Metabolic insight into cancer cell survival
Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator
LPBI
UPDATED 9/26/2021
Periprostatic Adipose Tissue Favors Prostate Cancer Cell Invasion in an Obesity-Dependent Manner: Role of Oxidative Stress
Victor Laurent, Aurélie Toulet, Camille Attané, Delphine Milhas, Stéphanie Dauvillier, Falek Zaidi, Emily Clement, Mathieu Cinato, Sophie Le Gonidec, Adrien Guérard, Camille Lehuédé, David Garandeau, Laurence Nieto, Edith Renaud-Gabardos, Anne-Catherine Prats, Philippe Valet, Bernard Malavaud and Catherine Muller
Abstract
Prostate gland is surrounded by periprostatic adipose tissue (PPAT), which is increasingly believed to play a paracrine role in prostate cancer progression. Our previous work demonstrates that adipocytes promote homing of prostate cancer cells to PPAT and that this effect is upregulated by obesity. Here, we show that once tumor cells have invaded PPAT (mimicked by an in vitro model of coculture), they establish a bidirectional crosstalk with adipocytes, which promotes tumor cell invasion. Indeed, tumor cells induce adipocyte lipolysis and the free fatty acids (FFA) released are taken up and stored by tumor cells. Incubation with exogenous lipids also stimulates tumor cell invasion, underlining the importance of lipid transfer in prostate cancer aggressiveness. Transferred FFAs (after coculture or exogenous lipid treatment) stimulate the expression of one isoform of the pro-oxidant enzyme NADPH oxidase, NOX5. NOX5 increases intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) that, in turn, activate a HIF1/MMP14 pathway, which is responsible for the increased tumor cell invasion. In obesity, tumor-surrounding adipocytes are more prone to activate the depicted signaling pathway and to induce tumor invasion. Finally, the expression of NOX5 and MMP14 is upregulated at the invasive front of human tumors where cancer cells are in close proximity to adipocytes and this process is amplified in obese patients, underlining the clinical relevance of our results.
Implications: Our work emphasizes the key role of adjacent PPAT in prostate cancer dissemination and proposes new molecular targets for the treatment of obese patients exhibiting aggressive diseases.
Introduction
Malignant evolution of solid cancers relies on complex cell-to-cell interactions sustained by a broad network of physical and chemical mediators that constitute the tumor microenvironment (1). Adipose tissue, and its main cellular component, adipocytes, have recently emerged as key actors in solid tumor progression (2). Upon proximal adipose tissue infiltration, a bidirectional crosstalk takes place between invasive tumor cells and adipocytes. Initially described in breast cancer, tumor-surrounding adipocytes exhibit extensive phenotypical changes defined by a decrease in lipid content, a decreased expression of adipocyte markers, and an activated state demonstrated predominantly by the overexpression of proinflammatory cytokines and ECM (extracellular matrix)-related molecules (3). We named these cells cancer-associated adipocytes (CAA; ref. 3). Occurrence of CAAs is not restricted to breast cancer and has been described in a wide range of solid tumors including metastatic ovarian cancer, renal and colon cancers, as well as melanoma (2). In turn, CAAs promote tumor aggressiveness by secreting soluble factors, ECM proteins, and ECM-remodeling enzymes and by modulating tumor cell metabolism (2). The decrease in size and lipid content of tumor-surrounding adipocytes results from a “dedifferentiation” process depending on the reactivation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway in response to Wnt3a secreted by tumor cells (4) and from induction of lipolysis, the latter process resulting in release of free fatty acids (FFA; refs. 5–7). These FFAs are then taken up, stored in lipid droplets, and used by tumor cells, where they have been described to contribute to tumor progression mainly through modulation of tumor cell metabolism toward fatty acid oxidation (FAO; refs. 5–7). This metabolic symbiosis instilled between cancer cells and tumor-surrounding adipocytes is only beginning to be explored but could provide new therapeutic targets as we recently reviewed in ref. 8. In addition to FAO, FFAs acquired from adipocytes could be used as membrane building blocks and/or signaling lipids and the fate of these lipids may depend on the tumor cell type.
Among the different types of tumors whose close interaction with adipose tissue could influence tumor progression is prostate cancer, the most common malignancy in men in Western countries. The prostate is surrounded by periprostatic adipose tissue (PPAT) and extraprostatic extension into PPAT is a widely acknowledged adverse prognostic factor in prostate cancer and an important determinant of prostate cancer recurrence after treatment (9). The positive association between obesity and aggressive prostate cancer, defined by an increase in local and distant dissemination, is also in favor of a role for adipose tissue in tumor progression (10). We have recently demonstrated that adipocytes from PPAT favor the initial step of PPAT infiltration by secreting the CCL7 chemokine that attracts CCR3-expressing cancer cells, and this process is amplified in obesity (11). Prostate-confined cancer cell migration and invasion may also be promoted at distance by inflammatory cytokines and metalloproteases secreted by PPAT, as well as by adipocyte-derived exosomes (12–14). In contrast to other cancer types such as breast or ovarian cancer (2), the effect of the invaded cancer cells on adipocytes within PPAT has been poorly described. Secretions from PPAT are modified by tumor-conditioned medium with upregulation of osteopontin, TNFα, and IL6, highlighting that, like other adipose depots, it is not inert to tumors (15). Coculture of prostate cancer cells with rat epididymal adipocytes increases growth and changes the morphology of prostate cancer cells (16, 17), but phenotypical changes of adipocytes have not been investigated in these studies. In addition, the mechanisms that govern increased prostate cancer cell aggressiveness in the presence of adipocytes are poorly described and have been mainly attributed to soluble factors (such as IL6; for review, see ref. 18). Finally, lipid transfer has not been demonstrated between periprostatic adipocytes and tumor cells, but only with bone marrow–derived adipocytes present at prostate cancer’s most frequent metastatic site (19, 20). Here, we demonstrate that prostate cancer cells are able to induce a CAA phenotype in vitro and in vivo, and that CAAs, in turn, promote tumor invasion. Lipid transfer between tumor-surrounding adipocytes and cancer cells promotes tumor aggressiveness by inducing oxidative stress in a NADPH oxidase–dependent manner, activating a proinvasive signaling pathway. The overall pathway is amplified in obesity and has been validated in human tumors. This study highlights the importance of lipid transfer in the tumor-promoting effect of adipocytes but also underlines that the consequence of this process is not univocal among all tumor types.
Revised 4/20/2016
AACR 2016: Novel Epigenetic Drug Therapeutics Revealed
http://www.genengnews.com/gen-news-highlights/aacr-2016-epigenetic-drug-therapeutics/81252634/
As the 2016 American Association for Cancer Research meeting begins to downshift toward a close, the presentation sessions certainly did not suffer from a lack of enthusiasm from attendees or high-quality research from presenters. Of particular note was a major symposium that discussed next-generation epigenetic therapeutics.
In the past several years, there have been a variety of epigenetic targets exploited by newly developed drug compounds, many of which have already progressed into clinical trials. Often these compounds will target specific classes of epigenetic regulators like acetylases and histone demethylases, for instance, the small-molecule inhibitors of protein interacting bromodomains—implicated in a diverse range of cancers—and methyltransferase inhibitors, such as lysyl demethylases (KDM).
However, for all of their recently achieved success, researchers are continually searching for increasingly rapid methods to validate epigenetic drug targets. Session Chairperson Udo Oppermann, Ph.D., principal investigator at the University of Oxford, stressed that open access research and continued investigator cooperation were key factors for driving rapid development of novel therapeutics in the field. Anecdotally, Dr. Oppermann noted that if biologists were a bit more like the international cooperative teams of physicists that discovered the Higgs boson or gravitational waves, many biological endeavors would advance rather quickly.
After providing the audience with a brief introduction to the symposium’s topic, Dr. Oppermann described his current research on histone demethylase inhibitors in multiple myeloma and the connection to metabolic pathways. He surmised that tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle-derived metabolites can link cellular metabolism to cancer—impacting epigenetic landscapes. Specifically, the TCA intermediates are inhibitors of KDMs, ultimately controlling epigenetic and metabolic regulation.
Furthermore, Dr. Oppermann’s group was able to show that treatment of myeloma cell lines with the potent and specific histone demethylase inhibitor GSK-J4 was able to reverse the Myc-driven metabolic dependency, forcing a selected amino acid depletion. This deficiency led to the integrated stress response and the activation of proapoptotic genes. This work helps to solidify further the potent nature of GSK-J4 in cancer while simultaneously uncovering the metabolic mechanisms that cancer cells employ to keep their overproliferative phenotypes progressing forward.
Next, Tomasz Cierpicki, Ph.D., assistant professor at the University of Michigan, described his work on targeting leukemic stem cells with small-molecule inhibitors of the protein regulator of cytokinesis 1 (PRC1). Dr. Cierpicki took the audience through his research design, which was to target BMI1, an oncogene that determines the proliferative capacity and self-renewal potential of normal and leukemic stem cells. BMI1 has been implicated in a variety of tumors and is essential for the Polycomb Repressive Complex 1 (PRC1). Moreover, BMI1 interacts with the RING1B protein to form an active E3 ubiquitin ligase that targets histone H2A, modifying epigenetic regulation mechanisms.
Dr. Cierpicki’s laboratory looked at inhibitors of the RING1B–BMI1 E3 ligase complex as potential therapeutic agents targeting cancer stem cells. Using an array of techniques from fragment screening to medicinal chemistry, the researchers were able to identify potent compounds that bound to RING1B–BMI1 and inhibit its E3 ubiquitin ligase activity with low micromolar affinities. When testing in vitro, the inhibitors revealed robust downregulation of H2A ubiquitination. Dr. Cierpicki and his colleagues found that the RING1–BMI1 inhibitor blocked the self-renewal capacity of the stem cells and induced cellular differentiation—validating RING ligases as a novel epigenetic drug target.
Finishing up the session was William Sellers, M.D., vice president and global head of oncology for the Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research. Dr. Sellers’ research is focused on what genes are necessary for epigenetic regulation of cancer and how they are linked to essential metabolic processes. He and his colleagues accomplished their studies through the use of large-scale shRNA screening across a diverse set of 390 cancer cell lines.
Utilizing deep small hairpin RNA (shRNA) screening libraries, at 20 shRNAs per genome, provided the investigators with highly robust gene-level data, which resulted in the emergence of several distinct classes of cancer-dependent genes. For example, Dr. Sellers’ group found that several known oncogenes fell into the genetic dependence class, whereas other genes were sorted into lineage, paralog, and collateral synthetic lethality dependent classes.
An interesting example from Dr. Sellers’ work was the link his laboratory discovered between polyamine metabolism and salvage and the protein arginine methyltransferase 5 (PRMT5). In particular, the loss of methylthioadenosine phosphorylase (MTAP)—which has been observed in many solid tumors and hematologic malignancies—resulted in the accumulation of S-methyl-5′-thioadenosine (MTA), which specifically inhibited the epigenetic mechanisms of PRMT5. The culmination Dr. Sellers’ analysis led to the finding that PRMT5 is a novel target for therapeutic development in MTAP deleted cancers.
These three presentations represented some of the excellent, cutting-edge research that is not only looking to develop novel drug therapeutics but also trying to uncover the underlying molecular mechanisms of epigenetic regulation and cancer.
A Metabolic Twist that Drives Cancer Survival
http://www.technologynetworks.com/Metabolomics/news.aspx?ID=190262
A novel metabolic pathway that helps cancer cells thrive in conditions that are lethal to normal cells has been identified.
“It’s long been thought that if we could target tumor-specific metabolic pathways, it could lead to effective ways to treat cancer,” said senior author Dr. Ralph DeBerardinis, Associate Professor of CRI and Pediatrics, Director of CRI’s Genetic and Metabolic Disease Program, and Chief of the Division of Pediatric Genetics and Metabolism at UT Southwestern. “This study finds that two very different metabolic processes are linked in a way that is specifically required for cells to adapt to the stress associated with cancer progression.”
The study, available online today in the journal Nature, reveals that cancer cells use an alternate version of two well-known metabolic pathways called the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) and the Krebs cycle to defend against toxins. The toxins are reactive oxygen species (ROS) that kill cells via oxidative stress.
This work builds on earlier studies by Dr. DeBerardinis’ laboratory that found the Krebs cycle, a series of chemical reactions that cells use to generate energy, could reverse itself under certain conditions to nourish cancer cells.
Dr. DeBerardinis said most normal cells and tumor cells grow by attaching to nutrient-rich tissue called a matrix. “They are dependent on matrix attachment to receive growth-promoting signals and to regulate their metabolism in a way that supports cell growth, proliferation, and survival,” he said.
Detachment from the matrix results in a sudden increase in ROS that is lethal to normal cells, he added. Cancer cells seem to have a workaround.
The destruction of healthy cells when detached from the matrix was reported in a landmark 2009 Nature study by Harvard Medical School cell biologist Dr. Joan Brugge. Intriguingly, that same study found that inserting an oncogene – a gene with the potential to cause cancer – into a normal cell caused it to behave like a cancer cell and survive detachment, said Dr. DeBerardinis, who also is affiliated with the Eugene McDermott Center for Human Growth & Development, holds the Joel B. Steinberg, M.D. Chair in Pediatrics, and is a Sowell Family Scholar in Medical Research at UT Southwestern.
“Another Nature study, this one from CRI Director Dr. Sean Morrison’s laboratory in November 2015, found that the rare skin cancer cells that were able to detach from the primary tumor and successfully metastasize to other parts of the body had the ability to keep ROS levels from getting dangerously high,” Dr. DeBerardinis said. Dr. Morrison, also a CPRIT Scholar in Cancer Research and a Howard Hughes Medical Institute Investigator, holds the Mary McDermott Cook Chair in Pediatrics Genetics at UT Southwestern.
Working under the premise that the two findings were pieces of the same puzzle, a crucial part of the picture seemed to be missing, he said.
It was known for decades that the PPP was a major source of NADPH, which provides a source of reducing equivalents (that is, electrons) to scavenge ROS; however, the PPP produces NADPH in a part of the cell called the cytosol, whereas the reactive oxygen species are generated primarily in another subcellular structure called the mitochondria.
“If you think of ROS as fire, then NADPH is like the water used by cancer cells to douse the flames,” Dr. DeBerardinis said. But how could NADPH from the PPP help deal with the stress of ROS produced in a completely different part of the cell? “What we did was to discover how this happens,” Dr. DeBerardinis said.
The current study in Nature demonstrates that cancer cells use a “piggybacking” system to carry reducing equivalents from the PPP into the mitochondria. This movement involves an unusual reaction in the cytosol that transfers reducing equivalents from NADPH to a molecule called citrate, similar to a reversed reaction of the Krebs cycle, he said. The citrate then enters the mitochondria and stimulates another pathway that results in the release of reducing equivalents to produce NADPH right at the location of ROS creation, allowing the cancer cells to survive and grow without the benefit of matrix attachment.
“We knew that both the PPP and Krebs cycle provide metabolic benefits to cancer cells. But we had no idea that they were linked in this unusual fashion,” he said. “Strikingly, normal cells were unable to transport NADPH by this mechanism, and died as a result of the high ROS levels.”
Dr. DeBerardinis stressed that the findings were based on cultured cell models, and more research will be necessary to test the role of the pathway in living organisms. “We are particularly excited to test whether this pathway is required for metastasis, because cancer cells need to survive in a matrix-detached state in the circulation in order to metastasize,” he said.
CRI scientists find novel metabolic twist that drives cancer survival
http://www.utsouthwestern.edu/newsroom/news-releases/year-2016/april/cancer-metabolism.html
New paper offers intriguing insights into tumor metabolism William G. Gilroy August 19, 2009
Posted In: Research
A paper appearing in this week’s edition of the journal Nature by a team of researchers that includes University of Notre Dame biologist Zachary T. Schafer has important new implications for understanding the metabolism of tumors.
Schafer, an assistant professor of biological sciences and Coleman Junior Chair of Cancer Biology, points out that in the early stages of tumor formation some cells become detached from their normal cellular matrix. These “homeless” cells tend to develop certain defects that stop them from becoming cancerous. In a process known as apoptosis, these precancerous cells essentially kill themselves, allowing them to be destroyed by immune system cells.
The prevailing wisdom among researchers has been that apoptosis was the only way that cells could die.
In studies conducted prior to the research described in the Nature paper, it was found that even when apoptosis was inhibited in detached, precancerous cells, they still eventually died. Intrigued by these results, a team of researchers led by Joan S. Brugge, Louise Foote Pfieffer Professor of Cell Biology at Harvard Medical School, and Schafer decided to take a closer look.
They report in this week’s Nature paper that they found that even when apoptosis was inhibited in detached cells endowed with a cancer-causing gene, they still were incapable of absorbing glucose, their primary energy source. Additionally, the cells displayed signs of oxidative stress, which is a harmful accumulation of oxygen-derived molecules called reactive oxygen species (ROS). The research also revealed decreased ATP production, a key factor in energy transport in the cells.
Schafer notes that this combination of loss of glucose transport, decreased ATP production and heightened oxidative stress reveal a manner of cell death that hadn’t been previously demonstrated to play a role in this context.
In the next phase of the study, Schafer engineered the cells to express a high level of HER2, a gene known to be hyperactive in many breast cancer tumors. He also treated the cells with antioxidants to relieve oxidative stress.
Both approaches helped the cells survive. The HER2-treated cells regained glucose transport, avoided oxidative stress and recovered ATP levels.
Most surprisingly, the antioxidants restored metabolic activity in the cells by allowing fatty acids to be effectively used instead of glucose as an energy source, providing them with a chance to survive.
“Our results raise the possibility that antioxidant activity might allow early stage tumor cells to survive where they would otherwise die from these metabolic defects,” Schafer said.
He also cautions that while the antioxidant findings were surprising, their research was done solely in cell cultures and more research needs to be done before there are clear implications for individuals and their diets.
The paper does, however, offer important new clues about the metabolism of tumor cells and important information that may lead to drugs that can developed to target them.
Antioxidant and Oncogene Rescue of Metabolic Defects Caused by …
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2931797/Aug 19, 2009 …
Nature. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2010 Sep 2. Published in … Y. Irie,1 Sizhen Gao,1 Pere Puigserver,1,2 and Joan S. Brugge1,*.
http://www.nature.com/cdd/journal/v10/n8/full/4401251a.html
Proteasome inhibitors have been shown to be effective in cancer treatment, an ability … a specific inhibitor of 26S proteasome, also reduced cell viability ( 80% with 10 mu …
be a consequence of the increased generation of ROS caused by MG132. …. vectors endowed with the wild type forms of RB or p53 genes (Figure 1f).
The Metastasis-Promoting Roles of Tumor-Associated Immune Cells
Tumor metastasis is driven not only by the accumulation of intrinsic alterations in malignant cells, but also by the interactions of cancer cells with various stromal cell components of the tumor microenvironment. In particular, inflammation and infiltration of the tumor tissue by host immune cells, such as tumor-associated macrophages, myeloid-derived suppressor cells, and regulatory T cells have been shown to support tumor growth in addition to invasion and metastasis. Each step of tumor development, from initiation through metastatic spread, is promoted by communication between tumor and immune cells via the secretion of cytokines, growth factors and proteases that remodel the tumor microenvironment. Invasion and metastasis requires neovascularization, breakdown of the basement membrane, and remodeling of the extracellular matrix for tumor cell invasion and extravasation into the blood and lymphatic vessels. The subsequent dissemination of tumor cells to distant organ sites necessitates a treacherous journey through the vasculature, which is fostered by close association with platelets and macrophages. Additionally, the establishment of the pre-metastatic niche and specific metastasis organ tropism is fostered by neutrophils and bone marrow-derived hematopoietic immune progenitor cells and other inflammatory cytokines derived from tumor and immune cells, which alter the local environment of the tissue to promote adhesion of circulating tumor cells. This review focuses on the interactions between tumor cells and immune cells recruited to the tumor microenvironment, and examines the factors allowing these cells to promote each stage of metastasis.
Once established, tumors are quite adept at preventing anti-tumor immune responses, and several defense mechanisms to circumvent immune detection have been described including antigen loss, down-regulation of major histocompatibility molecules (MHC), deregulation or loss of components of the endogenous antigen presentation pathway, and tumor-induced immune suppression mediated through cytokine secretion or direct interactions between tumor ligands and immune cell receptors [2]. These mechanisms contribute to the process of immunoediting in which tumor cell subpopulations susceptible to immune recognition are lysed and eliminated, while resistant tumor cells proliferate and increase their frequency in the developing neoplasia [3]. However, tumors not only effectively escape immune recognition, they also actively subvert the normal anti-tumor activity of immune cells to promote further tumor growth and metastasis.
During early stages of cancer development, infiltrating immune cell populations are primarily tumor suppressive, but depending on the presence of accessory stromal cells, the local cytokine milieu, and tumor-specific interactions, these immune cells can undergo phenotypic changes to enhance tumor cell dissemination and metastasis. For instance, CD4+ T cells, macrophages, and neutrophils have all been shown to possess opposing properties depending on the inflammatory state of the tumor environment, the tissue context, and other cellular stimuli intrinsic to the altered tumor cells [4, 5]. These features are dependent upon the inherent plasticity of immune cells in response to stimulatory or suppressive cytokines [6]. Notably, the switch from a Th1 tumor-suppressive phenotype such as CD4+ “helper” T cells, which aid cytotoxic CD8+ T cells in tumor rejection, to a Th2 tumor-promoting “regulatory” phenotype, which blocks CD8+ T-cell activity, is a characteristic outcome in the inflammatory, immune-suppressive tumor microenvironment [5, 7]. Likewise, M1 macrophages and N1 neutrophils are known to have pronounced anti-tumor activity; however, these immune cells are often subverted to a tumor-promoting M2 and N2 phenotype, respectively, in response to immune-suppressive cytokines secreted by tumor tissue [8].
The crosstalk that occurs between tumor and immune cells within the tumor microenvironment, the circulation, or at distant metastatic sites has been clearly shown to foster metastatic dissemination. Immune cells as well as the suppressive factors that they secrete represent potential targets for therapeutic intervention. Regardless of their source, cytokines, chemokines, proteases, and growth factors are some of the main factors contributing to immunosuppression and immune-mediated tumor progression. These molecules can be produced by immune, stromal, or malignant cells and can act in paracrine and autocrine fashion to promote each stage of tumor cell invasion and metastasis by enhancing inflammation, angiogenesis, tumor proliferation, and recruitment of additional immunosuppressive and tumor-promoting immune cells. These secreted factors provide the malignant cells with an abundant source of growth and survival signals that perpetuate a supportive microenvironment for tumor metastasis and represent some of the most attractive targets for directed anti-tumor therapy. Immune pathways provide numerous soluble targets for cancer treatment, and indeed, many drugs to target immune-suppressive molecules are moving forward in clinical trials. For instance, the anti-RANKL (Denosumab) antibody has been shown to effectively inhibit bone metastasis in prostate cancer patients [201], while a variety of neutralizing antibodies to IL-1β and IL-1 receptor have been shown to have efficacy in treating metastasis in pre-clinical animal models [202]. Several agents that target IL-1 or other immune-suppressive cytokines are already approved for the treatment of some inflammatory diseases and are prime candidates for human trails [202]. Additionally, other proteins involved in tumor progression that are induced directly or indirectly by immune cell populations, such as EMT-associated transcription factors, adhesion molecules, and tumor receptors and ligands which mediate immune suppression, could also be targeted with small molecules or blocking antibodies. Antibodies against two surface molecules expressed by suppressive lymphoid cells, anti-CTLA-4 (ipiliumimab) [203, 204] and anti-PD-1 have been recently gaining increasing support from clinical trials for their effective treatment for many forms of cancer including advanced melanoma and prostate cancer [205, 206]. Specifically, anti-CTLA-4 has been shown to be particularly efficacious in metastatic melanoma, while anti-PD-1 has only just begun a comprehensive evaluation in clinical trials [204, 207]. Likewise, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) to prevent or treat chronic inflammation and lymphangiogenesis [208–210], and anti-coagulants to prevent platelet aggregation on circulating tumor cells [211] are just two examples of a multitude of therapeutic agents that could be utilized to prevent immune-mediated tumor progression at unique stages of metastasis. Of course, new methods or biomarkers for the detection of patients at risk of tumor progression or metastasis are also desperately needed to tailor personalized therapy for patients to obtain the best possible clinical outcome.
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https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/category/cancer-and-therapeutics/Mar 26, 2016 … This turns your immune systems ability to attack and kill cancer cells back on” …. the rare skin cancer cells that were able to detach from theprimary tumor and successfully metastasize to other parts of the body had the ability to keep ROS levels from getting dangerously high,” Dr. DeBerardinis remarked.
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https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/tag/histone-deacetylase-inhibitors-hdac/The HDAC-inhibiting agent romidepsin significantly increased T-cell tumor … skin cancer cells that were able to detach from the primary tumor and successfully … of the body had the ability to keep ROS levels from getting dangerously high,” Dr. …. Sensitivity for EGFR or KRAS was higher in patients with multiplemetastatic …
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https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/category/cancer-biology-innovations-in-cancer-therapy/genomic-expression/In a study involving 320 patients, the researchers were able to infer cell death in …. Glutamine and cancer: cell biology, physiology, and clinical opportunities … On the other hand, GLS2 expression is enhanced in some neuroblastomas, …… of the body had the ability to keep ROS levels from getting dangerously high,” Dr.
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