beats/min in bicycle exercise at 80% of V_o max. Cardiac outputs were raised in all three activities in a proportional manner: 6.8 + 0.7 for static, 10.8 f 0.7 for arm cranking, and 31.9 + 1.0 L/min for bicycling. Stroke volume did not significantly change in the static or combined static-dynamic exercises. The increases in cardiac output were primarily the result of increases in heart rate. This study demonstrates the predominant pressor response and modest cardio-acceleration of isometric exercise.

Longhurst and coworkers, examined the response to acute and chronic exercise in two groups of athletes who typify the two major types of exercise: long distance runners (dynamic) and weight lifters (isometric). The runners responded to isometric exercise with lower double products than the weight lifters. The end-diastolic volume index (evaluated by echocardiography) in the runners was greater than control subjects both at rest and with exercise. In contrast, the weight lifters’ responses were similar to weight matched controls. Not only is the type of exercise an important determinant of acute physiologic response, but chronic static exercise results in physiologic responses that are no different from the responses of sedentary men.

Dynamic exercise, also called isotonic or aerobic, involves the rapid movement of large muscle masses that results in the need for the body to respond with increased ventilation to increase oxygen consumption. Such exercise is called aerobic since it must be performed by using oxygen. The heart must increase its output and performs flow work rather than pressure work. The response to dynamic muscular exercise consists of a complex series of cardiovascular adjustments designed to:

(1) see that active muscles receive a blood supply appropriate to their metabolic needs;

(2) dissipate the heat generated by active muscles; and,

(3) maintain the blood supply to the brain and the heart.

The regulation of the circulation during exercise involves the four following adaptations?

Local
Nervous adaptations
Humoral adaptations
Mechanical adaptations

The relationship of pressure, flow, and resistance in rigid tubes is defined by Poiseuille’s law. This law states that resistance is proportional to pressure divided by flow. Peripheral resistance increases in the tissues that do not function in the performance of the ongoing exercise and decreases in active muscle. The result is a decrease in systemic vascular resistance. While pressure only increases mildly, flow can increase by as much as five times during dynamic exercise. Since flow increases much more than pressure, the result is a decrease in systemic resistance. Another mechanical adaptation occurs when the increasing venous return dilates the left ventricle and cardiac function is enhanced via the Frank-Starling mechanism.

There is a highly predictable relationship between total body oxygen consumption and both the cardiovascular and respiratory responses to exercise (Fig 4). [ (A) The linear relationship between heart rate and oxygen uptake. The data was collected from 86 adult male and female subjects. (B) The linear relationship between cardiac output and oxygen uptake. C The data was collected from 23 adult male and female subjects. (C) The linear relationship between minute ventilation and oxygen uptake. ] The data was collected from 225 subjects. (Reprinted with permission.) Both parameters increase linearly with increasing oxygen consumption until maximal oxygen consumption is approached.

In summary, the type of exercise is an important determinant of both acute and chronic cardiovascular responses. Isometric exercise can be viewed as a pressure load and dynamic exercise as a volume load to the left ventricle. The acute physiological adjustments to dynamic exercise include peripheral vasodilation in exercising muscle, neural mediated increases in sympathetic tone to the heart and the periphery, the release of catecholamines from the adrenal medulla, and changes in venous return due to mechanical and humoral factors. A linear relationship exists between the consumption of oxygen and cardiac output and minute ventilation such that the work performed is highly correlated with the amount of blood pumped and the oxygen consumed.

An increase in heart rate is a major factor contributing to the exercise-induced increased cardiac output. Bowditch demonstrated that the time interval between beats is a determinant of the force of myocardial contraction. This has been called the frequency-force relationship (Fig 5). [The frequency force relationship is demonstrated by a sudden increase in beat frequency in papillary muscle fixed for isometric contraction. A slow increase in isometric tension results from the change in rate implying in increased contractile state. Each vertical line represents an isometric contraction. (Reprinted with permission of W.B. Saunders.)] The increased tension that accompanies an increased heart rate is the result of increased contractility. Although the mechanism of this phenomenon is not known, it may have to do with calcium availability to contractile elements. Thus an increase in heart rate results in an increase in the force of contraction.

Variations in and Significance of Systolic Pressure During Maximal Exercise (Treadmill) Testing: Relation to Severity of Coronary Artery Disease and Cardiac Mortality

John B. Irving, Robert A. Bruce,, Timothy A. Derouen
Amer J Cardiol 1977; 39: 841-848.

Variations in clinical noninvasive systolic pressure at the point of symptom-limited exercise on a treadmill were examined in six groups of subjects: 5,459 men and 749 women classified into three categories each. Among the men, 2,532 were asymptomatic healthy, 592 were hypertensive and 1,586 had clinical manifestations of coronary heart disease (that is, typical angina pectoris, prior myocardial Infarction or sudden cardiac arrest with resuscitation). Among the women, 244, 158 and 347 were in the corresponding clinical categories. None had had cardiac surgery; all had follow-up status ascertained by periodic mail questionnaires.
Reported deaths were reviewed and classified by three cardiologists; 140 deaths were attributed to coronary heart disease, 118 of them in the men classified as having coronary heart disease. The majority of maximal systolic blood pressure readings were reported to the nearest centimeter rather than millimeter of pressure. Retesting of 156 persons from 1 to 32 months later showed that pressure values agreed within 10 percent in two thirds, the overall mean difference was only 8.6 mm Hg and the correlation at maximal exercise was superior to that of the resting observations just before exercise. Hypertensive patients had a significantly greater body weight than normotensive persons. Among men, the lowest maximal systolic pressure was observed in the group with coronary heart disease; among women, the lowest mean pressure was found in the healthy group. Patients with coronary heart disease were slightly older, and only the women showed a significant correlation in maximal pressure with age. Only 5 percent of the variation in maximal systolic pressure in the patients with coronary heart disease was due to a shortened duration of exercise. Maximal systolic pressures correlated fairly well (r = 0.46 to 0.68 for the various groups) with resting systolic pressure, and this relation was independent of the diagnosis of cardiovascular disease in both men and women. Relations between pressure and the number of stenotic coronary arteries and Impaired ejection fraction at rest were examined in 22 men without and 162 men with coronary artery disease. Lower maximal systolic pressures were often associated with two or three vessel disease or reduced ejection fraction, or both.

The prognostic value of maximal systolic pressure for subsequent death due to coronary heart disease was examined in the men with coronary heart disease. The annual rate of sudden cardiac death decreased from 97.9 per 1,000 men to 25.3 and 6.6 per 1,000 men as the range of maximal systolic pressure increased from less than 140 to 140 to 199 and to 200 mm Hg or more, respectively. Cardiomegaly, Q waves in the resting electrocardiogram and persistent postexertional S-T depression were more common in men with the lowest systolic pressure at maximal exercise.

Circulatory Adjustments to Dynamic Exercise and Effect of Physical Training in Normal Subjects and in Patients With Coronary Artery Disease

Jan Praetorius Clausen
Prog Cardiov Dis 1976; XVIII(6): 459-496

The present paper focuses upon the importance of peripheral circulatory alterations during adjustments to exercise and training. Although training results in central circulatory adaptations and may also improve left ventricular function, the prime importance of such adaptations as regards the circulatory and metabolic response to training will be questioned. The thesis that increased maximal exercise capacity can at least in part be attributed to local alterations in the trained muscles will be presented and analyzed. While it is accepted that maximal oxygen uptake is limited by the blood oxygen transport capacity, it will be postulated that the primary event normally responsible for an enhanced oxygen supply after training is an increased ability to reduce resistance to blood flow in exercising muscles rather than improved performance of the central pump.

adjustment to exercise is limited to factors pertinent to physical training of patients with CAD. More detailed accounts of the normal response to exercise can be found in recent books or reviews.

Astrand, P-O, Rodahl K: Textbook of Work Physiology. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1970
Ekblom B, Hermansen L: Cardiac outputs in athletes. J Appl Physiol 25:619, 1968
Christensen EH: Beitrlge zur Physiologie schwerer kijrperlicher Arbeit. Arbeits physiol 4:470, 1931
Saltin B, Blomqvist G, Mitchell JH, et al: Response to exercise after bed rest and after training. Circulation 38 (Suppl 7): 1, 1968
Clausen JP, Klausen K, Blomqvist G, et al. Central and peripheral circulatory changes after training of the arms or legs. Am J Physiol 225:675, 1973

In connection with patients with CAD, only one type of muscular work is of interest; namely, rhythmic or dynamic exercise, in which a considerable part of the skeletal muscle mass is active. This applies to naturally occurring physical activity. Only these types of activity will be referred to and only at work intensities that can be continued for 3-5 min or more.

Dynamic muscular exercise is characterized by a high metabolic rate in the muscle cells with the skeletal muscle functioning in a manner similar to the myocardium, with regularly alternating contraction and relaxation phases. The mechanical energy expended is grossly proportional to the force and the frequency of contraction, and it is derived from the breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine phosphate (CP). Only a limited number of a muscle’s fibers, and thus, of its maximal contractile power, can be used in dynamic work continuing for several minutes. During maximal exercise on a bicycle ergometer with a pedaling frequency of 60 rpm, about 15%-2% of the maximal isometric strength of the quadriceps muscle is mobilized. This is thought related to the fact that skeletal muscle, in contrast to myocardium, is composed of several types of fibers with different enzymatic characteristics.29 Some fibers are similar to cardiac muscle being rich in oxidative intramitochondrial enzymes connected to the citric acid cycle, the fatty acid cycle, and the respiratory chain. These are the classical “red” muscle fibers. At the other end of a continuous spectrum is the typical “white” muscle fiber, with a high content of enzymes necessary for anaerobic glycolysis, but containing few mitochondria. Due to their great capability for aerobic metabolism, red fibers sustain rhythmic contractions for long periods of time, whereas the anaerobic white fibers require longer restitution phases even after short periods of activity.

Oxygen extraction per milliliter of blood perfusing the muscle may increase three- to fourfold, and the enhanced muscle blood flow (MBF) is responsible for the remainder of the augmented oxygen uptake. In human muscle, maximal MBF is in the order of 70-100 ml X 100 g-r X min-^-1 against a resting value of 2-5 ml X 100 g-r X min-^-1. The increase in MBF is locally controlled by release of vasodilator metabolites and thereby closely geared to the metabolic demands. Muscle blood flow per unit weight of muscle is closely related to the relative work load; i.e., percentage of maximal work load. The metabolites responsible for the exercise-induced vasodilation and hyperemia in muscle are not yet conclusively identified. The finding that both MBF and ATP-CP depletion are related to the relative work load supports the speculation that split products from high energy phosphates may be involved.

During strenuous exercise, V_O2can attain individually varying maximal values, typically ranging from 2.0 to 6.0 1 02/min. The maximal oxygen consumption (V_{O2 max}) is a highly reproducible measure of a given subject’s capability to perform this type of exercise, and it constitutes a useful physiologic reference standard. The conditions required to obtain V_{O2 max,} and its physiologic implications have recently been reviewed in detail by Rowe and by Hermansen. The V_{O2 max} for a given type of work is normally achieved at a work intensity that can be sustained for at least 3 min, but will cause complete exhaustion within 5-10 min. At this intensity of exercise, the cardiovascular functional capacity with respect to increase in cardiac output (Q), widening of systemic arteriovenous oxygen difference (AVDO₂), and elevation of heart rate (HR) will be challenged maximally for the given type of exercise. However, the relative contribution of Q and AVDO_2.

The above description of the normal central and peripheral circulatory adjustment to exercise can be recapitulated as follows:

During dynamic exercise, Q increases in direct proportion to the augmentation of 30,. The increase in Q is directed to exercising skeletal muscles, to the myocardium and-if exercise is continued for more than approximately 5 min-also to the skin. Blood flow to most “nonexercising” tissues (SBF, RBF,
and noncontracting muscles) is reduced due to a general sympathetic vasoconstriction. At submaximal levels, muscle blood flow per unit tissue,
the degree of peripheral vasoconstriction, the acceleration of HR, and in consequence, the increase in myocardial blood flow and oxygen consumption are all functions of the relative V0₂ ; i.e., the actual VO₂ expressed as a percentage of the highest achievable V0₂ for the given type of exercise.

Most patients with CAD who have been included in exercise and training studies have had healed myocardial infarction and/or stable angina pectoris and have been between 35 and 65 years of age. Both the aging process and myocardial lesions contribute to the modification of the circulatory response to exercise in this group, as compared to healthy young people. In advanced age-especially after 60 years-the circulation tends to become hypokinetic; i.e., Q/VO₂ is reduced. The decline of Q in l/min is almost the same during submaximal exercise as at rest, and thus the increase in Q with VO₂ is essentially the same in older as in younger subjects. Stroke volume is lower at a given VO₂ , while arterial blood pressures are higher; Q, HR, and VO₂max decline with aging.

Although patients with angina pectoris often exhibit a more profound impairment of left ventricular function and of working capacity than patients with CAD without angina, there seems not to be any specific differences in their central or peripheral circulatory response to exercise. Accordingly, the abnormalities in hemodynamic adaptations in a patient with angina pectoris are present also at workloads that do not provoke angina pectoris.

From the point of view of an exercise physiologist, the patient with angina pectoris is peculiar in that his capacity for dynamic work is not limited by his total body VO₂max, but by VO₂max in myocardial regions supplied by narrowed coronary arteries. If pain is prevented by prophylactic administration of nitroglycerin, a patient with angina pectoris can exercise longer at a given work load or achieve higher workloads and thus obtain a higher VO₂ max.

The circulatory adjustment to exercise in patients with CAD typically differs from that of normal subjects in that the maximal values for Q (and thus for VO₂), for HR, and for blood pressures are lower. During submaximal exercise, the relation between Q and VO₂ tends to be reduced. Moreover, most of the patients with CAD exhibit signs of left ventricular failure during exercise, including a decrease in SV at higher workloads, reduced myocardial contractility, and increased LVEDp. Nonetheless, the peripheral circulatory regulation in patients with CAD corresponds in principle to that seen in healthy subjects of the same age.

Training changes the different local flows during exercise in such a way that, within the framework of an unchanged or reduced Q, its regional distribution at a given submaximal work load deviates less from that seen at rest: the perfusion of nonworking tissues is relatively greater and the flow to active muscles less elevated. However, this is only valid for exercise performed with trained muscles.

Although the precise mechanism mediating exercise hyperemia is unknown, it seems acceptable that enhanced content of oxidative enzymes enables a reduction in MBF at a given submaximal VO₂ . After training, due to the increased capacity for oxidative phosphorylation, ATP and CP in active muscles stabilize at a higher steady state level. At the same time glycolysis occurs at a slower rate, pH is relatively increased, and the concentration of multiple intermediate metabolic products may be lower. In consequence, the intra- and intercellular biochemical milieu-concentrations of electrolytes and osmolality included-is less disturbed as compared to the conditions at rest. Whatever substance or combinations of chemical alterations cause the vasodilation, their extent of change is probably reduced at a given respiratory rate in trained muscle tissue, and the vasodilation is thus diminished.

Training improves exercise tolerance in most patients with angina pectoris. The main part of this effect can be related to the training-induced reduction in HR and SBP that decreases myocardial O2 requirements at a given total body O2 uptake. However, at the same time, higher values for the product of HR and SBP are tolerated before pain is provoked after training, suggesting that training has additional economizing effects on myocardial function or directly improves myocardial O2 supply. As judged from the results obtained in exercise tests, training and nitroglycerin seem almost equally potent in alleviating or preventing angina pectoris on exertion. Beta receptor blockade may be somewhat less efficient, whereas aorto-coronary bypass surgery, when practicable, may be the most efficient treatment of exertional angina available today.

Physical training is efficient in improving exercise capacity in about two thirds of all patients with angina pectoris. Patients with angina pectoris provoked only by exercise will often respond favorably to training, even if their exercise capacity is low. In contrast, patients who suffer from angina at rest, especially nocturnal attacks, may be less likely to increase their exercise tolerance by training. Accordingly, Hellerstein reports that in patients with more severe coronary arteriosclerosis as assessed from coronary arteriograms and left ventricular function, physical fitness fails to improve from training.

Unfortunately, it appears that the patients who cannot be expected to respond favorably to training are also less likely to improve from other modes of treatment. According to Balcon, only younger patients with normal left ventricular function are prone to achieve substantial improvement in physical working capacity by vein graft surgery. Furthermore, the mortality from the operation is higher in patients with abnormal ventricular function. Thus, the appearance of an apparently efficient surgical intervention has not simplified the selection of treatment.

Characteristics of the Ventilatory Exercise Stimulus

F.M. Bennett and W.E. Fordyce
Respiration Physiology 1985; 59, 55-63

Simple mathematical models were used to quantitatively examine a number of hypotheses concerning the nature of the exercise stimulus. The modelling demonstrated the following for an exercise intensity of 5 times the resting metabolic rate.

(1) During the steady state, a deviation in the coupling between V_E and metabolic rate by + 25 % of the value necessary for isocapnia, results in a deviation of Pa_co2 of + 2 torr from isocapnia.

(2) In the transient phase, a mismatch between V_E and Q (and thus CO2 flow) of 50% results in a change of Pa_co2 of only 1 torr.

(3)When resting Pa_co2 is changed by 10 torr and it is assumed that the coupling between V_Eand Pa_co2 does not change, Pa_co2 deviates from isocapnia by less than 2 torr.

It is concluded that –

(1) to experimentally test hypotheses of the exercise stimulus requires resolution of small changes in Pa_co2;

(2) good regulation of Pa_co2 does not necessarily imply precise coupling between V_E and V_co2;

(3) the ventilatory exercise stimulus need not be a precise function of metabolic rate;

(4) in the steady state, the normal CO₂ controller will be very effective in minimizing changes in Pa_co2due to a mismatch between ventilation and metabolic rate.

Cardiorespiratory and Metabolic Responses to Positive, Negative and
Minimum-Load Dynamic Leg Exercise

Carl Magnus Hesser, Dag Linnarsson And Hilding Bjurstedt
Respiration Physiology 1977; 30, 5 I-67

Cardiorespiratory and metabolic responses to steady-state dynamic leg exercise were studied in seven male subjects who performed positive and negative work on a modified Krogh cycle ergometer at loads of 0. 16,33,49.98, and 147 W with a pedaling rate of60 rpm.
In positive work, O₂ uptake increased with the ergometric load in a parabolic fashion. Net O₂ uptake averaged 220 ml*min^{– 1} at 0 W (loadless pedaling), and was 75 ml* min^{– 1} lower at the point of physiological minimum load which occurred in negative work at approximately 9 W. The O₂ cost of loadless pedaling is for one-third attributed to the work of overcoming elastic and viscous resistance, the remaining part being due mainly to the work of antagonistic muscle contraction in the moving legs. Although at a given Vo₂ work rate was much higher in negative than in positive work, corresponding values for V_E were similar, suggesting that the mechanical tension in working muscles is of little or no importance in the control of ventilation in steady-state exercise.
Heart rate increased linearly with Vo₂ in both positive and negative work, with a steeper slope in negative work. Evidence is presented that none of the current definitions of muscular efficiency yields the true efficiency of muscular contraction in cycle ergometry, net efficiency calculation resulting in too low estimates, and work and delta efficiency calculations in overestimated values in the low-intensity work range, and in underestimated values in the high-intensity range.

The effect of exercise on left ventricular ejection time in patients with hypertension or angina pectoris

James R. Bowlby
Amer Heart J 1979; 97(3): 348-350

Using the method and regression equation of Lewis and associates, the present study confirms their findings in normal men up to the age of 65 years. Despite the significantly higher myocardial oxygen consumption, as measured by the double product, the hypertensive patients responded in a similar fashion. The patients with angina pectoris, however, showed a significantly prolonged post-exercise ejection time.

Cardiac Effects of Prolonged and Intense Exercise Training in Patients With Coronary Artery Disease

Ali A. Ehsani, Wade H. Martin Iii, Gregory W. Heath, Edward F. Coyle
Amer J Cardiol 1982; 50: 246-254

The effects of intense and prolonged exercise training on the heart were studied with echocardiography in eight men with coronary artery disease with a mean age (standard error of the mean) of 52 + 3 years. Training consisted of endurance exercise 3 times/week at 50 to 60 percent of the measured maximal oxygen uptake for 3 months followed by exercise 4 to 5 days/week at 70 to 60 percent of maximal oxygen uptake for 9 months. Maximal oxygen uptake capacity increased by 42 percent (26 + 1 versus 37 + 2 ml/kg per min; p <0.001). Heart rate at rest and submaximal heart rate and systolic blood pressure at a given work rate were significantly lower after training. Systolic blood pressure at the time of maximal exercise increased (145 + 9 before versus 166 + 6 mm Hg after training; probability [p] <0.01). Left ventricular end-diastolic diameter was increased after 12 months of training (from 47 + 1 to 51 + 1 mm; p <0.01. Left ventricular fractional shortening and mean velocity of circumferential shortening decreased progressively in response to graded iisometric handgrip exercise before training but not after training. At comparable levels of blood pressure during static exercise, mean velocity of circumferential shortening was significantly higher after training (0.76 + 0.04 versus 0.96 + 0.07 diameter/set, p <0.01). No improvement in echocardio-graphic or exercise variables was observed over a 12 month period in another group of five patients who did not exercise. Thus the data suggest that prolonged and vigorous exercise training in selected patients with coronary artery disease can elicit cardiac adaptations.

Physical activity and resting pulse rate in older adults: Findings from a randomized controlled trial

Bríain O’Hartaigh, Marco Pahor, Thomas W. Buford, John A. Dodson, et al.
Am Heart J 2014;168:597-604

Background Elevated resting pulse rate (RPR) is a well-recognized risk factor for adverse outcomes. Epidemiological evidence supports the beneficial effects of regular exercise for lowering RPR, but studies are mainly confined to persons younger than 65 years. We set out to evaluate the utility of a physical activity (PA) intervention for slowing RPR among older adults.
Methods A total of 424 seniors (ages 70-89 years) were randomized to a moderate intensity PA intervention or an education-based “successful aging” health program. Resting pulse rate was assessed at baseline, 6 months, and 12 months. Longitudinal differences in RPR were evaluated between treatment groups using generalized estimating equation models, reporting unstandardized β coefficients with robust SEs.
Results Increased frequency and duration of aerobic training were observed for the PA group at 6 and 12 months as compared with the successful aging group (P = 0.001). In both groups, RPR remained unchanged over the course of the 12-month study period (P = .67). No significant improvement was observed (β [SE] = 0.58 [0.88]; P = .51) for RPR when treatment groups were compared using the generalized estimating equation method. Comparable results were found after omitting participants with a pacemaker, cardiac arrhythmia, or who were receiving β-blockers.
Conclusions Twelve months of moderate intensity aerobic training did not improve RPR among older adults. Additional studies are needed to determine whether PA of longer duration and/or greater intensity can slow RPR in older persons.

Autonomic regulation and maze-learning performance in older and younger dults

Karen J. Mathewson, J Dywan, PJ Snyder, WJ Tays, SJ Segalowitz
Biological Psychology 88 (2011) 20– 27
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.06.003

There is growing evidence that centrally modulated autonomic regulation can influence performance on complex cognitive tasks but the specificity of these influences and the effects of age-related decline in these systems have not been determined. We recorded pre-task levels of respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA; an index of phasic vagal cardiac control) and rate pressure produce (RPP; an index of cardiac workload) to determine their relationship to performance on a cumulative maze learning task. Maze performance has been shown to reflect executive error monitoring capacity and non-executive visuomotor processing speed. Error monitoring was predicted by RSA in both older and younger adults but by RPP only in the older group. Non-executive processes were unrelated to either measure. These data suggest that vagal regulation is more closely associated with executive than nonexecutive aspects of maze performance and that, in later life, pre-task levels of cardiac workload also influence executive control.

Sympathovagal Imbalance Contributes to Prehypertension Status and Cardiovascular Risks Attributed by Insulin Resistance, Inflammation, Dyslipidemia and Oxidative Stress in First Degree Relatives of Type 2 Diabetics

Gopal Krushna Pal, C Adithan, P Hariharan Ananthanarayanan, Pravati Pal, et al.
PLoS OME 2013; 8(11), e78072 http://dx.doi.org:/10.1371/journal.pone.0078072

Background: Though cardiovascular (CV) risks are reported in first-degree relatives (FDR) of type 2 diabetics, the pathophysiological mechanisms contributing to these risks are not known. We investigated the association of sympathovagal imbalance (SVI) with CV risks in these subjects.
Subjects and Methods: Body mass index (BMI), basal heart rate (BHR), blood pressure (BP), rate-pressure product (RPP), spectral indices of heart rate variability (HRV), autonomic function tests, insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), lipid profile, inflammatory markers, oxidative stress (OS) marker, rennin, thyroid profile and serum electrolytes were measured and analyzed in subjects of study group (FDR of type 2 diabetics, n = 72) and control group (subjects with no family history of diabetes, n = 104).
Results: BMI, BP, BHR, HOMA-IR, lipid profile, inflammatory and OS markers, renin, LF-HF (ratio of low-frequency to high frequency power of HRV, a sensitive marker of SVI) were significantly increased (p,0.0001) in study group compared to the control group. SVI in study group was due to concomitant sympathetic activation and vagal inhibition. There was significant correlation and independent contribution of markers of insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, inflammation and OS to LF-HF ratio. Multiple-regression analysis demonstrated an independent contribution of LF-HF ratio to prehypertension status (standardized beta 0.415, p,0.001) and bivariate logistic-regression showed significant prediction (OR 2.40, CI 1.128–5.326, p = 0.002) of LF-HF ratio of HRV to increased RPP, the marker of CV risk, in study group.
Conclusion: SVI in FDR of type 2 diabetics occurs due to sympathetic activation and vagal withdrawal. The SVI contributes to prehypertension status and CV risks caused by insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, inflammation and oxidative stress in FDR of type 2 diabetics.

Exercise prescription for patients with type 2 diabetes and pre-diabetes: A position statement from Exercise and Sport Science Australia

Matthew D. Hordern, DW Dunstan, JB Prins, MK Baker, et al.
Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 15 (2012) 25–31
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.jsams.2011.04.005

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and pre-diabetic conditions such as impaired fasting glucose (IFG) and/or impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) are rapidly increasing in prevalence. There is compelling evidence that T2DM is more likely to develop in individuals who are insufficiently active. Exercise training, often in combination with other lifestyle strategies, has beneficial effects on preventing the onset of T2DM and improving glycaemic control in those with pre-diabetes. In addition, exercise training improves cardiovascular risk profile, body composition and cardiorespiratory fitness, all strongly related to better health outcomes. Based on the evidence, it is recommended that patients with T2DM or pre-diabetes accumulate a minimum of 210 min per week of moderate-intensity exercise or 125 min per week of vigorous intensity exercise with no more than two consecutive days without training. Vigorous intensity exercise is more time efficient and may also result in greater benefits in appropriate individuals with consideration of complications and contraindications. It is further recommended that two or more resistance training sessions per week (2–4 sets of 8–10 repetitions) should be included in the total 210 or 125 min of moderate or vigorous exercise, respectively. It is also recommended that, due to the high prevalence and incidence of comorbid conditions in patients with T2DM, exercise training programs should be written and delivered by individuals with appropriate qualifications and experience to recognise and accommodate comorbidities and complications.

Estimation of the Ejection Fraction in Patients with Myocardial Infarction Obtained from the Combined Index of Systolic and Diastolic Left Ventricular Function: A New Method

Jorge A. Lax, Alejandra M. Bermann, Tomás F. Cianciulli, Luis A. Morita, et al.
J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2000;13:116-23.

The index of myocardial performance combining systolic and diastolic time intervals (Index) is a useful method, already explained in past studies, that offers new values that have not been widely known among clinical cardiologists. The aim of this study is to obtain from this Index a measurement of the ejection fraction (EF), which is a very well-known value.
The study involved 97 patients with myocardial infarction, 55 of whom were studied retrospectively (group A, aged 46-62 years, 50 men) to obtain and test the formula EF = 60 – (34 × Index). The second group (group B, aged 47-63 years, 40 men) included 42 patients who were evaluated prospectively. The EF obtained was compared with that reached through the use of radionuclide angiography (EF-RNA).
The Index was obtained through the use of the formula (a – b)/b, where a is the interval between cessation and onset of the mitral inflow, and b is the ejection time. In group A the EF obtained by the Index (EF-Index) was 37.5% ± .8%, and the EF-RNA was 37.7% ± 11% (r = 0.76). In group B the EF-Index was 41.6% ± 7%, and the EF-RNA was 41.2% ± 10% (r = 0.75).
Conclusion: Through the new formula described here it is possible to obtain a reliable measurement of the EF in patients with myocardial infarction, a well known and extremely useful value, especially for those patients with poor acoustic windows.

HCN channels: new roles in sinoatrial node function

Christian Wahl-Schott, Stefanie Fenske and Martin Biel
Current Opinion in Pharmacology 2014, 15:83–90
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coph.2013.12.005

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide gated (HCN) channels pass a cationic current (I_h/I_f) that crucially contributes to the slow diastolic depolarization (SDD) of sinoatrial pacemaker cells and, hence, is a key determinant of cardiac automaticity and the generation of the heart beat. There is growing evidence, that HCN channel functions in the sinoatrial node (SAN) are not restricted to impulse formation but are also required for impulse propagation. In addition, HCN channels are involved in coordination and maintenance of sinoatrial network activity and, hence, are crucial for stabilizing cardiac rhythmicity. In the present review we will outline these new concepts.

In this review we will focus on HCN channel functions in the sinoatrial node beyond the established concepts described above. We will outline recent advances involving the characterization of the HCN1-deficient mouse line (HCN1^-/- mouse) which have provided evidence that HCN channels are required for impulse propagation and the precision of the heart beat [19**]. Furthermore, we show how these properties can be generalized across the other HCN channel subtypes in the sinoatrial node.

19** Fenske S, Krause SC, Hassan SI, Becirovic E, Auer F, Bernard R, Kupatt C, Lange P, Ziegler T, Wotjak CT et al.: Sick sinus syndrome in HCN1-deficient Mice. Circulation 2013. Epub 2013 Nov 11.
First demonstration of a functional relevance of HCN1 channels in the murine sinoatrial node. The authors demonstrate that mice lacking the pacemaker channel HCN1 display congenital sinoatrial node dysfunction characterized by bradycardia, sinus dysrhythmia, prolonged sinoatrial node recovery time, increased sinoatrial conduction time and recurrent sinus pauses. As a consequence of sinoatrial node dysfunction HCN1-deficient mice display a severely reduced cardiac output.

Recent studies indicate that the role of cardiac HCN channels extends well beyond generation of pacemaker potentials. In addition to being merely ‘pacemaker channels’, HCN channels are important for sinoatrial impulse propagation, cardiac excitability and for the precision of the heartbeat. Furthermore, cardiac HCN channels are involved in the repolarization process of heart ventricles [56**,57]. It will be important to consider the full spectrum of these diverse cardiac functions when exploring agents acting on HCN channels for a specific clinical purpose such as reduction of heart rate.

56.** Fenske S, Mader R, Scharr A, Paparizos C, Cao-Ehlker X, et al.: HCN3 contributes to the ventricular action potential waveform in the murine heart. Circ Res 2011, 109:1015-1023.
First study demonstrating a functional role of HCN3 channels in the heart. Using HCN3-deficient mouse line the authors show that HCN3 together with other members of the HCN channel family confers a depolarizing background current that regulates ventricular resting potential and counteracts the action of hyperpolarizing potassium currents in late repolarization.
57. Fenske S, Krause S, Biel M, Wahl-Schott C: The role of HCN channels in ventricular repolarization. Trends Cardiovasc Med 2011, 21:216-220.

Roles of HCN1 channels for sinoatrial impulse conduction (source-sink relation) The primary impulse initiating the heart beat is generated in the leading pacemaker cell(s) of the sinoatrial node. Once the leading pacemaker cell(s) reaches the threshold for L-type Ca2+ channels an action potential is generated. Since pacemaker cells are interconnected via gap junctions, the impulse is conducted through the sinoatrial network and to the atrium. During impulse propagation the source cell (the cell which first reached AP threshold and is firing the action potential) charges the neighboring cell (sink), in which the membrane potential is below threshold (Figure 1) [24*]. Impulse propagation depends on the source-sink relation [24*, 25–29]. HCN1 deletion increases the sinoatrial conduction time suggesting the existence of a source sink mismatch in the HCN1-deficient mouse [19**].

Role of HCN1 channels for impulse formation and impulse conduction in the sinoatrial node. Schematic pacemaker potential in sinoatrial node cells of wild type (a) and HCN1-/- mice.
(b) HCN channels contribute to the slow diastolic depolarization. In the absence of HCN1 the slope of SDD isdecreased and the time to threshold for an action potential increased. HCN channels decrease the maximal diastolic potential (MDP). In the absence of HCN1 the MDP is increased. This results in an increased distance and time to threshold for an action potential and a decrease in impulse propagation. [SDD: slow diastolic depolarization; MDD: maximal diastolic depolarization; Vthr: threshold potential for the generation of an action potential.]
(c) Direction of intracellular and extracellular current flow during propagation of an action potential from depolarized (source) to resting cells (sink).
(d)Source sink relationship in propagation. Charge from excited cells (source) flows into unexcited cell (sink) and provides the charge to depolarize them to activation threshold. Arrows and dotted lines indicate changes observed in HCN1-/- mice of parameter indicated leading to source sink mismatch and prolonged sinoatrial conduction. Modified from [24*].

24.* Spector P: Principles of cardiac electric propagation and their implications for re-entrant arrhythmias. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol 2013, 6:655-661.
The authors provide an excellent review of the principles of impulse propagation in relation to arrhythmia.

HCN1 channels increase the temporal and spatial precision of impulse formation in sinoatrial node

HCN1 channels increase the temporal and spatial precision of impulse formation in sinoatrial node.
(a) Schematic of the sinoatrial node. Atrial cells invaginate into the central sinoatrial node. Putative localization of HCN1 channels at contact interface between strands of atrial myocytes which extend into the central SAN and sinoatrial node pacemaker cells. Green: autonomous innervation. HCN1 channels dampen network noise generated by neighboring pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial network, by invading hyperpolarization of atrial cells and by autonomous regulation. SAN: sinoatrial node, RA: right atrium, CT: crista terminalis.
(b) Model of sinoatrial node function (for detail see text). Note that individual cells display different phases and slightly different periods.

Pharmacological inhibition of cardiac HCN channels

HCN channels have emerged as interesting targets for the development of drugs that lower the heart rate. Ivabradine is the first and currently the only clinically approved compound that specifically targets HCN channels. The therapeutic indication of ivabradine is the symptomatic treatment of chronic stable angina pectoris in patients with coronary artery disease with a normal sinus rhythm (for details see [48], the international trial on the treatment of angina with ivabradine vs. atenolol (INITIATIVE) trial (n = 939) [49] and the antianginal efficacy and safety of the association of the I_h/I_f current inhibitor ivabradine with a beta-blocker (ASSOCIATE) study (n = 889) [50]).

The Role of HCN Channels in Ventricular Repolarization

Stefanie Fenske, Stefanie Krause, Martin Biel, and Christian Wahl-Schott
Trends Cardiovasc Med 2011; 21:216-220
PII S1050-1738(12)00143-0

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide gated (HCN) channels pass a cationic current (Ih/If) that crucially contributes to the slow diastolic depolarization (SDD) of sinoatrial pacemaker cells and, hence, is a key determinant of cardiac automaticity and the generation of the heartbeat. However, there is growing evidence that HCN channels are not restricted to the spontaneously active cells of the sinoatrial node and the conduction system but are also present in ventricular cardiomyocytes that produce an action potential lacking SDD. This observation raises the question of the principal function(s) of HCN channels in working myocardium. Our recent analysis of an HCN3-deficient (HCN3–/–) mouse line has shed new light on this central question.

We propose that HCN channels contribute to the ventricular action potential waveform, specifically during late repolarization. In this review, we outline this new concept.

In the late 1970s, the hyperpolarization activated current (I_h/I_f) was discovered and characterized in sinoatrial node cells (Brown and Difrancesco 1980). This current displays several unique biophysical properties: activation upon hyperpolarization and deactivation by depolarization, with a small but substantial degree of activation at resting potentials typically observed in sinoatrial node pacemaker cells (–60 to –50 mV) and ventricular cells (–85 to –75 mV); shift of the activation curve to more positive potentials by cAMP; block by millimolar concentrations of external Cs⁺; and permeability for Na⁺ and K⁺ions with a reversal potential near –35 mV.

HCN3 Is a Component of Ventricular I_h
HCN Channels Prolong Action Potentials During Late Repolarization
HCN3 Forms Background Channels That Do Not Deactivate During the Action Potential
HCN channels need to be open at the resting membrane potential;
(2) HCN channels remain open during the entire time course of the action potential—de novo opening of HCN channels during the AP does not occur because these channels are activated by hyperpolarization and depolarization decreases open probability; and
(3) a driving force is needed to sustain an HCN-mediated current during the AP. A detailed analysis of the functional properties of heterologously expressed HCN3 channels revealed that these three prerequisites are met.

Neurophysiology of HCN channels: From cellular functions to multiple regulations

Chao He, Fang Chen, Bo Li, Zhian Hu
Progress in Neurobiology 112 (2014) 1–23
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2013.10.001

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) cation channels are encoded by HCN1-4 gene family and have four subtypes. These channels are activated upon hyperpolarization of membrane potential and conduct an inward, excitatory current Ih in the nervous system. Ih acts as pacemaker current to initiate rhythmic firing, dampen dendritic excitability and regulate presynaptic neurotransmitter release. This review summarizes recent insights into the cellular functions of I_h and associated behavior such as learning and memory, sleep and arousal. HCN channels are excellent targets of various cellular signals to finely regulate neuronal responses to external stimuli. Numerous mechanisms, including transcriptional control, trafficking, as well as channel assembly and modification, underlie HCN channel regulation. In the next section, we discuss how the intracellular signals, especially recent findings concerning protein kinases and interacting proteins such as cGKII, Ca2+/CaMKII and TRIP8b, regulate function and expression of HCN channels, and subsequently provide an overview of the effects of neurotransmitters on HCN channels and their corresponding intracellular mechanisms. We also discuss the dysregulation of HCN channels in pathological conditions. Finally, insight into future directions in this exciting area of ion channel research is provided.

The hyperpolarization-activated current, I_h, was first observed in sino-atrial node tissue in 1976 and later was identified in rod photoreceptors and hippocampal pyramidal neurons (Noma and Irisawa, 1976). Due to its unique properties, particularly the activation upon hyperpolarization of the membrane potential, Ih has been also termed I_f (f for funny) or I_q (q for queer). The hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) cation ion channels underlying I_h were discovered in the late 1990s and subsequently, the genes encoding these channels were identified, which enable the expression of HCN channels in heterologous systems.

HCN channels belong to the superfamily of voltage-gated pore loop channels with four pore-forming subunits (HCN1-4) encoded by the HCN1-4 gene family in mammals (Robinson and Siegelbaum, 2003). Each subunit has six transmembrane helices (S1–S6), with the positively charged voltage sensor (S4) and the pore region carrying the GYG motif between S5 and S6, which forms the ion selectivity filter (Macri et al., 2012). Following S6 is the 80-residue C-linker comprising six a-helices (A0–F0) and the cyclic nucleotide binding domain (CNBD). The CNBD consists of three a-helices (A–C) and a b-roll between the A- and B-helices (Fig. 1) (Biel et al., 2009; Wahl-Schott and Biel, 2009; Wicks et al., 2011). Together, the C-linker and CBND can be referred to as the ‘‘cAMP-sensing domain’’ (CSD) because they are of functional importance for the cAMP-induced positive shift of the voltage-dependent activation of HCN channels. The crystal structure of CSD has been elucidated at an atomic resolution, but a high-resolution structure of the transmembrane core remains unsolved.

Structure of HCN channels

Structure of HCN channels. Left: one subunit is composed of six transmembrane segments (S1–S6), with the positive charged voltage sensor (S4) and the pore region carrying the GYG motif between S5 and S6. The C-terminal of HCN channels is composed of the C-linker and the cyclic nucleotide-binding domain (CNBD) which mediates their responses to cAMP. The C-linker consists of six a-helices: A0 to F0 . The CNBD follows the C-linker domain and consists of a-helices A–C with a b-roll between the A- and B-helices. Right: the four subunits assemble in homomeric or heteromeric tetramer configurations in vivo.

Regulatory mechanisms of Ih function by the small molecules, protein kinases and interacting proteins.

Regulatory mechanisms of I_h function by the small molecules, protein kinases and interacting proteins. Black arrows indicate known sites of HCN channels interaction with small molecules, protein kinases and interacting proteins. Broken lines indicate the speculated interaction sites. Filamin A interacts with HCN1 via a region of 22 amino acids located downstream from the CNBD. Tamalin and Mint2 bind to the CNBD-downstream sequence of HCN2. The binding of the PDZ domain of S-SCAM occurs at the cyclic nucleotide-binding domain (CNBD) and the CNBD downstream sequence of the carboxy-terminal tail. CNBD, cyclic nucleotide binding domain; SNL, C-terminal tripeptide of HCN1, HCN2 and HCN4.

modulation of HCN channels by neurotransmitters and associated intracellular signal pathways

The modulation of HCN channels by neurotransmitters and associated intracellular signal pathways. Glutamate (Glu) activates N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) and a-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptors (AMPARs) which results in the Ca2+ influx and subsequently activates calcium calmodulin kinase (CaMKII). CaMKII increases channels surface expression through the interacting protein TRIP8b (1a-4) or reduces the HCN1 gene transcription via Neuronal Restrictive Silencing Factor (NRSF) in pathological conditions. Glu, norepinephrine (NE, in rats), 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and triphosphate (ATP) bind to specific G-coupled receptors and modulate the activity of HCN channels via the PLC-PKC or p38-MAPK signaling pathways. Activation of PKC suppresses the activation of HCN channels, whereas p38-MAPK causes a positive shift of HCN channels voltage-dependent activation. Adenosine, NE (in monkey), 5-HT, dopamine (DA) and Ach (acetylcholine) bind to Gs- or Gi coupled receptors. Gs or Gi oppositely control the activity of adenylate cyclase (AC), which catalyzes the ATP to cAMP. cAMP could shift the HCN channels voltage-dependent activation to positive direction and accelerate the kinetics of channels activation. Nitric oxide (NO) interacts with soluble guanylyl cyclase (GC) and thus increases the intracellular concentration of cGMP, which induces a positive shift of HCN channels voltage-dependent activation. Sharp and blunted arrows represent the positive and negative regulation, respectively. Broken lines indicate the speculated signal pathway.

Ultimately, the study of the HCN channels will provide an overall picture underlying the real-time in vivo regulation of the function and expression of HCN channels to fulfill complex functions in different contexts.

Oxygen uptake kinetics during high-intensity arm and leg exercise

Katrien Koppo, Jacques Bouckaert, Andrew M. Jones
Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology 133 (2002) 241-250
PII: S1569 – 9048 ( 02 ) 00184 – 2

The purpose of the present study was to examine the oxygen uptake kinetics during heavy arm exercise using appropriate modelling techniques, and to compare the responses to those observed during heavy leg exercise at the same relative intensity. We hypothesized that any differences in the response might be related to differences in muscle fiber composition that are known to exist between the upper and lower body musculature. To test this, ten subjects completed several bouts of constant-load cycling and arm cranking exercise at 90% of the mode specific ˙V_O2peak. There was no difference in plasma [lactate] at the end of arm and leg exercise. The time constant of the fast component response was significantly longer in arm exercise compared to leg exercise (mean + S.D., 489 +12 vs. 219 + 5 sec; P < 0.01), while the fast component gain was significantly greater in arm exercise (12.19 + 1.0 vs. 9.29 + 0.5 ml min^-1 W^-1; P < 0.01). The ˙V_O2 slow component emerged later in arm exercise (1269 + 27 vs. 959 + 20 sec; P < 0.01) and, in relative terms, increased more per unit time (5.5 vs. 4.4% min^-1; P < 0.01). These differences between arm crank and leg cycle exercise are consistent with a greater and/or earlier recruitment of type II muscle fibers during arm crank exercise.

Probability and magnitude of response to cardiac resynchronization therapy according to QRS duration and gender in nonischemic cardiomyopathy and LBBB

Niraj Varma, Mahesh Manne, Dat Nguyen, …, Patrick Tchou
Heart Rhythm 2014; 11: 1139–1147
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hrthm.2014.04.001

BACKGROUND QRS morphology and QRS duration (QRSd) determine cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) candidate selection but criteria require refinement.
OBJECTIVE To assess CRT effect according to QRSd, treated by dichotomization vs a continuous function, and modulation by gender.
METHODS Patients selected were those with New York Heart Association classIII/IV heart failure and with left bundle branch block and nonischemic cardiomyopathy (totest “pure” CRT effect) with pre-and post- implant echocardiographic evaluations. Positive response was defined as increased left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) post-CRT.
RESULTS In 212 patients (LVEF 19% + 7.1%; QRSd 160 + 23 ms; 105 (49.5%) women), CRT increased LVEF to 30% + 15% (P < .001) during a median follow-up of 2 years. Positive response occurred in 150 of 212 (71%) patients. Genders did not differ for QRSd, pharmacotherapy, and comorbidities, but response to CRT among women was greater: incidence 84% (88of105) in women vs 58% (62of107) in men (P < .001); increase in LVEF 15%+ 14% vs 7.2% + 13%, respectively (P < .001). Overall, the response rate was 58% when QRSd <150 ms and 76% when QRSd > 150 ms (P <.009). This probability differed between genders: 86% in women vs 36% in men (P < .001) when QRSd <150 ms and 83% vs 69%, respectively, when QRSd >150 ms (P < .05). Thus, female response rates remained high whether QRSd was < 150 ms >150 ms (86% vs 83%; P = .77) but differed in men (36% vs 69%; P < .001). With QRSd as a continuum, the CRT-response relationship was nonlinear and significantly different between genders. Female superiority at shorter QRSd inverted with prolongation > 180 ms.
CONCLUSION The QRSd-CRT response relationship in patients with heart failure and with left bundle branch block and non-ischemic cardiomyopathy is better described by a sex-specific continuous function and not by dichotomization by 150ms, which excludes a large proportion of women with potentially favorable outcome.

Comparison of eterminants Myocardial Oxygen Consumption During Arm and Leg Exercise in Normal Persons

Gary J. Balady, et al. Am J Cardiol 1985; 57: 1385-87.

The effects of arm exercise on myocardiai oxygen consumption are not well understood; they may differ from the effects of leg exercise. Previous studies have shown that the ischemic threshold is higher in patients performing arm exercise and leg exercise at the same heart rate-blood pressure product. The contribution of other determinants of myocardiai oxygen consumption-left ventricular (LV) peak meridional systolic wail stress and contractility-to these observed differences were studied.
Thirty healthy subjects exercised to the same peak rate-pressure product during dynamic upper- and lower-extremity exercise. Peak workload was lower
during arm exercise (100 + 16 W) leg exercise (170 + 21 W, p < 0.001). LV wail stress did not differ during either form of exercise (197 + 44 vs 204 + 33 dynes/cm² X 103, arm vs leg, respectively). This was also true of contractility as assessed by the velocity of circumferential fiber shortening (2.6 + 0.6 vs 2.5 + 0.4 circ/s, arm vs leg, respectively) and the preejection period/LV ejection time ratio (0.33 + 0.11 vs 0.31 + 0.07, arm vs leg, respectively). Normal subjects exercising to a similar rate-pressure product showed the same levels at LV wail stress and contractility for arm and leg exercise despite the lower rkioad performed with arm exercise.

Anti-hypertensive effect of radiofrequency renal denervation in spontaneously hypertensive rats

Takeshi Machino, N Murakoshi, A Sato, …, T Hoshi, T Kimura, K Aonuma
Life Sciences 110 (2014) 86–92 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2014.06.015

Aims: We aimed to investigate the anti-hypertensive effect of radiofrequency (RF) renal denervation (RDN) in an animal model of hypertension. Materials and methods: RF energy was delivered to bilateral renal arteries through a 2 Fr catheter with opening abdomen in 8 spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) and 8 Wistar–Kyoto rats (WKYs). Sham operation was performed in other 8 SHRs and 8 WKYs. Blood pressure (BP), heart rate (HR), and urinary norepinephrine excretion were followed up for 3 months. Plasma and renal tissue concentrations of norepinephrine and plasma renin activity were measured 3 months after the procedure. The RDN was confirmed by a decrease in renal tissue norepinephrine.
Key findings: RF-RDN restrained a spontaneous rise in systolic BP (46 ± 12% increase from 158 ± 8 to 230 ± 14 mmHg vs. 21 ± 18% increase from 165 ± 9 to 197 ± 20 mmHg, p= 0.01) and diastolic BP (55 ± 27% increase from 117 ± 9 to 179 ± 23 mmHg vs. 28 ± 13% increase from 120 ± 7 to 154 ± 13 mm Hg, p= 0.04) in SHRs; however, WKYs were not affected. Although there were no changes in HR and systemic norepinephrine, the renal tissue norepinephrine was decreased by RF-RDN in both SHR (302±41 vs. 159±44 ng/g kidney, p b 0.01) and WKY (203 ± 33 vs. 145 ± 26 ng/g kidney, p= 0.01). Plasma renin activity was reduced by the RF-RDN only in SHR (35.3 ± 9.5 vs. 21.4 ± 8.6 ng/mL/h, p < 0.01).
Significance: RF-RDN demonstrated an anti-hypertensive effect with a reduction of renal tissue norepinephrine and plasma renin activity in SHR.

Effectiveness of Renal Denervation Therapy for Resistant Hypertension: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Mark I. Davis, KB Filion, D Zhang, MJ Eisenberg, …, EL Schiffrin, D Joyal
J Am Coll Cardiol 2013; 62(3): 231-241.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2013.04.010

Objectives This study sought to determine the current effectiveness and safety of sympathetic renal denervation (RDN) for resistant hypertension. Background RDN is a novel approach that has been evaluated in multiple small studies.
Methods We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of published studies evaluating the effect of RDN in patients with resistant hypertension. Studies were stratified according to controlled versus uncontrolled design and analyzed using random-effects meta-analysis models. Results We identified 2 randomized controlled trials, 1 observational study with a control group, and 9 observational studies without a control group. In controlled studies, there was a reduction in mean systolic and diastolic blood pressure (BP) at 6 months of –28.9 mm Hg (95% confidence interval [CI]: –37.2 to –20.6 mm Hg) and –11.0 mm Hg (95% CI: –16.4 to –5.7 mm Hg), respectively, compared with medically treated patients (for both, p < 0.0001). In uncontrolled studies, there was a reduction in mean systolic and diastolic BP at 6 months of –25.0 mm Hg (95% CI: –29.9 to –20.1 mm Hg) and –10.0 mm Hg (95% CI: –12.5 to –7.5 mm Hg), respectively, compared with pre-RDN values (for both, p < 0.00001). There was no difference in the effect of RDN according to the 5 catheters employed. Reported procedural complications included 1 renal artery dissection and 4 femoral pseudoaneurysms.
Conclusions RDN resulted in a substantial reduction in mean BP at 6 months in patients with resistant hypertension. The decrease in BP was similar irrespective of study design and type of catheter employed. Large randomized controlled trials with long-term follow-up are needed to confirm the sustained efficacy and safety of RDN.

Effects of renal denervation on the development of post-myocardial infarction heart failure and cardiac autonomic nervous system in rats

Jialu Hu, Yan Yan, Qina Zhou, Meng Ji, Conway Niu, Yuemei Hou, Junbo Ge
Intl J Cardiol 172 (2014) e414–e416 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2013.12.254

Prior studies indicated that radiofrequency renal denervation (RD) had beneficial effects on post-myocardial infarction (MI) heart failure (HF) in rats. In this study we aimed to assess its effects on cardiac autonomic nervous system (CANS) which might be one of the most important mechanisms of RD’s therapeutic effect on post-MI HF and determine the best timing for RD.

One hundred Wistar rats were randomly assigned into five experimental groups: MI group (n = 20), RD group (n = 20), MI-1d + RD group (RD performed one day post-MI, n = 20), MI-4w + RD group (RD performed four weeks post-MI, n = 20), and N group (control group, n = 20).MI was produced through ligation of the anterior descending artery. RD was performed through stripping of the renal nerves. The experimental design and implementation were conducted in accordance with animal welfare guidelines.

Eight weeks post-MI, significant improvements were observed in both MI-1d + RD and MI-4w + RD groups compared to the MI group, that include

(1) improved left ventricular (LV) function and hemodynamics with increased water and sodium excretion;
(2) decreased plasma and renal tissue norepinephrine levels while tissue norepinephrine content increased in myocardium;
(3) increased β1-receptor in myocardium and improved heart rate variability; (4) decreased plasma renin, angiotensin II, aldosterone, BNP and endothelin levels.

More therapeutic effects were found in the MI-1d + RD group than the MI-4w + RD group.

Firstly, our study showed that RD attenuated the remodeling of CANS and modulated its activities. RD leads to preservation of β1 receptors content along with the β1 mRNA expression in noninfarcted cardiac tissue in this HF model (Fig. 1). This correlated with an improvement in heart function and cardiac remodeling. HRV is a sensitive marker for the CANS. RD led to a slower HR and higher SDNN in both intervention groups.

Secondly, we found that RD blocked both peripheral and central RAAS and sympathetic nervous system (SNS) at the same time. And this may answer the question how RD exerted effect on CANS. In our study RD restores renin, angiotensin II, and aldosterone to near normal levels. This not only explains the increase in sodium and water excretion, but also confirms that RD blocks renal RAAS via blockage of the efferent renal sympathetic nerves which is consistent with our previous study.

Thirdly, early RD, performed one day post-MI, resulted in greater excretion of urinary sodium, lower circulating BNP and ET-1 levels compared to late interventions (four weeks post-MI). This suggests that RD performed in the acute phase of MI may not only reverse cardiac remodeling but also has a preventive effect against the development of HF, as what was observed with β-blockers. RD alleviated cardiac preload and afterload by increasing water and sodium retention, blocking cardiac sympathetic activation and decreasing a variety of vasomotor factors which may lead to alleviated acute and chronic ischemia of the heart.

RD improves hemodynamics, decreases neuro-hormonal activations, modulates cardiac autonomic activities, and attenuates LV remodeling in HF. Early intervention appears to have greater beneficial effects on cardiac functional recovery and reverse remodeling after myocardial injury. Circulating neuro-hormones may be effective indicators to evaluate the therapeutic effect of RD on HF. Our data suggested that RD is a safe, non-pharmaceutical treatment of HF after cardiac injury, with unique benefits in stabilizing cardiac autonomic activity and remodeling post-MI.

The cardiac pacemaker current

Mirko Baruscotti, Andrea Barbuti, Annalisa Bucchi
Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology 48 (2010) 55–64
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.yjmcc.2009.06.019

In mammals cardiac rate is determined by the duration of the diastolic depolarization of sinoatrial node (SAN) cells which is mainly determined by the pacemaker If current. f-channels are encoded by four members of the hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated gene (HCN1–4) family. HCN4 is the most abundant isoform in the SAN, and its relevance to pacemaking has been further supported by the discovery of four loss-of-function mutations in patients with mild or severe forms of cardiac rate disturbances. Due to its selective contribution to pacemaking, the If current is also the pharmacological target of a selective heart rate-reducing agent (ivabradine) currently used in the clinical practice. Albeit to a minor extent, the If current is also present in other spontaneously active myocytes of the cardiac conduction system (atrioventricular node and Purkinje fibres). In working atrial and ventricular myocytes f-channels are expressed at a very low level and do not play any physiological role; however in certain pathological conditions over-expression of HCN proteins may represent an arrhythmogenic mechanism. In this review some of the most recent findings on f/HCN channels contribution to pacemaking are described.

Cardiac pacemaking originates in the sinoatrial node (SAN) as a consequence of spontaneous firing of rhythmic action potentials generated by specialized myocytes. Although the electrical behavior of a typical SAN cell differs in several aspects from that of a working myocyte, the functional hallmark can be precisely identified in the events that take place during the diastolic interval. During this phase atrial and ventricular myocytes rest in a standby-like condition at a stable voltage (∼−80 mV); a quite different situation characterizes SAN cells, where the cell potential slowly creeps up from the
maximum diastolic potential of about −60 mV to the threshold for the ignition of a new action potential. Since this time interval sets the pace of the heart, this phase is named “pacemaker depolarization”. Given the large spectrum of heart rates observed in mammals the duration of this phase can vary substantially, however the voltage range encompassed is extremely constant and roughly extends from −60 to−40 mV . To sustain this phase several ionic currents and pumps enter in action at variable times and voltages, and this complexity allows for a highly flexible system since the chronotropic fine tuning operated by neuro-hormonal regulators can target different effectors.

In this review we will focus on the If current which is responsiblefor initiating the diastolic depolarization of SAN cells. Due to its fundamental role and its unusual characteristics of being activated in hyperpolarization, this current was named “pacemaker current” or “funny” (I_f) current. The unique property of a reverse voltage dependence, together with the inward nature of the current at diastolic potentials, makes this current apt to initiate and support the diastolic depolarization. In addition, the direct modulation of the current operated by the second messenger cAMP, represents one of the main pathways by which the autonomic nervous system controls cardiac chronotropism. Two recent clinical findings further confirm the role of f-channels in setting the cardiac rate: one is the evidence of a causative link between the presence of loss-of-function mutations found in these channels and the arrhythmic state of individuals carrying the mutations, and the other is the specific heart rate reduction observed in patients treated with ivabradine, a drug that at therapeutic doses selectively reduces the If current (see specific sections in this review).

Although originally discovered in the heart, the If current is also abundantly present in a large fraction of neuronal elements, where it contributes to rhythmic firing, synaptic integration, and dendritic integration.

Molecular and functional properties of SAN myocytes

Molecular and functional properties of SAN myocytes. (A) Spontaneous action potentials (left) and If current traces (right) recorded from typical rabbit SANmyocytes; currents were elicited by hyperpolarizing voltage steps in the range−45 to −75 mV. (B) Immunofluorescence analysis of rabbit SAN tissue slice labelled with anti-connexin 43 (Cx43, red) and anti-HCN4 (green) antibodies. HCN4 is strongly expressed in the central region of the SAN, while the opposite staining is observed for Cx43; crista terminalis (CT), interatrial septum (IS). (C) HCN4 labelling of single myocytes isolated from CT, SAN and IS (top), and representative current traces recorded at−125mV frommyocytes isolated from the same regions (bottom). Both If current density and HCN4 labelling are more abundant in the central nodal area. (Panels B and C from [61] with permission).

[61] Brioschi C, Micheloni S, Tellez JO, Pisoni G, Longhi R, Moroni P, et al. Distribution of the pacemaker HCN4 channel mRNA and protein in the rabbit sinoatrial node. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2009;47:221–7.

The search of new therapeutic tools consisting of gene- and/or cell-based intervention aimed to restore compromised cardiac functions has prompted researchers to exploit the use of HCN channels to alter cellular electrical activity in order to generate, in normally quiescent substrates, stable rhythmic activity similar to that of native pacemaker myocytes. The specific features of pacemaker channels and in particular the fact that they are activated only at diastolic potentials and do not contribute to other phases of the action potentials, make them particularly suitable for such purpose. Early in vitro studies demonstrated that virus-mediated over-expression of HCN2 channels induced a significant increase in the rate of spontaneously beating neonatal ventricular myocytes by causing an I_f-mediated increase of the diastolic depolarization slope. This approach was later confirmed in vivo by showing that direct injection of the HCN2-adenovirus in the left atrium or into the ventricular conduction system of dogs, was able to induce ectopic regular spontaneous activity after AV block. Similarly, adenovirus-mediated over-expression of HCN1 or HCN4 was sufficient to induce a regular rhythm in quiescent cardiomyocyte. Alternative cell-based strategies, aimed to avoid the use of viruses, have been developed by engineering cells in order to express high levels of HCN channels. Engineered human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) expressing either HCN2 or HCN4 have been shown in vitro to properly connect to neonatal cardiomyocytes and to increase their intrinsic spontaneous rhythm. HCN2-expressing hMSCs have also been successfully transplanted in canine left ventricular wall where they were able to induce stable ectopic beats.

Currently, ivabradine is marketed for treatment of chronic stable angina in patients with normal sinus rhythm who have a contraindication or intolerance to β-blockers; clinical studies of patients with chronic stable angina have shown that ivabradine acts as a pure heart rate-reducing agent and has anti-ischemic and anti-anginal properties equivalent to β-blockers and Ca2+ channel blockers and presents a good safety and tolerability profile even during long-term treatment. Mild visual symptoms (phosphenes) were occasionally reported, but were generally well tolerated. Additional information comes from results from a recent large clinical trial (BEAUTIFUL) which indicate that ivabradine treatment of patients with stable coronary artery disease (CAD) and heart rate ≥70 bpm can reduce the incidence of some CAD outcomes such as hospitalization for myocardial infarction and coronary revascularization.

The beat goes on: Cardiac pacemaking in extreme conditions

Christopher M.Wilson, Georgina K. Cox, Anthony P. Farrell
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2014.08.014

In order for an animal to survive, the heart beat must go on in all environmental conditions, or at least restart its beat. This review is about maintaining a rhythmic heartbeat under the extreme conditions of anoxia (or very severe hypoxia) and high temperatures. It starts by considering the primitive versions of the protein channels that are responsible for initiating the heartbeat, HCN channels, divulging recent findings from the ancestral craniate, the Pacific hagfish (Eptatretus stoutii). It then explores how a heartbeat can maintain a rhythm, albeit slower, for hours without any oxygen, and sometimes without autonomic innervation. It closes with a discussion of recent work on fishes, where the cardiac rhythm can become arrhythmic when a fish experiences extreme heat.

Sympathetic renal denervation: Hypertension beyond SYMPLICITY

Israel M. Barbash, Ron Waksman
Cardiovascular Revascularization Medicine 14 (2013) 229–235
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carrev.2013.02.004

Despite a wide range of drug treatment for hypertension, resistant hypertension rates remain high. The Symplicity™ Renal Denervation System (Medtronic, Santa Rosa, CA), which creates renal nerve denervation, has shown initial success in lowering blood pressure among patients with resistant hypertension. Given the enormous market for this treatment approach, an estimated two dozen other companies are pursuing technologies with alternative approaches. Despite this fact, very little has been published on preclinical and clinical experience with these new devices. The current review summarizes the most prominent technologies in the pipeline and provides insight into the mechanism of action, preclinical, and clinical experience with these new devices

A large body of evidence has established the central role of the kidneys in hypertension, both as an affector and effector of the central sympathetic system [9]. Renal efferent sympathetic activity initiates processes towards fluid retention, such as the release of renin and increased tubular sodium reabsorption. Moreover, afferent sympathetic activity increases central sympathetic drive, which plays a major role in sustaining hypertension. In fact, historic studies of surgical sympathectomy in patients with resistant hypertension or malignant hypertension uncontrolled by pharmacotherapy were shown to be effective in reducing blood pressure, albeit with severe side effects. Thus, with the introduction of more effective medications, this procedure was abandoned. Renal sympathetic nerves run alongside the renal artery adventitia to enter the hilus of the kidney. Thereafter, they divide into smaller nerve bundles following the anatomic course of the renal blood vessels, penetrating the cortical and juxtamedullary areas inside the kidneys. Based on these anatomic features, it was postulated that creating local nerve injury along the renal arteries may achieve effective denervation.

A key issue in accomplishing effective RDN is to target the sympathetic nerve bundles lying in the adventitia of the renal arteries. Because the vast majority of devices currently under development are percutaneous, RDN is performed from within the vessel lumen. Thus, one of the most important features of such a device is the ability to minimize the damage to the renal artery wall.

Ultrasound energy consists of high-frequency sound waves emitted by a transducer within the catheter. This high energy can pass through surrounding fluids and can generate frictional heating in tissues resulting in a temperature increase that is sufficient to cause injury to the surrounding tissue, specifically the renal nerves. Based on these principles, several systems were developed and are currently being evaluated. ReCor Medical’s (Ronkonkoma, NY) PARADISE™ Percutaneous Renal Denervation System is based on delivery of high ultrasonic energy to induce nerve tissue injury. The PARADISE system is composed of two components: a 6 F-compatible balloon catheter with a cylindrical ultrasound transducer that emits ultrasound energy circumferentially (Fig. 2A)[ Ultrasound based renal denervation systems: (A) Percutaneous Renal Denervation System (PARADISE™); (B) TIVUS system] and a portable generator which controls automated balloon inflation and deflation, and energy delivery. Energy is delivered in 3 different locations along the artery with 50 s inflation and delivery of ultrasound energy at each site. This device received CE mark in February 2012. For RDN, the PARADISE balloon catheter is positioned inside the renal artery and the generator automatically inflates the balloon, delivers the ultrasonic energy, and deflates the balloon. Endothelial thermal damage is prevented by cooled fluid in the balloon.

Radiofrequency based renal denervation systems: (A) Symplicity Renal Denervation System; (B) EnligHTN Renal Denervation System; (C) V2 bipolar balloon catheter; (D) OneShot Balloon catheter

Sample Entropy and Traditional Measures of Heart Rate Dynamics Reveal Different Modes of Cardiovascular Control During Low Intensity Exercise

Matthias Weippert, Martin Behrens, Annika Rieger and Kristin Behrens
Entropy 2014, 16, 5698-5711; http://dx.doi.org:/10.3390/e16115698

Biological time series like the normal heartbeat-to-heartbeat fluctuation demonstrate complex dynamics. Based on their potential to give additional information beyond traditional heart rate variability (HRV) indices, nonlinear parameters have been applied for investigating short and long term effects of exercise on heart rate (HR) control. However, despite their diagnosticity and their clinical significance, the physiological background of their behavior is not very well established. It is assumed that complexity and regularity measures are fundamentally different from traditional HRV indices and show no correlation to these measures. However, many researchers found at least modest correlations for some nonlinear measures and traditional HRV indices under different conditions. It has also been shown that complexity of short-term HRV is under control of the autonomic nervous system. Currently, there are only few studies available that compared the cardiovascular response pattern to different exercise modes at similar HR. Lindquist et al. found a stronger increase of systolic (SBP) and diastolic arterial blood pressure (DBP) during isometric handgrip compared to cycling at comparable HR of 90 bpm.

Nonlinear parameters of heart rate variability (HRV) have proven their prognostic value in clinical settings, but their physiological background is not very well established. We assessed the effects of low intensity isometric (ISO) and dynamic (DYN) exercise of the lower limbs on heart rate matched intensity on traditional and entropy measures of HRV. Due to changes of afferent feedback under DYN and ISO a distinct autonomic response, mirrored by HRV measures, was hypothesized. Five-minute inter-beat interval measurements of 43 healthy males (26.0 ± 3.1 years) were performed during rest, DYN and ISO in a randomized order. Blood pressures and rate pressure product were higher during ISO vs. DYN (p < 0.001). HRV indicators SDNN as well as low and high frequency power were significantly higher during ISO (p < 0.001 for all measures). Compared to DYN, sample entropy (SampEn) was lower during ISO (p < 0.001). Concluding, contraction mode itself is a significant modulator of the autonomic cardiovascular response to exercise. Compared to DYN, ISO evokes a stronger blood pressure response and an enhanced interplay between both autonomic branches. Non-linear HRV measures indicate a more regular behavior under ISO. Results support the view of the reciprocal antagonism being only one of many modes of autonomic heart rate control. Under different conditions; the identical “end product” heart rate might be achieved by other modes such as sympathovagal co-activation as well.

ANOVA revealed a significant effect of experimental condition on all cardiovascular measures and autonomic indices. Average HR raised moderately from 65 ± 9 bpm at baseline to 85 ± 9 bpm during both types of exercise. HR during the first exercise perfectly matched HR of the subsequent exercise; average difference was only 0.3 ± 1.5 bpm (range: −2.6 to 4.3 bpm). Accordingly, HR and average R-R interval did not differ between DYN and ISO. The traditional vagal modulation HRV measure RMSSD was also not affected by the exercise mode, whereas SDNN was. Natural log-transformed HRV spectral indices HFP and LFP, the normalized powers LF n. u. and HF n. u. as well SampEn (Figure 1) were significantly different between DYN and ISO. Interestingly, SampEn did not differ between REST and DYN. There was no difference of the LF/HF ratio between REST and ISO, whereas comparison of REST vs. DYN showed a statistical trend (p = 0.077). Further, there was a small effect of condition on the HF peak frequency (F(2; 84) = 4.959, p < 0.01, η² = 0.106). While HF peak significantly shifted from 0.22 ± 0.07 Hz during REST to 0.26 ± 0.09 Hz during DYN (p < 0.05), no difference was found between REST and ISO (0.23 ± 0. 07 Hz). Post-hoc pair wise comparison between DYN and ISO showed a statistical trend for the HF peak shift (p = 0.063). SBP and RPP were moderately, DBP and MAP largely affected by the type of exercise. In comparison to DYN, myocardial oxygen consumption, reflected by RPP, was about 5% higher under ISO. Correlation analysis revealed only modest associations between traditional HRV indices and entropy measures during the different experimental conditions. Consistent correlation coefficients across all conditions were found for SampEn and R-R length only.

Mean ± SD of sample entropy during REST, ISO, and DYN; N = 43.
*** = significantly different from rest on a p-level < 0.001;
§§§ = significantly different from the respective exercise condition on a p-level < 0.001.

Role of neurotensin and opioid receptors in the cardiorespiratory effects of [Ile9]PK20, a novel antinociceptive chimeric peptide

Katarzyna Kaczynska, M Szereda-Przestaszewska, P Kleczkowska, AW Lipkowski European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 63 (2014) 8–13 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejps.2014.06.018

Ile9PK20 is a novel hybrid of opioid–neurotensin peptides synthesized from the C-terminal hexapeptide of neurotensin and endomorphin-2 pharmacophore. This chimeric compound shows potent central and peripheral antinociceptive activity in experimental animals, however nothing is known about its influence on the respiratory and cardiovascular parameters.

The present study was designed to determine the cardiorespiratory effects exerted by an intravenous injection (i.v.) of [Ile9]PK20. Share of the vagal afferentation and the contribution of NTS1 neurotensin and opioid receptors were tested.

Intravenous injection of the hybrid at a dose of 100 lg/kg in the intact, anaesthetized rats provoked an increase in tidal volume preceded by a prompt short-lived decrease. Immediately after the end of injection brief acceleration of the respiratory rhythm appeared, and was ensued by the slowing down of breathing. Changes in respiration were concomitant with a bi-phasic response of the blood pressure: an immediate increase was followed by a sustained hypotension. Midcervical vagotomy eliminated the increase in tidal volume and respiratory rate responses. Antagonist of opioid receptors – naloxone hydrochloride eliminated only [Ile9]PK20-evoked decline in tidal volume response. Blockade of NTS1 receptors with an intravenous dose of SR 142,948, lessened the remaining cardiorespiratory effects. This study depicts that [Ile9]PK20 acting through neurotensin NTS1 receptors augments the tidal component of the breathing pattern and activates respiratory timing response through the vagal pathway. Blood pressure effects occur outside vagal afferentation and might result from activation of the central and peripheral vascular NTS1 receptors. In summary the respiratory effects of the hybrid appeared not to be profound, but they were accompanied with unfavorable prolonged hypotension.

Integrative regulation of human brain blood flow

Christopher K.Willie, Yu-Chieh Tzeng, Joseph A. Fisher and Philip N. Ainslie
J Physiol 2014; 592(5): pp 841–859
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1113/jphysiol.2013.268953

Herein, we review mechanisms regulating cerebral blood flow (CBF), with specific focus on humans. We revisit important concepts from the older literature and describe the interaction of various mechanisms of cerebrovascular control. We amalgamate this broad scope of information into a brief review, rather than detailing any one mechanism or area of research. The relationship between regulatory mechanisms is emphasized, but the following three broad categories of control are explicated:

the effect of blood gases and neuronal metabolism on CBF;
buffering of CBF with changes in blood pressure, termed cerebral autoregulation; and
the role of the autonomic nervous system in CBF regulation.

With respect to these control mechanisms, we provide evidence against several canonized paradigms of CBF control. Specifically, we corroborate the following four key theses:

(1) that cerebral autoregulation does not maintain constant perfusion through a mean arterial pressure range of 60–150 mmHg;
(2) that there is important stimulatory synergism and regulatory interdependence of arterial blood gases and blood pressure on CBF regulation;

(3) that cerebral autoregulation and cerebrovascular sensitivity to changes in arterial blood gases are not modulated solely at the pial arterioles; and
(4) that neurogenic control of the cerebral vasculature is an important player in autoregulatory function and, crucially, acts to buffer surges in perfusion pressure.
Finally, we summarize the state of our knowledge with respect to these areas, outline important gaps in the literature and suggest avenues for future research.

Integrative physiological and computational approaches to understand autonomic control of cerebral autoregulation

Can Ozan Tan and J. Andrew Taylor
Exp Physiol 99.1 (2014) pp 3–15 http://dx.doi.org:/10.1113/expphysiol.2013.072355

New Findings

What is the topic of this review?

This review focuses on the autonomic control of the cerebral vasculature in health and disease from an integrative physiological and computational perspective.

What advances does it highlight?

This review highlights recent studies exploring autonomic effectors of cerebral autoregulation as well as recent advances in experimental and analytical approaches to understand cerebral autoregulation.

The brain requires steady delivery of oxygen and glucose, without which neurodegeneration occurs within minutes. Thus, the ability of the cerebral vasculature to maintain relatively steady blood flow in the face of changing systemic pressure, i.e. cerebral autoregulation, is critical to neurophysiological health. Although the study of autoregulation dates to the early 20th century, only the recent availability of cerebral blood flow measures with high temporal resolution has allowed rapid, beat-by-beat measurements to explore the characteristics and mechanisms of autoregulation. These explorations have been further enhanced by the ability to apply sophisticated computational approaches that exploit the large amounts of data that can be acquired. These advances have led to unique insights. For example, recent studies have revealed characteristic time scales wherein cerebral autoregulation is most active, as well as specific regions wherein autonomic mechanisms are prepotent. However, given that effective cerebral autoregulation against pressure fluctuations results in relatively unchanging flow despite changing pressure, estimating the pressure–flow relationship can be limited by the error inherent in computational models of autoregulatory function. This review focuses on the autonomic neural control of the cerebral vasculature in health and disease from an integrative physiological perspective. It also provides a critical overview of the current analytical approaches to understand cerebral autoregulation.

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