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New Findings in Endometrial Cancer: Mutations, Molecular Types and Immune Responses Evoked by Mutation-prone Endometrial, Ovarian Cancer Subtypes

Posted in CANCER BIOLOGY & Innovations in Cancer Therapy, Cancer Informatics, Cell Biology, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Chemical Genetics, Clinical Diagnostics, Clinical Genomics, Computational Biology/Systems and Bioinformatics, Endocrine Diseases, Gene Regulation, Gene Regulation and Evolution, Genetics & Innovations in Treatment, Genome Biology, Genomic Endocrinology, Genomic Testing: Methodology for Diagnosis, Human Immune System in Health and in Disease, Monoclonal Immunotherapy, Population Health Management, Genetics & Pharmaceutical, Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis and Reproductive Genomics, Reproductive Andrology, Embryology, Genomic Endocrinology, Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis and Reproductive Genomics, Reproductive Biology & Bio Instrumentation on June 2, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Endometrial Cancer: Mutations, Molecular Types and Immune Responses Evoked by Mutation-prone Endometrial, Ovarian Cancer Subtypes

Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

 

This Open Access Online Scientific Journal represents a repository of curated scientific literature on the following types of cancer of relevance to the subject matter of this article. See below the FRONTIER of Research on:

Breast Cancer

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/?s=Breast+Cancer

Ovarian Cancer

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/?s=Ovarian+Cancer

Genomics of Endometriosis

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/?s=Endometriosis+

Reproductive Genomics

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/?s=Reproductive+Genomics

Genomic Endocrinology

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/?s=Endocrinology+Genomic

 

Endometrial Cancer: Mutations, Molecular Types and Immune Responses Evoked by Mutation-prone Endometrial, Ovarian Cancer Subtypes – New Findings

 

CONCLUSIONS

  • the team saw an apparent jump in PD-1 representation in the lymphocytes that were infiltrating neighboring tumors in the BRCA1/2-mutated tumors relative to the other ovarian cancers, though staining for the immune checkpoint contributors within tumors themselves appeared similar regardless of the subtype considered.
  • Strickland and his colleagues reasoned that such a feature may partly explain the relatively high progression-free survival and overall survival rates reported in BRCA1/2-mutated ovarian cancers, though they are continuing to study the relationship between BRCA mutations and tumor features.
  • Memorial Sloan Kettering medical oncologist Alexandra Snyder Charen discussed potential implications of the endometrial and ovarian cancer studies, noting that distinct mutation signatures in different tumor types could also affect immune response.
  • While she expressed enthusiasm about potential treatment clues provided by more-or-less mutated endometrial and ovarian cancers, Snyder Charen noted that additional research is needed on additional forms of the disease, since the work described was done using primary tumors.

 

Recurrent somatic mutations in chromatin-remodeling and ubiquitin ligase complex genes in serous endometrial tumors

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/19/recurrent-somatic-mutations-in-chromatin-remodeling-and-ubiquitin-ligase-complex-genes-in-serous-endometrial-tumors/

Testing for Multiple Genetic Mutations via NGS for Patients: Very Strong Family History of Breast & Ovarian Cancer, Diagnosed at Young Ages, & Negative on BRCA Test

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/20/testing-for-multiple-genetic-mutations-via-ngs-for-patients-very-strong-family-history-of-breast-ovarian-cancer-diagnosed-at-young-ages-negative-on-brca-test/

TCGA Analysis Uncovers Four Molecular Subtypes for Endometrial Cancer

For tumors from the high-risk serous subtype, meanwhile, they saw genetic and genomic features that resemble those found in serous ovarian cancer and basal-like breast cancer, albeit with more frequent mutations to genes such as PIK3CA, FBXW7, PPP2R1A, and ARID1A.

These and other molecular features identified in the current study could have prognostic and treatment implications, they noted. For instance, survival patterns in the POLE subtype seem to be favorable, despite the rampant mutations present in the genomes of those tumors.

In contrast, individuals with serous or serous-like tumors appear to do much worse, Levine noted.

That, in turn, suggests that there could be a benefit to offering more aggressive treatment to individuals with endometrioid cases falling in the new serous-like category, which is characterized by a higher-than-usual burden of copy number changes coupled with frequent mutations in the TP53 gene, a common cancer culprit.

“Clinicians should carefully consider treating copy-number-altered endometrioid patients with chemotherapy rather than adjuvant radiation,” Levine and his co-authors wrote, “and formally test such hypotheses in prospective clinical trials.”

For their part, researchers involved in the current study recently completed the accrual process for a clinical trial that will involve a little more than 300 endometrial cancer patients being treated with various chemotherapy regimens.

By prospectively collecting and tumors and determining their molecular subtypes, Levine said, it should be possible to track outcomes in relation to the four subtypes identified in the current study and, eventually, to get a better sense of treatment response and survival patterns in each group.

https://www.genomeweb.com/clinical-genomics/tcga-analysis-uncovers-four-molecular-subtypes-endometrial-cancer

 

Immune Responses Evoked by Mutation-prone Endometrial, Ovarian Cancer Subtypes

researchers from Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, and the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute characterized tumor-infiltrating immune cell activity and immune checkpoint contributor expression in dozens of archival endometrial tumors samples from mutation-heavy polymerase epsilon (POLE) mutations and microsatellite instability subtypes, comparing them with patterns in more mutation-light microsatellite stable tumors.

The results suggest endometrial cancers from subtypes prone to more widespread mutation also trigger stronger immune responses that might be further enhanced by drugs that inhibit cancer cells’ immune checkpoints, explained Brooke Howitt, a pathologist at the Brigham and Women’s Hospital, who presented the research at ASCO.

Howitt and her colleagues used immunohistochemistry to profile tumor infiltrating lymphocyte and expression of the immune checkpoint players PD-1 and PD-L1 in four POLE-mutated endometrial cancers, 28 endometrial cancers with microsatellite instability, and 32 microsatellite stable endometrial cancers.

Indeed, their results pointed to more pronounced tumor infiltration by CD3+ , CD4+, and CD8+ lymphocytes in the group of POLE-mutated and microsatellite unstable tumors than in the microsatellite stable subtype, consistent with T-cell activity against the mutation-rich tumors.

When they compared the more mutated endometrial cancer subtypes to the microsatellite stable group, the researchers saw signs of enhanced PD-L1 and PD-1 expression in both infiltrating lymphocytes and in the tumors themselves, hinting that the oft-mutated subtypes may respond to immune-targeting PD-1 inhibitor drugs.

Dana-Farber Cancer Institute researcher Kyle Strickland provided evidence for a similar pattern of bolstered immune activity against extensively mutated tumors.

For their part, though, Strickland and his team focused on BRCA1- and/or BRCA2-mutated, high-grade serous ovarian cancers, using immunohistochemistry to see if the high mutational load found in tumors with hampered BRCA-mediated DNA repair activity might also be a flag for the immune system.

There, researchers compared tumor infiltrating lymphocyte patterns in 37 BRCA1/2-mutated tumor samples and in samples from 16 tumors lacking germline or somatic mutations in BRCA1, BRCA2, or related mutations or expression changes — features verified by high-throughput sequencing.

Results from that comparison suggested that all of the ovarian cancers had comparable levels of certain tumor infiltrating lymphocytes, such as the CD3+ or CD20+ lymphocytes.

But compared with the “homologous recombination intact” tumors, the BRCA1/2-mutated ovarian cancers appeared to be marked by higher CD8+ tumor infiltrating lymphocytes and lower CD4+ tumor infiltrating lymphocytes, Strickland explained.

https://www.genomeweb.com/cancer/asco-session-explores-immune-responses-evoked-mutation-prone-endometrial-ovarian-cancer

 

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Hormone Therapy [9.6]

Posted in Cancer and Current Therapeutics, CANCER BIOLOGY & Innovations in Cancer Therapy, Clinical & Translational, Curation, Drug Toxicity, Endocrine Diseases, Innovations, Pharmaceutical Analytics, Pharmaceutical Drug Discovery, Pharmacologic toxicities, Population Health Management, Reproductive Andrology, Embryology, Genomic Endocrinology, Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis and Reproductive Genomics, tagged , , , , , , , on May 15, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Hormone Therapy [9.6]

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

The structure of this article is as follows:

9.6.1 Hormone Treatment Fights Prostate Cancer

9.6.2 Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease During Androgen Deprivation Therapy for Prostate Cancer

9.6.3 Breast Cancer and Hormone Therapy

9.6.4 Hormone Therapy and Different Ovarian Cancers

9.6.5 Chemotherapy versus hormonal treatment in platinum- and paclitaxel-refractory ovarian cancer: a randomised trial of the German Arbeitsgemeinschaft Gynaekologische Onkologie (AGO) Study Group Ovarian Cancer

Introduction

9.6.1 Hormone Treatment Fights Prostate Cancer

By R. Morgan Griffin
http://www.webmd.com/prostate-cancer/features/hormone-therapy-for-prostate-cancer

Hormone therapy for prostate cancer has come a long way in the past few decades. Not so long ago, the only hormonal treatment for this disease was drastic: an orchiectomy, the surgical removal of the testicles.

Now we have a number of medications — available as pills, injections, and implants — that can give men the benefits of decreasing male hormone levels without irreversible surgery.

“I think hormonal therapy has done wonders for men with prostate cancer,” Stuart Holden, MD, Medical Director of the Prostate Cancer Foundation.

Hormone therapy for prostate cancer does have limitations. Right now, it’s usually used only in men whose cancer has recurred or spread elsewhere in the body.

But even in cases where removing or killing the cancer isn’t possible, hormone therapy can help slow down cancer growth. Though it isn’t a cure, hormone therapy for prostate cancer can help men with prostate cancer feel better and add years to their lives.

On average, hormone therapy can stop the advance of cancer for two to three years. However, it varies from case to case. Some men do well on hormone therapy for much longer.

The idea that hormones have an effect on prostate cancer is not new. The scientist Charles Huggins first established this over 60 years ago in work that led to his winning the Nobel Prize. Huggins found that removing one of the main sources of male hormones from the body — the testicles — could slow the growth of the disease.

“This procedure worked dramatically,” says Holden, who is also director of the Prostate Cancer Center at Cedar Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles. “Before, these men were confined to bed and wracked with pain. Almost immediately afterwards, they improved.”

Huggins found that some types of prostate cancer cells androgens — to grow. Testosterone is one kind of androgen. About 90% to 95% of all androgens are made in the testicles, while the rest are made in the adrenal glands.

Hormone therapy for prostate cancer works by either preventing the body from making these androgens or by blocking their effects. Either way, the hormone levels drop, and the cancer’s growth slows.

In 85% to 90% of cases of advanced prostate cancer, hormone therapy can shrink the tumor.

However, hormone therapy for prostate cancer doesn’t work forever. The problem is that not all cancer cells need hormones to grow. Over time, these cells that aren’t reliant on hormones will spread. If this happens, hormone therapy won’t help anymore, and your doctor will need to shift to a different treatment approach.

There are two basic kinds of hormone therapy for prostate cancer. One class of drugs stops the body from making certain hormones. The other allows the body to make these hormones, but prevents them from attaching to the cancer cells. Some doctors start treatment with both drugs in an effort to achieve a total androgen block. This approach goes by several names: combined androgen blockade, complete androgen blockade, or total androgen blockade.

Here’s a rundown of the techniques.

  • Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone agonists (LHRH agonists.)These are chemicals that stop the production of testosterone in the testicles. Essentially, they provide the benefits of an orchiectomy for men with advanced prostate cancer without surgery. This approach is sometimes called “chemical castration.” However, the effects are fully reversible if you stop taking the medication.Most LHRH agonists are injected every one to four months. Some examples are Lupron, Trelstar, Vantas, and Zoladex. A new drug, Viadur, is an implant placed in the arm just once a year.

    Side effects can be significant. They include: loss of sex drive, hot flashes, development of breasts (gynecomastia) or painful breasts, loss of muscle, weight gain, fatigue, and decrease in levels of “good”cholesterol.

    Plenaxis is a drug that’s similar to LHRH agonists. However, because it can cause serious allergic reactions, it’s not used that often.

  • Anti-androgens. LHRH agonists and orchiectomies only affect the androgens that are made in the testicles. Thus they have no effect on the 5% to 10% of a man’s “male” hormones that are made in the adrenal glands. Anti-androgens are designed to affect the hormones made in the adrenal glands. They don’t stop the hormones from being made, but they stop them from having an effect on the cancer cells.The advantage of anti-androgens is that they have fewer side effects than LHRH agonists. Many men prefer them because they are less likely to diminish libido. Side effects include tenderness of the breasts, diarrhea, and nausea. These drugs are also taken as pills each day, which may be more convenient than injections. Examples are Casodex, Eulexin, and Nilandron.

    In some cases, starting treatment with an LHRH agonist can cause a “tumor flare,” a temporary acceleration of the cancer’s growth due to an initial increase in testosterone before the levels drop. This may cause the prostate gland to enlarge, obstructing the bladder and making it difficult to urinate. It’s believed that starting with an anti-androgen drug and then switching to an LHRH agonist can help avoid this problem. In patients with bone metastases, this “flare” can lead to significant complications such as bone pain, fractures, and nerve compression.

    Strangely, if treatment with an anti-androgen doesn’t work, stopping it may actually improve symptoms for a short time. This phenomenon is called “androgen withdrawal,” and experts aren’t sure why it happens.

  • Combined Androgen Blockade. This approach combines anti-androgens with LHRH agonists or an orchiectomy. By using both approaches, you can cut off or block the effects of hormones made by both the adrenal glands and the testicles. However, using both treatments can also increase the side effects. An orchiectomy or an LHRH agonist on its own can cause significant side effects like a loss of libido, impotence, and hot flashes. Adding an anti-androgen can cause diarrhea, and less often, nausea, fatigue, and liver problems.
  • Estrogens. Some synthetic versions of female hormones are used for prostate cancer. In fact, they were one of the early treatments used for the disease. However, because of their serious cardiovascular side effects, they’re not used as often anymore. J. Brantley Thrasher, MD, a spokesman for the American Urological Association and chairman of urology at the University of Kansas Medical Center, says they’re usually used only after initial hormone treatments have failed. Examples of estrogens are DES (diethylstilbestrol), Premarin, and Estradiol.
  • Other Drugs. Proscar (finasteride) is another drug that indirectly blocks an androgen that helps prostate cancer cells grow. Depending

on the case, doctors sometimes use other anticancer drugs like Nizoral (ketoconazole) and Cytadren (aminoglutethimide.)

  • Orchiectomy. The surgical removal of the testicles was the earliest form of hormone therapy for prostate cancer. However, the procedure is permanent. As with LHRH agonists, side effects can be significant. They include: Loss of sex drive, hot flashes, development of breasts (gynecomastia) or painful breasts, loss of muscle, weight gain, fatigue, and decrease in levels of “good” cholesterol.

Hormone therapy for prostate cancer can cause osteoporosis, which can lead to broken bones. However, treatment with bisphosphonates — like Aredia, Fosamax, and Zometa — may help prevent this condition from developing.

Hormone (androgen deprivation) therapy for prostate cancer

http://www.cancer.org/cancer/prostatecancer/detailedguide/prostate-cancer-treating-hormone-therapy

Hormone therapy is also called androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) or androgen suppression therapy. The goal is to reduce levels of male hormones, called androgens, in the body, or to stop them from affecting prostate cancer cells.

The main androgens are testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Most of the body’s androgens come from the testicles, but the adrenal glands also make a small amount. Androgens stimulate prostate cancer cells to grow. Lowering androgen levels or stopping them from getting into prostate cancer cells often makes prostate cancers shrink or grow more slowly for a time. But hormone therapy alone does not cure prostate cancer.

Hormone therapy may be used:

  • If the cancer has spread too far to be cured by surgery or radiation, or if you can’t have these treatments for some other reason
  • If your cancer remains or comes back after treatment with surgery or radiation therapy
  • Along with radiation therapy as initial treatment if you are at higher risk of the cancer coming back after treatment (based on a high Gleason score, high PSA level, and/or growth of the cancer outside the prostate)
  • Before radiation to try to shrink the cancer to make treatment more effective

Several types of hormone therapy can be used to treat prostate cancer. Some lower the levels of testosterone or other androgens (male hormones). Others block the action of those hormones.

Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) analogs

These drugs lower the amount of testosterone made by the testicles. Treatment with these drugs is sometimes calledchemical castration or medical castration because they lower androgen levels just as well as orchiectomy.

Even though LHRH analogs (also called LHRH agonists or GnRH agonists) cost more than orchiectomy and require more frequent doctor visits, most men choose this method. These drugs allow the testicles to remain in place, but the testicles will shrink over time, and they may even become too small to feel.

LHRH analogs are injected or placed as small implants under the skin. Depending on the drug used, they are given anywhere from once a month up to once a year. The LHRH analogs available in the United States include leuprolide (Lupron®, Eligard®), goserelin (Zoladex®), triptorelin (Trelstar®), and histrelin (Vantas®).

When LHRH analogs are first given, testosterone levels go up briefly before falling to very low levels. This effect is called flare and results from the complex way in which LHRH analogs work. Men whose cancer has spread to the bones may have bone pain. If the cancer has spread to the spine, even a short-term increase in tumor growth as a result of the flare could compress the spinal cord and cause pain or paralysis. Flare can be avoided by giving drugs called anti-androgens for a few weeks when starting treatment with LHRH analogs. (Anti-androgens are discussed further on.)

Degarelix (Firmagon®)

Degarelix is an LHRH antagonist. LHRH antagonists work like LHRH agonists, but they reduce testosterone levels more quickly and do not cause tumor flare like the LHRH agonists do.

This drug is used to treat advanced prostate cancer. It is given as a monthly injection under the skin. The most common side effects are problems at the injection site (pain, redness, and swelling) and increased levels of liver enzymes on lab tests. Other side effects are discussed in detail below.

Abiraterone (Zytiga®)

Drugs such as LHRH agonists can stop the testicles from making androgens, but other cells in the body, including prostate cancer cells themselves, can still make small amounts, which can fuel cancer growth. Abiraterone blocks an enzyme called CYP17, which helps stop these cells from making androgens.

Abiraterone can be used in men with advanced castrate-resistant prostate cancer (cancer that is still growing despite low testosterone levels from an LHRH agonist, LHRH antagonist, or orchiectomy). Abiraterone has been shown to shrink or slow the growth of some of these tumors and help some of these men live longer.

This drug is taken as pills every day. This drug doesn’t stop the testicles from making testosterone, so men who haven’t had an orchiectomy need to continue treatment with an LHRH agonist or antagonist. Because abiraterone also lowers the level of some other hormones in the body, prednisone (a cortisone-like drug) needs to be taken during treatment as well to avoid certain side effects.

Drugs that stop androgens from working

Anti-androgens

Androgens have to bind to a protein in the cell called an androgen receptor to work. Anti-androgens are drugs that bind to these receptors so the androgens can’t.

Drugs of this type, such as flutamide (Eulexin®), bicalutamide (Casodex®), and nilutamide (Nilandron®), are pills taken daily.

Anti-androgens are not often used by themselves in the United States. An anti-androgen may be added to treatment if orchiectomy, an LHRH analog, or LHRH antagonist is no longer working by itself. An anti-androgen is also sometimes given for a few weeks when an LHRH analog is first started to prevent a tumor flare.

Anti-androgen treatment can be combined with orchiectomy or an LHRH analog as first-line hormone therapy. This is called combined androgen blockade (CAB).

9.6.2 Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease During Androgen Deprivation Therapy for Prostate Cancer

Nancy L. Keating, A. James O’Malley and Matthew R. Smith
JCO Sep 20, 2006; 24(27):4448-4456
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1200/JCO.2006.06.2497

Purpose Androgen deprivation therapy with a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonist is associated with increased fat mass and insulin resistance in men with prostate cancer, but the risk of obesity-related disease during treatment has not been well studied. We assessed whether androgen deprivation therapy is associated with an increased incidence of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Patients and Methods Observational study of a population-based cohort of 73,196 fee-for-service Medicare enrollees age 66 years or older who were diagnosed with locoregional prostate cancer during 1992 to 1999 and observed through 2001. We used Cox proportional hazards models to assess whether treatment with GnRH agonists or orchiectomy was associated with diabetes, coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction, and sudden cardiac death. Results More than one third of men received a GnRH agonist during follow-up. GnRH agonist use was associated with increased risk of incident diabetes (adjusted hazard ratio [HR], 1.44; P < .001), coronary heart disease (adjusted HR, 1.16; P < .001), myocardial infarction (adjusted HR, 1.11; P = .03), and sudden cardiac death (adjusted HR, 1.16; P = .004). Men treated with orchiectomy were more likely to develop diabetes (adjusted HR, 1.34; P < .001) but not coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction, or sudden cardiac death (all P > .20). Conclusion GnRH agonist treatment for men with locoregional prostate cancer may be associated with an increased risk of incident diabetes and cardiovascular disease.

9.6.3 Breast Cancer and Hormone Therapy

http://www.webmd.com/breast-cancer/hormone-therapy-overview

There are certain hormones that can attach to breast cancer cells and affect their ability to multiply. The purpose of hormone therapy, also called endocrine therapy, is to add, block, or remove hormones.

With breast cancer, the female hormones estrogen andprogesterone can promote the growth of some breast cancer cells. Therefore in some patients, hormone therapy is given to block the body’s naturally occurring estrogen to slow or stop the cancer‘s growth.

There are two types of hormone therapy for breast cancer.

  • Drugs that inhibit estrogen and progesterone from promotingbreast cancer cell growth.
  • Drugs or surgery to turn off the production of hormones from the ovaries.

Faslodex, a estrogen receptor antagonist, binds to estrogen receptors and blocks their effects on cancer cells. Given as an injection, the drug is for HER2-positive metastatic disease in postmenopausal women who have already tried anti-estrogen therapy. Common side effects of Faslodex include:

  • Injection site pain
  • Nausea and vomiting
  • Loss of appetite
  • Weakness, fatigue
  • Hot flashes
  • Cough
  • Muscle, joint, and bone pain
  • Constipation
  • Shortness of breath

Zoladex and Lupron for Breast Cancer

Zoladex and Lupron are drugs that stop the production of estrogen by the ovaries. They are used in premenopausal women for the treatment of estrogen sensitive breast cancer.

Side effects of Zoladex and Lupron include:

  • Fluid retention
  • Hot flashes
  • Irregular menstrual periods
  • Pain at the injection site

http://www.cancer.gov/types/breast/breast-hormone-therapy-fact-sheet

Hormone-sensitive breast cancer cells contain proteins known as hormone receptors that become activated when hormones bind to them. The activated receptors cause changes in the expression of specific genes, which can lead to the stimulation of cell growth.

To determine whether breast cancer cells contain hormone receptors, doctors test samples of tumor tissue that have been removed by surgery. If the tumor cells contain estrogen receptors, the cancer is called estrogen receptor-positive (ER-positive), estrogen-sensitive, or estrogen-responsive. Similarly, if the tumor cells contain progesterone receptors, the cancer is called progesterone receptor-positive (PR- or PgR-positive). Approximately 70 percent of breast cancers are ER-positive. Most ER-positive breast cancers are also PR-positive (1).

Breast cancers that lack estrogen receptors are called estrogen receptor-negative (ER-negative). These tumors are estrogen-insensitive, meaning that they do not use estrogen to grow. Breast tumors that lack progesterone receptors are called progesterone receptor-negative (PR- or PgR-negative).

Hormone therapy (also called hormonal therapy, hormone treatment, or endocrine therapy) slows or stops the growth of hormone-sensitive tumors by blocking the body’s ability to produce hormones or by interfering with hormone action. Tumors that are hormone-insensitive do not respond to hormone therapy.

Hormone therapy for breast cancer is not the same as menopausal hormone therapy or female hormone replacement therapy, in which hormones are given to reduce the symptoms of menopause.

Several strategies have been developed to treat hormone-sensitive breast cancer, including the following:

Blocking ovarian function: Because the ovaries are the main source of estrogen in premenopausal women, estrogen levels in these women can be reduced by eliminating or suppressing ovarian function. Blocking ovarian function is called ovarian ablation.

Ovarian ablation can be done surgically in an operation to remove the ovaries (called oophorectomy) or by treatment with radiation. This type of ovarian ablation is usually permanent.

Alternatively, ovarian function can be suppressed temporarily by treatment with drugs called gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists, which are also known as luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LH-RH) agonists. These medicines interfere with signals from the pituitary gland that stimulate the ovaries to produce estrogen.

Examples of ovarian suppression drugs that have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are goserelin (Zoladex®) and leuprolide (Lupron®).

Blocking estrogen production: Drugs called aromatase inhibitors can be used to block the activity of an enzyme called aromatase, which the body uses to make estrogen in the ovaries and in other tissues. Aromatase inhibitors are used primarily in postmenopausal women because the ovaries in premenopausal women produce too much aromatase for the inhibitors to block effectively. However, these drugs can be used in premenopausal women if they are given together with a drug that suppresses ovarian function.

Examples of aromatase inhibitors approved by the FDA are anastrozole (Arimidex®) and letrozole (Femara®), both of which temporarily inactivate aromatase, and exemestane (Aromasin®), which permanently inactivates the enzyme.

Blocking estrogen’s effects: Several types of drugs interfere with estrogen’s ability to stimulate the growth of breast cancer cells:

  • Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) bind to estrogen receptors, preventing estrogen from binding. Examples of SERMs approved by the FDA are tamoxifen (Nolvadex®), raloxifene (Evista®), andtoremifene (Fareston®). Tamoxifen has been used for more than 30 years to treat hormone receptor-positive breast cancer.Because SERMs bind to estrogen receptors, they can potentially not only block estrogen activity (i.e., serve as estrogen antagonists) but also mimic estrogen effects (i.e., serve as estrogen agonists). Most SERMs behave as estrogen antagonists in some tissues and as estrogen agonists in other tissues. For example, tamoxifen blocks the effects of estrogen in breast tissue but acts like estrogen in the uterus and bone.
  • Other antiestrogen drugs, such as fulvestrant (Faslodex®), work in a somewhat different way to block estrogen’s effects. Like SERMs, fulvestrant attaches to the estrogen receptor and functions as an estrogen antagonist. However, unlike SERMs, fulvestrant has no estrogen agonist effects. It is a pure antiestrogen. In addition, when fulvestrant binds to the estrogen receptor, the receptor is targeted for destruction.

There are three main ways that hormone therapy is used to treat hormone-sensitive breast cancer:

Adjuvant therapy for early-stage breast cancer: Research has shown that women treated for early-stage ER-positive breast cancer benefit from receiving at least 5 years of adjuvant hormone therapy (2). Adjuvant therapy is treatment given after the main treatment (surgery, in the case of early-stage breast cancer) to increase the likelihood of a cure.

Adjuvant therapy may include radiation therapy and some combination of chemotherapy, hormone therapy, and targeted therapy. Tamoxifen has been approved by the FDA for adjuvant hormone treatment of premenopausal and postmenopausal women (and men) with ER-positive early-stage breast cancer, andanastrozole and letrozole have been approved for this use in postmenopausal women.

A third aromatase inhibitor, exemestane, is approved for adjuvant treatment of early-stage breast cancer in postmenopausal women who have received tamoxifen previously.

Until recently, most women who received adjuvant hormone therapy to reduce the chance of a breast cancer recurrence took tamoxifen every day for 5 years. However, with the advent of newer hormone therapies, some of which have been compared with tamoxifen in clinical trials, additional approaches to hormone therapy have become common (3–5). For example, some women may take an aromatase inhibitor every day for 5 years, instead of tamoxifen. Other women may receive additional treatment with an aromatase inhibitor after 5 years of tamoxifen. Finally, some women may switch to an aromatase inhibitor after 2 or 3 years of tamoxifen, for a total of 5 or more years of hormone therapy.

Decisions about the type and duration of adjuvant hormone therapy must be made on an individual basis. This complicated decision-making process is best carried out by talking with an oncologist, a doctor who specializes in cancer treatment.

Treatment of metastatic breast cancer: Several types of hormone therapy are approved to treat hormone-sensitive breast cancer that is metastatic (has spread to other parts of the body).

Studies have shown that tamoxifen is effective in treating women and men with metastatic breast cancer (6).Toremifene is also approved for this use. The antiestrogen fulvestrant can be used in postmenopausal women with metastatic ER-positive breast cancer after treatment with other antiestrogens (7).

The aromatase inhibitors anastrozole and letrozole can be given to postmenopausal women as initial therapy for metastatic hormone-sensitive breast cancer (8, 9). These two drugs, as well as the aromatase inhibitor exemestane, can also be used to treat postmenopausal women with advanced breast cancer whose disease has worsened after treatment with tamoxifen (10).

Neoadjuvant treatment of breast cancer: The use of hormone therapy to treat breast cancer before surgery (neoadjuvant therapy) has been studied in clinical trials (11). The goal of neoadjuvant therapy is to reduce the size of a breast tumor to allow breast-conserving surgery. Data from randomized controlled trials have shown that neoadjuvant hormone therapies—in particular, aromatase inhibitors—can be effective in reducing the size of breast tumors in postmenopausal women. The results in premenopausal women are less clear because only a few small trials involving relatively few premenopausal women have been conducted thus far.

No hormone therapy has yet been approved by the FDA for the neoadjuvant treatment of breast cancer.

9.6.4 Hormone Therapy and Different Ovarian Cancers

Lina Steinrud Mørch, Ellen Løkkegaard, Anne Helms Andreasen, Susanne Krüger Kjær, Øjvind Lidegaard
Am J Epidemiol. 2012; 175(12):1234-1242
http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/766010

Postmenopausal hormone therapy use increases the risk of ovarian cancer. In the present study, the authors examined the risks of different histologic types of ovarian cancer associated with hormone therapy. Using Danish national registers, the authors identified 909,946 women who were followed from 1995–2005. The women were 50–79 years of age and had no prior hormone-sensitive cancers or bilateral oophorectomy. Hormone therapy prescription data were obtained from the National Register of Medicinal Product Statistics. The National Cancer and Pathology Register provided data on ovarian cancers, including information about tumor histology. The authors performed Poisson regression analyses that included hormone exposures and confounders as time-dependent covariates. In an average of 8.0 years of follow up, 2,681 cases of epithelial ovarian cancer were detected. Compared with never users, women taking unopposed oral estrogen therapy had increased risks of both serous tumors (incidence rate ratio (IRR) = 1.7, 95% confidence interval: 1.4, 2.2) and endometrioid tumors (IRR = 1.5, 95% confidence interval: 1.0, 2.4) but decreased risk of mucinous tumors (IRR = 0.3, 95% confidence interval: 0.1, 0.8). Similar increased risks of serous and endometrioid tumors were found with estrogen/progestin therapy, whereas no association was found with mucinous tumors. Consistent with results from recent cohort studies, the authors found that ovarian cancer risk varied according to tumor histology. The types of ovarian tumors should be given attention in future studies.

Introduction

Ovarian cancer is the most lethal of gynecologic cancers. Unfortunately, little is known about its etiology. In recent meta-analyses, investigators have concluded that women taking postmenopausal hormone therapy (HT) have an increased risk of ovarian cancer compared with never users.[1, 2] Two large prospective studies, the Million Women Study and Danish Sex Hormone Register Study, found an overall increased risk of 30%–40%.[3, 4]

Less is known about the association between hormone use and the risk of different histologic subtypes of epithelial ovarian cancer. Other risk factors for ovarian cancer have been found to differ between mucinous and nonmucinous ovarian tumors, supporting the hypothesis of different etiologies.[5, 6]However, previous studies on HT and different types of ovarian tumors were mainly case-control studies, and the numbers of cases were small, especially for mucinous tumors.[1, 7–10] Most prospective cohort studies either did not examine tumor type[1, 4] or had incomplete information on histology.[11]

Recently, Danforth et al.[12] found that estrogen-only therapy (ET) was more strongly associated with the risk of endometrioid tumors than with the risk of other types of epithelial tumors in the Nurses’ Health Study (NHS). The Million Women Study found that with HT use, the highest risk was for serous tumors, whereas there was a lower risk of mucinous tumors.[3] Knowledge about the associations between HTs and subtypes of ovarian cancer will add to the understanding of how HT acts as a promoter of ovarian cancer carcinogenesis. Moreover, if different types of ovarian tumors are to be viewed as separate diseases, that fact should be considered when creating the study designs for future research. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to explore the risks of HT associated with different histologic types of ovarian cancer.

The study cohort was linked to the National Register of Medicinal Product Statistics using participants’ personal identification numbers as the key identifiers. The National Register of Medicinal Product Statistics includes information on the date of the redeemed prescriptions and the specific Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical code, dose, number of packages, defined daily doses, and route of administration (tablet, patch, gel, etc.) The specific Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical codes included in the present study have been described previously.[13]

The information on initiation of HT use (i.e., redeemed prescriptions) was updated daily for each individual during follow-up. The prescribed defined daily doses were used to determine the length of use. We included 4 months after the expiration of the prescription in all records of hormone exposure to account for any delay in recorded diagnoses in Danish registers, prolonged HT use for those taking less than the defined daily dose prescribed, and minor latency time. Thus, gaps between prescriptions of less than 4 month were filled prospectively; that is, a woman was classified as user of the drug at a given point in time if the dispensed supply from the last redemption had not run out or if it had run out within the last m days (where m is the allowed gap length).[14]

Because HT is likely to act as a promoter of ovarian cancer carcinogenesis with a yet unknown latency time, women currently taking hormones were categorized by the regimen that they took for the longest period during the study period. These variables were time varying; that is, if a woman began a new HT regimen, she would be recategorized if and when the time taking that regimen exceeded the amount of time she took the prior categorization HT regimen. The length of use was calculated as the time spent taking all systemic treatments during the study period. Whether a woman had taken hormones before 50 years of age but within the 11-year study period was accounted for in the hormone status categories, and the amount of time for which she took the hormones was accounted for in the duration of use category. The HT categories were HT use (never, past, current nonvaginal HT use, or other current use (i.e., current use of vaginal ET or a hormone intrauterine device)); hormone formulation (ET, estrogen/progestin therapy (EPT), or other (i.e., tibolone, raloxifene, progestin only, or vaginal estrogen)); hormone regimen (cyclic EPT, continuous EPT, or other); route of administration (oral ET, oral EPT or tibolone, dermal ET, dermal EPT, or other); duration of HT in years (never, current, 0.01–4 years, 4.01–7 years, or >7 years or use of vaginal ET or a hormone intrauterine device); and time since last use among former users (never, current, 0.01–2 years, 2.01–4 years, 4.01–6 years, or >6 years or use of vaginal ET or a hormone intrauterine device).

Ovarian Cancer Cases

Until December 31, 2002, we used the Danish Cancer Register to identify cases of primary invasive ovarian cancers and their histologies, using the International Classification of Diseases for Oncologytopography code 183.0 and morphology codes ending with a 3. At time of the present study, information from January 2003 had not been updated in the Danish Cancer Register. Thus, from 2003 onward, the Pathology Register was used for case findings and information on histology. The invasive epithelial tumors were classified as serous (codes M84413, M84603, M84613, and M90143), endometrioid (codes M83803 and M83813), mucinous (codes M84703, M84803, and M90153), clear-cell (codes M83103 and M83133), adenocarcinoma not otherwise specified (code M81403), or epithelial not otherwise specified (codes M80203, M80703, M81303, M85603, M89333, M89803, and M90003). Nonepithelial invasive tumors and borderline tumors were not included. Eight women for whom we did not have histologic information were excluded. Information on the stages of disease was available from the Danish Cancer Register until December 31, 2002.

From 1995 to 2005, a total of 909,946 perimenopausal and postmenopausal women with no previous cancer or removal of ovaries accumulated 7.3 million person-years of observation, corresponding to an average follow-up period of 8.0 years. The number of incident malignant epithelial ovarian cancers during the study period was 2,681. Of these, 1,336 were serous tumors, 377 were endometrioid tumors, 293 were mucinous tumors, 159 were clear-cell tumors, 115 were nonspecified epithelial tumors, and 401 were adenocarcinomas not otherwise specified. At the end of follow up, 63% of the women remained never users of HT, 22% were previous users, and 9% were current users. Compared with never users, hormone users were more likely to have undergone a hysterectomy (18.0% versus 6.2%) or unilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (5.7% versus 1.9%), to have been sterilized (8.4% versus 5.4%), and to be parous (80.8% versus 75.2%). The characteristics of the study population have been published previously.[4]

Compared with never users, current users of hormones had an increased risk of serous tumors (incidence rate ratio (IRR) = 1.7, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.5, 1.9) and of endometrioid tumors (IRR = 1.7, 95% CI: 1.3, 2.2). Current use of hormones was not associated with the risk of mucinous or clear-cell tumors (Figure 1). The incidence rate ratios for serous ovarian cancer increased with duration of hormone use (0.01–4 years, IRR = 1.5, 95% CI: 1.3, 1.8; 4.01–7 years, IRR = 1.7, 95% CI: 1.4, 2.1; and >7 years, IRR = 2.1, 95% CI: 1.6, 2.8). The incidence rate ratios for other types of epithelial ovarian cancer were not consistently associated with duration of use (Figure 2).

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Figure 1.

Incidence rate ratios of epithelial ovarian cancers associated with current use of hormone therapy, Danish Sex Hormone Register Study, 1995–2005. Values were adjusted for age, period of use, number of births, hysterectomy, sterilization, unilateral oophorectomy or salpingo-oophorectomy, endometriosis, infertility, and educational level. The reference group was never users of hormone therapy (dashed line). Bars, 95% confidence interval.

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Figure 2.

Incidence rate ratios of epithelial ovarian cancers associated with durations of hormone therapy in years, Danish Sex Hormone Register Study, 1995–2005. Values were adjusted for age, period of use, number of births, hysterectomy, sterilization, unilateral oophorectomy or salpingo-oophorectomy, endometriosis, infertility, and educational level. The reference group was never users of hormone therapy (dashed line). Risk estimates for clear-cell cancer are not shown because there were few cases. Bars, 95% confidence interval.

Time Since Hormone Use

We found increased incidence rate ratios for serous ovarian cancers for a period of up to 2 years after cessation of HT. Thereafter, the risk approached that observed in never users. For endometrioid tumors, the risk was not significantly increased after cessation of HT (Figure 3).

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Figure 3.

Incidence rate ratios of serous and endometrioid ovarian cancers associated with time since last hormone therapy use in years, Danish Sex Hormone Register Study, 1995–2005. Values were adjusted for age, period of use, number of births, hysterectomy, sterilization, unilateral oophorectomy or salpingo-oophorectomy, endometriosis, infertility, and educational level. The reference group was never users of hormone therapy (dashed line). Bars, 95% confidence interval.

Estrogen Therapy

Compared with never users, women on unopposed ET had an increased risk of serous tumors (IRR = 1.7, 95% CI: 1.4, 2.1) and a tendency toward an increased risk of endometrioid tumors (IRR = 1.4, 95% CI: 0.9, 2.1). In contrast, the risk of mucinous tumors was decreased (IRR = 0.3, 95% CI: 0.1, 0.8). No association was found between ET and the risk of clear-cell tumors (IRR = 0.6, 95% CI: 0.2, 1.5) (Figure 4).

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Figure 4.

Incidence rate ratios of epithelial ovarian cancers associated with hormone therapy, Danish Sex Hormone Register Study, 1995–2005. A) Estrogen-only therapy; B) estrogen/progestin therapy. Values were adjusted for age, period of use, number of births, hysterectomy, sterilization, unilateral oophorectomy or salpingo-oophorectomy, endometriosis, infertility, and educational level. The reference group was never users of hormone therapy (dashed line). Bars, 95% confidence interval.

Women on oral ET had a statistically significantly increased risk of endometrioid tumors (IRR = 1.5, 95% CI: 1.0, 2.4), and the risks for serous, mucinous, and clear-cell tumors were similar to the risks found for all ET. Because the risk associations between transdermal ET and ovarian cancers were based on a few cases, the data are not shown. Vaginal estrogen alone was associated with an increased risk of serous tumors (IRR = 1.4, 95% CI: 1.1, 1.9), whereas no associations were found with endometrioid, mucinous, or clear-cell tumors (data not shown).

Combined Therapy

Women on combined EPT had increased incidence rate ratios for serous tumors (IRR = 1.6, 95% CI: 1.4, 1.9) and endometrioid tumors (IRR = 2.0, 95% CI: 1.5, 2.6), whereas no associations were found with mucinous or clear-cell tumors (Figure 4). Similar risk associations were found among women on oral EPT. Because there were few cases, data for transdermal EPT are not shown.

Duration of HT

The incidence rate ratios for serous ovarian cancer increased with increased duration of ET and after 7 years reached an incidence rate ratio of 2.9 (95% CI: 1.9, 4.3). The risks for endometrioid ovarian cancer were similar for all durations of ET (Table 1).

Among women on cyclic EPT, the risk of endometrioid ovarian cancer was increased by 70%–140%, whereas the risk was not increased among women on continuous EPT. The risks for serous ovarian cancer were similar regardless of the duration of cyclic or continuous EPT (Table 1). Results from crude and adjusted analyses were almost identical (data not shown).

Stage of Disease

Overall, the associations between HT and risks of different ovarian tumors did not change after adjustment for the stage of disease (Table 2). Although the analyses were slightly weakened by a lower number of cases, the results roughly showed similar incidence rate ratios across the stages of disease (Table 2).

Discussion

The present large cohort study suggests that there is a differential influence of HT on different subtypes of ovarian cancer. Hormone users had an excess risk of serous and endometrioid tumors but not of mucinous and clear-cell cancers of the ovaries. Both combined EPT and unopposed ET were associated with increased risks of serous ovarian cancer. Furthermore, cyclic EPT and oral ET were associated with increased risks of endometrioid ovarian cancer. In contrast, no HT was associated with risk of clear-cell ovarian cancer, and women who had used ET had a decreased risk of mucinous ovarian cancer.

Serous Ovarian Cancer

Two large prospective cohort studies, the NHS and the Million Women Study, also found an increased risk of serous ovarian cancer among hormone users.[3, 12] In accordance with our finding, the Million Women Study reported an approximately 50% increased risk with HT.[3] The NHS supports our finding that increasing duration of ET is associated with increasing rate ratios for serous ovarian cancer.[12]

Endometrioid Ovarian Cancer

Although the Million Women Study found no association between any HT and the risk of endometrioid ovarian cancer, we found a 70% increased risk.[3] The NHS found a 50% increased risk of endometrioid tumors after 5 years of ET.[12] In our study, women on oral ET had an up to 2-fold increased risk of endometrioid tumors. Because ET increases the risk of endometrial cancer[15] and endometrioid ovarian tumors are histologically similar to endometrial tissue (16), it seems likely that ET acts through similar biologic mechanisms in the development of endometrioid ovarian cancer, a hypothesis suggested by Danforth et al..[12]

Furthermore, the present study suggests that women on cyclic EPT have an increased risk of endometrioid ovarian cancer, whereas the risk is not increased in women on continuous EPT. Only one study addressed the risk of endometrioid ovarian tumors among women on cyclic versus continuous EPT, and those investigators were not able to demonstrate an increased risk with cyclic or continuous EPT.[7] With regard to the development of endometrial cancer, the increased risk has been found to be confined to women on cyclic EPT.[15] Thus, it is possible that cyclic EPT acts through similar biologic mechanisms in the development of endometrioid ovarian cancer.

Mucinous Ovarian Cancer

Compared with women who were never prescribed HT, women on ET had a 70% decreased risk of mucinous ovarian cancer. The Million Women Study also found a decreased risk of approximately 30% with the use of HT.[3] A few other studies have also suggested that HT is associated with a decreased risk of mucinous ovarian cancer.[12, 17, 18] One group of mucinous tumors is similar to endocervical epithelium and another is similar to colonic epithelium.[16] Both HT in general and ET specifically have been found to decrease the risk of colon cancer.[19, 20] It therefore seems plausible that ET could also decrease the risk of mucinous ovarian cancer. Risch et al.[5] were the first to suggest different etiologies for mucinous and nonmucinous ovarian cancers, and a recent Danish study supported this hypothesis by suggesting significant differences in the risk between mucinous and nonmucinous tumors.[6]

Implications

Using the same data as in current study, Mørch et al.[4] found a 40% increase in the overall risk of ovarian cancer in current users of hormones, regardless of the duration and type of HT. However, in the present study, the risk of serous ovarian tumors increased with increasing durations of hormone use. This association was more pronounced among women using ET. After 7 years, the risk of serous ovarian cancer had increased 3-fold among women using ET compared with never users. On the other hand, restricting the analysis to mucinous tumors showed a decreased risk among women using ET. Thus, important information about a differential impact of HT, HT types, and associations with duration of hormone use are not described when different ovarian tumors are examined as a combined outcome.

Moreover, the clarification of the different associations between HT and subtypes of ovarian cancer adds to the understanding of how HT acts as a promoter of ovarian cancer carcinogenesis, as the results are in line with the current knowledge about HT-associated risks of cancers with similar epithelial origins. Because of this, it seems plausible that there is a causal association between HT and ovarian cancer. Other risk factors for ovarian cancer differ based on the type of tumor (mucinous vs. nonmucinous), supporting the hypothesis of different etiologies.[5, 6] The differences should be considered in research study design and suggest that different types of ovarian tumors should be viewed as separate diseases.

Strengths of Study

To our knowledge, our nationwide cohort study is the largest conducted thus far to explore the influence of HT on the risk of histologic subtypes of epithelial ovarian cancer. The validity of our outcome is considered to be high, as data from the Cancer Register validated the diagnoses (21–23). The agreement of histologic ovarian cancer diagnoses between the Pathology Register and the Cancer Register is high, and our estimates did not depend on the source of diagnoses.[24] The information on prescribed HT is transferred electronically from all Danish pharmacies by using bar codes, eliminating recall bias. Our information on both exposures and confounders was updated daily through the national registers, making it possible for us to account for changes in exposures. We excluded women with previous cancer because it might affect both the use of hormones and the subsequent risk of ovarian cancer. Our results were adjusted for age, time period, educational level, number of births, and history of hysterectomy, sterilization, unilateral oophorectomy, salpingo-oophorectomy, endometriosis, or infertility. There was, however, no significant confounding by any of the included variables. We found no evidence of earlier detection (surveillance bias) of ovarian tumors among women on HT. Finally, the stage of disease did not bias the differential association between HT and different tumor types.

Limitations of Study

Data from the National Register of Medicinal Product Statistics is not complete for the time period before January 1995. Thus, information about prescriptions for oral contraceptive use was not available for the women in current study who were 50 years of age or older from 1995−2005. Our incidence rate ratios may be underestimated because of confounding by use of oral contraceptives, as oral contraceptive use decreases the risk of ovarian cancer and often leads to HT.[25, 26] We were not able to restrict our analyses to nonobese women. The ovarian cancer risk associated with HT use is probably clearer in nonobese women (i.e., in women with a body mass index, measured as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared, <30).[27] Consequently, our results might be underestimated among nonobese. However, the Million Women Study adjusted data for oral contraceptive use, body mass index, age at menopause, alcohol consumption, smoking, and physical activity, and the adjustments did not result in material changes in their estimates.[3] Also, the NHS reported only minimal changes in the association between HT and the risk of ovarian cancer after adjustment for relevant potential confounders, including duration of oral contraceptive use, occurrence of natural menopause, and age at menarche.[12] The lack of information on family history of cancer might have caused an underestimation of risk in our results, as women with a family history of cancer are probably less likely to use hormones. Information on women who underwent surgical procedures was not available in the registers for the oldest women. Hysterectomy and oophorectomy reduce the risk of ovarian cancer and often lead to HT use, probably causing an underestimation of risk in older women in our results. However, despite our uneven adjustment for confounders, the risks for ovarian tumors were nearly identical across age groups.

9.6.5 Chemotherapy versus hormonal treatment in platinum- and paclitaxel-refractory ovarian cancer: a randomised trial of the German Arbeitsgemeinschaft Gynaekologische Onkologie (AGO) Study Group Ovarian Cancer

  1. du Bois, W. Meier, H. J. Lück, G. Emons, V. Moebus, et al.
    Ann Oncol (2002) 13 (2): 251-257
    http://dx.doi.org://10.1093/annonc/mdf038

The majority of patients with ovarian cancer are not cured by first-line treatment.Until now, no study could demonstrate any substantial benefit when exposing ovarian cancer patients to second-line chemotherapy. However, most treatment regimens induce toxicity, thus negatively influencing the quality of rather limited life spans. Here we evaluate whether a second-line chemotherapy can offer any benefit compared with a less toxic hormonal treatment. Patients and methods Patients with ovarian cancer progressing during platinum-paclitaxel containing first-line therapy or experiencing relapse within 6 months were eligible. Patients were stratified for response to primary treatment (progression versus no change/response), and measurable versus non-measurable disease. Treatment consisted of either treosulfan 7 g/m2infused over 30 min or leuprorelin 3.75 mg injected subcutaneously or intramuscularly. Both regimens were repeated every 4 weeks. Results This study began in late 1996, and after 2.5 years accrual an interim analysis was performed when several investigators reported their concern about a suspected lack of efficacy. Following this analysis the recruitment was stopped early and the 78 patients already enrolled were followed up. The majority of patients received treatment until progressive disease was diagnosed or death occurred. Treatment delay was observed rarely and dose reduction was performed only in the treosulfan arm in 5% of 150 courses. Overall, both treatment arms were well tolerated. No objective responses were observed. The median survival time was 36 and 30 weeks in the treosulfan and leuprorelin arms, respectively. Overall survival did not differ between patients with relapse 3–6 months after first-line chemotherapy compared with patients with progressive disease within 3 months.

Conclusions The selected patient population represents a subgroup with extremely poor prognosis. Accordingly, results were not impressive. Both treatment arms showed favourable toxicity data, but failed to show remarkable activity, thus adding only limited evidence to the issue of whether patients with refractory ovarian cancer might benefit from second-line chemotherapy. Even stratified analysis did not identify any subgroup of patients in whom the administration of second-line chemotherapy could demonstrate a clinically relevant survival benefit.

Despite the considerable progress that has been achieved in the treatment of advanced ovarian cancer during the last de-cades, the majority of patients are still not cured by first-line treatment. Therefore, development of effective second-line treatment strategies remains a clinically relevant issue. Today standard first-line regimens in many countries contain both paclitaxel and a platinum analogue (e.g. cisplatin [1, 2] or carboplatin [3–5]). There are only limited data available reporting results gained from second-line therapy following failure of this new first-line regimen. Until now, no guidelines for the selection of second-line treatment regimens have reached universal acceptance [6]. Furthermore, the definitions of recurrent or relapsed disease according to the status of platinum resistance [7] were solely based on data from patients who did not receive the actual standard first-line regimens containing paclitaxel, and therefore have to be re-evaluated. The treatment-free interval, which offers a chance of gaining a benefit from re-treatment with paclitaxel and/or platinum, remains to be defined. However, patients progressing during or relapsing shortly after platinum-paclitaxel probably have a poor prognosis and can be regarded as refractory to both of the drugs they were exposed to. Until now, no study has demonstrated clearly any substantial benefit for these patients when treating them with second-line chemotherapy. However, most treatment regimens induce toxicity, thus negatively influencing the quality of rather limited life spans in this strictly palliative setting. Therefore, the AGO Study Group set about evaluating whether a second-line chemotherapy could offer any benefit compared with a less toxic hormonal treatment.

The decision to use an alkylating agent for second-line chemotherapy was based on the assumption that these agents, which had been part of first-line treatment of ovarian cancer for decades, could offer some benefit as second-line agent after removal from first-line regimens. Treosulfan (Ovastat®, medac, Germany) was chosen as alkylating agent because it has been registered and used frequently in older first-line regimens in Germany, due to a more favourable non-haematological toxicity profile compared with cyclophosphamide [8, 9]. The published data for treosulfan as second-line treatment after platinum failure had been partially contradictory. Two studies using intravenous treosulfan reported response rates of up to 20% in 25 and 72 patients, respectively [10, 11]. The latter trial included 43 patients with platinum refractory ovarian cancer and showed a 21% response rate. Orally administered treosulfan resulted in response rates of 3, 14 and 19% in 30, 22 and 16 platinum pre-treated patients, respectively [12–14]. The only study reporting results of oral treosulfan in platinum refractory patients observed only one response in 30 patients. Therefore, we decided to use intravenous treosulfan as standard chemotherapy arm in this trial.

Leuprorelin (leuproreline acetate; Enantone®, Takeda, Germany), a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analogue, was selected as hormonal treatment in the experimental arm of this study. It could be administered in a similar time schedule as the chemotherapy regimen (monthly injections) and had shown some activity in previously reported studies in platinum pre-treated ovarian cancer. In these trials, leuprorelin had been used either as single agent [15–17] or in combination with megestrole acetate or tamoxifen [18, 19]. Overall, nine responses have been reported in 46 platinum pre-treated patients [cumulative odds ratio (OR) 19.6%; 95% confidence interval (CI) 9% to 34%]. A retrospective review reported higher efficacy for leuprorelin compared with goserelin, thus providing further support for selecting leuprorelin in favour of other GnRH analogues [17]. However, platinum resistance had been reported inconsistently in all these studies, thus leaving some questions unanswered regarding efficiency in this particular group of patients. Toxicity profiles of leuprorelin had been uniformely reported as being mild, making this option potentially useful in this strictly palliative setting. Tamoxifen, another hormonal treatment with an 11% overall response rate reported in a meta-analysis in recurrent ovarian cancer [20], was not selected for this study, because the study group felt that the different mode of application could hamper comparability.

The median observation period was 22.5 months for all patients. The early termination of recruitment resulted in a statistical power of 80% to detect a 20% survival difference (50% versus 69.9%) after 6 months with two-sided testing and an α error of 0.05.

Treatment and tolerability

The majority of patients received treatment until progressive disease was diagnosed or death occurred. The mean and median treatment periods, respectively, were 18 and 16 weeks in the treosulfan arm, and 13 and 10 weeks in the leuprorelin arm. Treatment delay was observed rarely and median intervals per course were 30.8 and 28.6 days in the treosulfan and leuprorelin arms, respectively. Dose reduction was performed only in the treosulfan arm in eight of 150 courses (5%) because of myelosuppression.

Overall, 150 chemotherapy courses and 122 hormonal treatment courses were evaluable for toxicity. Haematological toxicities higher than grade 2 were observed in only a few patients. Thrombocytopenia grade 3/4 occurred in four and one courses in the treosulfan and leuprorelin arms, respectively. Neutropenia grade 3/4 was only observed in one course in each arm and no infections or neutropenic fever was reported. Anaemia greater than grade 2 was observed after seven courses in the treosulfan arm and after two courses in the leuprorelin arm.

Non-haematological toxicities grade 3 or 4 were reported in only few patients in both arms. Treosulfan induced nausea and emesis in 9% of patients compared with 6% of patients in the leuprorelin arm. Hot flushes were reported by one patient in each arm. Three further patients in the treosulfan arm reported grade 3 pain (two patients) and neurotoxicity (one). The latter was due to remaining toxicity from prior platinum-paclitaxel. Alopecia was common but was due to prior treatment. Re-growth of patients’ hair took longer in the treosulfan arm than in the leuprorelin arm. About one-third of patients still had alopecia after treatment with treosulfan compared with 11% in the leuprorelin arm. Fatigue was reported more frequently in the chemotherapy arm (eight of 36 patients versus one of 37 patients, treosulfan versus leuprorelin;P = 0.014, Fisher’s exact test). Overall, both treatment arms were relatively well tolerated resulting in only one treatment cessation due to toxicity.

Efficacy

No objective responses were observed in either of the treatment arms. Disease stabilisation lasting at least 4 weeks (no change) was reported in nine and four patients in the chemotherapy and hormonal treatment arm, respectively. All but one patient showed progressive disease within a median observation period of 22 months. Median progression-free survival was 17 weeks for treosulfan and 10 weeks for leuprorelin (P = 0.035, Wilcoxon test). The difference between both treatment arms remained significant in favour of treosulfan after adjusting for treatment-free interval before study entry (P = 0.028). However, after 6 months only 23% and 14% of patients in the treosulfan and leuprorelin arms had not progressed; corresponding figures for the 12 month observation period were 9% and 5%, respectively (Figure 1).

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Figure 1. Progression-free survival (median 17 and 10 weeks for treosulfan and leuprorelin, respectively; P<0.05, log rank test; Kaplan–Meier curves).

At the time of this analysis, seven patients in the treosulfan arm and eight patients in the leuprorelin arm are still alive with disease [hazard ratio (HR) 0.98; 95% CI 0.58–1.67]. The differences observed between the treatment arms did not reach statistical significance (P = 0.87, Wilcoxon test; Figure2). Again, adjusting for a treatment-free interval before study entry did not alter results. The median survival time was 36 and 30 weeks in the treosulfan and leuprorelin arm, respectively. About one-third of patients in each arm were alive after 12 months.

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Figure 2. Survival (median 36 and 30 weeks for treosulfan and leuprorelin, respectively; P = 0.87, log rank test; Kaplan–Meier curves).

The impact of time to treatment failure after first-line chemo-therapy on second-line therapy efficacy was analysed bi-categorially. The cut-off was set at 13 weeks, thus comparing patients with progression under first-line therapy or early relapse within 3 months with patients who relapsed 3–6 months after completion of first-line chemotherapy. Overall, the difference between the groups with respect to progression-free survival did not reach statistical significance. Median progression-free survival was 11 and 12 weeks, respectively, for the two groups (P = 0.46, log rank test; HR 0.83; 95% CI 0.51–1.35). Furthermore, overall survival did not differ significantly between patients with relapse 3–6 months after first-line chemotherapy compared with patients with progressive disease within 3 months (P = 0.34, log rank test; HR 0.77; 95% CI 0.46–1.31). However, median survival was slightly superior in the group with a longer progression-free interval after first-line therapy (42 versus 25 weeks). The latter difference did not reach statistical significance and the Kaplan–Meier curves almost fell on top of each other shortly after 1 year of observation (data not shown).

The presence of bi-dimensionally measurable disease had a negative impact on treatment results. Patients with measurable disease showed a median progression-free survival of 11 weeks compared with 19 weeks in patients with non-measurable disease (P = 0.0006, log rank test). Again, overall survival was superior in the group of patients with non-measurable disease, but this difference did not reach statistical significance (median 47 versus 24 weeks; P = 0.18, log rank test). Only 29% of patients with measurable disease compared with 46% of patients with non-measurable disease were alive after 12 months (HR 1.93; 95% CI 0.73–5.16).

Subsequent treatment

In the treosulfan arm, 15 patients received third-line treatments, of whom three were changed over to leuprorelin. The remaining eight patients received: radiotherapy (one), tamoxifen (one) or chemotherapeutic drugs [topotecan (six), etoposide (one), liposomal doxorubicin (one), carboplatin (one), carboplatin-paclitaxel (one)]. Furthermore, 14 patients received fourth-line treatment, including tamoxifen (two), MPA (one), etoposide (two), topotecan (two), and one patient each idarubicin, gemcitabin or mitoxantrone i.p. Finally,three patients received fifth-line cyclophosphamide (one), etoposide (one) or radiotherapy (one). In the leuproreline arm, almost all patients received third-line therapy. Sixteen patients were crossed over to treosulfan, four received intraperitoneal mitoxantrone, two had liposomal doxorubicin and one patient each received etoposide, topotecan, carboplatin, paclitaxel-mitoxantrone or carboplatin-paclitaxel. Two patients received hormonal third-line treatment (one each received tamoxifen and MPA). Fourth-line treatment was offered to seven patients, including radiotherapy (one), topotecan (two), and one patient each liposomal doxorubicin-etoposide, etoposide or etoposide–5-fluorouracil (5-FU). Fifth-line treatment was offered to three patients, including paclitaxel, gemcitabin and 5-FU–platinum. The considerable use of third-line therapies after progression of disease might have hampered survival analysis, which in fact showed no significant difference between the treatment arms (although progression-free survival differed).

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Discussion

This study represents a prospectively randomised trial in a very homogenous population. Only patients who were refractory to the standard first-line treatment of advanced ovarian cancer (i.e. platinum plus paclitaxel) were recruited. This selection represents a patient group with an extremely poor prognosis. At the moment, there is only limited evidence that these patients benefit from second-line chemotherapy at all, and more studies in this subgroup are necessary before any recommendations or guidelines can be established.

A randomised trial of the National Cancer Institute of Canada has shown an advantage for one arm over another when comparing 3-weekly topotecan days 1–5 to weekly topotecan in 78 patients, of whom 60% had received prior paclitaxel,and 60% were platinum refractory [23]. This advantage was limited to overall response (23% versus 8%). Progression-free survival differed only at a non-significant level (8 versus 13 weeks), and overall survival did not differ at all. Our trial showed a statistically significant advantage of one arm (treosulfan) with respect to progression-free survival, but failed to show any difference in overall survival. In addition, no differences with respect to response rates were observed. In fact, we did not observe any objective response. The latter could indicate a lack of activity of both study drugs, treosulfan and leuprorelin. However, even higher response rates as reported in the literature did not translate to longer progression-free and overall survival. A prospectively randomised trial comparing liposomal doxorubicin with topotecan included 254 platinum refractory patients; in addition, about two-thirds had received paclitaxel as part of prior therapy [24]. No significant differences were observed in the refractory subgroup: response rates were 7% and 12%, median progression-free survival was 9 and 14 weeks, and median survival was 33 and 37 weeks, respectively. Our observations of median progression free survival of 11 and 17 weeks and median survival of 30 and 36 weeks fit well with the reported data in this poor prognostic subgroup, although we did not observe any objective responses. Another randomised trial in 81 platinum refractory patients comparing paclitaxel with paclitaxel–epirubicin reported response rates of 17% and 34% translating to 2-year survival of 10% and 18% [25]. The corresponding 2-year survival in our trial was 19% and 22%, thus indicating the limited value of objective response rates as predictors for survival or progression-free survival in this poor prognostic subgroup of patients with truely refractory ovarian cancer.

Nevertheless, achieving an objective response might be beneficial in this palliative setting, especially if bulky tumours induce symptoms such as pain or bowl obstruction. However, objective response rates might not sufficiently reflect this potential benefit. Therefore, different response criteria that better reflect the palliative approach in these patients should be evaluated prospectively (e.g. symptom relief, reduction of pain medication or ability of enteral food intake). The development of better tools for the evaluation of genuine second-line chemotherapies becomes even more necessary when taking into account the fact that ovarian cancer becomes more of a chronic disease: mortality does not change substantially, but median and 5-year survival improves, thus indicating a growing need for efficient second-line and higher treatment. These therapies should allow tumour control and simultaneously should not reduce life quality.

This study reports mild toxicity data for both treatment arms, treosulfan and leuprorelin acetate, but, due to the very poor activity levels observed in both arms, adds only limited evidence to the issue of whether patients with refractory ovarian cancer benefit from second-line chemotherapy at all. Even stratified analysis in patients with progressive ovarian cancer versus patients experiencing relapse 3–6 months after first-line therapy, or patients with measurable versus non-measurable diseases, did not demonstrate any subgroup of patients in whom the administration of treosulfan second-line chemotherapy could demonstrate a clinically relevant benefit. Although a very short progression-free interval and the presence of bi-dimensionally measurable disease seemed to turn a bad prognosis into a worse prognosis, none of the differences between the strata showed a consistent and clinically relevant difference in survival. Only progression-free survival was influenced by these factors to some extent. Our data did not indicate that patients with a progression-free interval of >3 months but

However, results were disappointing in all subgroups. A rather small benefit was traded for a higher rate of fatigue in patients receiving chemotherapy. A gain of 6 weeks median progression-free survival in the superior chemotherapy arm in our study and some advantages with respect to response rates in other trials do not convincingly answer the question of whether second-line chemotherapy offers any benefit for patients with refractory ovarian cancer. Further studies are necessary to help to evaluate whether chemotherapy has a role in this subgroup of patients with a very unfavourable prognosis. A randomised comparison between best supportive care and the most active chemotherapy regimen available could theoretically be an appropriate design for such a trial. However, the German AGO investigators did not even broadly accept a randomisation between a hormonal treatment and a chemotherapy arm, as measured by an extremely slow recruitment rate. Furthermore, this study had to be closed prematurely after an interim analysis indicated only very limited activity in both treatment arms. A trial using best supportive care as one treatment arm would probably not be accepted either, although the above-mentioned efficacy data from chemotherapy studies do not provide more optimistic results.

Treosulfan showed an acceptable toxicity profile and at least some activity compared with leuprorelin acetate, thus allowing continuation of clinical research with this alkylating agent. Our subsequent trial in the refractory population compares treosulfan with topotecan (AGO protocol OVAR-2.3) and recruitment is much better, indicating that investigators more easily accept trials comparing two chemotherapy regimens. Quality of life evaluation was included in this protocol in an attempt to improve understanding of the nature of potential gains from second-line therapy.

Besides treosulfan and topotecan, which are further evaluated by our group, several chemotherapy agents have shown some activity in platinum- and paclitaxel-refractory ovarian cancer, and could serve as comparators in pending further trials: ifosfamide [26], hexamethylmelamine [27], gemcitabin [28] and liposomal doxorubicin [23,29]. The difficult task of recruiting large homogenous patient populations to second-line trials supports the ongoing discussions and activities in cooperative groups and networks, such as the worldwide Gynecologic Cancer InterGroup (GCIG), which is already planning and performing intergroup trials of second-line treatment of ovarian cancer.

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Diabetes is caused by Leaky Calcium Channels in Pancreatic Beta Cells – research @Columbia University Medical Center: The Role of RyR2 in Regulation of Insulin Release and Glucose Homeostasis

Posted in Ca2+ triggered activation, Calcium, Calcium Signaling, Cell Biology, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Chemical Genetics, Clinical Diagnostics, Diabetes Mellitus, Diagnostics and Lab Tests, Disease Biology, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, Endocrine Diseases on April 14, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Diabetes is caused by Leaky Calcium Channels in Pancreatic Beta Cells – research @Columbia University Medical Center: The Role of RyR2 in Regulation of Insulin Release and Glucose Homeostasis

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Cellular Defect Linked to Diabetes

Leaky calcium channels in pancreatic beta cells can lead to high blood sugar

VIEW VIDEO

http://newsroom.cumc.columbia.edu/blog/2015/04/07/cellular-defect-linked-diabetes/?elq=c55ba8ff64104a0b8e2c82d78749fe88&elqCampaignId=9&elqaid=12507&elqat=1&elqTrackId=aefc67f3855b40fe8b0a4461f3b0ca74

“Pancreatic beta cells were found to have leaky RyR2s, which were disrupting the function of mitochondria that provide cells with energy required for insulin release. The dysfunction was consistent with mitochondrial alterations that have been described in pancreatic beta cells from patients with type 2 diabetes,” said Dr. Santulli.

See article

http://newsroom.cumc.columbia.edu/blog/2015/04/07/cellular-defect-linked-diabetes/?elq=c55ba8ff64104a0b8e2c82d78749fe88&elqCampaignId=9&elqaid=12507&elqat=1&elqTrackId=aefc67f3855b40fe8b0a4461f3b0ca74

 

pancreatic beta cells

Electron microscope image of a pancreatic beta cell, showing malformed mitochondria resulting from calcium leakage; the purple circle represents an insulin granule. (Credit: Dr. Gaetano Santulli)

 

About:

 

The paper is titled, “Calcium release channel RyR2 regulates insulin release and glucose homeostasis.”

The other contributors are: Gennaro Pagano (Imperial College, London, UK, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy, and Federico II University, Naples, Italy), Celestino Sardu (Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands, Second University of Naples, Naples, Italy, and Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, John Paul II Foundation for Research and Treatment, Campobasso, Italy), Wenjun Xie (CUMC), Steven Reiken (CUMC), Salvatore Luca D’Ascia (Department of Cardiology and Arrhythmology, Clinical Institute Città Studi Hospital, Milan, Italy), Michele Cannone (Giuseppe Tatarella Hospital, Cerignola, Foggia, Italy), Nicola Marziliano (Niguarda Ca’ Granda Hospital, Milan, Italy, and University Hospital of Parma, Parma, Italy), Bruno Trimarco (Federico II University), Theresa A. Guise (Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana), and Alain Lacampagne (14U1046 INSERM, UMR 9214, CNRS, CHRU Montpellier, Montpellier, France)

The study was funded by grants from the American Heart Association (13POST16810041), the Schaefer Foundation, the Phillip Foundation, and the National Institutes of Health (R01HL061503, R01HL102040, and R01AR060037).

Dr. Marks is a consultant and board member of ARMGO Pharma, Inc., which is targeting RyR channels for therapeutic purposes. The other authors declare no financial or other conflicts of interest.

Columbia University Medical Center provides international leadership in basic, preclinical, and clinical research; medical and health sciences education; and patient care. The medical center trains future leaders and includes the dedicated work of many physicians, scientists, public health professionals, dentists, and nurses at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, the Mailman School of Public Health, the College of Dental Medicine, the School of Nursing, the biomedical departments of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, and allied research centers and institutions. Columbia University Medical Center is home to the largest medical research enterprise in New York City and State and one of the largest faculty medical practices in the Northeast. For more information, visit cumc.columbia.edu or columbiadoctors.org.

 

Other related articles on the role of Calcium in Health and in Disease were published in this Open Access Online Scientific Journal, include the following: 

 

Identification of Biomarkers that are Related to the Actin Cytoskeleton – Part I

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

 

Role of Calcium, the Actin Skeleton, and Lipid Structures in Signaling and Cell Motility – Part II

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Stephen Williams, PhD and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

 

Renal Distal Tubular Ca2+ Exchange Mechanism in Health and Disease – Part III

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Stephen J. Williams, PhD
 and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

 

The Centrality of Ca(2+) Signaling and Cytoskeleton Involving Calmodulin Kinases and Ryanodine Receptors in Cardiac Failure, Arterial Smooth Muscle, Post-ischemic Arrhythmia, Similarities and Differences, and Pharmaceutical Targets – Part IV

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

 

Ca2+-Stimulated Exocytosis:  The Role of Calmodulin and Protein Kinase C in Ca2+ Regulation of Hormone and Neurotransmitter – Part V

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
and
Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

 

Calcium Cycling (ATPase Pump) in Cardiac Gene Therapy: Inhalable Gene Therapy for Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension and Percutaneous Intra-coronary Artery Infusion for Heart Failure: Contributions by Roger J. Hajjar, MD – Part VI

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

 

Cardiac Contractility & Myocardium Performance: Ventricular Arrhythmias and Non-ischemic Heart Failure – Therapeutic Implications for Cardiomyocyte Ryanopathy (Calcium Release-related Contractile Dysfunction) and Catecholamine Responses – Part VII

Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

 

Disruption of Calcium Homeostasis: Cardiomyocytes and Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells: The Cardiac and Cardiovascular Calcium Signaling Mechanism – Part VIII

Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

 

Calcium-Channel Blockers, Calcium Release-related Contractile Dysfunction (Ryanopathy) and Calcium as Neurotransmitter Sensor – Part IX

Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

 

Synaptotagmin functions as a Calcium Sensor: How Calcium Ions Regulate the fusion of vesicles with cell membranes during Neurotransmission – Part X

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

 

Sensors and Signaling in Oxidative Stress – Part XI

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

 

Atherosclerosis Independence: Genetic Polymorphisms of Ion Channels Role in the Pathogenesis of Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction and Myocardial Ischemia (Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)) – Part XII

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

 

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Medical Headline Misinformation Strikes Again: Claims About Vitamin D

Posted in Academic Publishing, Biological Networks, Bone Disease and Musculoskeletal Disease, Ca2+ triggered activation, Calcium, Calcium Signaling, Cancer and Current Therapeutics, Cancer Prevention: Research & Programs, Cardiac & Vascular Repair Tools Subsegment, Cell Biology, Diabetes Mellitus, Drug Toxicity, Endocrine Diseases, Health Economics and Outcomes Research, Peripheral Arterial Disease & Peripheral Vascular Surgery, Population Health Management, tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , on April 14, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Medical Headline Misinformation Strikes Again: Claims About Vitamin D

Reporter: Stephen J. Williams, Ph.D.

A recent posting by a group called the Vitamin D Council (and put on this site) had referred to, and misquoted, the Mayo Clinic site on the role of vitamin D on various diseases. At first I was curious if this was actually reported on the Mayo site on claims of prevention of various cancers (as results from retrospective studies had been conflicting) and originally had made some strong comments. From comments made from this post I do agree that there is strong evidence about vitamin D supplementation for the prevention of rickets but as Mayo reviewed claims about vitamin D supplementation and prevention of certain diseases such as cancers and heart disease may not be as strong as some suggest.  My main concern was : is the clinical evidence strong enough for the role of vitamin D supplementation in a wide array of diseases and did Mayo make the claims as suggested in some media reports?  Actually Mayo does a very thorough job of determining the clinical evidence and the focus of vitamins and cancer risk will be a point of further discussion.

After consulting the Mayo clinic website it appears that the Vitamin D Council site had indeed misquoted and misrepresented the medical information contained within the Mayo Clinic website.

Medical Misinformation Is Probably The Most Hazardous and Biggest Risk Impacting a Healthy Lifestyle

The site had made numerous claims on role of vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) in numerous diseases; making it appear there were definitive links between low vitamin D3 and risk of hypertension, cancer, depression and diabetes.

A little background on Vitamin D

From Wikipedia

Vitamin D refers to a group of fat-soluble secosteroids responsible for enhancing intestinal absorption of calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphate and zinc. In humans, the most important compounds in this group are vitamin D3 (also known as cholecalciferol) and vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol).[1] Cholecalciferol and ergocalciferol can be ingested from the diet and from supplements.[1][2][3] Very few foods contain vitamin D; synthesis of vitamin D (specifically cholecalciferol) in the skin is the major natural sources of the vitamin. Dermal synthesis of vitamin D from cholesterol is dependent on sun exposure (specifically UVB radiation).Vitamin D has a significant role in calcium homeostasis and metabolism. Its discovery was due to effort to find the dietary substance lacking in rickets (the childhood form of osteomalacia).[4]

also from Widipedia on Vitamin D toxicity

Vitamin D toxicity

Vitamin D toxicity is rare.[20] It is caused by supplementing with high doses of vitamin D rather than sunlight. The threshold for vitamin D toxicity has not been established; however, the tolerable upper intake level (UL), according to some research, is 4,000 IU/day for ages 9–71.[7] Whereas another research concludes that in healthy adults, sustained intake of more than 1250 μg/day (50,000 IU) can produce overt toxicity after several months and can increase serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels to 150 ng/ml and greater;[20][56] those with certain medical conditions, such as primary hyperparathyroidism,[57] are far more sensitive to vitamin D and develop hypercalcemia in response to any increase in vitamin D nutrition, while maternal hypercalcemia during pregnancy may increase fetal sensitivity to effects of vitamin D and lead to a syndrome of mental retardation and facial deformities.[57][58]

After being commissioned by the Canadian and American governments, the Institute of Medicine (IOM) as of 30 November 2010, has increased the tolerable upper limit (UL) to 2,500 IU per day for ages 1–3 years, 3,000 IU per day for ages 4–8 years and 4,000 IU per day for ages 9–71+ years (including pregnant or lactating women).[7]

Published cases of toxicity involving hypercalcemia in which the vitamin D dose and the 25-hydroxy-vitamin D levels are known all involve an intake of ≥40,000 IU (1,000 μg) per day.[57] Recommending supplementation, when those supposedly in need of it are labeled healthy, has proved contentious, and doubt exists concerning long-term effects of attaining and maintaining high serum 25(OH)D by supplementation.[61]

From the Mayo Clinic Website on Vitamin D

The Mayo Clinic has done a wonderful job curating the uses and proposed uses of vitamin D for various diseases and rates the evidence using a grading system A-F (as shown below):

Key to grades

A STRONG scientific evidence FOR THIS USE

B GOOD scientific evidence FOR THIS USE

C UNCLEAR scientific evidence for this use

D Fair scientific evidence AGAINST THIS USE (it may not work)

F Strong scientific evidence AGAINST THIS USE (it likely does not work)

Mayo has information for other natural products as well. As described below (and on the Mayo site here) most of the supposed evidence fails their criteria for a strong clinical link between diseases such as heart disease, hypertension, cancer and vitamin D (either parental or D3) levels.

The important take-home from the Mayo site is that there is strong evidence for the use of vitamin D in diseases related to the known mechanism of vitamin D such as low serum phosphate either due to kidney disease (Fanconi syndrome) or familial hypophosphatemia or in diseases surrounding bone metabolism like osteomalacia, rickets, dental cavities and even as a treatment for psoriasis or underactive parathyroid.

However most indications like hypertension, stroke, cancer prevention or treatment (other than supportive therapy for low vitamin D levels) get a poor grade (C or D) for clinical correlation from Mayo Clinic.

A Post in the Near Future will be a Curation of Validated Clinical Studies on Effects of Vitamins on Cancer Risk.

Below is taken from the Mayo Site:

Evidence

These uses have been tested in humans or animals.  Safety and effectiveness have not always been proven.  Some of these conditions are potentially serious, and should be evaluated by a qualified healthcare provider.

Grading rationale

Evidence grade Condition to which grade level applies
A

Deficiency (phosphate)

Familial hypophosphatemia is a rare, inherited condition in which there are low blood levels of phosphate and problems with vitamin D metabolism. It is a form of rickets. Taking calcitriol or dihydrotachysterol by mouth along with phosphate supplements is effective for treating bone disorders in people with this disease. Those with this disorder should be monitored by a medical professional.
A

Kidney disease (causing low phosphate levels)

Fanconi syndrome is a kidney disease in which nutrients, including phosphate, are lost in the urine instead of being reabsorbed by the body. Taking ergocalciferol by mouth is effective for treating low phosphate levels caused by Fanconi syndrome.
A

Osteomalacia (bone softening in adults)

Adults who have severe vitamin D deficiency may experience bone pain and softness, as well as muscle weakness. Osteomalacia may be found among the following people: those who are elderly and have diets low in vitamin D; those with problems absorbing vitamin D; those without enough sun exposure; those who undergo stomach or intestine surgery; those with bone disease caused by aluminum; those with chronic liver disease; or those with bone disease associated with kidney problems. Treatment for osteomalacia depends on the cause of the disease and often includes pain control and surgery, as well as vitamin D and phosphate-binding agents.
A

Psoriasis (disorder causing skin redness and irritation)

Many different approaches are used to treat psoriasis, including light therapy, stress reduction, moisturizers, or salicylic acid. For more severe cases, calcipotriene (Dovonex®), a man-made substance similar to vitamin D3, may help control skin cell growth. This agent is a first-line treatment for mild-to-moderate psoriasis. Calcipotriene is also available with betamethasone and may be safe for up to one year. Vitamin D3 (tacalcitol) ointment or high doses of becocalcidiol applied to the skin are also thought to be safe and well-tolerated.
A

Rickets (bone weakening in children)

Rickets may develop in children who have vitamin D deficiency caused by a diet low in vitamin D, a lack of sunlight, or both. Babies fed only breast milk (without supplemental vitamin D) may also develop rickets. Ergocalciferol or cholecalciferol is effective for treating rickets caused by vitamin D deficiency. Calcitriol should be used in those with kidney failure. Treatment should be under medical supervision.
A

Thyroid conditions (causing low calcium levels)

Low levels of parathyroid hormone may occur after surgery to remove the parathyroid glands. Taking high doses of dihydrotachysterol, calcitriol, or ergocalciferol by mouth, with or without calcium, may help increase calcium levels in people with this type of thyroid problem. Increasing calcium intake, with or without vitamin D, may reduce the risk of underactive parathyroid glands.
A

Thyroid conditions (due to low vitamin D levels)

Some people may have overactive parathyroid glands due to low levels of vitamin D, and vitamin D is the first treatment for this disorder. For people who have overactive parathyroid glands due to other causes, surgery to remove the glands is often recommended. Studies suggest that vitamin D may help reduce the risk of further thyroid problems after undergoing partial or total removal of the parathyroid glands.
A

Vitamin D deficiency

Vitamin D deficiency is associated with many conditions, including bone loss, kidney disease, lung disorders, diabetes, stomach and intestine problems, and heart disease. Vitamin D supplementation has been found to help prevent or treat vitamin D deficiency.
B

Dental cavities

Much evidence has shown that vitamin D helps prevent cavities; however, more high-quality research is needed to further support this finding.
B

Renal osteodystrophy (bone problems due to chronic kidney failure)

Renal osteodystrophy refers to the bone problems that occur in people with chronic kidney failure. Calcifediol or ergocalciferol taken by mouth may help prevent this condition in people with chronic kidney failure who are undergoing treatment.
C

Autoimmune diseases

Vitamin D may reduce inflammation and help prevent autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, and Crohn’s disease. However, further high-quality research is needed to confirm these results.
C

Bone density (children)

Vitamin D improves bone density in children who are vitamin D deficient. However, results are unclear and more research is needed.
C

Bone diseases (kidney disease or kidney transplant)

Vitamin D has been studied for people with chronic kidney disease. The use of substances similar to vitamin D has been found to increase bone density in people with kidney disease. The effect of vitamin D itself is unclear. Further research is needed before conclusions can be made.
C

Cancer prevention (breast, colorectal, prostate, other)

Many studies have looked at the effects of vitamin D on cancer. Positive results have been reported with the use of vitamin D alone or with calcium. Vitamin D intake with or without calcium has been studied for colorectal, cervical, breast, and prostate cancer. A reduced risk of colorectal cancer has been shown with vitamin D supplementation. However, there is a lack of consistent or strong evidence. Further study is needed.
C

Fibromyalgia (long-term, body-wide pain)

Vitamin D has been studied for the treatment of fibromyalgia, but evidence is lacking in support of its effectiveness. Further study is needed.
C

Fractures (prevention)

Conflicting results have been found on the use of vitamin D for fracture prevention. The combination of alfacalcidol and alendronate has been found to reduce the risk of falls and fractures. However, further high-quality research is needed before firm conclusions can be made.
C

Hepatic osteodystrophy (bone disease in people with liver disease)

Metabolic bone disease is common among people with chronic liver disease, and osteoporosis accounts for the majority of cases. Varying degrees of poor calcium absorption may occur in people with chronic liver disease due to malnutrition and vitamin D deficiency. Vitamin D taken by mouth or injected may play a role in the management of this condition.
C

High blood pressure

Low levels of vitamin D may be linked to high blood pressure. Blood pressure is often higher during the winter season, at a further distance from the equator, and in people with dark skin pigmentation. However, the evidence is unclear. More research is needed in this area. People who have high blood pressure should be managed by a medical professional.
C

Immune function

Early research suggests that vitamin D and similar compounds, such as alfacalcidol, may impact immune function. Vitamin D added to standard therapy may benefit people with infectious disease. More studies are needed to confirm these results.
C

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

SAD is a form of depression that occurs during the winter months, possibly due to reduced exposure to sunlight. In one study, vitamin D was found to be better than light therapy in the treatment of SAD. Further studies are necessary to confirm these findings.
C

Stroke

Higher levels of vitamin D may decrease the risk of stroke. However, further study is needed to confirm the use of vitamin D for this condition.
C

Type 1 diabetes

Some studies suggest that vitamin D may help prevent the development of type 1 diabetes. However, there is a lack of strong evidence to support this finding.
C

Type 2 diabetes

Vitamin D has mixed effects on blood sugar and insulin sensitivity. It is often studied in combination with calcium. Further research is needed to confirm these results.
D

Cancer treatment (prostate)

Evidence suggests a lack of effect of vitamin D as a part of cancer treatment for prostate cancer. Further study is needed using other formulations of vitamin D and other types of cancer.
D

Heart disease

Vitamin D is recognized as being important for heart health. Overall, research is not consistent, and some studies have found negative effects of vitamin D on heart health. More high-quality research is needed to make a firm conclusion.
D

High cholesterol

Many studies have looked at the effects of vitamin D alone or in combination with other agents for high cholesterol, but results are inconsistent. Some negative effects have been reported. More research is needed on the use of vitamin D alone or in combination with calcium.

Other related articles on Vitamins and Disease were published in this Open Access Online Scientific Journal, include the following:

Multivitamins – Don’t help Extend Life or ward off Heart Disease and Improve state of Memory Loss

Diet and Diabetes

What do you know about Plants and Neutraceuticals?

Malnutrition in India, high newborn death rate and stunting of children age under five years

Omega-3 fatty acids, depleting the source, and protein insufficiency in renal disease

American Diet is LOW in four important Nutrients that have a direct bearing on Aging and the Brain

Parathyroids and Bone Metabolism

Read Full Post »

Diet and Diabetes

Posted in Amino acids, Atherogenic Processes & Pathology, Behavior, Biochemical pathways, Biological Networks, Biomarkers & Medical Diagnostics, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Curation, Diabetes Mellitus, Diagnostics and Lab Tests, Disease Biology, Endocrine Diseases, Fatty acids, Lipid metabolism, Lipids, Liver & Digestive Diseases Research, Metabolism, Metabolomics, Nephrology, Nutrition, Nutrition and Phytochemistry, Nutritional Supplements: Atherogenesis, Nutritional Supplements: Atherogenesis, lipid metabolism, Plant extract, Population Health Management, Nutrition and Phytochemistry, Proteomics, Signaling, tagged , , , , , , , , on March 2, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Diet and Diabetes

Writer and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP 

 

Bile acid signaling in lipid metabolism: Metabolomic and lipidomic analysis of lipid and bile acid markers linked to anti-obesity and anti-diabetes in mice

Yunpeng Qi, Changtao Jiang, Jie Cheng, Kristopher W. Krausz, et al.

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1851 (2015) 19–29

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.04.008

Bile acid synthesis is the major pathway for catabolism of cholesterol. Cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) is the rate-limiting enzyme in the bile acid biosynthetic pathway in the liver and plays an important role in regulating lipid, glucose and energy metabolism. Transgenic mice overexpressing CYP7A1 (CYP7A1-tg mice) were resistant to high fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity, fatty liver, and diabetes. However the mechanism of resistance to HFD-induced obesity of CYP7A1-tg mice has not been determined. In this study, metabolomic and lipidomic profiles of CYP7A1-tg mice were analyzed to explore the metabolic alterations in CYP7A1-tg mice that govern the protection against obesity and insulin resistance by using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-coupled with electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry combined with multivariate analyses. Lipidomics analysis identified seven lipid markers including lysophosphatidylcholines, phosphatidylcholines, sphingomyelins and ceramides that were significantly decreased in serum of HFD-fed CYP7A1-tgmice.Metabolomics analysis identified 13metabolites in bile acid synthesis including taurochenodeoxy-cholic acid, taurodeoxycholic acid, tauroursodeoxycholic acid, taurocholic acid, and tauro-β-muricholic acid (T-β-MCA) that differed between CYP7A1-tg and wild-type mice. Notably, T-β-MCA, an antagonist of the farnesoid X receptor (FXR) was significantly increased in intestine of CYP7A1-tg mice. This study suggests that reducing 12α-hydroxylated bile acids and increasing intestinal T-β-MCA may reduce high fat diet-induced increase of phospholipids, sphingomyelins and ceramides, and ameliorate diabetes and obesity. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Linking transcription to physiology in lipidomics.

Bile acid synthesis is the major pathway for catabolism of cholesterol to bile acids. In the liver, cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) is the first and rate-limiting enzyme of the bile acid biosynthetic pathway producing two primary bile acids, cholic acid (CA, 3α, 7α, 12α-OH) and chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA, 3α, 7α-OH) in humans. Sterol-12α hydroxylase (CYP8B1) catalyzes the synthesis of CA. In mice, CDCA is converted to α-muricholic acid (α-MCA: 3α, 6β, 7α-OH) and β-muricholic acid (β-MCA: 3α, 6β, 7β-OH). Bile acids are conjugated to taurine or glycine, secreted into the bile and stored in the gallbladder. After a meal, bile acids are released into the gastrointestinal tract. In the intestine, conjugated bile acids are first de-conjugated and then 7α-dehydroxylase activity in the gut flora converts CA to deoxycholic acid (DCA: 3α, 12α), and CDCA to lithocholic acid (LCA: 3α), two major secondary bile acids in humans.

In humans, most bile acids are glycine or taurine-conjugated and CA, CDCA and DCA are the most abundant bile acids. In mice, most bile acids are taurine-conjugated and CA and α- and β-MCAs are the most abundant bile acids. Bile acids facilitate absorption of dietary fats, steroids, and lipid soluble vitamins into enterocytes and are transported via portal circulation to the liver for metabolism and distribution to other tissues and organs. About 95% of bile acids are reabsorbed in the ileum and transported to the liver to inhibit CYP7A1 and bile acid synthesis. Enterohepatic circulation of bile acids provides a negative feedback mechanism to maintain bile acid homeostasis. Alteration of bile acid synthesis, secretion and transport causes cholestatic liver diseases, gallstone diseases, fatty liver disease, diabetes and obesity.

 Bile acid synthesis

 

Bile acid synthesis. In the classic bile acid synthesis pathway, cholesterol is converted to cholic acid (CA, 3α, 7α, 12α) and chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA, 3α, 7α). CYP7A1 is the rate-limiting enzyme and CYP8B1 catalyzes the synthesis of CA. In mouse liver, CDCA is converted to α-muricholic acid (α-MCA, 3α, 6β, 7α) and β-MCA (3α, 6β, 7β). Most bile acids in mice are taurine (T)-conjugated and secreted into bile. In the intestine, gut bacteria de-conjugate bile acids and then remove the 7α-hydroxyl group from CA and CDCA to form secondary bile acids deoxycholic acid (DCA, 3α, 12α) and lithocholic acid (LCA, 3α), respectively. T-α-MCA and T-β-MCA are converted to T-hyodeoxycholic acid (THDCA, 3α, 6α), T-ursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA, 3α, 7β), T-hyocholic acid (THCA, 3α, 6α, 7α) and T-murideoxycholic acid (TMDCA, 3α, 6β). These secondary bile acids are reabsorbed and circulated to liver to contribute to the bile acid pool. Secondary bile acids ω-MCA (3α, 6α, 7β) and LCA are excreted into feces.

Two FXR-dependent mechanisms are known to inhibit bile acid synthesis.  In the liver bile acid-activated FXR induces a negative receptor small heterodimer partner (SHP) to inhibit trans-activation activity of hepatic nuclear factor 4α(HNF4α) and liver receptor homologue-1 (LRH-1) that bind to the bile acid response element in the CYP7A1 and CYP8B1 gene promoters (Fig. 2, Pathway 1). In the intestine, bile acids activate FXR to induce fibroblast growth factor (mouse FGF15, or human FGF19), which activates hepatic FGF receptor 4 (FGFR4) and cJun N-terminal kinase 1/2 (JNK1/2) and extracellular-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) signaling of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways to inhibit trans-activation of CYP7A1/CYP8B1 gene by HNF4α (Pathway 2). Several FXR-independent cell-signaling pathways have been reported and are shown as Pathway 3 (Fig. 2). Conjugated bile acids are known to activate several protein kinase Cs (PKC) and growth factor receptors, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and insulin receptor (IR) signaling to inhibit CYP7A1/CYP8B1 and bile acid synthesis via activating the ERK1/2, p38 and JNK1/2 pathways.

 

Bile acid signaling pathways. Bile acids activate FXR, TGR5 and cell signaling pathways to inhibit CYP7A1 and CYP8B1 gene transcription.

1) Hepatic FXR/SHP pathway: bile acid activated-FXR induces SHP, which inhibits HNF4α and LRH-1 trans-activation of CYP7A1 and CYP8B1 gene transcription in hepatocytes. Bile acid response element binds HNF4α and LRH-1.

2) Intestinal FXR/FGF19/FGFR4 pathway: in the intestine, FXR induces FGF15 (mouse)/FGF19 (human), which is secreted into portal circulation to activate FGF receptor 4 (FGFR4) in hepatocytes. FGFR4 signaling stimulates JNK1/2 and ERK1/2 pathways of MAPK signaling to inhibit CYP7A1 gene transcription by phosphorylation and inhibition of HNF4α binding activity.

3) FXR-independent signaling pathways: Conjugated bile acids activate PKCs,which activate the MAPK pathways to inhibit CYP7A1. Bile acids also activate insulin receptor (IR) signaling IRS/PI3K/PDK1/AKT, possibly via activation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling, MAPKs (MEK, MEKK), to inhibit CYP7A1 gene transcription. The secondary bile acid TLCA activates TGR5 signaling in Kupffer cells. TGR5 signaling may regulate CYP7A1 by an unknown mechanism. TCA activates sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) receptor 2 (S1PR2), which may activate AKT and ERK1/2 to inhibit CYP7A1. S1P kinase 1 (Sphk1) phosphorylates sphingosine (Sph) to S-1-P, which activates S1PR2. On the other hand, nuclear SphK2 interacts with and inhibits histone deacetylase (HDAC1/2) and may induce CYP7A1. The role of S1P, SphK2, and S1PR2 signaling in regulation of bile acid synthesis is not known.

 

When challenged with an HFD, CYP7A1-tg mice had lower body fat mass and higher lean mass compared to wild-type mice. As a platform for comprehensive and quantitative description of the set of lipid species, lipidomics was used to investigate the mechanism of this phenotype. By use of an unsupervised PCA model with the cumulative R2X 0.677 for serum and 0.593 for liver, CYP7A1-tg and wild-type mice were clearly separated based on the scores plot (Supplementary Fig. S2), indicating that these two groups have distinct lipidomic profiles. Supervised PLS-DA models were then established to maximize the difference of metabolic profiles between CYP7A1-tg and wild-type groups as well as to facilitate the screening of lipid marker metabolites (Fig. 3).

PLS-DA analysis of CYP7A1-tg and wild-type (WT)mice challenged with HFD. Based on the score plots, distinct lipidomic profiles of male CYP7A1-tg and wild-type groups were shown for serum (A) and liver samples (B). Based on the loading plots (C for serum and D for liver) the most significant ions that led to the separation between CYP7A1-tg and wild-type groups were obtained and identified as follows: 1. LPC16:0; 2. LPC18:0; 3. LPC18:1; 4. LPC 18:2; 5. PC16:0-20:4; 6. PC16:0-22:6; 7. SM16:0. (not shown)

Fig. 5. OPLS-DA highlighted thirteen markers in bile acid pathway that contribute significantly to the clustering of CYP7A1-tg and wild-type (WT) mice. Ileum bile acids are shown. (not shown)

(A) In the score plot, female CYP7A1-tg andWTmicewere well separated;

(B) using a statistically significant thresholds of variable confidence approximately 0.75 in the S-plot, a number of ions were screened out as potential markers, which were later identified as 13 bile acid metabolites, including α-MCA, TCA, CDCA, and TCDCA etc.

Our recent study of CYP7A1-tg mice revealed that increased CYP7A1 expression and enlarged bile acid pool resulted in significant improvement of lipid homeostasis and resistance to high-fed diet-induced hepatic steatosis, insulin resistance, and obesity in CYP7A1-tg mice. In this study, metabolomics and lipidomics were employed to characterize the metabolic profiles of CYP7A1-tg mice and to provide new insights into the critical role of bile acids in regulation of lipid metabolism and metabolic diseases. Lipidomics analysis of serum lipid profiles of high fat diet-fed CYP7A1-tg identified 7 lipidomic markers that were reduced in CYP7A1-tg mice compared to wild type mice. Metabolomics analysis identified 13 bile acid metabolites that were altered in CYP7A1-tg mice. In CYP7A1-tg mice, TCA and TDCA were reduced, whereas T-β-MCA was increased in the intestine compared to that of wild type mice. The decrease of serum LPC, PC, SM and CER, and 12α-hydroxylated bile acids, and increase of T-β-MCA may contribute to the resistance to diet-induced obesity and diabetes in CYP7A1-tg mice (Fig. 8).

The present metabolomics and lipidomics analysis revealed that even upon challenging with HFD, CYP7A1-tg mice had reduced lipid levels including LPC, PC, SM and CER. Metabolomics studies of human steatotic liver tissues and HFD-fed mice showed that serum and liver LPC and PC and other lipids levels were increased compared with non-steatotic livers, suggesting altered lipid metabolism contributes to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). In HFD-fed CYP7A1-tg mice, reduced serum PC, LPC, SM and CER levels suggest a role for bile acids in maintaining phospholipid homeostasis to prevent NAFLD. SMs are important membrane phospholipids that interact with cholesterol in membrane rafts and regulate cholesterol distribution and homeostasis. A role for SM and CER in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance, diabetes and obesity and development of atherosclerosis has been reported. CER has a wide range of biological functions in cellular signaling such as activating protein kinase C and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), induction of β-cell apoptosis and insulin resistance. CER increases reactive oxidizing species and activates the NF-κB pathway, which induces proinflammatory cytokines, diabetes and insulin resistance. CER is synthesized from serine and palmitoyl-CoA or hydrolysis of SM by acid sphingomyelinase (ASM). HFD is known to increase CER and SM in liver. The present observation of decreased SM and CER levels in HFD-fed CYP7A1-tg mice indicated that bile acids might reduce HFD-induced increase of SM and CER. DCA activates an ASM to convert SM to CER, and Asm−/− hepatocytes are resistant to DCA induction of CER and activation of the JNK pathway [65]. In CYP7A1-tg mice, enlarged bile acid pool inhibits CYP8B1 and reduces CA and DCA levels. Thus, decreasing DCA may reduce ASM activity and SM and CER levels, and contribute to reducing inflammation and improving insulin sensitivity in CYP7A1-tg mice. It has been reported recently that in diabetic patients, serum 12α-hydroxylated bile acids are increased and correlated to insulin resistance [66].

Fig. 8. Mechanisms of anti-diabetic and anti-obesity function of bile acids in CYP7A1-tg mice. In CYP7A1-tg mice, overexpressing CYP7A1 increases bile acid pool size and reduces cholic acid by inhibiting CYP8B1. Lipidomics analysis revealed decreased serum LPC, PC, SM and CER. These lipidomic markers are increased in hepatic steatosis and NAFLD. Bile acids may reduce LPC, PC, SM and CER levels and protect against high fat diet-induced insulin resistance and obesity in CYP7A1-tgmice. Metabolomics analysis showed decreased intestinal TCA and TDCA and increased intestinal T-β-MCA in CYP7A1-tgmice.High fat diets are known to increase CA synthesis and intestinal inflammation. It is proposed that decreasing CA and  DCA synthesis may increase intestinal T-β-MCA,which antagonizes FXR signaling to increase bile acid synthesis and prevent high fat diet-induced insulin resistance and obesity. (not shown)

In conclusion,metabolomics and lipidomicswere employed to characterize the metabolic profiles of CYP7A1-tg mice, aiming to provide new insights into the mechanism of bile acid signaling in regulation of lipid metabolism and maintain lipid homeostasis. A number of lipid and bile acid markers were unveiled in this study. Decreasing of lipid markers, especially SM and CER may explain the improved insulin sensitivity and obesity in CYP7A1-tg mice. Furthermore, this study uncovered that enlarged bile acid pool size and altered bile acid composition may reduce de-conjugation by gut microbiota and increase tauroconjugated muricholic acids, which partially inhibit intestinal FXR signaling without affecting hepatic FXR signaling. This study is significant in applying metabolomics for diagnosis of lipid biomarkers for fatty liver diseases, obesity and diabetes. Increasing CYP7A1 activity and bile acid synthesis coupled to decreasing CYP8B1 and 12α-hydroxylated bile acids may be a therapeutic strategy for treating diabetes and obesity.

 

Bile acids are nutrient signaling hormones

Huiping Zhou, Phillip B. Hylemon
Steroids 86 (2014) 62–68
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.steroids.2014.04.016

Bile salts play crucial roles in allowing the gastrointestinal system to digest, transport and metabolize nutrients. They function as nutrient signaling hormones by activating specific nuclear receptors (FXR, PXR, Vitamin D) and G-protein coupled receptors [TGR5, sphingosine-1 phosphate receptor 2 (S1PR2), muscarinic receptors]. Bile acids and insulin appear to collaborate in regulating the metabolism of nutrients in the liver. They both activate the AKT and ERK1/2 signaling pathways. Bile acid induction of the FXR-a target gene, small heterodimer partner (SHP), is highly dependent on the activation PKCf, a branch of the insulin signaling pathway. SHP is an important regulator of glucose and lipid metabolism in the liver. One might hypothesize that chronic low grade inflammation which is associated with insulin resistance, may inhibit bile acid signaling and disrupt lipid metabolism. The disruption of these signaling pathways may increase the risk of fatty liver and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Finally, conjugated bile acids appear to promote cholangiocarcinoma growth via the activation of S1PR2.

 

In the past, bile salts were considered to be just detergent molecules that were required for the solubilization of cholesterol in the gall bladder, promoting the digestion of dietary lipids and stimulating the absorption of lipids, cholesterol and fat-soluble vitamins in the intestines. Bile salts were also known to stimulate bile flow, promote cholesterol secretion from the liver, and have antibacterial properties. However, in 1999, three independent laboratories reported that bile acids were natural ligands for the farnesoid X receptor (FXR-α) . The recognition that bile acids activated specific nuclear receptors started a renaissance in the field of bile acid research. Since 1999, bile acids have been reported to activate other nuclear receptors (pregnane X receptor, vitamin D receptor), G protein coupled receptors [TGR5, sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 (S1PR2), muscarinic receptor 2 (M2)] and cell signaling pathways (JNK1/2, AKT, and ERK1/2). Deoxycholic acid (DCA), a secondary bile acid, has also been reported to activate the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). It is now clear that bile acids function as hormones or nutrient signaling molecules that help to regulate glucose, lipid, lipoprotein, and energy metabolism as well as inflammatory responses.

Bile acids are synthesized from cholesterol in liver hepatocytes, conjugated to either glycine or taurine and actively secreted via ABC transporters on the canalicular membrane into biliary bile. Conjugated bile acids are often referred to as bile salts. Bile acid synthesis represents a major output pathway of cholesterol from the body. Bile acids are actively secreted from hepatocytes via the bile salt export protein (BSEP, ABCB11) along with phospholipids by ABCB4 and cholesterol by ABCG5/ABCG8 in a fairly constant ratio under normal conditions. Bile acids are detergent molecules and form mixed micelles with cholesterol and phospholipids, which help to keep cholesterol in solution in the gall bladder. Eating stimulates the gall bladder to contract, emptying its contents into the small intestines. Bile salts are crucial for the solubilization and absorption of cholesterol and lipids as well as lipid soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K). They activate pancreatic enzymes and form mixed micelles with lipids in the small intestines, promoting their absorption. Bile acids are efficiently recovered from the intestines, primarily the ileum, by the apical sodium dependent transporter (ASBT). Bile acids are secreted from ileocytes, on the basolateral side, by the organic solute OSTα/OSTβ transporter. Secondary bile acids, formed by 7α-dehydroxylation of primary bile acids by anaerobic gut bacteria, can be passively absorbed from the large bowel or secreted in the feces. Absorbed bile acids return to the liver via the portal blood where they are actively transported into hepatocytes primarily via the sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide (NTCP, SLC10A1). Bile acids are again actively secreted from the hepatocytes into the bile, stimulating bile flow and the secretion of cholesterol and phospholipids. Bile acids undergo enterohepatic circulation several times each day (Fig. 1). During their enterohepatic circulation approximately 500–600 mg/day are lost via fecal excretion and must be replaced by new bile acid synthesis in the liver. The bile acid pool size is tightly regulated as excess bile acids can be highly toxic to mammalian cells.

Enterohepatic circulation of bile acids

 

Enterohepatic circulation of bile acids. Bile acids are synthesized and conjugated mainly to glycine or taurine in hepatocytes. Bile acids travel to the gall bladder for storage during the fasting state. During digestion, bile acids travel to the duodenum via the common bile duct. 95% of the bile acids delivered to the duodenum are absorbed back into blood within the ileum and circulate back to the liver through the portal vein. 5% of bile acids are lost in feces.

There are two pathways of bile acid synthesis in the liver, the neutral pathway and the acidic pathway (Fig. 2). The neutral pathway is believed to be the major pathway of bile acid synthesis in humans under normal physiological conditions. The neutral pathway is initiated by cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1), which is the rate-limiting step in this biochemical pathway. CYP7A1 is a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase, and the gene encoding this enzyme is highly regulated by a feed-back repressive mechanism involving the FXR-dependent induction of fibroblast growth factor 15/19 (FGF15/19) by bile acids in the intestines. FGF15/19 binds to the fibroblast growth factor receptor 4 (FGFR4)/β-Klotho complex in hepatocytes activating both the JNK1/2 and ERK1/2 signaling cascades. Activation of the JNK1/2 pathway has been reported to down-regulate CYP7A1 mRNA in hepatocytes. FGFR4 and β-Klotho mice have increased levels of CYP7A1 and upregulated bile acid synthesis. Moreover, treatment of FXR mice with a specific FXR agonist failed to repress CYP7A1 in the liver. These results support an important role of FGF15, synthesized in the intestines by activation of FXR, in the regulation of CYP7A1 and bile acid synthesis in the liver. CYP7A1 has also been reported to be down-regulated by glucagon and pro-inflammatory cytokines and up-regulated by glucose and insulin during the postprandial period.

Fig. 2. (not shown) Biosynthetic pathways of bile acids. Two major pathways are involved in bile acid synthesis. The neutral (or classic) pathway is controlled by cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) in the endoplasmic reticulum. The acidic (or alternative) pathway is controlled by sterol 27-hydroxylase (CYP27A1) in mitochondria. The sterol 12α-hydroxylase (CYP8B1) is required to synthesis of cholic acid (CA). The oxysterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7B1) is involved in the formation of chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA) in acidic pathway. The neutral pathway is also able to form CDCA by CYP27A1.

The neutral pathway of bile acid synthesis produces both cholic acid (CA) and chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA) (Fig. 2). The ratio of CA and CDCA is primarily determined by the activity of sterol 12α-hydroxylase (CYP8B1). The gene encoding CYP8B1 is also highly regulated by bile acids. Bile acids induce the gene encoding small heterodimer partner (SHP) in the liver via activation of the farnesoid X receptor (FXR-α). SHP is an orphan nuclear receptor without a DNA binding domain. It interacts with several transcription factors, including hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 (HNF4α) and liver-related homolog-1 (LRH-1), and acts as a dominant negative protein to inhibit transcription. In this regard, a liver specific knockout of LRH-1 completely abolished the expression of CYP8B1, but had little effect on CYP7A1. These results suggest that the interaction of SHP with LRH-1, caused by bile acids, may be the key regulator of hepatic CYP8B1 and the ratio of CA/CDCA. The acidic or alternative pathway of bile acid synthesis is initiated in the inner membrane of mitochondria by sterol 27-hydroxylase (CYP27A1). This enzyme also has low sterol 25-hydroxylase activity. CYP27A1 is capable of further oxidizing the 27-hydroxy group to a carboxylic acid. Unlike, CYP7A1, CYP27A1 is widely expressed in various tissues in the body where it may produce regulatory oxysterols. Even though CYP27A1 is the initial enzyme in the acidic pathway of bile acid synthesis, it may not be the rate limiting step. The inner mitochondrial membrane is very low in cholesterol content. Hence, cholesterol transport into the mitochondria appears to be the rate limiting step.

The acidic pathway of bile acid synthesis is now being viewed as an important pathway for generating regulatory oxysterols. For example, 25-hydroxy-cholesterol and 27-hydroxycholesterol are natural ligands for the liver X receptor (LXR), which is involved in regulating cholesterol and lipid metabolism. Moreover, recent studies report that 25-hydroxycholesterol, formed by CYP27A1, can be converted into 5-cholesten-3β-25-diol-3-sulfate in the liver. The sulfated 25-hydroxycholesterol is a regulator of inflammatory responses, lipid metabolism and cell proliferation, and is located in the liver. Recent evidence suggests that sulfated 25-hydroxycholesterol is a ligand for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARc), which is a major regulator of inflammation and lipid metabolism. The 7α-hydroxylation of oxysterols is catalyzed by oxysterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7B1). This biotransformation allows some of these oxysterols to be converted to bile acids. Finally, oxysterols generated in extrahepatic tissues can be transported to the liver and metabolized into bile acids.

Bile acids can activate several different nuclear receptors (FXR, PXR and Vitamin D) and GPCRs (TGR5, S1PR2, and [M2] Muscarinic receptor). The ability of different bile acids to activate FXR-α occurs in the following order CDCA > LCA = DCA > CA; for the pregnane X receptor (PXR) LCA > DCA > CA and the vitamin D receptor, 3-oxo-LCA > LCA > DCA > CA. LCA is the best activator of PXR and the vitamin D receptor which correlates with the hydrophobicity and toxicity of this bile acid toward mammalian cells. Activation of PXR and the vitamin D receptor induces genes encoding enzymes which metabolize LCA into a more hydrophilic and less toxic metabolite. These nuclear receptors appear to function in the protection of cells from hydrophobic bile acids. In contrast, FXR-α appears to play a much more extensive role in the body by regulating bile acid synthesis, transport, and enterohepatic circulation. Moreover, FXR-α also participates in the regulation of glucose, lipoprotein and lipid metabolism in the liver as well as a suppressor of inflammation in the liver and intestines.

TGR5, also referred to as membrane-type bile acid receptor (MBAR), was the first GPCR to be reported to be activated by bile acids in the order LCA > DCA > CDCA > CA. TGR5 is a Gas type receptor which activates adenyl cyclase activity increasing the rate of the synthesis of c-AMP. TGR5 is widely expressed in human tissues, including: intestinal neuroendocrine cells, gall bladder, spleen, brown adipose tissue, macrophages and cholangiocytes, but not hepatocytes. TGR5 may play a role in various physiological processes in the body. TGR5 appears to be important in regulating energy metabolism. It has been postulated that bile acids may activate TGR5 in brown adipose tissue, activating type 2-iodothyroxine deiodinase and leading to increased levels of thyroid hormone and stimulation of energy metabolism. Moreover, TGR5 has been reported to promote the release of glucagon-like peptide-1 release from neuroendocrine cells, which increases insulin release in the pancreas. These results suggest that TGR5 may play a role in glucose homeostasis in the body. TGR5 is a potential target for drug development for treating type 2 diabetes and other metabolic disorders.

Interrelationship between sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 2 and the insulin signaling pathway

 

Interrelationship between sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 2 and the insulin signaling pathway in regulating hepatic nutrient metabolism. S1PR2, sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 2; Src, Src Kinase; EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor; PPARa, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha; NTCP, Na+/taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide; BSEP, bile salt export pump; PC, phosphotidylcholine; PECK, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase; G6Pase, glucose-6-phosphatase; PDK1, phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1; AKT, protein kinase B; SREBP, sterol regulatory element-binding protein; PKCf, protein kinase C zeta; FXR, farnesoid X receptor; SHP, small heterodimeric partner; MDR3, phospholipid transporter (ABCB4); GSK3b, glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta.

 

Both unconjugated and conjugated bile acids activate the insulin signaling (AKT) and ERK1/2 pathways in hepatocytes. Interesting, insulin and bile acids both activated glycogen synthase activity to a similar extent in primary rat hepatocytes. Moreover, the addition of both insulin and bile acids to the culture medium resulted in an additive effect on activation of glycogen synthase activity in primary hepatocytes. Infusion of taurocholate (TCA) into the chronic bile fistula rat rapidly activated the AKT and ERK1/2 signaling pathway and glycogen synthase activity. In addition, there was a rapid down-regulation of the gluconeogenic genes, PEP carboxykinase (PEPCK) and glucose-6-phophatase (G-6-Pase) and a marked up-regulation of SHP mRNA in these sample livers. These results suggest that TCA functions much like insulin to regulate hepatic glucose metabolism both in vitro and in vivo.

It has been reported that PKCζ phosphorylates FXR-α and may allow for its activation of target gene expression. In contrast, phosphorylation of FXR-α by AMPK inhibits the ability of FXR to induce target genes. PKCζ has been reported to be important for the translocation of the bile acid transporters NTCP (SLC10A1) and BSEP (ABC B11) to the basolateral and canalicular membranes, respectively. Finally, it has been recently reported that PKCζ phosphorylates SHP allowing both to translocate to the nucleus and down-regulate genes via epigenetic mechanisms. In total, these results all suggest that the insulin signaling pathway is an important regulator of FXR-α activation and bile acid signaling in the liver.

The activation of the insulin signaling pathway and FXR-α appear to collaborate in the coordinate regulation of glucose, bile acid and lipid metabolism in the liver. SHP, an FXR target gene, is an important pleotropic regulator of multiple metabolic pathways in the liver (Fig. 3). The S1PR2 appears to be an important regulator of hepatic lipid metabolism as S1PR2 mice rapidly (2 weeks) develop overt fatty livers on a high fat diet as compared to wild type mice (unpublished data). It is well established that inflammation and the synthesis of inflammatory cytokines i.e. TNFα inhibit insulin signaling by activation of the JNK1/2 signaling pathway, which phosphorylates insulin receptor substrate 1. Inflammation is believed to be an important factor in the development of type 2 diabetes and fatty liver disease. A Western diet is correlated with low grade chronic inflammation and insulin resistance. Inhibition of the insulin signaling pathway may decrease the ability of bile acids to activate FXR-α, induce SHP and other FXR target genes, leading to an increased risk of fatty liver and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

There appears to be extensive interplay between bile salts and insulin signaling in the regulation of nutrient metabolism in both the intestines and liver. Bile salts play a key role in the solubilization and absorption of nutrients from the intestines. The absorption of nutrients stimulates the secretion of insulin from the pancreas. Moreover, bile acids may also stimulate the secretion of insulin by activating TGR5 in intestinal neuroendocrine cells resulting in the secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1. In the liver, bile salts and insulin both activate the AKT and ERK1/2 signaling pathways which yields a stronger signal than either alone. The activation of PKCζ, a branch of the insulin signaling pathway, is required for the optimal induction of FXR target genes and the regulation of the cellular location of bile acid transporters

 

Fruit and vegetable consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: A dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies

  1. Wu, D. Zhang, X. Jiang, W. Jiang
    Nutrition, Metabolism & Cardiovascular Diseases (2015) 25, 140-147
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.numecd.2014.10.004

Background and aims: We conducted a dose-response meta-analysis to summarize the evidence from prospective cohort studies regarding the association of fruit and vegetable consumption with risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Methods and results: Pertinent studies were identified by searching Embase and PubMed through June 2014. Study-specific results were pooled using a random-effect model. The dose-response relationship was assessed by the restricted cubic spline model and the multivariate random-effect meta-regression. We standardized all data using a standard portion size of 106 g. The Relative Risk (95% confidence interval) [RR (95% CI)] of T2DM was 0.99 (0.98-1.00) for every 1 serving/day increment in fruit and vegetable (FV) (P < 0.18), 0.98 (0.95-1.01) for vegetable (P < 0.12), and 0.99 (0.97-1.00) for fruit (P < 0.05). The RR (95%CI) of T2DM was 0.99 (0.97-1.01), 0.98 (0.96-1.01), 0.97 (0.93-1.01), 0.96 (0.92-1.01), 0.96 (0.91-1.01) and 0.96 (0.91-1.01) for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 servings/day of FV (P for non-linearity < 0.44). The T2DM risk was 0.96 (0.95-0.99), 0.94 (0.90-0.98), 0.94 (0.89-0.98), 0.96 (0.91-1.01), 0.98 (0.92-1.05) and 1.00 (0.93-1.08) for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 servings/day of vegetable (P for non-linearity < 0.01). The T2DM risk was 0.95 (0.93-0.97), 0.91 (0.89-0.94), 0.88 (0.85-0.92), 0.92 (0.88-0.96) and 0.96 (0.92-1.01) for 0.5, 1, 2, 3 and 4 servings/day of fruit (P for non-linearity < 0.01). Conclusions: Two-three servings/day of vegetable and 2 servings/day of fruit conferred a lower risk of T2DM than other levels of vegetable and fruit consumption, respectively.

dose-response analysis between total fruit and vegetable consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus

 

The dose-response analysis between total fruit and vegetable consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. The solid line and the long dash line represent the estimated relative risk and its 95% confidence interval.

 

Healthy behaviours and 10-year incidence of diabetes: A population cohort study

G.H. Long , I. Johansson , O. Rolandsson , …, E. Fhärm, L.Weinehall, et al.
Preventive Medicine 71 (2015) 121–127
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.12.013

Objective. To examine the association between meeting behavioral goals and diabetes incidence over 10 years in a large, representative Swedish population. Methods. Population-based prospective cohort study of 32,120 individuals aged 35 to 55 years participating in a health promotion intervention in Västerbotten County, Sweden (1990 to 2013). Participants underwent an oral glucose tolerance test, clinical measures, and completed diet and activity questionnaires. Poisson regression quantified the association between achieving six behavioral goals at baseline – body mass index (BMI) < 25 kg/m2, moderate physical activity, non-smoker, fat intake  < 30% of energy, fibre intake ≥15 g/4184 kJ and alcohol intake ≤ 20 g/day – and diabetes incidence over 10 years. Results. Median interquartile range (IQR) follow-up time was 9.9 (0.3) years; 2211 individuals (7%) developed diabetes. Only 4.4% of participants met all 6 goals (n = 1245) and compared to these individuals, participants meeting 0/1 goals had a 3.74 times higher diabetes incidence (95% confidence interval (CI) = 2.50 to 5.59), adjusting for sex, age, calendar period, education, family history of diabetes, history of myocardial infarction and long-term illness. If everyone achieved at least four behavioral goals, 14.1% (95% CI: 11.7 to 16.5%) of incident diabetes cases might be avoided. Conclusion. Interventions promoting the achievement of behavioral goals in the general population could significantly reduce diabetes incidence.

 

Long term nutritional intake and the risk for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD): A population based study

Shira Zelber-Sagi, Dorit Nitzan-Kaluski, Rebecca Goldsmith, et al.
Journal of Hepatology 47 (2007) 711–717
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.jhep.2007.06.020

Background/Aims: Weight loss is considered therapeutic for patients with NAFLD. However, there is no epidemiological evidence that dietary habits are associated with NAFLD. Dietary patterns associated with primary NAFLD were investigated. Methods: A cross-sectional study of a sub-sample (n = 375) of the Israeli National Health and Nutrition Survey. Exclusion criteria were any known etiology for secondary NAFLD. Participants underwent an abdominal ultrasound, biochemical tests, dietary and anthropometric evaluations. A semi-quantitative food-frequency questionnaire was administered. Results: After exclusion, 349 volunteers (52.7% male, mean age 50.7 ± 10.4, 30.9% primary NAFLD) were included. The NAFLD group consumed almost twice the amount of soft drinks (P = 0.03) and 27% more meat (P < 0.001). In contrast, the NAFLD group consumed somewhat less fish rich in omega-3 (P = 0.056). Adjusting for age, gender, BMI and total calories, intake of soft drinks and meat was significantly associated with an increased risk for NAFLD (OR = 1.45, 1.13–1.85 95% CI and OR = 1.37, 1.04–1.83 95% CI, respectively). Conclusions: NAFLD patients have a higher intake of soft drinks and meat and a tendency towards a lower intake of fish rich in omega-3. Moreover, a higher intake of soft drinks and meat is associated with an increased risk of NAFLD, independently of age, gender, BMI and total calories.

 

The association between types of eating behavior and dispositional mindfulness in adults with diabetes. Results from Diabetes MILES. The Netherlands

Sanne R. Tak, Christel Hendrieckx, Giesje Nefs, Ivan Nyklícek, et al.
Appetite 87 (2015) 288–295
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2015.01.006

Although healthy food choices are important in the management of diabetes, making dietary adaptations is often challenging. Previous research has shown that people with type 2 diabetes are less likely to benefit from dietary advice if they tend to eat in response to emotions or external cues. Since high levels of dispositional mindfulness have been associated with greater awareness of healthy dietary practices in students and in the general population, it is relevant to study the association between dispositional mindfulness and eating behavior in people with type 1 or 2 diabetes. We analyzed data from Diabetes MILES – The Netherlands, a national observational survey in which 634 adults with type 1 or 2 diabetes completed the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire (to assess restrained, external and emotional eating behavior) and the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire-Short Form (to assess dispositional mindfulness), in addition to other psychosocial measures. After controlling for potential confounders, including  demographics, clinical variables and emotional distress, hierarchical linear regression analyses showed that higher levels of dispositional mindfulness were associated with eating behaviors that were more restrained (β = 0.10) and less external (β = −0.11) and emotional (β = −0.20). The mindfulness subscale ‘acting with awareness’ was the strongest predictor of both external and emotional eating behavior, whereas for emotional eating, ‘describing’ and ‘being non-judgmental’ were also predictive. These findings suggest that there is an association between dispositional mindfulness and eating behavior in adults with type 1 or 2 diabetes. Since mindfulness interventions increase levels of dispositional mindfulness, future studies could examine if these interventions are also effective in helping people with diabetes to reduce emotional or external eating behavior, and to improve the quality of their diet.

 

Soft drink consumption is associated with fatty liver disease independent of metabolic syndrome

Ali Abid, Ola Taha, William Nseir, Raymond Farah, Maria Grosovski, Nimer Assy
Journal of Hepatology 51 (2009) 918–924
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.jhep.2009.05.033

Background/Aims: The independent role of soft drink consumption in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) patients remains unclear. We aimed to assess the association between consumption of soft drinks and fatty liver in patients with or without metabolic syndrome. Methods: We recruited 31 patients (age: 43 ± 12 years) with NAFLD and risk factors for metabolic syndrome, 29 patients with NAFLD and without risk factors for metabolic syndrome, and 30 gender- and age-matched individuals without NAFLD. The degree of fatty infiltration was measured by ultrasound. Data on physical activity and intake of food and soft drinks were collected during two 7-day periods over 6 months using a food questionnaire. Insulin resistance, inflammation, and oxidant–antioxidant markers were measured.
Results: We found that 80% of patients with NAFLD had excessive intake of  soft drink beverages (>500 cm3/day) compared to 17% of healthy controls (p < 0.001). The NAFLD group consumed five times more carbohydrates from soft drinks compared to healthy controls (40% vs. 8%, p < 0.001). Seven percent of patients consumed one soft drink per day, 55% consumed two or three soft drinks per day, and 38% consumed more than four soft drinks per day for most days and for the 6-month period. The most common soft drinks were Coca-Cola (regular: 32%; diet: 21%) followed by fruit juices (47%). Patients with NAFLD with metabolic syndrome had similar malonyldialdehyde, paraoxonase, and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels but higher homeostasis model assessment (HOMA) and higher ferritin than NAFLD patients without metabolic syndrome (HOMA: 8.3 ± 8 vs. 3.7 ± 3.7 mg/dL, p < 0.001; ferritin: 186 ± 192 vs. 87 ± 84 mg/dL, p < 0.01). Logistic regression analysis showed that soft drink consumption is a strong predictor of fatty liver (odds ratio: 2.0; p < 0.04) independent of metabolic syndrome and CRP level. Conclusions: NAFLD patients display higher soft drink consumption independent of metabolic syndrome diagnosis. These findings might optimize NAFLD risk stratification.

 

Dietary predictors of arterial stiffness in a cohort with type 1 and type 2 diabetes

K.S. Petersen, J.B. Keogh, P.J. Meikle, M.L. Garg, P.M. Clifton
Atherosclerosis 238 (2015) 175-181
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.12.012

Objective: To determine the dietary predictors of central blood pressure, augmentation index and pulse wave velocity (PWV) in subjects with type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Methods: Participants were diagnosed with type 1 or type 2 diabetes and had PWV and/or pulse wave analysis performed. Dietary intake was measured using the Dietary Questionnaire for Epidemiological Studies Version 2 Food Frequency Questionnaire. Serum lipid species and carotenoids were measured, using liquid chromatography electrospray ionization- tandem mass spectrometry and high performance liquid chromatography, as biomarkers  of dairy and vegetable intake, respectively. Associations were determined using linear regression adjusted for potential confounders. Results: PWV (n = 95) was inversely associated with reduced fat dairy intake (β = -0.01; 95% CI -0.02, -0.01; p = 0 < 0.05) in particular yoghurt consumption (β = 0.04; 95% CI -0.09, -0.01; p = 0 < 0.05) after multivariate adjustment. Total vegetable consumption was negatively associated with PWV in the whole cohort after full adjustment (β =0.04; 95% CI -0.07, -0.01; p < 0.05). Individual lipid species, particularly those containing 14:0, 15:0, 16:0, 17:0 and 17:1 fatty acids, known to be of ruminant origin, in lysophosphatidylcholine, cholesterol ester, diacylglycerol, phosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin and triacylglycerol classes were positively associated with intake of full fat dairy, after adjustment for multiple comparisons. However, there was no association between serum lipid species and PWV. There were no dietary predictors of central blood pressure or augmentation index after multivariate adjustment. Conclusion: In this cohort of subjects with diabetes reduced fat dairy intake and vegetable consumption were inversely associated with PWV. The lack of a relationship between serum lipid species and PWV suggests that the fatty acid composition of dairy may not explain the beneficial effect.

In this cohort with type 1 and type 2 diabetes there was an inverse association between reduced fat dairy intake, in particular yoghurt consumption, and PWV, which persisted after multivariate adjustment. Serum lipid species, known to be of ruminant origin, were positively associated with full fat dairy consumption; however there was no association between these lipid species and PWV. In addition, higher vegetable intake was also associated with lower PWV. There were no dietary predictors of central blood pressure or augmentation index identified in this cohort.

In this study there was no relationship between augmentation index and PWV, which has been previously reported. Augmentation index is not a direct measure of arterial stiffness and is influenced by the timing and magnitude of the wave reflection. In contrast, PWV is a robust measure of arterial stiffness as it is determined by measuring the velocity of the waveform between the carotid and femoral arteries. Previously, it has been shown that in a population with diabetes PWV was elevated compared with healthy controls, however augmentation index was not different. Lacy et al.  concluded that augmentation index is not a reliable measure of arterial stiffness in people with diabetes. This may explain why we did not see an association between augmentation index and dietary intake, despite seeing correlations with PWV.

 

Curcumin ameliorates diabetic nephropathy by inhibiting the activation of the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway

Juan Huang, Kaipeng Huang, Tian Lan, Xi Xie, .., Peiqing Liu, Heqing Huang
Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 365 (2013) 231–240
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2012.10.024

Curcumin, a major polyphenol from the golden spice Curcuma longa commonly known as turmeric, has been recently discovered to have renoprotective effects on diabetic nephropathy (DN). However, the mechanisms underlying these effects remain unclear. We previously demonstrated that the sphingosine kinase 1-sphingosine 1-phosphate (SphK1-S1P) signaling pathway plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of DN. This study aims to investigate whether the renoprotective effects of curcumin on DN are associated with its inhibitory effects on the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway. Our results demonstrated that the expression and activity of SphK1 and the production of S1P were significantly down-regulated by curcumin in diabetic rat kidneys and glomerular mesangial cells (GMCs) exposed to high glucose (HG). Simultaneously, SphK1-S1P-mediated fibronectin (FN) and transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-b1) overproduction were inhibited. In addition, curcumin dose dependently reduced SphK1 expression and activity in GMCs transfected with SphKWT and significantly suppressed the increase in SphK1-mediated FN levels. Furthermore, curcumin inhibited the DNA-binding activity of activator protein 1 (AP-1), and c-Jun small interference RNA (c-Jun-siRNA) reversed the HG-induced up-regulation of SphK1. These findings suggested that down-regulation of the SphK1-S1P pathway is probably a novel mechanism by which curcumin improves the progression of DN. Inhibiting AP-1 activation is one of the therapeutic targets of curcumin to modulate the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway, thereby preventing diabetic renal fibrosis.

The creation of the STZ-induced DN model relies on the level and continuous cycle of high blood glucose in vivo. Long-term hyperglycemia induces significant structural changes in the kidney, including glomerular hypertrophy, GBM thickening, and later glomerulosclerosis and tubulointerstitial fibrosis, leading to microalbuminuria and elevated Cr levels. These effects usually occur at around 8–12 weeks after diabetes formation. In the current study, the experimental diabetic model was induced by a single intraperitoneal injection of STZ (60 mg/kg). When the experiment was terminated at 12 weeks, FBG, KW/BW, BUN, Cr, and UP 24 h were significantly increased and body weight was remarkably decreased in the STZ-induced diabetic rats compared with those in the normal control group. Furthermore, PAS staining of the kidneys revealed the induction of glomerular hypertrophy, mesangial matrix expansion, and increased regional adhesion of the glomerular tuft to the Bowman’s capsule in the diabetic rats. This finding indicated the emergence of the diabetic renal injury model characterized by renal hypertrophy, glomerulus damage, and renal dysfunction. As the limited water solubility of curcumin, various methods such as heat treatment, mild alkali and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose are used to increase the solubility of curcumin before administration. Based on our previous study, we employed 1% sodium carboxymethyl cellulose as the vehicle to solubilize curcumin. Compared with the diabetic group, curcumin treatment slightly reduced FBG level and significantly decreased KW/BW, BUN, Cr, and UP 24 h. Moreover, curcumin remarkably improved glomerular pathological changes in the diabetic kidneys. Consistent with previous studies, the current results demonstrated that curcumin prominently ameliorated renal function and renal parenchymal alterations in the diabetic renal injury model. Previous studies revealed that the amelioration of renal dysfunction in diabetes by curcumin was partly related to its function in inhibiting inflammatory injury. Based on these findings, the current experiment further explored whether the renoprotective effects of curcumin are associated with the regulation of the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway.

S1P is a polar sphingolipid metabolite acting as an extracellular mediator and an intracellular second messenger. Ample evidence proves that S1P participates in cell growth, proliferation, migration, adhesion, molecule expression, and angiogenesis. The formation of S1P is catalyzed by SphK1. Recently, the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway has gained considerable attention because of its potential involvement in the progression of DN. Hyperglycemia, AGE, and oxidative stress can activate SphK1 and can increase the intracellular level of S1P. Geoffroy et al. (2004) reported that the treatment of cells with low AGE concentration increases SphK activity and S1P production, thereby and S1P content were significantly increased simultaneously with the up-regulated expression of FN and TGF-β1 (mRNA and protein) in the diabetic rat kidneys. These findings indicated the activation of the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway and the appearance of pathological alterations, including ECM accumulation. After curcumin treatment for 12 weeks, elevations of the said indexes were significantly inhibited. HG remarkably activated the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway and increased FN and TGF-β1 expressions in GMCs. Curcumin dramatically suppressed the SphK1-S1P pathway as well as FN and TGF-β1 levels in a dose-dependent manner. Overall, these results indicated that curcumin ameliorated the pathogenic progression of DN by inhibiting the activation of the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway, resulting in the down-regulation of TGF-β1 and the subsequent reduction of ECM accumulation.

SphK1 expression is mediated by a novel AP-1 element located within the first intron of the human SphK1 gene. AP-1 sites are also found in rat SphK1 promoter from NCBI. Numerous studies indicated that curcumin can inhibit the activity of AP-1 and is widely used as an AP-1 inhibitor. Therefore, further elucidating the link between the inhibition of the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway by curcumin and the suppression of AP-1 activity is important. The data showed that treatment with c-Jun-siRNA significantly down-regulated the basal levels of SphK1 expression. Thus, inhibiting AP-1 activity is one of the therapeutic targets of curcumin in modulating the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway, thereby inhibiting diabetic renal fibrosis.

In summary, curcumin inhibited SphK1 expression and activity, reduced S1P content, and effectively inhibited increased FN and TGF-β1 expressions mediated by the SphK1-S1P signaling pathway. Moreover, the inhibitory effect of curcumin on SphK1-S1P was independent of its hypoglycemic and anti-oxidant roles and might be closely related to the inhibition of AP-1 activity. Our findings suggested that the SphK1-S1P pathway might be a novel mechanism by which curcumin attenuates renal fibrosis and ameliorates DN. In addition, the present study provides further experimental evidence for the clinical application and new drug exploration of curcumin.

 

Antidiabetic Activity of Hydroalcoholic Extracts of Nardostachys jatamansi in Alloxan-induced Diabetic Rats

  1. A. Aleem, B. Syed Asad, Tasneem Mohammed, et al.
    British Journal of Medicine & Medical Research 4(28): 4665-4673, 2014

A review of literature indicates that diabetes mellitus was fairly well known and well conceived as an entity in India with complications like angiopathy, retinopathy, nephropathy, and causing neurological disorders. The antidiabetic study was carried out to estimate the anti-hyperglycemic potential of Nardostachys Jatamansi rhizome’s hydroalcoholic extracts in alloxan induced diabetic rats over a period of two weeks. The hydroalcoholic extract HAE1 at a dose (500mg/kg) exhibited significant antihyperglycemic activity than extract HAE2 at a dose (500mg/kg) in diabetic rats. The hydroalcoholic extracts showed improvement in different parameters associated with diabetes, like body weight, lipid profile and biochemical parameters. Extracts also showed improvement in regeneration of β-cells of pancreas in diabetic rats. Histopath-ological studies strengthen the healing of pancreas by hydroalcoholic extracts (HAE1& HAE2) of Nardostachys Jatamansi, as a probable mechanism of their antidiabetic activity.
Metabolic syndrome and serum carotenoids : findings of a cross-sectional study in Queensland, Australia

Coyne, T, Ibiebele, T,… McClintock, C and Shaw, J
Brit J Nutrition: Int J Nutr Sci 2009; 102(11). pp. 1668-1677
Several components of the metabolic syndrome, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease, are known to be oxidative stress-related conditions and there is research to suggest that antioxidant nutrients may play a protective role in these conditions. Carotenoids are compounds derived primarily from plants and several have been shown to be potent antioxidant nutrients. The aim of this study was to examine the associations between metabolic syndrome status and major serum carotenoids in adult Australians. Data on the presence of the metabolic syndrome, based on International Diabetes Federation criteria, were collected from 1523 adults aged 25 years and over in six randomly selected urban centers in Queensland, Australia, using a cross sectional study design. Weight, height, BMI, waist circumference, blood  pressure, fasting and 2-hour blood glucose and  lipids were determined, as well as five serum carotenoids. Mean serum alpha-carotene, beta-carotene and the sum of the five carotenoid concentrations were significantly lower (p<0.05) in persons with the metabolic syndrome (after adjusting for age, sex, education, BMI status, alcohol intake, smoking, physical activity status and vitamin/mineral use) than persons without the syndrome. Alpha, beta and total carotenoids also decreased significantly (p<0.05) with increased number of components of the metabolic syndrome, after adjusting for these confounders. These differences were significant among former smokers and non-smokers, but not in current smokers. Low concentrations of serum alpha-carotene, beta carotene and the sum of five carotenoids appear to be associated with metabolic syndrome status. Additional research, particularly longitudinal studies, may help to determine if these associations are causally related to the metabolic syndrome, or are a result of the pathologies of the syndrome.

Although there is no universal definition of the metabolic syndrome, it is generally described as a constellation of pathologies or anthropometric conditions, which include central obesity, glucose intolerance, lipid abnormalities, and hypertension. It is, however, universally accepted that the presence of the metabolic syndrome is associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. The prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in developed countries varies widely depending upon definitions used and age ranges included, but is estimated to be 24% among adults 20 years and over in the US. Given the impending worldwide epidemic of obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular disease, strategies aimed at greater understanding of the pathology of the syndrome, as well as strategies aimed at preventing or treating persons with the syndrome are urgently required.

Few studies have investigated associations of antioxidant nutrients and the metabolic syndrome. Ford and colleagues reported lower levels of several carotenoids and vitamins C and E among those with metabolic syndrome present compared with those without the syndrome in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Sugiura et al.  suggested that several carotenoids may exert a protective effect against the development of the metabolic syndrome, especially among current smokers. Confirming these findings in another population may add strength to these associations.

Our study showed significantly lower concentrations of β-carotene, α-carotene and the sum of the five carotenoids among those with the metabolic syndrome present compared to those without. We also found decreasing concentrations of all the carotenoids tested as the number of the metabolic syndrome components increased. These findings are consistent with data reported by Ford et al. from the third 262 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). In the NHANES III study, significantly lower concentrations of all the carotenoids, except lycopene, were found among persons with the metabolic syndrome compared with those without, after adjusting for  confounding factors similar to those in our study.

 

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Endocrine Action on Midbrain

Posted in Biological Networks, Calcium Signaling, Cell Biology, Cerebrovascular and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Curation, Cytoskeleton, Developmental biology, Diabetes Mellitus, Disease Biology, Embryology, Endocrine Diseases, Genomic Endocrinology, Innovations in Neurophysiology & Neuropsychology, Lipid metabolism, Metabolism, Metabolomics, Neurodegenerative Diseases, Neurological Diseases, Nutrition, Pharmaceutical Analytics, Pharmaceutical Discovery, Pharmacologic toxicities, Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis and Reproductive Genomics, Proteomics, Reproductive Andrology, Embryology, Genomic Endocrinology, Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis and Reproductive Genomics, Signaling, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, tagged , , , , , , , , , , , on February 12, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Endocrine Action on Midbrain

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

 
  • Brain’s Role in Browning White Fat
  • Insulin and leptin act on specialized neurons in the mouse hypothalamus to promote conversion of white to beige fat.

By Anna Azvolinsky | January 15, 2015

JUSTIN HEWLETT, MNHS MULTIMEDIA, MONASH UNIVERSITY

Ever since energy-storing white fat has been shown to convert to metabolically active beige fat, through a process called browning, scientists have been trying to understand how this switch occurs. The immune system has been shown to contribute to activation of brown fat cells. Now, researchers from Monash University in Australia and their colleagues have shown that insulin and leptin—two hormones that regulate glucose metabolism and satiety and hunger cues—activate “satiety” neurons in the mouse hypothalamus to promote the conversion of white fat to beige. The results are published today (January 15) in Cell.

Hypothalamic appetite-suppressing proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons are known to relay the satiety signals in the bloodstream to other parts of the brain and other tissues to promote energy balance. “What is new here is that one way that these neurons promote calorie-burning is to stimulate the browning of white fat,” said Xiaoyong Yang, who studies the molecular mechanisms of metabolism at the Yale University School of Medicine, but was not involved in the work. “The study identifies how the brain communicates to fat tissue to promote energy dissipation.”

“The authors show that [insulin and leptin] directly interact in the brain to produce nervous-system signaling both to white and brown adipose tissue,” said Jan Nedergaard, a professor of physiology at Stockholm University who also was not involved in the study. “This is a nice demonstration of how the acute and chronic energy status talks to the thermogenic tissues.”

Although the differences between beige and brown fat are still being defined, the former is currently considered a metabolically active fat—which converts the energy of triglycerides into heat—nestled within white fat tissue. Because of their energy-burning properties, brown and beige fat are considered superior to white fat, so understanding how white fat can be browned is a key research question. Exposure to cold can promote the browning of white fat, but the ability of insulin and leptin to act in synergy to signal to the brain to promote browning was not known before this study, according the author Tony Tiganis, a biochemist at Monash.

White fat cells steadily produce leptin, while insulin is produced by cells of the pancreas in response to a surge of glucose into the blood. Both hormones are known to signal to the brain to regulate satiety and body weight. To explore the connection between this energy expenditure control system and fat tissue, Garron Dodd, a postdoctoral fellow in Tiganis’s laboratory, and his colleagues deleted one or both of two phosphatase enzymes in murine POMC neurons. These phosphatase enzymes were previously known to act in the hypothalamus to regulate both glucose metabolism and body weight, each regulating either leptin or insulin signaling. When both phosphatases were deleted, mice had less white fat tissue and increased insulin and leptin signaling.

“These [phosphatase enzymes] work in POMC neurons by acting as ‘dimmer switches,’ controlling the sensitivity of leptin and insulin receptors to their endogenous ligands,” Dodd told The Scientist in an e-mail. The double knockout mice also had an increase in beige fat and more active heat-generating brown fat. When fed a high-fat diet, unlike either the single knockout or wild-type mice, the double knockout mice did not gain weight, suggesting that leptin and insulin signaling to POMC neurons is important for controlling body weight and fat metabolism.

The researchers also infused leptin and insulin directly into the hypothalami of wild-type mice, which promoted the browning of white fat. But when these hormones were infused but the neuronal connections between the white fat and the brain were physically severed, browning was prevented. Moreover, hormone infusion and cutting the neuronal connection to only a single fat pad resulted in browning only in the fat pad that maintained signaling ties to the brain. “This really told us that direct innervation from the brain is necessary and that these hormones are acting together to regulate energy expenditure,” said Tiganis.

These results are “really exciting as, perhaps, resistance to the actions of leptin and insulin in POMC neurons is a key feature underlying obesity in people,” said Dodd.

Another set of neurons in the hypothalamus, the agouti-related protein expressing (AgRP) or “hunger” neurons, are activated by hunger signals and promote energy storage. Along with Tamas Horvath, Yale’s Yang recently showed that fasting activates AgRP neurons that then suppress the browning of white fat. “These two stories are complimentary, providing a bigger picture: that the hunger and satiety neurons control browning of fat depending on the body’s energy state,” said Yang. Activation of POMC neurons during caloric intake protects against diet-induced obesity while activation of AgRP neurons tells the body to store energy during fasting.

Whether these results hold up in humans has yet to be explored. Expression of the two phosphatases in the hypothalamus is known to be higher in obese people, but it is not clear whether this suppresses the browning of white fat.

“One of the next big questions is whether this increased expression and prevention of insulin plus leptin signaling, and conversion of white to brown fat perturbs energy balance and promotes obesity,” said Tiganis. Another, said Dodd, is whether other parts of the brain are involved in signaling to and from adipose tissue.

  1. Dodd et al., “Leptin and insulin act on POMC neurons to promote the browning of white fat,”

Cell, 2015.    http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.cell.2014.12.022   http://medicine.yale.edu/lab/horvath/index.aspx

Our main interest is the neuroendocrine regulation of homeostasis with particular emphasis on metabolic disorders, such as obesity and diabetes, and the effect of metabolic signals on higher brain functions and neurodegeneration. We have active research programs to pursue the role of synaptic plasticity in the mediation of peripheral hormones’ effects on the central nervous system.

We also study the role of mitochondrial membrane potential in normal and pathological brain functions with particular emphasis on the acute effect of mitochondria in neuronal transmission and neuroprotection. We combine classical neurobiological approaches, including electrophysiology and neuroanatomy, with endocrine and genetic techniques to better understand biological events at the level of the organism.

Leptin and Insulin Act on POMC Neurons to Promote the Browning of White Fat

Garron T. Dodd, Stephanie Decherf, Kim Loh, Stephanie E. Simonds, Florian Wiede, Eglantine Balland, Troy L. Merry, et al.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.12.022

Highlights

  • Insulin and leptin act synergistically on POMC neurons to promote WAT browning
  • Increased POMC-mediated WAT browning prevents diet-induced obesity
  • PTP1B and TCPTP attenuate leptin and insulin signaling in POMC neurons
  • Combined PTP1B and TCPTP deficiency in POMC neurons promotes white fat browning

The primary task of white adipose tissue (WAT) is the storage of lipids. However, “beige” adipocytes also exist in WAT. Beige adipocytes burn fat and dissipate the energy as heat, but their abundance is diminished in obesity. Stimulating beige adipocyte development, or WAT browning, increases energy expenditure and holds potential for combating metabolic disease and obesity. Here, we report that insulin and leptin act together on hypothalamic neurons to promote WAT browning and weight loss. Deletion of the phosphatases PTP1B and TCPTP enhanced insulin and leptin signaling in proopiomelanocortin neurons and prevented diet-induced obesity by increasing WAT browning and energy expenditure. The coinfusion of insulin plus leptin into the CNS or the activation of proopiomelanocortin neurons also increased WAT browning and decreased adiposity. Our findings identify a homeostatic mechanism for coordinating the status of energy stores, as relayed by insulin and leptin, with the central control of WAT browning.  http://www.cell.com/cms/attachment/2023992410/2043906325/fx1.jpg

Light on the Brain

Researchers find that photoreceptors expressed in zebrafish hypothalamus contribute to light-dependent behavior.

By Sabrina Richards | September 20, 2012

A 21 day old zebrafish. Their optical clarity and relatively easy maintenance make them a favorite for geneticists and developmental biologists. In this fish, the muscles can be seen as chevron shapes in the tail, the swim bladder as a “bubble” just behind the head, and the food that the fish has been eating as a brown patch just below the swim bladder.

Juvenile zebrafish. Shawn Burgess, NHGRI

Zebrafish larvae without eyes or pineal glands can still respond to light using photopigments located deep within their brains.  Published today (September 20) in Current Biology, the findings are the first to link opsins, photoreceptors in the hypothalamus and other brain areas, to increased swimming in response to darkness, a behavior researchers hypothesize may help the fish move toward better-lit environments.

“[It’s a] strong demonstration that opsin-dependent photoreceptors in deep brain areas affect behaviors,” said Samer Hattar, who studies light reception in mammals at Johns Hopkins University but did not participate in the research.

Photoreceptors in eyes enable vision, and photoreceptors in the pineal gland, a small endocrine gland located in the center of the vertebrate brain, regulate circadian rhythms. But photoreceptors are also found in other brain areas of both invertebrates and vertebrate lineages. The function of these extraocular photoreceptors has been best studied in birds, where they regulate seasonal reproduction, explained Harold Burgess, a behavioral neurogeneticist at the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute for Child Health and Human Development. Many opsins have been reported in the brains of tiny and transparent larval zebrafish, raising the possibility that light could be stimulating the photoreceptors even deep in the brain. To test for behaviors that may be regulated by deep brain photoreceptors, Burgess and his colleagues in Wolfgang Driever’s lab at the University of Freiburg removed the eyes of zebrafish larvae, and compared their behavior to larvae that retained their eyes. Although most light-dependent behavior required eyes, the eyeless larvae did respond when the lights were turned off, increasing their activity for a several minutes, though to a somewhat lesser extent than control larvae. But the fact that they responded at all suggests that non-retinal photoreceptors contributed to the behavior.

To confirm the role of the deep brain photoreceptors, the researchers also tested eyeless larvae that had been genetically modified to block expression of photoreceptors in the pineal gland. This fish still showed this jump in activity for several minutes after entering darkness.

Two different types of opsins—melanopsin and multiple tissue opsin—are expressed in the same type of neuron in zebrafish hypothalamus. Burgess and his colleagues looked at zebrafish missing the transcription factor Orthopedia, which is unique to these neurons, and found that the darkness-induced activity boost is nearly absent in these fish. To further narrow the search for the responsible photoreceptors, the researchers overexpressed melanopsin in hypothalamus neurons that co-express Orthopedia and melanopsin, and found that it increased the sensitivity of eyeless zebrafish to reductions in light. The results point to both melanopsin and Orthopedia as key players in modulating this behavior and pinpoint the location to neurons that coexpress these factors in the zebrafish hypothalamus.

Interestingly, the hypothalamus is one of the oldest parts of the vertebrate brain, said Detlev Arendt, a developmental biologist at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory in Heidelberg. “It’s very possible that this is one of the oldest functions”—one that evolved in “non-visual organisms” that had no eyes but still needed to sense light.

Although not as directed and efficient as eye-dependent behaviors that help fish swim toward light, Burgess speculates that deep brain opsins can still benefit zebrafish larvae. “You could imagine situation where it can’t see light, if a leaf falls on it and it doesn’t know where to swim. I think this behavior puts it in a hyperactive state where it swims wildly for several minutes until it reaches enough light for eyes to take over,” he explained, noting that such behavior is common in invertebrates.

It remains to be seen whether these deep brain opsins regulate other behaviors, perhaps in similar fashion to seasonal hormonal regulation in birds, but Hattar believes it is likely. “It’s beyond reasonable doubt there are many functions for these deep brain photoreceptors.”

Fernandes et al., “Deep brain photoreceptors control light-seeking behavior in zebrafish larvae,” Current Biology, 22:1-6, 2012.

Neuroendocrine basis of sexuality, mood, anxiety, social consciousness

Physiology, signaling, and pharmacology of galanin peptides and receptors: Three decades of emerging diversity

Lang, R., Gundlach, A.L., Holmes, F.E., (…), Hökfelt, T., Kofler, B.
Pharmacological Reviews 2015: 67 (1), pp. 118-175
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1124/pr.112.006536

Galanin was first identified 30 years ago as a “classic neuropeptide,” with actions primarily as a modulator of neurotransmission in the brain and peripheral nervous system. Other structurally-related peptides—galanin-like peptide and alarin—with diverse biologic actions in brain and other tissues have since been identified, although, unlike galanin, their cognate receptors are currently unknown. Over the last two decades, in addition to many neuronal actions, a number of nonneuronal actions of galanin and other galanin family peptides have been described. These include actions associated with neural stem cells, nonneuronal cells in the brain such as glia, endocrine functions, effects on metabolism, energy homeostasis, and paracrine effects in bone. Substantial new data also indicate an emerging role for galanin in innate immunity, inflammation, and cancer. Galanin has been shown to regulate its numerous physiologic and pathophysiological processes through interactions with three G protein–coupled receptors, GAL1, GAL2, and GAL3, and signaling via multiple transduction pathways, including inhibition of cAMP/PKA (GAL1, GAL3) and stimulation of phospholipase C (GAL2). In this review, we emphasize the importance of novel galanin receptor–specific agonists and antagonists. Also, other approaches, including new transgenic mouse lines (such as a recently characterized GAL3 knockout mouse) represent, in combination with viral-based techniques, critical tools required to better evaluate galanin system physiology. These in turn will help identify potential targets of the galanin/galanin-receptor systems in a diverse range of human diseases, including pain, mood disorders, epilepsy, neurodegenerative conditions, diabetes, and cancer.

Estradiol regulates responsiveness of the dorsal premammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus and affects fear- and anxiety-like behaviors in female rats

Litvin, Y., Cataldo, G., Pfaff, D.W., Kow, L.-M.
European Journal of Neuroscience 2014; 40 (2), pp. 2344-2351
10.1111/ejn.12608

Research suggests a causal link between estrogens and mood. Here, we began by examining the effects of estradiol (E2) on rat innate and conditioned defensive behaviors in response to cat odor. Second, we utilized whole-cell patch clamp electrophysiological techniques to assess noradrenergic effects on neurons within the dorsal premammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus (PMd), a nucleus implicated in fear reactivity, and their regulation by E2. Our results show that E2 increased general arousal and modified innate defensive reactivity to cat odor. When ovariectomized females treated with E2 as opposed to oil were exposed to cat odor, they showed elevations in risk assessment and reductions in freezing, indicating a shift from passive to active coping. In addition, animals previously exposed to cat odor showed clear cue + context conditioning 24 h later. However, although E2 persisted in its effects on general arousal in the conditioning task, its effects on fear disappeared. In the patch clamp experiments noradrenergic compounds that typically induce fear clearly excited PMd neurons, producing depolarizations and action potentials. E2 treatment shifted some excitatory effects of noradrenergic agonists to inhibitory, possibly by differentially affecting α- and β-adrenoreceptors. In summary, our results implicate E2 in general arousal and fear reactivity, and suggest these may be governed by changes in noradrenergic responsivity in the PMd. These effects of E2 may have ethological relevance, serving to promote mate seeking even in contexts of ambiguous threat and shed light on the involvement of estrogen in mood and its associated disorders.

Endogenous opiates and behavior: 2013

Richard J. Bodnar
Peptides 62 (2014) 67–136
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2014.09.013

This paper is the thirty-sixth consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2013 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior, and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia; stress and social status; tolerance and dependence; learning and memory; eating and drinking; alcohol and drugs of abuse; sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology; mental illness and mood; seizures and neurologic disorders; electrical-related activity and neurophysiology; general activity and locomotion; gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions; cardiovascular responses; respiration and thermoregulation; and immunological responses.

Brain aromatase (cyp19a1b) and gonadotropin releasing hormone (gnrh2 and gnrh3) expression during reproductive development and sex change in black sea bass (Centropristis striata)

Timothy S Breton, Matthew A DiMaggio, Stacia A Sowe, David L Berlinsky, et al.
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A 181 (2015) 45–53
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2014.11.020

Teleost fish exhibit diverse reproductive strategies, and some species are capable of changing sex. The influence of many endocrine factors, such as gonadal steroids and neuropeptides, has been studied in relation to sex change, but comparatively less research has focused on gene expression changes within the brain in temperate grouper species with non-haremic social structures. The purpose of the present study was to investigate gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) and brain aromatase (cyp19a1b) gene expression patterns during reproductive development and sex change in protogynous (female to male) black sea bass (Centropristis striata). Partial cDNA fragments for cyp19a1b and eef1a (a reference gene) were identified, and included with known gnrh2 and gnrh3 sequences in real time quantitative PCR. Elevated cyp19a1b expression was evident in the olfactory bulbs, telencephalon, optic tectum, and hypothalamus/
midbrain region during vitellogenic growth, which may indicate changes in the brain related to neurogenesis or sexual behavior. In contrast, gnrh2 and gnrh3 expression levels were largely similar among gonadal states, and all three genes exhibited stable expression during sex change. Although sex change in black sea bass is not associated with dramatic changes in GnRH or cyp19a1b gene expression among brain regions, these genes may mediate processes at other levels, such as within individual hypothalamic nuclei, or through changes in neuron size, that warrant further research.

Evaluation for roles of neurosteroids in modulating forebrain mechanisms controlling vasopressin secretion and related phenomena in conscious rats

Ken’ichi Yamaguchi
Neuroscience Research xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neures.2015.01.002

Anteroventral third ventricular region (AV3V) regulates autonomic functions through a GABAergic mechanism that possesses neuroactive steroid (NS)-synthesizing ability. Although NS can exert effects by acting on a certain type of GABAA-receptor (R), it is not clear whether NS may operate to modulateAV3V GABAergic activity for controlling autonomic functions. This study aimed to investigate the issue.AV3V infusion with a GABAA antagonist bicuculline increased plasma vasopressin (AVP), glucose, blood pressure (BP), and heart rate in rats. These events were abolished by preinjecting its agonist muscimol, whereas the infusion with allopregnanolone, a NS capable of potentiating GABAA-R function, affectednone of the variables in the absence or presence of such bicuculline actions. Similarly, AV3V infusion with pregnanolone sulfate, a NS capable of antagonizing GABAA-R, produced no effect on those variables.AV3V infusion with muscimol was effective in inhibiting the responses of plasma AVP or glucose, orBP to an osmotic loading or bleeding. However, AV3V infusion with aminoglutethimide, a NS synthesis inhibitor, did not affect any of the variables in the absence or presence of those stimuli. These results suggest that NS may not cause acute effects on the AV3V GABAergic mechanism involved in regulating AVP release and other autonomic function.

Novel receptor targets for production and action of allopregnanolone in the central nervous system: a focus on pregnane xenobiotic receptor

Cheryl A. Frye, Carolyn J. Koonce, and Alicia A. Walf
Front in Cell Neurosci Apr 2014; 8(106)
http://dx.doi.org:/10.3389/fncel.2014.00106

Neurosteroids are cholesterol-based hormones that can be produced in the brain, independent of secretion from peripheral endocrine glands, such as the gonads and adrenals. A focus in our laboratory for over 25 years has been how production of the pregnane neurosteroid, allopregnanolone, is regulated and the novel (i.e., non steroid receptor) targets for steroid action for behavior. One endpoint of interest has been lordosis, the mating posture of female rodents. Allopregnanolone is necessary and sufficient for lordosis, and the brain circuitry underlying it, such as actions in the midbrain ventral tegmental area (VTA), has been well-characterized. Published and recent findings supporting a dynamic role of allopregnanolone are included in this review. First, contributions of ovarian and adrenal sources of precursors of allopregnanolone, and the requisite enzymatic actions for de novo production in the central nervous system will be discussed.
Second, how allopregnanolone produced in the brain has actions on behavioral processes that are independent of binding to steroid receptors, but instead involve rapid modulatory actions via neurotransmitter targets (e.g., g-amino butyric acid-GABA, Nmethyl-D-aspartate- NMDA) will be reviewed.
Third, a recent focus on characterizing the role of a promiscuous nuclear receptor, pregnane xenobiotic receptor (PXR), involved in cholesterol metabolism and expressed in the VTA, as a target for allopregnanolone and how this relates to both actions and production of allopregnanolone will be addressed. For example, allopregnanolone can bind PXR and knocking down expression of PXR in the midbrain VTA attenuates actions of allopregnanolone via NMDA and/or GABAA for lordosis. Our understanding of allopregnanolone’s actions in the VTA for lordosis has been extended to reveal the role of allopregnanolone for broader, clinically-relevant questions, such as neurodevelopmental processes, neuropsychiatric disorders, epilepsy, and aging.

Long-term dysregulation of brain corticotrophin and glucocorticoid receptors and stress reactivity by single early-life pain experience in male and female rats

Nicole C. Victoria, Kiyoshi Inoue, Larry J. Young, Anne Z. Murphy
Psychoneuroendocrinology (2013) 38, 3015—3028
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.08.013

Inflammatory pain experienced on the day of birth (postnatal day 0: PD0) significantly dampens behavioral responses to stress- and anxiety-provoking stimuli in adult rats. However, to date, the mechanisms by which early life pain permanently alters adult stress responses remain unknown. The present studies examined the impact of inflammatory pain, experienced on the day of birth, on adult expression of receptors or proteins implicated in the activation and termination of the stress response, including corticotrophin releasing factor receptors (CRFR1 and CRFR2) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR). Using competitive receptor autoradiography, we show that Sprague Dawley male and female rat pups administered 1% carrageenan into the intraplantar surface of the hindpaw on the day of birth have significantly decreased CRFR1 binding in the basolateral amygdala and midbrain periaqueductal gray in adulthood. In contrast, CRFR2 binding, which is associated with stress termination, was significantly increased in the lateral septum and cortical amygdala. GR expression, measured with in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry, was significantly increased in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and significantly decreased in the hippocampus of neonatally injured adults. In parallel, acute stress-induced corticosterone release was significantly attenuated and returned to baseline more rapidly in adults injured on PD0 in comparison to controls. Collectively, these data show that early life pain alters neural circuits that regulate responses to and neuroendocrine recovery from stress, and suggest that pain experienced by infants in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit may permanently alter future responses to anxiety- and stress provoking stimuli.

Dysruption of Corticotropin Releasing Factor in hypocampal region

Stress and trauma: BDNF control of dendritic-spine formation and regression

M.R. Bennett, J. Lagopoulos
Progress in Neurobiology 112 (2014) 80–99
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2013.10.005

Chronic restraint stress leads to increases in brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA and protein in some regions of the brain, e.g. the basal lateral amygdala (BLA) but decreases in other regions such as the CA3 region of the hippocampus and dendritic spine density increases or decreases in line with these changes in BDNF. Given the powerful influence that BDNF has on dendritic spine growth, these observations suggest that the fundamental reason for the direction and extent of changes in dendritic spine density in a particular region of the brain under stress is due to the changes in BDNF there.
The most likely cause of these changes is provided by the stress initiated release of steroids, which readily enter neurons and alter gene expression, for example that of BDNF. Of particular interest is how glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids tend to have opposite effects on BDNF gene expression offering the possibility that differences in the distribution of their receptors and of their downstream effects might provide a basis for the differential transcription of the BDNF genes. Alternatively, differences in the extent of methylation and acetylation in the epigenetic control of BDNF transcription are possible in different parts of the brain following stress.
Although present evidence points to changes in BDNF transcription being the major causal agent for the changes in spine density in different parts of the brain following stress, steroids have significant effects on downstream pathways from the TrkB receptor once it is acted upon by BDNF, including those that modulate the density of dendritic spines.
Finally, although glucocorticoids play a canonical role in determining BDNF modulation of dendritic spines, recent studies have shown a role for corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF) in this regard. There is considerable improvement in the extent of changes in spine size and density in rodents with forebrain specific knockout of CRF receptor 1 (CRFR1) even when the glucocorticoid pathways are left intact. It seems then that CRF does have a role to play in determining BDNF control of dendritic spines.

Central CRF system perturbation in an Alzheimer’s disease knockin mouse model

Qinxi Guo, Hui Zheng, Nicholas John Justice
Neurobiology of Aging 33 (2012) 2678–2691
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2012.01.002

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is often accompanied by changes in mood as well as increases in circulating cortisol levels, suggesting that regulation of the stress responsive hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is disturbed. Here, we show that amyloid precursor protein (APP) is endogenously expressed in important limbic, hypothalamic, and midbrain nuclei that regulate hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity. Furthermore, in a knockin mouse model of AD that expresses familial AD (FAD) mutations of both APP with humanized amyloid beta (hA), and presenilin 1 (PS1), in their endogenous patterns (APP/hA/PS1 animals), corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) levels are increased in key stress-related nuclei, resting corticosteroid levels are elevated, and animals display increased anxiety-related behavior. Endocrine and behavioral phenotypes can be normalized by loss of 1 copy of CRF receptor type-1 (Crfr1), consistent with a perturbation of central CRF signaling in APP/hA/PS1 animals. However, reductions in anxiety and corticosteroid levels conferred by heterozygosity of CRF receptor type-1 do not improve a deficit in working memory observed in APP/hA/PS1 mice, suggesting that perturbations of the CRF system are not the primary cause of decreased cognitive performance.

Alzheimer’s disease-like neuropathology of gene-targeted APP-SLxPS1mut mice expressing the amyloid precursor protein at endogenous levels

Christoph Kohler, Ulrich Ebert, Karlheinz Baumann, and Hannsjorg Schroeder
Neurobiology of Disease 20 (2005) 528 – 540
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.nbd.2005.04.009

Most transgenic mice used for preclinical evaluation of potential disease-modifying treatments of Alzheimer’s disease develop major histopathological features of this disease by several-fold overexpression of the human amyloid precursor protein. We studied the phenotype of three different strains of gene-targeted mice which express the amyloid precursor protein at endogenous levels. Only further crossing with transgenic mice overexpressing mutant human presenilin1 led to the deposition of extracellular amyloid, accompanied by the deposition of apolipoprotein E, an astrocyte and microglia reaction, and the occurrence of dilated cholinergic terminals in the cortex. Features of neurodegeneration, however, were absent. The pattern of plaque development and deposition in these mice was similar to that of amyloid precursor protein overproducing strains if crossed to presenilin1-transgenics. However, plaque development started much later and developed slowly until the age of 18 months but then increased more rapidly.

Central Cholinergic Functions In Human Amyloid Precursor Protein Knock-In/Presenilin-1 Transgenic Mice

Hartmann, C. Erb, U. Ebert, K. H. Baumann, A. Popp, G. Koenig, J. Klein
Neuroscience 125 (2004) 1009–1017
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2004.02.038

Alzheimer’s disease is characterized by amyloid peptide formation and deposition, neurofibrillary tangles, central cholinergic dysfunction, and dementia; however, the relationship between these parameters is not well understood. We studied the effect of amyloid peptide formation and deposition on central cholinergic function in knock-in mice carrying the human amyloid precursor protein (APP) gene with the Swedish/London double mutation (APP-SL mice) which were crossbred with transgenic mice overexpressing normal (PS1wt) or mutated (M146L; PS1mut) human presenilin-1. APP-SLxPS1mut mice had increased levels of Aβ peptides at 10 months of age and amyloid plaques at 14 months of age while APP-SLPS1wt mice did not have increased peptide levels and did not develop amyloid plaques. We used microdialysis in 15–27 months old mice to compare hippocampal acetylcholine (ACh) levels in the two mouse lines and found that extracellular ACh levels were slightly but significantly reduced in the APP-SLPS1mut mice (-26%; P=0.044). Exploratory activity in the open field increased hippocampal ACh release by two-fold in both mouse lines; total and relative increases were not significantly different for the two strains under study. Similarly, infusion of scopolamine (1 µM) increased hippocampal ACh release to a similar extent (3–5-fold) in both groups. High-affinity choline uptake, a measure of the ACh turnover rate, was identical in both mouse lines. Neurons expressing choline acetyltransferase were increased in the septum of APP-SLPS1mut mice (26%; P =0.046). We conclude that amyloid peptide production causes a small decrease of extracellular ACh levels. The deposition of amyloid plaques, however, does not impair stimulated ACh release and proceeds without major changes of central cholinergic function.

Glutamate Neurotoxicity

Glutamate Neurotoxicity and Diseases of the Nervous System

Dennis W. Choi
Neuron. Oct, 1988; 1: 623-634

A growing number of studies now suggest that the cellular mechanisms which normally participate in signaling in the central nervous system (CNS) can be transformed by disease into instruments of neuronal cell destruction. Excitatory synaptic transmission in the mammalian CNS is principally mediated by L-glutamate. In fact, glutamate excites virtually all central neurons and is present in nerve terminals at millimolar levels (Curtis and Johnston, 1974). Normally, the extracellular levels of glutamate rise to high levels only in the brief and spatially localized fashion appropriate to synaptic transmission. This is fortunate, because as Lucas and Newhouse first showed in 1957, sustained exposure to glutamate can destroy retinal neurons. In a subsequent set of pioneering experiments, Olney (Olney and Sharpe, 1969; Olney et al., 1971) established that this toxicity, which he later called excitotoxicity, was not unique to glutamate or to retinal neurons, but was a feature common to the actions of all excitatory amino acids on central neurons. He postulated therefore that glutamate, or related compounds, might be the cause of the neuronal cell loss found in certain neurological diseases. In recent years, this hypothesis has gathered considerable support, fueled by new insights into glutamate receptor function and the development of effective glutamate antagonist drugs. The evidence is most convincing in diseases involving an acute insult to the brain, as occurs in a stroke, with abrupt deprivation of blood supply. But neurotoxicity due to excitatory amino acids may also be involved in slowly progressive degenerative diseases such as Huntington’s disease. Although the detailed molecular basis of glutamate neurotoxicity is not known, it appears that Ca2+ influx may play a critical role.
Glutamate interacts with at least three classes of membrane receptors, each commonly referred to by preferred pharmacological agonists: N-methyl-o-aspartate (NMDA), quisqualate, and kainate (Watkins and Olverman, 1987) (Figure I). These three classes are linked to membrane cation channels. A second type of quisqualate receptor has been additionally linked to a second messenger system (see below). It has been suggested that all three classes might actually be substates of a single molecular complex, but binding studies and newer physiological studies favor separate structures.

Quisqualate                         NMDA                       Kainate

Three Classes of Glutamate Receptors

Three Classes of Glutamate Receptors

Three Classes of Glutamate Receptors

One type of quisqualate receptor stimulates the formation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate UPS) and diacylglycerol (DAG) from phosphatidylinositol-4,5-biphosphate (PIP,); the other is linked directly to a Na+ ionophore. Activation of the quisqualate receptor-ionophore complex can be potentiated by Zn2+. The NMDA receptor opens a channel permeable to Ca2+ as well as Na+; this receptor-channel complex has several modulatory sites discussed in the text. The kainate receptor opens an ionophore permeable to Na+.

Best defined is the NMDA receptor. This receptor opens a distinctive membrane channel characterized by high conductance (main state about 50 pS), voltage dependent Mgz+ blockade and permeability to both Ca2+ and Na+. The NMDA receptor can be selectively activated by several endogenous compounds, including L-aspartate, homocysteate, and quinolinate. Activation requires the coavailability of glycine in near micromolar concentrations. The action of glutamate at the NMDA receptor can be selectively antagonized: competitively by 2-amino-5-phosphonovalerate (APV) and 2-amino-5-phosphonoheptanoate (APH), or noncompetitively by drugs that bind to the phencyclidine site within the open channel (such as phencyclidine, MK-801, dextrorphan, or ketamine. The NMDA receptor-activated channel can also be blocked noncompetitively by Znz+, most likely at a site different from that which binds Mg2.
Although glutamate has high affinity for all three classes of postsynaptic receptors, it is not easy to demonstrate its neurotoxicity in vivo. Even when directly injected into brain, bypassing the blood-brain barrier, extremely high doses of glutamate are required to create lesions.  Mangano & Schwartz found that they could infuse 0.5 crl/hr of a 300 mM glutamate solution into the hippocampus of a rat for 2 weeks without producing neuronal injury. This apparent low in vivo neurotoxic potency of glutamate may represent one reason why Olney’s “glutamate hypothesis” of neurological disease did not initially achieve a more widespread following. However, in fact, glutamate is a potent and rapidly acting neurotoxin; its neurotoxicity in vivo is likely masked by the efficiency of normal cellular uptake mechanisms in removing glutamate from the extracellular space. Glutamate neurotoxicity can be most directly studied in cell culture where bath exposure is not limited by cellular uptake.
The toxic changes produced by glutamate or related excitatory amino acids in vivo are of two sorts:

  1. acute swelling of neuronal dendrites and cell bodies and a
  2. more slowly evolving neuronal degeneration (Olney, 1986).

Axons and glia are relatively spared, although high levels of excitatory amino acids can produce some swelling of glia. A hallmark of excitatory amino acid neurotoxicity is its cellular selectivity, with distinctive patterns of neuronal loss produced by different excitatory amino acids and different routes of administration. For example, Nadler and co-workers (1978) found that intraventricular kainate preferentially destroys hippocampal CA3 neurons but spares dentate granule neurons. Different neuronal subpopulations
may differ in their intrinsic vulnerability to damage.

Possible Mechanisms Involved in Glutamate Neurotoxicity

How Ca*+ may mediate glutamate-induced neuronal degeneration. Glutamate acts on NMDA, non-NMDA, and “metabotropic” receptors (the quisqualate receptor linked to a second messenger system) to produce an increase in cytosolic free Ca*+. This cytosolic Ca *+, in concert with diacylglycerol liberated by the quisqualate-triggered second messenger system, activates protein kinase C, which acts via a number of mechanisms (primarily by altering membrane ion channels) to increase neuronal excitability and further increase cytosolic Ca*+. Elevated cytosolic Ca2+ then activates several enzymes capable of either directly or indirectly (through free radical formation) destroying cellular structure. Glutamate released from synaptic terminals or leaking nonspecifically from ruptured neurons contributes to additional injury propagation.

Glutamate Neurotoxicity in Perspective

The hypothesis that excitatory amino acids may specifically mediate pathological neuronal injury gives new form to this age-old enemy and raises the tantalizing possibility that current molecular and cellular insights into excitatory amino acid transmitter systems might be harnessed to develop an efficacious clinical therapy. Some points of attack are already apparent; others will likely be defined as the biology of excitatory amino acids continues to be unraveled. An intriguing area for investigation is the relationship between excitatory amino acid neurotoxicity and normal neuronal processes such as maturation, neurite outgrowth, and synaptic plasticity.

Glutamate Toxicity in a Neuronal Cell line Involves Inhibition of Cystine Transport Leading to Oxidative Stress

Timothy H. Murphy, M Miyamoto, A Sastre, R Schnaar and JT Coyle
Neuron 1989: 2: 1547-88.

Glutamate binds to both excitatory neurotransmitter binding sites and a W-dependent, quisqualate- and cystine-inhibited transport site on brain neurons. The neuroblastoma-primary retina hybrid cells (NWRE-105) are susceptible to glutamate-induced cytotoxicity. The Cl–dependent transport site to which glutamate and quisqualate (but not kainate or NMDA) bind has a higher affinity for cystine than for glutamate. Towering cystine concentrations in the cell culture medium results in cytotoxicity similar to that induced by glutamate addition in its morphology, kinetics, and CaZ+ dependence. Glutamate-induced cytotoxicity is directly proportional to its ability to inhibit cystine uptake. Exposure to glutamate (or lowered cystine) causes a decrease in glutathione levels and an accumulation of intracellular peroxides. Like NW-RE-105 cells, primary rat hippocampal neurons (but not glia) in culture degenerate in medium with lowered cystine concentration. Thus, glutamate-induced cytotoxicity in N18-RE-105 cells is due to inhibition of cystine uptake, resulting in lowered glutathione levels leading to oxidative stress and cell death.

Mechanism of glutamate-induced neurotoxicity in HT22 mouse hippocampal cells

Masayuki Fukui, Ji-Hoon Song, Jinyoung Choi, Hye Joung Choi, Bao Ting Zhu
European Journal of Pharmacology 617 (2009) 1–11
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.ejphar.2009.06.059

Glutamate is an endogenous excitatory neurotransmitter. At high concentrations, it is neurotoxic and contributes to the development of certain neurodegenerative diseases. There is considerable controversy in the literature with regard to whether glutamate-induced cell death in cultured HT22 cells (an immortalized mouse hippocampal cell line) is apoptosis, necrosis, or a new form of cell death. The present study focused on investigating the mechanism of glutamate-induced cell death. We found that glutamate induced, in a time dependent manner, both necrosis and apoptosis in HT22 cells. At relatively early time points (8–12 h), glutamate induced mostly necrosis, whereas at late time points (16–24 h), it induced mainly apoptosis. Glutamate-induced mitochondrial oxidative stress and dysfunction were crucial early events required for the induction of apoptosis through the release of the mitochondrial apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF), which catalyzed DNA fragmentation (an ATP-independent process). Glutamate-induced cell death proceeded independently of the Bcl-2 family proteins and caspase activation. The lack of caspase activation likely resulted from the lack of intracellular ATP when the mitochondrial functions were rapidly disrupted by the mitochondrial oxidative stress. In addition, it was observed that activation of JNK, p38, and ERK signaling molecules was also involved in the induction of apoptosis by glutamate. In conclusion, glutamate-induced apoptosis is AIF-dependent but caspase-independent, and is accompanied by DNA ladder formation but not chromatin condensation.

Understanding Low Reliability of Memories for Neutral Information Encoded under Stress: Alterations in Memory-Related Activation in the Hippocampus and Midbrain

Shaozheng Qin, EJ Hermans, HJF van Marle, and G Fernandez, et al.
The Journal of Neuroscience, Mar 21, 2012; 32(12): 4032–4041
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3101-11.2012

Exposure to an acute stressor can lead to unreliable remembrance of intrinsically neutral information, as exemplified by low reliability of eyewitness memories, which stands in contrast with enhanced memory for the stressful incident itself. Stress-sensitive neuromodulators (e.g., catecholamines) are believed to cause this low reliability by altering neurocognitive processes underlying memory formation. Using event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging, we investigated neural activity during memory formation in 44 young, healthy human participants while incidentally encoding emotionally neutral, complex scenes embedded in either a stressful or neutral context.
We recorded event-related pupil dilation responses as an indirect index of phasic noradrenergic activity. Autonomic, endocrine, and psychological measures were acquired to validate stress manipulation. Acute stress during encoding led to a more liberal response bias (more hits and false alarms) when testing memory for the scenes 24 h later. The strength of this bias correlated negatively with pupil dilation responses and positively with stress-induced heart rate increases at encoding. Acute stress, moreover, reduced subsequent memory effects (SMEs; items later remembered vs forgotten) in hippocampus and midbrain, and in pupil dilation responses.
The diminished SMEs indicate reduced selectivity and specificity in mnemonic processing during memory formation. This is in line with a model in which stress-induced catecholaminergic hyperactivation alters phasic neuromodulatory signaling in memory-related circuits, resulting in generalized (gist-based) processing at the cost of specificity. Thus, one may speculate that loss of specificity may yield less discrete memory representations at time of encoding, thereby causing a more liberal response bias when probing these memories.

Neuroendocrinology – Signaling, neuron plasticity and memory

Leptin Signaling Modulates the Activity of Urocortin 1 Neurons in the Mouse Nonpreganglionic Edinger-Westphal Nucleus

Lu Xu, Wim J. J. M. Scheenen, Rebecca L. Leshan, Christa M. Patterson, et al.
Endocrinology 152(3): 979–988, 2011
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1210/en.2010-1143

A recent study systematically characterized the distribution of the long form of the leptin receptor (LepRb) in the mouse brain and showed substantial LepRb mRNA expression in the nonpreganglionic Edinger-Westphal nucleus (npEW) in the rostroventral part of the midbrain. This nucleus hosts the majority of urocortin 1 (Ucn1) neurons in the rodent brain, and because Ucn1 is a potent satiety hormone and electrical lesioning of the npEW strongly decreases food intake, we have hypothesized a role of npEW-Ucn1 neurons in leptin-controlled food intake. Here, we show by immunohistochemistry that npEW-Ucn1 neurons in the mouse contain LepRb and respond to leptin administration with induction of the Janus kinase 2-signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 pathway, both in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, systemic leptin administration increases the Ucn1 content of then pEW significantly, whereas in mice that lack LepRb (db/db mice), then pEW contains considerably reduced amount of Ucn1. Finally, we reveal by patch clamping of midbrain Ucn1 neurons that leptin administration reduces the electrical firing activity of the Ucn1 neurons. In conclusion, we provide ample evidence for leptin actions that go beyond leptin’s well-known targets in the hypothalamus and propose that leptin can directly influence the activity of the midbrain Ucn1 neurons.

Leptin regulation of hippocampal synaptic function in health and disease

Andrew J. Irving and Jenni Harvey
Trans. R. Soc. B 369: 20130155 http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0155

The endocrine hormone leptin plays a key role in regulating food intake and body weight via its actions in the hypothalamus. However, leptin receptors are highly expressed in many extra-hypothalamic brain regions and evidence is growing that leptin influences many central processes including cognition. Indeed, recent studies indicate that leptin is a potential cognitive enhancer as it markedly facilitates the cellular events underlying hippocampal-dependent learning and memory, including effects on glutamate receptor trafficking, neuronal morphology and activity-dependent synaptic plasticity. However, the ability of leptin to regulate hippocampal synaptic function markedly declines with age and aberrant leptin function has been linked to neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Here, we review the evidence supporting a cognitive enhancing role for the hormone leptin and discuss the therapeutic potential of using leptin-based agents to treat AD.

The Y2 receptor agonist PYY3–36 increases the behavioral response to novelty and acute dopaminergic drug challenge in mice

Ulrike Stadlbauer, Elisabeth Weber, Wolfgang Langhans and Urs Meyer
International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology (2014), 17, 407–419
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1017/S1461145713001223

The gastrointestinal hormone PYY3–36 is a preferential Y2 neuropeptide Y (NPY) receptor agonist. Recent evidence indicates that PYY3–36 acts on central dopaminergic pathways, but its influence on dopamine-dependent behaviors remains largely unknown. We therefore explored the effects of peripheral PYY3–36 treatment on the behavioral responses to novelty and to dopamine-activating drugs in mice. In addition, we examined whether PYY3–36 administration may activate distinct dopamine and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) cell populations in the mesoaccumbal and nigrostriatal pathways. We found that i.p. PYY3–36 injection led to a dose-dependent increase in novel object exploration. The effective dose of PYY3–36 (1 μg/100 g body weight) also potentiated the locomotor reaction to the indirect dopamine receptor agonist amphetamine and increased stereotyped climbing/leaning responses following administration of the direct dopamine receptor agonist apomorphine. PYY3–36 administration did not affect activity of midbrain dopaminergic cells as evaluated by double immuno-enzyme staining of the neuronal early gene product c-Fos with tyrosine hydroxylase. PYY3–36 did, however, lead to a marked increase in the number of cells co-expressing c-Fos with glutamic acid decarboxylase in the nucleus accumbens and caudate putamen, indicating activation of GABAergic cells in dorsal and ventral striatal areas. Our results support the hypothesis that acute administration of the preferential Y2 receptor agonist PYY3–36 modulates dopamine-dependent behaviours. These effects do not seem to involve direct activation of midbrain dopamine cells but instead are associated with neuronal activation in the major input areas of the mesoaccumbal and nigrostriatal pathways.

Somatostatin and nociceptin inhibit neurons in the central nucleus of amygdala that project to the periaqueductal grey

Billy Chieng, MacDonald J. Christie
Neuropharmacology 59 (2010) 425e430
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2010.06.001

The central nucleus of amygdala (CeA) plays an important role in modulation of the descending antinociceptive pathways. Using whole-cell patch clamp recordings from brain slices, we found that CeA neurons responded to the endogenous ligands somatostatin (SST) and nociceptin/orphanin FQ (OFQ) via an increased K-conductance. Co-application with selective antagonists suggested that SST and OFQ act on SSTR2 and ORL1 receptors, respectively. Taking account of anatomical localisation of recorded neurons, the present study showed that many responsive neurons were located within the medial subdivision of CeA and all CeA projection neurons to the midbrain periaqueductal grey invariably responded to these peptides. Randomly selected agonist-responsive neurons in CeA predominantly classified physiologically as low-threshold spiking neurons. The similarity of SST, OFQ and, as previously reported, opioid responsiveness in a sub-population of CeA neurons suggests converging roles of these peptides to inhibit the activity of projections from CeA to vlPAG, and potentially similar antinociceptive actions in this pathway.

In vitro identification and electrophysiological characterization of dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area

Tao A. Zhang, Andon N. Placzek, John A. Dani
Neuropharmacology 59 (2010) 431e436
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2010.06.004

Dopamine (DA) neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) have been implicated in brain mechanisms related to motivation, reward, and drug addiction. Successful identification of these neurons in vitro has historically depended upon the expression of a hyperpolarization-activated current (Ih) and immunohistochemical demonstration of the presence of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the rate-limiting enzyme for DA synthesis. Recent findings suggest that electrophysiological criteria may be insufficient for distinguishing DA neurons from non-DA neurons in the VTA. In this study, we sought to determine factors that could potentially account for the apparent discrepancies in the literature regarding DA neuron identification in the rodent brain slice preparation. We found that confirmed DA neurons from the lateral VTA generally displayed a larger amplitude Ih relative to DA neurons located in the medial VTA. Measurement of a large amplitude Ih (>100 pA) consistently indicated a dopaminergic phenotype, but non-dopamine neurons also can have Ih current. The data also showed that immunohistochemical TH labeling of DA neurons can render false negative results after relatively long duration (>15 min) wholecell patch clamp recordings. We conclude that whole-cell patch clamp recording in combination with immunohistochemical detection of TH expression can guarantee positive but not negative DA identification in the VTA.

Dopamine Enables In Vivo Synaptic Plasticity Associated with the Addictive Drug Nicotine

Jianrong Tang and John A. Dani
Neuron, Sept 10, 2009; 63, 673–682
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.neuron.2009.07.025

Addictive drugs induce a dopamine signal that contributes to the initiation of addiction, and the dopamine signal influences drug-associated memories that perpetuate drug use. The addiction process shares many commonalities with the synaptic plasticity mechanisms normally attributed to learning and memory. Environmental stimuli repeatedly linked to addictive drugs become learned associations, and those stimuli come to elicit memories or sensations that motivate continued drug use. Applying in vivo recording techniques to freely moving mice, we show that physiologically relevant concentrations of the addictive drug nicotine directly cause in vivo hippocampal synaptic potentiation of the kind that underlies learning and memory. The drug-induced long-term synaptic plasticity required a local hippocampal dopamine signal. Disrupting general dopamine signaling prevented the nicotine-induced synaptic plasticity and conditioned place preference. These results suggest that dopaminergic signaling serves as a functional label of salient events by enabling and scaling synaptic plasticity that underlies drug-induced associative memory.

NCS-1 in the Dentate Gyrus Promotes Exploration, Synaptic Plasticity, and Rapid Acquisition of Spatial Memory

Bechara J. Saab, John Georgiou, Arup Nath, Frank J.S. Lee, et al.
Neuron, Sept 10, 2009; 63, 643–656
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.neuron.2009.08.014

The molecular underpinnings of exploration and its link to learning and memory remain poorly understood. Here we show that inducible, modest overexpression of neuronal calcium sensor 1 (Ncs1) selectively in the adult murine dentate gyrus (DG) promotes a specific form of exploratory behavior. The mice also display a selective facilitation of longterm potentiation (LTP) in the medial perforant path and a selective enhancement in rapid-acquisition spatial memory, phenotypes that are reversed by direct application of a cell-permeant peptide (DNIP) designed to interfere with NCS-1 binding to the dopamine type-2 receptor (D2R). Moreover, the DNIP and the D2R-selective antagonist L-741,626 attenuated exploratory behavior, DG LTP, and spatial memory in control mice. These data demonstrate a role for NCS-1 and D2R in DG plasticity and provide insight for understanding how the DG contributes to the origin of exploration and spatial memory acquisition.

Neuroligin 2 Drives Postsynaptic Assembly at Perisomatic Inhibitory Synapses through Gephyrin and Collybistin

Alexandros Poulopoulos, Gayane Aramuni, Guido Meyer, Tolga Soykan, et al.
Neuron 63, 628–642, Sept 10, 2009
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.neuron.2009.08.023

In the mammalian CNS, each neuron typically receives thousands of synaptic inputs from diverse classes of neurons. Synaptic transmission to the postsynaptic neuron relies on localized and transmitter-specific differentiation of the plasma membrane with postsynaptic receptor, scaffolding, and adhesion proteins accumulating in precise apposition to presynaptic sites of transmitter release. We identified protein interactions of the synaptic adhesion molecule neuroligin 2 that drive postsynaptic differentiation at inhibitory synapses. Neuroligin 2 binds the scaffolding protein gephyrin through a conserved cytoplasmic motif and functions as a specific activator of collybistin, thus guiding membrane tethering of the inhibitory postsynaptic scaffold. Complexes of neuroligin 2, gephyrin and collybistin are sufficient for cell-autonomous clustering of inhibitory neurotransmitter receptors. Deletion of neuroligin 2 in mice perturbs GABAergic and glycinergic synaptic transmission and leads to a loss of postsynaptic specializations specifically at perisomatic inhibitory synapses.

A Subset of Ventral Tegmental Area Neurons is Inhibited by Dopamine, 5-Hydroxytryptamine and Opioids

L. Cameron, M. W. Wessendorf and J. T. Williams
Neuroscience 1997; 77(1), pp. 155–166 PII: S0306-4522(96)00444-7

Neurons originating in the ventral tegmental area are thought to play a key role in the formation of addictive behaviors, particularly in response to drugs such as cocaine and opioids. In this study we identified different populations of ventral tegmental area neurons by the pharmacology of their evoked synaptic potentials and their response to dopamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine and opioids. Intracellular recordings were made from ventral tegmental area neurons in horizontal slices of guinea-pig brain and electrical stimulation was used to evoke synaptic potentials. The majority of cells (61.3%) hyperpolarized in response to dopamine, depolarized to 5-hydroxytryptamine, failed to respond to [Met]5enkephalin and exhibited a slow GABAB-mediated inhibitory postsynaptic potential. A smaller proportion of cells (11.3%) hyperpolarized in response to [Met]5enkephalin, depolarized to 5-hydroxytryptamine, failed to respond to dopamine and did not exhibit a slow inhibitory postsynaptic potential. These two groups of cells corresponded to previously described ‘‘principal’’ and ‘‘secondary’’ cells, respectively. A further group of cells (27.4%) was identified that, like the principal cells, hyperpolarized to dopamine.

However, these ‘‘tertiary cells’’ also hyperpolarized to both 5-hydroxytryptamine and [Met]5enkephalin and exhibited a slow, cocaine-sensitive 5-hydroxytryptamine1A-mediated inhibitory postsynaptic potential. When principal and tertiary cells were investigated immuno-histochemically, 82% of the principal cells were positive for tyrosine hydroxylase compared
with only 29% of the tertiary cells. The 5-hydroxytryptamine innervation of both these cell types was investigated and a similar density of putative contacts was observed near the somata and dendrites in both groups. This latter finding suggests that the existence of a 5-hydroxytryptamine-mediated inhibitory postsynaptic potential in the tertiary cells may be determined by the selective expression of 5-hydroxytryptamine receptors, rather than the distribution or density of the 5-hydroxytryptamine innervation.
We conclude that tertiary cells are a distinct subset of ventral tegmental area neurons where cocaine and μ-opioids both mediate inhibition.

Dopamine reward circuitry: Two projection systems from the ventral midbrain to the nucleus accumbens–olfactory tubercle complex

Satoshi Ikemoto
Brain Research Reviews 56 (2007) 27–78
http://:dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.05.004

Anatomical and functional refinements of the meso-limbic dopamine system
of the rat are discussed. Present experiments suggest that dopaminergic neurons localized in the posteromedial ventral tegmental area (VTA) and central linear nucleus raphe selectively project to the ventromedial striatum (medial olfactory tubercle and medial nucleus accumbens shell), whereas
the anteromedial VTA has few if any projections to the ventral striatum,
and the lateral VTA largely projects to the ventrolateral striatum (accumbens
core, lateral shell and lateral tubercle). These findings complement the recent behavioral findings that cocaine and amphetamine are more rewarding when administered into the ventromedial striatum than into the ventrolateral striatum. Drugs such as nicotine and opiates are more rewarding when administered into the posterior VTA or the central linear nucleus than into
the anterior VTA. A review of the literature suggests that
(1) the midbrain has corresponding zones for the accumbens core and medial shell;
(2) the striatal portion of the olfactory tubercle is a ventral extension of the nucleus accumbens shell; and
(3) a model of two dopamine projection systems from the ventral midbrain to the ventral striatum is useful for understanding reward function.
The medial projection system is important in the regulation of arousal characterized by affect and drive and plays a different role in goal directed learning than the lateral projection system, as described in the variation–selection hypothesis of striatal functional organization.

Metabolic hormones, dopamine circuits, and feeding

Nandakumar S. Narayanan, Douglas J. Guarnieri, Ralph J. DiLeone
Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 31 (2010) 104–112
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.yfrne.2009.10.004

Recent evidence has emerged demonstrating that metabolic hormones such as ghrelin and leptin can act on ventral tegmental area (VTA) midbrain dopamine neurons to influence feeding. The VTA is the origin of mesolimbic dopamine neurons that project to the nucleus accumbens (NAc) to influence behavior. While blockade of dopamine via systemic antagonists or targeted gene delete can impair food intake, local NAc dopamine manipulations have little effect on food intake. Notably, non-dopaminergic manipulations in the VTA and NAc produce more consistent effects on feeding and food choice. More recent genetic evidence supports a role for the substantia nigra-striatal dopamine pathways in food intake, while the VTA–NAc circuit is more likely involved in higher-order aspects of food acquisition, such as motivation and cue associations. This rich and complex literature should be considered in models of how peripheral hormones influence feeding behavior via action on the midbrain circuits.

Control of brain development and homeostasis by local and systemic insulin signaling

Liu, P. Speder & A. H. Brand
Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism 16 (Suppl. 1): 16–20, 2014

Insulin and insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) are important regulators of growth and metabolism. In both vertebrates and invertebrates, insulin/IGFs are made available to various organs, including the brain, through two routes: the circulating systemic insulin/IGFs act on distant organs via endocrine signaling, whereas insulin/IGF ligands released by local tissues act in a paracrine or autocrine fashion. Although the mechanisms governing the secretion and action of systemic insulin/IGF have been the focus of extensive investigation, the significance of locally derived insulin/IGF has only more recently come to the fore. Local insulin/IGF signaling is particularly important for the development and homeostasis of the central nervous system, which is insulated from the systemic environment by the blood–brain barrier. Local insulin/IGF signaling from glial cells, the blood–brain barrier and the cerebrospinal fluid has emerged as a potent regulator of neurogenesis. This review will address the main sources of local insulin/IGF and how they affect neurogenesis during development. In addition, we describe how local insulin/IGF signaling couples neural stem cell proliferation with systemic energy state in Drosophila and in mammals.

Pharmacology, Physiology, and Mechanisms of Action of Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 Inhibitors

Erin E. Mulvihill and Daniel J. Drucker
Endocrine Reviews 35: 992–1019, 2014
http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/er.2014-1035

Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4) is a widely expressed enzyme transducing actions through an anchored transmembrane molecule and a soluble circulating protein. Both membrane-associated and soluble DPP4 exert
catalytic activity, cleaving proteins containing a position 2 alanine or proline. DPP4-mediated enzymatic cleavage alternatively inactivates peptides or generates new bioactive moieties that may exert competing or novel activities. The widespread use of selective DPP4 inhibitors for the treatment of type 2 diabetes has heightened interest in the molecular mechanisms through which DPP4 inhibitors exert their pleiotropic actions. Here we review the biology ofDPP4with a focus on:
1) identification of pharmacological vs physiological DPP4 substrates; and
2) elucidation of mechanisms of actions of DPP4 in studies employing genetic elimination or chemical reduction of DPP4 activity.
We review data identifying the roles of key DPP4 substrates in transducing the glucoregulatory, anti-inflammatory, and cardiometabolic actions of DPP4  inhibitors in both preclinical and clinical studies. Finally, we highlight experimental pitfalls and technical challenges encountered in studies designed to understand the mechanisms of action and downstream targets activated by inhibition of DPP4.
Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4) is a multifunctional protein that exerts biological activity through pleiotropic actions including:

  • protease activity (1),
  • association with adenosine deaminase (ADA) (2),
  • interaction with the extracellular matrix (3),
  • cell surface coreceptor activity mediating viral entry (4), and
  • regulation of intracellular signal transduction coupled to control of cell migration and proliferation (5).

The complexity of DPP4 action is amplified by the panoply of bioactive DPP4 substrates, which in turn act as elegant biochemical messengers in multiple tissues, including the immune and neuroendocrine systems.

DPP4 transmits signals across cell membranes and interacts with other membrane proteins (Figure). Remarkably, most of the protein is extracellular, including the C-terminal catalytic domain, a cysteine-rich area, and a large glycosylated region linked by a flexible stalk to the transmembrane segment. Only six N-terminal amino acids are predicted to extend into the cytoplasm. The active site, Ser 630, is flanked by the classic serine peptidase motif Gly-Trp-Ser630-Tyr-Gly-Gly-Tyr-Val.

Membrane-bound DPP4

Membrane-bound DPP4

Membrane-bound DPP4 contains residues 1–766, whereas sDPP4 contains residues 39–766. sDPP4 is lacking the cytoplasmic domain [residues 1–6], transmembrane domain [residues 7–28], and the flexible stalk [residues 29–39]. Both membrane-bound and circulating sDPP4 share many domains including the glycosylated region [residues 101–535, specific residues 85,92, 150], ADA binding domain [340–343], fibronectin binding domain [468–479], cysteine-rich domain [351–506, disulfide bonds are formed from 385–394, 444–472, and 649–762], and the catalytic domain [507–766 including residues composing the catalytic active site 630, 708, and 740].

DPP4 activity is subject to regulation at many levels, including control of gene and protein expression, interaction with binding partners, and modulation of enzyme activity. The DPP4 gene does not contain conventional TATAA or CCAAT promoter sequences but is characterized by a cytosine/guanine-rich promoter region.
DPP4 contains eight to 11 potential N-glycosylation sites, which can contribute to its folding and stability. Although glycosylation may contribute approximately 18–25% of the total molecular weight, mutational analysis has determined that the glycosylation sites are not required for dimerization, catalytic activity, or ADA binding. However, N-terminal sialylation facilitates trafficking of DPP4 to the apical membrane. Interestingly, molecular analysis of DPP4 isoforms isolated from the rat kidney brush border membrane reveals extensive heterogeneity in the oligosaccharides of DPP4.DPP4 was first investigated for its role in hydrolysis of dietary prolyl peptides (58); subsequent studies using DPP4 isolated using immunoaffinity chromatography and ADA binding identified DPP4 as the primary enzyme responsible for the generation of Gly-Prop-nitroanilide substrates in human serum. It is now known that DPP4 can cleave dozens of peptides, including chemokines, neuropeptides, and regulatory peptides, most containing a proline or alanine residue at position 2 of the amino-terminal region. Despite the preference for a position 2 proline, alternate residues (hydroxyproline, dehydroproline > alanine >,  glycine, threonine, valine, or leucine) at the penultimate position are also cleaved by DPP4, suggesting a required stereochemistry. The DPP4 cleavage at postproline peptide bonds inactivates peptides and/or generates new bioactive peptides (see Figure), thereby regulating diverse biological processes.

DPP4 cleavage regulates substrate-receptor interactions

DPP4 cleavage regulates substrate-receptor interactions

DPP4 cleavage regulates substrate/receptor interactions. A, DPP4 cleaves NPY [1–36] and PYY [1–36]. The intact forms of these peptides signal through Y1R-Y5R. After DPP4 cleavage, NPY [3–36] and PYY [3–36] are generated and preferentially signal through the Y2R and Y5R. B, DPP4 cleaves SP [1–11], which signals through the NK1R receptor to generate SP [5–11], which can signal through (NK1R, -2R, -3R).

GHRH and IGF-1

GHRH [1–44] and [1–40] are produced in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus and bind its receptor on the anterior pituitary to stimulate the release of GH, and in turn, GH stimulates hepatic IGF-1 release. GHRH was among the first peptides to be identified as a DPP4 substrate; it is rapidly degraded in rodent and human plasma to GHRH [3–44]/GHRH [3–40], and this cleavage was blocked upon incubation of human plasma with the DPP4 inhibitor, diprotin A (99).GHRH[1–44] or [1–40] exhibits a very short half-life (6 min) andDPP4 cleavage was initially perceived to be a critical regulator of GHRH bioactivity and, in turn, the GH-IGF-1 axis. IGF-1, the downstream effector of GHRH and GH, is a 105-amino acid protein produced mainly by the liver.
IGF-1 was identified as a pharmacological DPP4 substrate by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight analysis of molecular forms of IGF-1 generated after incubation with DPP4 purified from baculovirus-infected insect cells. However, studies in pigs treated with sitagliptin at doses inhibiting 90% of DPP4 activity failed to demonstrate an increase in active intact IGF-1.
Clinically, treatment of healthy human male subjects with sitagliptin (25–600 mg) for 10 days did not produce increased concentrations of serum IGF-1 or IGF-binding protein 3 as measured by ELISA. Furthermore, Dpp4/ mice or rats do not exhibit increased organ growth or body size. Hence, the available data suggest that although DPP4 cleaves and inactivates both GHRH and IGF-1, enzymatic inactivation by DPP4 is not the major mechanism regulating the bioactivity of the GHRH-IGF-1 axis.

The role of acute cortisol and DHEAS in predicting acute and chronic PTSD symptoms

Joanne Mouthaan, Marit Sijbrandij, Jan S.K. Luitse
Psychoneuroendocrinology (2014) 45, 179—186
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.04.001

Background: Decreased activation of the hypothalamus—pituitary—adrenal (HPA) axis in response to stress is suspected to be a vulnerability factor for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Previous studies showed inconsistent findings regarding the role of cortisol in predicting PTSD. In addition, no prospective studies have examined the role of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), or its sulfate form DHEAS, and the cortisol-to-DHEA(S) ratio in predicting PTSD. In this study, we tested whether acute plasma cortisol, DHEAS and the cortisol-to-DHEAS ratio predicted PTSD symptoms at 6 weeks and 6 months post-trauma. Methods: Blood samples of 397 adult level-1 trauma center patients, taken at the trauma resuscitation room within hours after the injury, were analyzed for cortisol and DHEAS levels. PTSD symptoms were assessed at 6 weeks and 6 months post-trauma with the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale. Results: Multivariate linear regression analyses showed that lower cortisol predicted PTSD symptoms at both 6 weeks and 6 months, controlling for age, gender, time of blood sampling, injury, trauma history, and admission to intensive care. Higher DHEAS and a smaller cortisol-to-DHEAS ratio predicted PTSD symptoms at 6 weeks, but not after controlling for the same variables, and not at 6 months. Conclusions: Our study provides important new evidence on the crucial role of the HPA-axis in response to trauma by showing that acute cortisol and DHEAS levels predict PTSD symptoms in survivors of recent trauma.
Neurobiology of DHEA and effects on sexuality, mood and cognition

  1. Pluchino, P.Drakopoulos, F.Bianchi-Demicheli, J.M.Wenger
    J Steroid Biochem & Molec Biol 145 (2015) 273–280
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2014.04.012

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfate ester, DHEAS, are the most abundant steroid hormones in the humans. However, their physiological significance, their mechanisms of action and their possible roles as treatment are not fully clarified. Biological actions of DHEA(S) in the brain involve neuroprotection, neurite growth, neurogenesis and neuronal survival, apoptosis, catecholamine synthesis and secretion, as well as anti-oxidant, anti- inflammatory and antiglucocorticoid effects. In addition, DHEA affects neurosteroidogen is and endorphin synthesis/release. We also demonstrated in a model of ovariectomized rats that DHEA therapy increases proceptive behaviors, already after 1 week of treatment, affecting central function of sexual drive. In women, the analyses of clinical outcomes are far from being conclusive and many issues should still be addressed. Although DHEA preparations have been available in the market since the 1990s, there are very few definitive reports on the biological functions of this steroid. We demonstrate that 1 year DHEA administration at the dose of 10mg provided a significant improvement in comparison with vitamin D in sexual function
and in frequency of sexual intercourse in early postmenopausal women. Among symptomatic women, the spectrum of symptoms responding to DHEA requires further investigation, to define the type of sexual symptoms (e.g. decreased sexual function or hypoactive sexual desire disorder) and the degree of mood/cognitive symptoms that could be responsive to hormonal treatment.
In this regard, our findings are promising, although they need further exploration with a larger and more representative sample size.
Although adrenal cortex is considered to be the primary source of DHEAS in the brain, it was reported that DHEAS did not dis- appear or decrease in the brain 15 days neither after orchiectomy, adrenalectomy, or both, nor after the inhibition of adrenal secretion by dexamethasone. DHEA and DHEAS were among the first neurosteroids identified in rat brains. Cytochrome P450c17 was found in a subset of neurons of embryonic rodent brains. While P450c17 protein was readily detected in the brain, the abundance of P450c17 mRNA transcripts in the embryonic mouse brain or hippocampus of adult male rats was low, and was approximated to be 1/200th of the expression in testis.
DHEAS may be synthesized in the brain from DHEA. Sulfation of DHEA has been observed in the brains of rhesus monkeys in vivo and in human fetal brain slices in vitro. DHEA sulfotransferase (HSTor SULT2A1) is an enzyme that sulfonates DHEA (in addition to pregnenolone).Western blotting and immune-histochemistry showed protein expression of an HST in adult Wistar rat brain. In addition SULT2A1 mRNA expression has been shown in rat brains. DHEAS is predominately transported out of the brain across the blood–brain barrier and DHEAS found in the brain is most likely due to local synthesis . DHEA(S) may mediate some of its actions through conversion into more potent sex steroids and activation of androgen or estrogen receptors in tissue.
According to existing assumption of the biology of depression, DHEA(S) ability to modulate many neurobiological actions could underlie relationships between endogenous and/or exogenously- supplemented DHEA(S) concentrations and depression. There is evidence that DHEAS concentrations are negatively correlated with ratings of depressed mood. However, the remaining literature examining plasma and serum DHEA(S) concentrations in depression is still inconsistent and other plasma indexes were studied in order to more accurately discriminate depressed from nondepressed individuals. Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA) hyperactivity has
been demonstrated in chronic diseases affecting nervous system disorders like depression. The end products of HPA axis, glucocorticoids (GCs), regulate many physiological functions and play an important role in affective regulation and dysregulation. Despite DHEAS levels which markedly decrease throughout adulthood, an increase in circulating cortisol with advanced age has been observed in human and nonhuman primates.
The most relevant aspect meriting attention is certainly the controversial finding among the studies that investigate the correlation of the endogenous DHEA sulfate (DHEAS) level, the aging process or organ illness with the results coming from studies focusing on the effects of exogenous DHEAS administration on brain function, sexuality, cardiovascular health and metabolic syndrome. Indeed, the marked age-related decline in serum DHEA and DHEAS has suggested that a deficiency of these steroids may be causally related to the development of a series of diseases that are generally associ- ated with aging. The postulated consequences of low DHEA levels include insulin resistance, obesity, cardiovascular disease, cancer, reduction of the immune defense system as well as psychosocial problems such as depression and a general deterioration in the sensation of well-being and cognitive function, DHEA replacement may seem an attractive treatment opportunity. Nevertheless, the analyses of clinical outcomes are far from being conclusive.

Dehydroepiandrosterone, its metabolites and ion channels

Hill, M. Dusková, L. Stárka
J Steroid Biochem & Molec Biology 145(2015)293–314
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2014.05.006

This review is focused on the physiological and pathophysiological relevance of steroids influencing the activities of the central and peripheral nervous systems with regard to their concentrations in body fluids and tissues in various stages of human life like the fetal development or pregnancy. The data summarized in this review shows that DHEA and its unconjugated and sulfated metabolites are physiologically and pathophysiologically relevant in modulating numerous ion channels and participate in vital functions of the human organism. DHEA and its unconjugated and sulfated metabolites including 5 _/ _-reduced androstane steroids participate in various physiological and pathophysiological processes like the management of GnRH cyclic release, regulation of glandular and neurotransmitter secretions, maintenance of glucose homeostasis on one hand and insulin insensitivity on the other hand, control of skeletalmuscle and smooth muscle activities including vasoregulation, promotion of tolerance to ischemia and other neuroprotective effects. In respect of prevalence of steroid sulfates over unconjugated steroids in the periphery and the opposite situation in the CNS, the sulfated androgens and androgen metabolites reach relevance in peripheral organs. The unconjugated androgens and estrogens are relevant in periphery and so much the more in the CNS due to higher concentrations of most unconjugated steroids in the CNS tissues than in circulation and peripheral organs.

Neurotrophins are proteins found within a broad range of cell types in the brain and periphery that facilitate neuronal growth, survival, and plasticity. The neurotrophin ‘‘superfamily’’ includes nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), neurotrophin-3 (NT3), neurotrophin-4/5 (NT4/5), and neurotrophin-6. Target tissues are hypothesized to regulate neuron survival by making neurotrophins available in limited amounts, resulting in selection of neurons with the best connectivity to the target tissue. NGF, in particular, is released by the target tissue and taken up in responsive neurons by receptor-mediated endocytosis. It is then transported retrogradedly into the cell where it exerts trophic effects. Lu et al. proposed a ‘‘Yin and Yang model,’’ whereby neurotrophic action is mediated by two principal classes of transmembrane receptor systems: the tyrosine kinase (Trk) receptors (including TrkA [selective for NGF], TrkB [selective for BDNF and NT4/5], and TrkC [selective for NT3]) and the neurotrophin receptor p75NTR. Each receptor type binds mature neurotrophins and/or neurotrophin precursors (proneurotrophins), creating a complex ‘‘balance’’ that then causes neuronal survival or death.
DHEA has been shown to evoke NGF mRNA expression in target cells. In a study of pregnant women, Schulte-Herbrüggen et al. showed no relationships between serum DHEAS and NGF. In contrast, we showed that DHEAS independently associated with salivary NGF (sNGF) in military men under baseline conditions, while DHEA did not. We now know that both DHEA(S) and NGF respond affirmatively to stressful insult, yet the association between these analytes during stress exposure is not understood. Characterization of this relationship has implications for prevention and treatment of traumatic stress and injury, degenerative disease management, and nerve repair. In this report, we extended our prior study of neuroprotective properties of DHEAS in men under baseline conditions to a prospective paradigm involving intense stress exposure in both men and women. We hypothesized that

(a) robust associations would prevail between total output of DHEAS and sNGF across the stress trajectory and at each time point,
(b) changes in DHEAS would predict corresponding changes in sNGF, and
(c) baseline DHEAS would positively predict total sNGF output across the stress trajectory.
We also explored the roles of testosterone and cortisol. In light of less definitive prior literature, directional hypotheses were not stated regarding these analytes.

In the first regression model, total hormone output (AUCG) of the independent variables (DHEAS, testosterone, and cortisol) combined to explain 63.7% of variance in sNGF output (F = 65.4, p < 0.001). Standardized beta coefficients revealed that testosterone exerted an independent effect (b = 0.80, p < 0.001), while the other predictors were not significant. In light of this unexpected finding, we then used regression-based causal steps modeling to evaluate whether testosterone mediated a hypothesized direct effect of DHEAS on sNGF. Following this approach, DHEAS predicted sNGF in an initial regression model (b = 0.45, p < 0.001). When testosterone was added, the direct effect of DHEAS (path c0) on sNGF was nearly eradicated and no longer significant (b = .04, p = .57), thus suggesting a mediated effect. An alternate statistical test (Sobel Test; 34) evaluating the hypothesized difference between the total effect (path c) and the direct effect (path c0) of DHEAS on sNGF produced a similar result (test statistic = 4.0, p < 0.001). Fig. 1 depicts positive association of DHEAS to sNGF, while Fig. 2 depicts Positive association of testosterone to sNGF.

Positive association of DHEAS total output and sNGF total output

Positive association of DHEAS total output and sNGF total output

Positive association of DHEAS total output and sNGF total output

Positive association of testosterone total output and sNGF total output

Positive association of testosterone total output and sNGF total output

Positive association of testosterone total output and sNGF total output.
The models were then decomposed at each time point. At baseline, the independent variables (DHEAS, testosterone, and cortisol) combined to account for 10.2% of variance in sNGF (F = 5.3, p < 0.01). Standardized beta coefficients showed that DHEAS exerted an independent effect on sNGF (b = 0.39, p < 0.001), while the other predictors were not significant. During stress exposure, the independent variables combined to account for 28.0% of variance in NGF (F = 15.8, p < 0.001). Again, DHEAS exerted an independent effect (b = 0.56, p < 0.001) while the other predictors were not significant. During recovery, the predictor set accounted for 18.0% of variance in sNGF (F = 9.2, p < 0.001), and DHEAS exerted an independent effect (b = 0.47, p < 0.001) while the other predictors did not.
The models were then decomposed relative to each change index. In terms of reactivity, the independent variables (DHEAS, testosterone, and cortisol reactivity) and covariate (sex) combined to account for 20.3% of variance in sNGF reactivity (F = 8.2, p < 0.001). Standardized beta coefficients revealed that DHEAS reactivity exerted an independent effect (b = 0.39, p < 0.001), while the other predictors were not significant. In terms of recovery, the predictors combined to account for 28.2% of variance in sNGF recovery (F = 15.5, p < 0.001); DHEAS recovery exerted an independent effect (b = 0.52, p < 0.001), as did testosterone recovery (b = [1]0.27, p < 0.01). In terms of residual elevation/depression, the independent variables explained 12.4% of variance in sNGF residual elevation (F = 6.2, p < 0.001). DHEAS residual elevation exerted an independent effect (b = 0.35, p < 0.001), while the other predictors did not.

Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals and Human Growth and Maturation: A Focus on Early Critical Windows of Exposure

Julie Fudvoye, Jean-Pierre Bourguignon, Anne-Simone Parent
Vitamins and Hormones, 2014; 94: Chapt 1. 1-25.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800095-3.00001-8

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are exogenous substances that interfere with hormone synthesis, metabolism, or action. In addition, some of them could cause epigenetic alterations of DNA that can be transmitted to the following generations. Because the developing organism is highly dependent on sex steroids and thyroid hormones for its maturation, the fetus and the child are very sensitive to any alteration of their hormonal environment. An additional concern about that early period of life comes from the shaping of the homeostatic mechanisms that takes place also at that time with involvement of epigenetic mechanisms along with the concept of fetal origin of health and disease. In this chapter, we will review the studies reporting effects of EDCs on human development. Using a translational approach, we will review animal studies that can shed light on some mechanisms of action of EDCs on the developing organism. We will focus on the major hormone-dependent stages of development: fetal growth, sexual differentiation, puberty, brain development, and energy balance. We will also discuss the possible epigenetic effects of EDCs on human development.

Several studies have reported that prenatal or early postnatal exposure to some EDCs is associated with alterations of cognitive or motor functions in children. Knowing the fundamental role played by thyroid hormones and sex steroids in cortex development, one can hypothesize that disruption of those hormones could cause alteration of the development of the cerebral cortex and of its functions later in life. We will review here the human data suggesting a causal effect for endocrine disrupters on impairment of cortical functions and approach some EDC mechanisms of action using animal models.

Thyroid hormones are known to be essential for brain development. They regulate progenitor proliferation and differentiation, neuron migration, and dendrite outgrowth (Parent, Naveau, Gerard, Bourguignon, & Westbrook, 2011). Even mild thyroid hormone insufficiency in humans can produce measurable deficits in cognitive functions (Zoeller & Rovet, 2004). Thyroid hormone action is mediated by two classes of nuclear receptors (Forrest & Vennstro¨m, 2000) that exhibit differential spatial and temporal expressions in the brain, suggesting that thyroid hormones have variable functions during brain development. This differential expression of thyroid hormone receptors explains the critical period of thyroid hormone action on brain development as suggested by models of maternal hypothyroidism or congenital hypothyroidism.

Depending on the timing of onset of hypothyroidism, the offspring will display problems of visual attention, gross or fine motor skills, or language and memory skills. Similarly, one can hypothesize that disruption of thyroid function by EDCs will have different effects based on the timing of exposure. However, few studies focused on that aspect. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) form a group of widespread environmental contaminants composed of 209 different congeners used in a wide variety of applications. Their production was banned in the 1970s but PCBs are still present in the environment due to their high stability. PCBs were among the first EDCs identified as responsible for alterations of cognitive functions. Indeed, impaired memory and altered learning abilities have been associated with prenatal exposure to EDCs in humans and In animal models, perinatal exposure to PCBs has been consistently associated with a decrease of thyroid hormone concentration in maternal serum as well as pup serum. Some but not all epidemiological studies in human have found an association between PCB body burden and thyroid hormone levels. This disruption of thyroid function could explain some of the effects of PCBs on the developing brain. Indeed, animal models have shown that the ototoxic effects of PCBs could be partially ameliorated by thyroxin replacement and PCBs seem to alter some of the developmental processes in the cortex and the cerebellum that are dependent on thyroid hormones. However, recent publications raise important issues.

As it is the case for other EDCs, some windows of susceptibility have been identified during pre- and postnatal brain development. Recent studies have shown that exposure to PBDEs causes alteration of thyroid hormone levels in pregnant women and infants as it is the case in rodents. Only very few studies, however, have focused on the molecular or cellular effects of perinatal exposure to PBDEs in vivo. Viberg et al. have reported a decrease of cholinergic nicotinic receptors in the hippocampus after exposure to BDE-99 and BDE-153. However, the link between such a decrease and the behavioral effects of PBDEs is still unclear. Other teams have reported that exposure to PBDEs reduced hippocampal long term potentiation and decreased brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in the brain. While several studies have reported negative effect of PBDEs on brain development and cognitive function in animals, there is relatively little information about adverse health effects of PBDEs in humans. Some very recent studies have identified a correlation between prenatal exposure to PBDEs and alteration of cognitive functions.

Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals: Elucidating Our Understanding of Their Role in Sex and Gender-Relevant End Points

Cheryl A. Frye
Vitamins and Hormones, 2014; 94: 41-98
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800095-3.00003-1

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are diverse and pervasive and may have significant consequence for health, including reproductive development and expression of sex-/gender-sensitive parameters. This review chapter discusses what is known about common EDCs and their effects on reproductively relevant end points. It is proposed that one way that EDCs may exert such effects is by altering steroid levels (androgens or 17-estradiol, E2) and/or intracellular E2 receptors (ERs) in the hypothalamus and/or hippocampus. Basic research findings that demonstrate developmentally sensitive end points to androgens and E2 are provided. Furthermore, an approach is suggested to examine differences in EDCs that diverge in their actions at ERs to elucidate their role in sex-/gender-sensitive parameters.

Reproductive dysfunction among adults and emotional, attentional, and behavioral disorders among children are on the rise. Sperm counts and fertility have declined in the last 50 years . Incidence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism has increased in the last 30 years. These increases in reproductive dysfunction and developmental disorders may be due to increased exposure to environmental contaminants, although there is controversy about the relationship between exposure and these effects.
Many contaminants in the environment, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, and metals, accumulate in exposed individuals and may have adverse consequences due to effects as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). EDCs may have effects by altering steroid levels (androgens or 17β-estradiol, E2) and/or intracellular E2 receptors (ERs) in the hypothalamus and/or hippocampus.
Steroid hormones, during critical periods of development, organize sexual dimorphisms in brain and behavior and give rise to sex differences in later responses to steroid hormones. EDCs can profoundly disrupt reproductive responses following adult exposure and result in pervasive effects that extend throughout the life of their offspring. Many nonreproductive behaviors, such
as spatial performance, activity, and arousal, are also sexually dimorphic and organized and activated by steroid hormones. Thus, EDCs may affect reproductive and the aforementioned nonreproductive parameters by altering E2 levels and/or ER binding in the hypothalamus and/or hippocampus.
Results from the literature and preliminary data will be presented that demonstrate our use of a whole-animal model to begin to investigate effects of exposure (in adulthood and/or development) to EDCs on steroid levels (androgens and E2), actions at ERs (in hypothalamus and hippocampus), and reproductive-sensitive measures (anogenital distance, accessory structure weight, onset of puberty and sexual maturity, and reproductive behavior) and nonreproductive behaviors (spatial performance, play behavior, and arousal) throughout development.

A common feature of many environmental contaminants is their estrogenic effects. Some contaminants can alter production of E2 and/or androgens or act as agonists or antagonists for intracellular or membrane ERs. Thus, the term “endocrine-disrupting chemicals” (EDCs) in this chapter is used to refer to contaminants with these effects. An important question considered here is the extent to which EDCs’ actions to alter E2 levels and/or ER binding in the hypothalamus or hippocampus mitigates effects on reproductive or nonreproductive processes. There are potential pervasive, negative effects of endocrine disrupters on steroid sensitive tissues, which may confer risk to disease states, such as cancer, heart disease, and neurodegenerative disorders. The following discussion provides evidence that exposure to EDCs during development may result in permanent, lifelong differences in sexual function and reproductive ability, as well as cognitive function and/or emotional reactivity/arousal. Gonad development, sex determination, and reproductive success of offspring are highly dependent on sex hormone systems. The developing organism is exquisitely sensitive to alterations in hormone function. In the early embryonic state, the gonads of human males and females are morphologically identical. Sexual differentiation begins under hormonal influence during the fifth and sixth weeks of fetal development, and thus, alterations in hormones during this highly sensitive period can have profound consequences. Disruption of the sex steroid system during fetal stages of life results in profound adverse developmental reproductive effects, as is well known from the effects of DES. The balance of estrogens and androgens is critical for normal development, growth, and functioning of the reproductive system. Although especially important during development, this balance is important throughout life for the preservation of normal feminine or masculine traits, as well as the expression of some sexually dimorphic behaviors (sex, spatial performance, and arousal).

Proposed negative effects of exposure to endocrine disrupters during development in people and in animals. The focus here is on vulnerability to sexually dimorphic processes that are estrogen-sensitive, such as reproductive, cognitive, and emotional development and associated behavioral processes

The existing data clearly indicate that developmental exposure to EDCs can adversely affect sexual development of people and animals; however, there are different effects depending upon the EDCs and when in development exposure occurs. Therefore, we consider the next effects of EDCs exposure at different point in development and the consequences for reproductive development and behavior, as well as E2 levels and hypothalamic ER binding.
Steroid hormones also play a critical role in neurodevelopment that influences not only reproductive but also nonreproductive behaviors that show sex differences. Specific behavioral differences in nonreproductive behaviors between males and females include differences in spatial learning, play, exploration, activity levels, novelty-seeking behavior, and emotional reactivity. These sex dimorphisms are thought to reflect adaptive differences for behavioral strategies in coping as a result of sexual selection. Moreover, these sexually dimorphic behaviors may be relevant for concerns regarding increased developmental, cognitive, or emotional disabilities over the past 30 years. Also, behaviors are particularly sensitive measures of effects of EDCs.
EDCs can alter cognitive development. Some, but not all, studies have shown a predictive relationship between prenatal PCB exposure and cognitive development in infancy through preschool years. EDCs have direct effects on nervous system function. Long-term potentiation (LTP), a form of synaptic plasticity used as a model system for study of cognitive potential, is altered by PCBs and lead. The protein kinase C (PKC)-signaling pathway is involved in the modulation of learning, memory, and motor behavior and may be a target of E2’s actions. PCBs also alter PKC signaling. Although findings provide evidence that EDCs can alter cognitive performance, these measures of cognition are neither sexually dimorphic nor E2- or ER-dependent.
There are sex-specific effects of perinatal PCB and dioxin exposure on spatial learning. Yu-Cheng boys that were prenatally exposed to high levels of PCBs and PCDFs when their mothers were accidentally exposed to these contaminants in rice oil show more disrupted cognitive development, mainly spatial function, than did exposed girls. In animal studies, spatial learning that favors males is mediated by perinatal exposure to androgens. Gestational and lactational exposure to ortho-substituted PCBs produces spatial deficits at adolescence in male mice or adulthood in male rats. The sparse data suggest that developmental exposure to EDCs disrupts spatial memory. Furthermore, Exposure during adulthood to EDCs can also have activational effects on spatial memory. Females exposed to a phytoestrogen-rich diet exhibit “masculinized” spatial performance in a radial arm maze, while males fed with a phytoestrogen-free diet show “feminized” performance.
An important question is what are the mechanisms by which developmental and/or adult exposure to EDCs alters spatial performance? There is evidence for sex differences in spatial performance and activational effects of E2 in adulthood to alter spatial performance of rats. Systemic or intrahippocampal administration of E2 improves spatial performance of female rats. Further, E2’s actions at intracellular ERs in the hippocampus of adults do not seem to be required to mediate these effects on spatial performance.
EDCs may have effects on E2 metabolism in a number of ways. First, some EDCs can alter serum lipid concentrations. Cholesterol is the precursor for the production of E2 and other steroid hormones (see Fig. 3.3). Second, there is also evidence that some EDCs can alter metabolism enzymes that are necessary for converting cholesterol to steroid hormones. Induction of CYP occurs when EDCs, such as TCDD, bind the aromatic hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). There is a firm link between PCBs, enzyme induction, and AhR. The binding of EDCs with AhR can result in antiestrogenic activity through increased metabolism and depletion of endogenous E2. Elevated levels of CYP enzymes, primarily expressed not only in the liver but also in the brain and other tissues, result in increased E2 metabolism and excretion. Alternatively, compounds that are metabolized by P450s may result in a net estrogenic effect if they inhibit endogenous estrogens from being metabolized.
Steroid hormones are lipid molecules with limited solubility in plasma and are accordingly carried through the plasma compartment to target cells by specific plasma transporter proteins. Each transporter protein has a specific ligand-binding domain for its associated hormone. It is generally accepted that the “free” formof the steroid hormone, and not the conjugate of the hormone with its plasma transport protein, enters target cells and binds with the appropriate receptor. Receptors for the steroid hormones are proteins located primarily in the cell nucleus or partitioned between the cytoplasm and the nucleus. The unoccupied steroid receptors may reside in the cell as heterodimeric complexes with the 90 kDa heat-shock protein, which prevents the receptor from binding with the DNA until the receptor has first bound with its steroid hormone. Once the hormone binds to the receptor, the hormone receptor complexes with the heterodimeric heat-shock protein and undergoes a conformational change and is activated. The activated receptor binds with DNA at a specific site, initiating gene transcription.

Traditional effects of steroid hormones at their cognate steroid receptors

Traditional effects of steroid hormones at their cognate steroid receptors

Traditional effects of steroid hormones at their cognate steroid receptors, which act as transcription factors. In this example, effects of steroid hormones, such as estradiol, to bind estrogen receptor (ER) subtypes, referred to as ERa and ERb, are shown.

Beyond traditional actions solely through intracellular cognate estrogen receptors (ERs; ERa and ERb), steroids, such as estradiol, and estradiol-mimetics (endocrine disrupters) may have novel actions involving membrane bound ERs, other neurotransmitter systems (e.g., NMDA receptor), and signal transduction cascades (e.g., growth factors, MAPK).

To date, there has been little investigation in a whole-animal model of the effects of EDCs on E2 levels and/or activity at intracellular ERs in the brain. Thus, changes in E2 levels and ER activity in the hypothalamus and hippocampus, concomitant with alterations in endocrine parameters and reproductive behavior and nonreproductive behavior, respectively, are
needed to elucidate tissue specificity of EDCs’ functions and mechanisms.

Low-Dose Effects of Hormones and Endocrine Disruptors

Laura N. Vandenberg
Vitamins and Hormones, 2014; 94: 129-165
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800095-3.00005-5

Endogenous hormones have effects on tissue morphology, cell physiology, and behaviors at low doses. In fact, hormones are known to circulate in the part-per-trillion and part-per-billion concentrations, making them highly effective and potent signaling molecules.

Many endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) mimic hormones, yet there is strong debate over whether these chemicals can also have effects at low doses. In the 1990s, scientists proposed the “low-dose hypothesis,” which postulated that EDCs affect humans and animals at environmentally relevant doses. This chapter focuses on data that support and refute the low-dose hypothesis. A case study examining the highly controversial example of bisphenol A and its low-dose effects on the prostate is examined through the lens of endocrinology. Finally, the chapter concludes with a discussion of factors that can influence the ability of a study to detect and interpret low-dose effects appropriately.

Since EDCs began to be studied in depth in the 1990s, there has been intense debate over whether the public should be concerned about low level exposures to these chemicals. The low-dose hypothesis, proposed at that time, has steadily accumulated evidence that EDCs have actions at low doses, and these effects are not necessarily predicted from high-dose toxicology testing. In 2002, the NTP expert panel reported evidence for low-dose effects for a small number of EDCs and estradiol. In 2012, an updated approach identified several dozen additional EDCs with evidence for low-dose effects. Further, epidemiology studies continue to find relationships between EDC exposure levels and diseases in the general public, which has raised concerns because the general public is exposed to a large number of environmental chemicals at low doses. For decades, hormones have been known to produce striking changes in tissue morphology, physiology, and behaviors at exceedingly low doses.

A relatively large body of evidence suggests that EDCs, and in particular those environmental chemicals that mimic endogenous hormones, have similar effects at low doses. Although there is still no consensus about the universality of “low-dose effects” in the toxicology community, the Endocrine Society (Diamanti-Kandarakis et al., 2009; Zoeller et al., 2012) believes not only that there is sufficient evidence in support of this phenomenon but also that it is time for public health agencies to make changes to risk assessment paradigms and give greater consideration to studies that specifically identify low-dose effects when considering risks from chemical exposures.

Bisphenol A interferes with synaptic remodeling

Tibor Hajszan, Csaba Leranth
Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 31 (2010) 519–530
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.yfrne.2010.06.004

The potential adverse effects of Bisphenol A (BPA), a synthetic xenoestrogen, have long been debated. Although standard toxicology tests have revealed no harmful effects, recent research highlighted what was missed so far: BPA-induced alterations in the nervous system. Since 2004, our laboratory has been investigating one of the central effects of BPA, which is interference with gonadal steroid-induced synaptogenesis and the resulting loss of spine synapses. We have shown in both rats and nonhuman primates that BPA completely negates the ~70–100% increase in the number of hippocampal and prefrontal spine synapses induced by both estrogens and androgens. Synaptic loss of this magnitude may have significant consequences, potentially causing cognitive decline, depression, and schizophrenia, to mention those that our laboratory has shown to be associated with synaptic loss. Finally, we discuss why children may particularly be vulnerable to BPA, which represents future direction of research in our laboratory.

Bisphenol-A rapidly promotes dynamic changes in hippocampal dendritic morphology through estrogen receptor-mediated pathway by concomitant phosphorylation of NMDA receptor subunit NR2B

Xiaohong Xu ⁎, Yinping Ye, Tao Li, Lei Chen, Dong Tian, Qingqing Luo, Mei Lu
Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 249 (2010) 188–196
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.taap.2010.09.007

Bisphenol-A (BPA) is known to be a potent endocrine disrupter. Evidence is emerging that estrogen exerts a rapid influence on hippocampal synaptic plasticity and the dendritic spine density, which requires activation of NMDA receptors. In the present study, we investigated the effects of BPA (ranging from 1 to 1000 nM), focusing on the rapid dynamic changes in dendritic filopodia and the expressions of estrogen receptor (ER) β and NMDA receptor, as well as the phosphorylation of NMDA receptor subunit NR2B in the cultured hippocampal neurons. A specific ER antagonist ICI 182,780 was used to examine the potential involvement of ERs. The results demonstrated that exposure to BPA (ranging from 10 to 1000 nM) for 30 min rapidly enhanced the motility and the density of dendritic filopodia in the cultured hippocampal neurons, as well as the phosphorylation of NR2B (pNR2B), though the expressions of NMDA receptor subunits NR1, NR2B, and ERβ were not changed. The antagonist of ERs completely inhibited the BPA-induced increases in the filopodial motility and the number of filopodia extending from dendrites. The increased pNR2B induced by BPA (100 nM) was also completely eliminated. Furthermore, BPA attenuated the effects of 17β-estradiol (17β-E2) on the dendritic filopodia outgrowth and the expression of pNR2B when BPA was co-treated with 17β-E2. The present results suggest that BPA, like 17β-E2, rapidly results in the enhanced motility and density of dendritic filopodia in the cultured hippocampal neurons with the concomitant activation of NMDA receptor subunit NR2B via an ER-mediated signaling pathway. Meanwhile, BPA suppressed the enhancement effects of 17β-E2 when it coexists with 17β-E2. These results provided important evidence suggesting the neurotoxicity of the low levels of BPA during the early postnatal development of the brain.

Bisphenol-A rapidly enhanced passive avoidance memory and phosphorylation of NMDA receptor subunits in hippocampus of young rats

Xiaohong Xu⁎, Tao Li, Qingqing Luo, Xing Hong, Lingdan Xie, Dong Tian
Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 255 (2011) 221–228
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.taap.2011.06.022

Bisphenol-A (BPA), an endocrine disruptor, is found to influence development of brain and behaviors in rodents. The previous study indicated that perinatal exposure to BPA impaired learning-memory and inhibited N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) subunits expressions in hippocampus during the postnatal development in rats; and in cultured hippocampal neurons, BPA rapidly promotes dynamic changes in dendritic morphology through estrogen receptor-mediated pathway by concomitant phosphorylation of NMDAR subunit NR2B. In the present study, we examined the rapid effect of BPA on passive avoidance memory and NMDAR in the developing hippocampus of Sprague–Dawley rats at the age of postnatal day 18. The results showed that BPA or estradiol benzoate (EB) rapidly extended the latency to step down from the platform 1 h after foot shock and increased the phosphorylation levels of NR1, NR2B, and mitogen-activated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) in hippocampus within 1 h. While 24 h after BPA or EB treatment, the improved memory and the increased phosphorylation levels of NR1, NR2B, ERK disappeared. Furthermore, pre-treatment with an estrogen receptors (ERs) antagonist, ICI182, 780, or an ERK-activating kinase inhibitor, U0126, significantly attenuated EB- or BPA-induced phosphorylations of NR1, NR2B, and ERK within 1 h. These data suggest that BPA rapidly enhanced short-term passive avoidance memory in the developing rats. A non-genomic effect via ERs may mediate the modulation of the phosphorylation of NMDAR subunits NR1 and NR2B through ERK signaling pathway.

Bisphenol A promotes dendritic morphogenesis of hippocampal neurons through estrogen receptor-mediated ERK1/2 signal pathway

Xiaohong Xu, Yang Lu, Guangxia Zhang, Lei Chen, Dong Tian, et al.
Chemosphere 96 (2014) 129–137
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.09.063

Bisphenol A (BPA), an environmental endocrine disruptor, has attracted increasing attention to its adverse effects on brain developmental process. The previous study indicated that BPA rapidly increased motility and density of dendritic filopodia and enhanced the phosphorylation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor subunit NR2B in cultured hippocampal neurons within 30 min. The purpose of the present study was further to investigate the effects of BPA for 24 h on dendritic morphogenesis and the underlying mechanisms. After cultured for 5 d in vitro, the hippocampal neurons from 24 h-old rat were infected by AdV-EGFP to indicate time-lapse imaging of living neurons. The results demonstrated that the exposure of the cultured hippocampal neurons to BPA (10, 100 nM) or 17β-estradiol (17β-E2, 10 nM) for 24 h significantly promoted dendritic development, as evidenced by the increased total length of dendrite and the enhanced motility and density of dendritic filopodia. However, these changes were suppressed by an ERs antagonist, ICI182,780, a non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist, MK-801, and a mitogen activated ERK1/2-activating kinase (MEK1/2) inhibitor, U0126. Meanwhile, the increased F-actin (filamentous actin) induced by BPA (100 nM) was also completely eliminated by these blockers. Furthermore, the result of western blot analyses showed that, the exposure of the cultures to BPA or 17β-E2 for 24 h promoted the expression of Rac1/Cdc42 but inhibited that of RhoA, suggesting Rac1 (Ras related C3 botulinum toxinsubstrate 1)/Cdc42 (cell divisioncycle 42) and RhoA (Ras homologous A), the Rho family of small GTPases, were involved in BPA- or 17β-E2-induced changes in the dendritic morphogenesis of neurons. These BPA- or 17b-E2-induced effects were completely blocked by ICI182,780, and were partially suppressed by U0126. These results reveal that, similar to 17β-E2, BPA exerts its effects on dendritic morphogenesis by eliciting both nuclear actions and extranuclear-initiated actions that are integrated to influence the development of dendrite in hippocampal neurons.

Tyreoliberin (Trh) – The Regulatory Neuropeptide Of Cns Homeostasis
Danuta Jantas
Advances In Cell Biology 2;(4)/2010 (139–154)
http://dx.doi.org:/10.2478/v10052-010-0008-4

The physiological role of thyreoliberin (TRH) is the preservation of homeostasis within four systems
(i) the hypothalamic-hypophsysiotropic neuroendocrine system,
(ii) the brain stem/midbrain/spinal cord system,
(iii) the limbic/cortical system, and
(iv) the chronobiological system.

Thus TRH, via various cellular mechanisms, regulates a wide range of biological processes (arousal, sleep, learning, locomotive activity, mood) and possesses the potential for unique and widespread applications for treatment of human illnesses. Since the therapeutic potential of TRH is limited by its pharmacological profile (enzymatic instability, short half-life, undesirable effects), several synthetic analogues of TRH were constructed and studied in mono- or adjunct therapy of central nervous system (CNS) disturbances. The present article summarizes the current state of understanding of the physiological role of TRH and describes its putative role in clinical indications in CNS maladies with a focus on the action of TRH analogues.

Breakthrough in neuroendocrinology by discovering novel neuropeptides and neurosteroids: 2. Discovery of neurosteroids and pineal neurosteroids

Kazuyoshi Tsutsui, Shogo Haraguchi
General and Comparative Endocrinology 205 (2014) 11–22
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ygcen.2014.03.008

Bargmann–Scharrer’s discovery of ‘‘neurosecretion’’ in the first half of the 20th century has since matured into the scientific discipline of neuroendocrinology. Identification of novel neurohormones, such as neuropeptides and neurosteroids, is essential for the progress of neuroendocrinology. Our studies over the past two decades have significantly broadened the horizons of this field of research by identifying novel neuropeptides and neurosteroids in vertebrates that have opened new lines of scientific investigation in neuroendocrinology. We have established de novo synthesis and functions of neurosteroids in the brain of various vertebrates. Recently, we discovered 7α-hydroxypregnenolone (7α-OH PREG), a novel bioactive neurosteroid that acts as a key regulator for inducing locomotor behavior by means of the dopaminergic system. We further discovered that the pineal gland, an endocrine organ located close to the brain, is an important site of production of neurosteroids de novo from cholesterol (CHOL). The pineal gland secretes 7α-OH PREG and 3α,5α-tetrahydroprogesterone (3α,5α-THP; allopregnanolone) that are involved in locomotor rhythms and neuronal survival, respectively. Subsequently, we have demonstrated their mode of action and functional significance. This review summarizes the discovery of these novel neurosteroids and its contribution to the progress of neuroendocrinology.

Mechanisms of crosstalk between endocrine systems: Regulation of sex steroid hormone synthesis and action by thyroid hormones

Paula Duarte-Guterman, Laia Navarro-Martín, Vance L. Trudeau
General and Comparative Endocrinology 203 (2014) 69–85
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ygcen.2014.03.015

Thyroid hormones (THs) are well-known regulators of development and metabolism in vertebrates. There is increasing evidence that THs are also involved in gonadal differentiation and reproductive function. Changes in TH status affect sex ratios in developing fish and frogs and reproduction (e.g., fertility), hormone levels, and gonad morphology in adults of species of different vertebrates. In this review, we have summarized and compared the evidence for cross-talk between the steroid hormone and thyroid axes and present a comparative model. We gave special attention to TH regulation of sex steroid synthesis and action in both the brain and gonad, since these are important for gonad development and brain sexual differentiation and have been studied in many species. We also reviewed research showing that there is a TH system, including receptors and enzymes, in the brains and gonads in developing and adult vertebrates. Our analysis shows that THs influences sex steroid hormone synthesis in vertebrates, ranging from fish to pigs. This concept of crosstalk and conserved hormone interaction has implications for our understanding of the role of THs in reproduction, and how these processes may be dysregulated by environmental endocrine disruptors.

Insights into the structure of class B GPCRs

Kaspar Hollenstein, Chris de Graaf, Andrea Bortolato, Ming-Wei Wang, et al.
Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, Jan 2014; 35(1)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2013.11.001

The secretin-like (class B) family of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are key players in hormonal homeostasis and are interesting drug targets for the treatment of several metabolic disorders (such as type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis, and obesity) and nervous system diseases (such as migraine, anxiety, and depression). The recently solved crystal structures of the transmembrane domains of the human glucagon receptor and human corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1 have opened up new opportunities to study the structure and function of class B GPCRs. The current review shows how these structures offer more detailed explanations to previous biochemical and pharmacological studies of class B GPCRs, and provides new insights into their interactions with ligands.

Class B G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), also referred to as the secretin family of GPCRs, include receptors for 15 peptide hormones, which can be grouped into five subfamilies based on their physiological role (see Table 1 for an overview) [1]. These receptors are important drug targets in many human diseases, including diabetes, osteoporosis, obesity, cancer, neurodegeneration, cardiovascular disease, headache, and psychiatric disorders. However, the identification of small-molecule oral drugs for this family has proved extremely challenging.

(A,B) Crystal structures of the class B G protein-coupled receptors corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1 (CRF1) [Protein Data Bank (PDB) identifier: 4K5Y] and glucagon receptor (PDB identifier: 4L6R) are shown in blue and orange ribbons, respectively, in two different views from within the membrane. Transmembrane (TM) helices and helix 8 are labelled. The disulfide bond tethering extracellular loop 2 (ECL2) to the tip of TM3 is shown as purple sticks. In CRF1 the small-molecule antagonist CP-376395 is shown in stick representation with carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen atoms colored magenta, blue, and red, respectively, and as skeletal formula in an inset. (C) Superposition of the two structures, with insets highlighting regions of particular interest. To highlight the structural differences in the extracellular halves of CRF1 and glucagon receptor, the distance of approximately 11 A° between the Ca-atoms of residues 7.33b at the N-terminal end of TM7 is indicated with a red arrow. The small molecule binding pocket is shown as a superposition of the two receptors around CP-376395, illustrating the antagonist binding mode and the substantial structural differences observed for TM6 of the two receptors.

  • Overview of NMR and crystal structures of class B G protein-coupled

receptor (GPCR) extracellular domains (ECDs; magenta) and their complexes with peptide ligands (different colors). A complete overview of corresponding Protein Data Bank identifiers is presented in Table 1 (not shown). (B) Structure-based sequence alignment of representative peptide ligands of class B GPCR, adopted from Parthier et al. [6]. The residues of the peptide ligands solved in ECD–ligand complex crystal structures are marked using the same colour as in Figure 2A. The residues that are boxed black are found in an α-helical conformation in the complex. Peptide ligand residues that covalently bind receptors in photo-crosslinking or cysteine-trapping studies are colored and boxed green, whereas peptide ligand residues that have been mutated and studied in combination with receptor mutants are colored and boxed red. Note that the first residue of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is His7. A complete overview of all ECD structures and important peptide ligands for all class B GPCRs is presented in Table 1. Putative helix-capping residues [6] are coloured blue and cysteines involved in a disulfide-bridge (calcitonin) are coloured orange. D-phenylalanine (f), and norleucine (m) residues are indicated in stressin and astressin. The last 41 and 99 residues of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and PTH-related protein.  (PTHrP), respectively, are not displayed. Abbreviations: CGRP, calcitonin gene-related peptide; CLR, calcitonin receptor-like receptor; CRF, corticotropin-releasing factor; CT, calcitonin; Ext-4, exendin-4; GHRHR, growth hormone releasing hormone receptor; GIP, glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide; PAC, pituitary adenylate cyclase; PACAP, pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide; RAMP, receptor-activity modifying proteins; SCTR, secretin receptor; Ucn, urocortin; VPAC, vasoactive pituitary adenylate cyclase.

Figure 3. (not shown) (A) The spatial correspondence between residues in transmembrane (TM) helices of class A and class B G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) makes it possible to align the most conserved residues in class A (designated X.50, Ballesteros–Weinstein numbering) and class B (designated X.50b, Wootten numbering) for comparisons between GPCR classes (Box 1). (B) Structural alignment of corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1 (CRF1; blue) and glucagon receptor (GCGR; orange) to two representative class A GPCRs, histamine H1 receptor (H1R; Protein Data Bank identifier: 3RZE) and CXC-chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4; Protein Data Bank identifier: 3ODU/3OE0) (in grey). Helices are depicted as cylinders, and the ligands glucagon (for GCGR), CP-376395 (for CRF1), doxepin (for H1R), and IT1t and CVX15 (for CXCR4) are shown as sticks. The

location of the Ca-atoms of the most conserved residues of TM1–3 and TM5 among class A and class B GPCRs (Box 1) are indicated by spheres (TM4 is not depicted for clarity).

The GCGR and CRF1 crystal structures show distinct structural features and different binding pockets compared to class A GPCRs, and give new insights into the molecular details of peptide and small-molecule binding to class B GPCRs. The first two crystal structures of the TM domains of class B GPCRs provide a structural framework that will enable the design of biochemical and biophysical experiments detailing the complex structure of this class of receptors, and facilitate the design of stabilized constructs that might lead to the solution of full-length class B GPCR–ligand complexes. The structures furthermore present more reliable structural templates for the design of specific and potent small molecules for the treatment of type 2 diabetes (GCGR) and depression (CRF1) in particular, and open new avenues for structure-based small-molecule drug discovery for class B GPCRs as a whole.

Novel receptor targets for production and action of allopregnanolone in the central nervous system: a focus on pregnane xenobiotic receptor

Cheryl A. Frye, Carolyn J. Koonce and Alicia A. Walf
Front in Cell Neurosci  Apr 2014; 8(106): 1-13.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.3389/fncel.2014.00106

Neurosteroids are cholesterol-based hormones that can be produced in the brain,

independent of secretion from peripheral endocrine glands, such as the gonads and

adrenals. A focus in our laboratory for over 25 years has been how production of the

pregnane neurosteroid, allopregnanolone, is regulated and the novel (i.e., non steroid

receptor) targets for steroid action for behavior. One endpoint of interest has been lordosis, the mating posture of female rodents. Allopregnanolone is necessary and sufficient for lordosis, and the brain circuitry underlying it, such as actions in the midbrain ventral tegmental area (VTA), has been well-characterized. Published and recent findings supporting a dynamic role of allopregnanolone are included in this review.
First, contributions of ovarian and adrenal sources of precursors of allopregnanolone, and the requisite enzymatic actions for de novo production in the central nervous system will be discussed.
Second, how allopregnanolone produced in the brain has actions on behavioral processes that are independent of binding to steroid receptors, but instead involve rapid modulatory actions via neurotransmitter targets (e.g., g-amino butyric acid-GABA, N methyl-D-aspartate- NMDA) will be reviewed.
Third, a recent focus on characterizing the role of a promiscuous nuclear receptor, pregnane xenobiotic receptor (PXR), involved in cholesterol metabolism and expressed in the VTA, as a target for allopregnanolone and how this relates to both actions and production of allopregnanolone will be addressed. For example, allopregnanolone can bind PXR and knocking down expression of PXR in the midbrain VTA attenuates actions of allopregnanolone via NMDA and/or GABAA for lordosis. Our understanding of allopregnanolone’s actions in the VTA for lordosis has been extended to reveal the role of allopregnanolone for broader, clinically-relevant questions, such as neurodevelopmental processes, neuropsychiatric disorders, epilepsy, and aging.

Genetically Encoded Chemical Probes in Cells Reveal the Binding Path of Urocortin-I to CRF Class B GPCR

Irene Coin, Vsevolod Katritch, Tingting Sun, Zheng Xiang, Fai Yiu Siu
Cell  Dec 2013; 155, 1258–1269
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2013.11.008

Molecular determinants regulating the activation of class B G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) by native peptide agonists are largely unknown. We have investigated here the interaction between the corticotropin releasing factor receptor type 1 (CRF1R) and its native 40-mer peptide ligand Urocortin- I directly in mammalian cells. By incorporating unnatural amino acid photochemical and new click chemical probes into the intact receptor expressed in the native membrane of live cells, 44 intermolecular spatial constraints have been derived for the ligand-receptor interaction. The data were analyzed in the context of the recently resolved crystal structure of
CRF1R transmembrane domain and existing extracellular domain structures, yielding a complete conformational model for the peptide-receptor complex. Structural features of the receptor-ligand complex yield molecular insights
on the mechanism of receptor activation and the basis for discrimination between agonist and antagonist function.

Investigation of GPCR-Ligand Interactions under Native Conditions Using Genetically Encoded Chemical Probes GPCRs are integral membrane proteins containing multiple domains and various posttranslational modifications. To understand GPCR-ligand interactions by crystallography, receptors have to be extracted from the cell membrane and modified with a series of expedients such as deglycosylation, therm-stabilizing mutations, fusions with soluble proteins, or complexes with stabilizing nanobodies. We present here a method to investigate GPCR-ligand interactions at the intact fully posttranslationally modified receptor bound to its WT ligand on the membrane of the live cell, which mimics the native conditions for GPCR function. We first genetically incorporated into the receptor the photocrosslinking Uaa Azi, which served as
a proximity probe to provide an overall map of the ligand binding sites on the receptor. We then determined the relative position of the ligand in the binding pocket using a residue-specific chemical crosslinking reaction between Ffact genetically incorporated into the receptor and Cys introduced into the ligand. The derived intermolecular spatial constraints served eventually to build a detailed conformational model for the receptor-ligand complex.

Glutamate Neurons within the Midbrain Dopamine Regions

  1. Morales and D. H. Root
    Neuroscience 282 (2014) 60–68
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.05.032

Midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons are hypothesized to play roles in reward-based behavior and addiction, reward prediction and learning by error detection, effort-based decision making, flexible reward-directed behaviors,

incentive salience, stimulus salience (e.g., prediction of rewarding and aversive events), aversion, depression, and fear. The extensive, divergent behavioral roles of midbrain dopamine neurons, predominantly from the ventral tegmental area (VTA), indicate that this system is highly heterogeneous.
This heterogeneity may be reflected in part by the diverse phenotypic characteristics among DAergic neurons and their interactive brain structures.

Midbrain dopamine systems play important roles in Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia, addiction, and depression. The participation of midbrain dopamine systems in diverse clinical contexts suggests these systems are highly complex. Midbrain dopamine regions contain at least three neuronal phenotypes: dopaminergic, GABAergic, and glutamatergic. Here, we review the locations, subtypes, and functions of glutamatergic neurons within midbrain dopamine regions. Vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (VGluT2) mRNA-expressing neurons are observed within each midbrain dopamine system. Within rat retrorubral field (RRF), large populations of VGluT2 neurons are observed throughout its anteroposterior extent. Within rat substantia nigra pars compacta (SNC), VGluT2 neurons are observed centrally and caudally, and are most dense within the laterodorsal subdivision. RRF and SNC rat VGluT2 neurons lack tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), making them an entirely distinct population of neurons from dopaminergic neurons. The rat ventral tegmental area (VTA) contains the most heterogeneous populations of VGluT2 neurons. VGluT2 neurons are found in each VTA subnucleus but are most dense within the anterior midline subnuclei. Some subpopulations of rat VGluT2 neurons co-express TH or glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), but most of the VGluT2 neurons lack TH or GAD. Different subsets of rat VGluT2-TH neurons exist based on the presence or absence of vesicular monoamine transporter 2, dopamine transporter, or D2 dopamine receptor. Thus, the capacity by which VGluT2-TH neurons may release dopamine will differ based on their capacity to accumulate vesicular dopamine, uptake extracellular dopamine, or be autoregulated by dopamine. Rat VTA VGluT2 neurons exhibit intrinsic VTA projections and extrinsic projections to the accumbens and to the prefrontal cortex. Mouse VTA VGluT2 neurons project to accumbens shell, prefrontal cortex, ventral pallidum, amygdala, and lateral habenula. Given their molecular diversity and participation in circuits involved in addiction, we hypothesize that individual VGluT2 subpopulations of neurons play unique roles in addiction and other disorders. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Ventral Tegmentum & Dopamine. Published by Elsevier Ltd. On behalf of IBRO.

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Gastrointestinal Endocrinology

Posted in Cell Biology, Curation, Disease Biology, Endocrine Diseases, Genomic Endocrinology, Human Immune System in Health and in Disease, Imaging-based Cancer Patient Management, Innovations, Liver & Digestive Diseases Research, Microbiology, Neurological Diseases, Nutrition, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, tagged , , , on February 10, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Gastrointestinal Endocrinology

Writer and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

The Gut Microbial Endocrine Organ: Bacterially Derived Signals Driving Cardiometabolic DiseasesMark Brown and Stanley L. Hazen

Annual Review of Medicine Jan 2015; 66: 343-359
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1146/annurev-med-060513-093205

The human gastrointestinal tract is home to trillions of bacteria, which vastly outnumber host cells in the body. Although generally overlooked in the field of endocrinology, gut microbial symbionts organize to form a key endocrine organ that converts nutritional cues from the environment into hormone-like signals that impact both normal physiology and chronic disease in the human host. Recent evidence suggests that several gut microbial-derived products are sensed by dedicated host receptor systems to alter cardiovascular disease (CVD) progression. In fact, gut microbial metabolism of dietary components results in the production of proatherogenic circulating factors that act through a meta-organismal endocrine axis to impact CVD risk. Whether pharmacological interventions at the level of the gut microbial endocrine organ will reduce CVD risk is a key new question in the field of cardiovascular medicine. Here we discuss the opportunities and challenges that lie ahead in targeting meta-organismal endocrinology for CVD prevention.

Exogenous glucagon-like peptide 1 reduces contractions in human colon circular muscle

Antonella Amato, Sara Baldassano, Rosa Liotta1, Rosa Serio and Flavia Mulè
J Endocrinol April 1, 2014 221 29-37
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1530/JOE-13-0525

Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP1) is a naturally occurring peptide secreted by intestinal L-cells. Though its primary function is to serve as an incretin, GLP1 reduces gastrointestinal motility. However, only a handful of animal studies have specifically evaluated the influence of GLP1 on colonic motility. Consequently, the aims of this study were to investigate the effects induced by exogenous GLP1, to analyze the mechanism of action, and to verify the presence of GLP1 receptors (GLP1Rs) in human colon circular muscular strips. Organ bath technique, RT-PCR, western blotting, and immunofluorescence were used. In human colon, exogenous GLP1 reduced, in a concentration-dependent manner, the amplitude of the spontaneous contractions without affecting the frequency and the resting basal tone. This inhibitory effect was significantly reduced by exendin (9–39), a GLP1R antagonist, which per se significantly increased the spontaneous mechanical activity. Moreover, it was abolished by tetrodotoxin, a neural blocker, or Nω-nitro-L-arginine – a blocker of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS). The biomolecular analysis revealed a genic and protein expression of the GLP1R in the human colon. The double-labeling experiments with anti-neurofilament or anti-nNOS showed, for the first time, that immunoreactivity for the GLP1R was expressed in nitrergic neurons of the myenteric plexus. In conclusion, the results of this study suggest that GLP1R is expressed in the human colon and, once activated by exogenous GLP1, mediates an inhibitory effect on large intestine motility through NO neural release.

The impact of dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibition on incretin effect, glucose tolerance, and gastrointestinal-mediated glucose disposal in healthy subjects

N A Rhee, S H Østoft, J J Holst, C F Deacon, T Vilsbøll and F K Knop
Eur J Endocrinol September 1, 2014 171 353-36
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1530/EJE-14-0314

Objective Inhibition of dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4) is thought to intensify the physiological effects of the incretin hormones. We investigated the effects of DPP4 inhibition on plasma levels of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP1), incretin effect, glucose tolerance, gastrointestinal-mediated glucose disposal (GIGD) and gastric emptying in healthy subjects. Design A randomised, controlled and open-labelled study. Methods Ten healthy subjects (six women; age, 40±5 years (mean±S.E.M.); BMI, 24±3 kg/m2; fasting plasma glucose, 5.1±0.2 mmol/l and HbA1c, 34±1 mmol/mol (5.3±0.1%)) were randomised to two-paired study days comprising a 4-h 50 g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) with paracetamol (A) and an isoglycaemic intravenous (i.v.) glucose infusion (B), with (A1+B1) and without (A2+B2) preceding administration of the DPP4 inhibitor sitagliptin. Results Isoglycaemia was obtained in all subjects on the paired study days. Significant increases in fasting levels and OGTT-induced responses of active GLP1 and GIP were seen after DPP4 inhibition. No significant impact of DPP4 inhibition on fasting plasma glucose (5.1±0.1 vs 4.9±0.1 mmol/l, P=0.3), glucose tolerance (area under the curve (AUC) for plasma glucose, 151±35 vs 137±26 mmol/l×min, P=0.7) or peak plasma glucose during OGTT (8.5±0.4 vs 8.1±0.3 mmol/l, P=0.3) was observed. Neither incretin effect (40±9% (without DPP4 inhibitor) vs 40±7% (with DPP4 inhibitor), P=1.0), glucagon responses (1395±165 vs 1223±195 pmol/l×min, P=0.41), GIGD (52±4 vs 56±5%, P=0.40) nor gastric emptying (Tmax for plasma paracetamol: 86±9 vs 80±12 min, P=0.60) changed following DPP4 inhibition. Conclusions These results suggest that acute increases in active incretin hormone levels do not affect glucose tolerance, GIGD, incretin effect, glucagon responses or gastric emptying in healthy subjects.

Morphology and Tissue Distribution of Four Kinds of Endocrine Cells in the Digestive Tract of the Chinese Yellow Quail (Coturnix japonica)

He, M., Liang, X., Wang, K., (…), Li, X., Liu, L.
Analytical and Quantitative Cytology and Histology 2014; 36 (4), pp. 199-205

Objective: To describe the tissue distribution, density, and the morphological characteristics of 4 kinds of endocrine cells in the digestive tract of the Chinese yellow quail (Coturnix japonica). Study design: The streptavidin-biotin-peroxidase complex immunohistochemical method was used to identify the distribution of somatostatin (SS), serotonin (5-HT), gastrin and neuropeptide Y (NPY) in digestive tracts including proventriculus, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, and rectum. SPSS 19.0 software was used to perform biological statistical analysis. Results: The results showed that the SS and 5-HT secreting cells were mainly distributed in the proventriculus (19.2±6.9 and 16.1±3.4 cfu/mm2) and duodenum (2.9±2.0 and 1.9±0.6 cfu/mm2). Gastrin and NPY were not detected in each section of the digestive tract. Moreover, there was no significant difference in the quantitative distribution and morphological characteristics of SS and 5-HT secreting cells in the digestive tract between male and female quails. Conclusion: The distribution and morphological characteristics of endocrine cells were closely related to the physiological functions of different parts in the digestive tract. The preferential location of endocrine cells provides additional information for future studies on the physiological roles of gastrointestinal peptides in the gastrointestinal tract of the Chinese yellow quail

GEP-NETS update: Functional localisation and scintigraphy in neuroendocrine tumours of the gastrointestinal tract and pancreas (GEP-NETs)

Wouter W de Herder
Eur J Endocrinol May 1, 2014 170 R173-R183
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1530/EJE-14-0077

For patients with neuroendocrine tumours (NETs) of the gastrointestinal tract and pancreas (GEP) (GEP-NETs), excellent care should ideally be provided by a multidisciplinary team of skilled health care professionals. In these patients, a combination of nuclear medicine imaging and conventional radiological imaging techniques is usually mandatory for primary tumour visualisation, tumour staging and evaluation of treatment. In specific cases, as in patients with occult insulinomas, sampling procedures can provide a clue as to where to localise the insulin-hypersecreting pancreatic NETs. Recent developments in these fields have led to an increase in the detection rate of primary GEP-NETs and their metastatic deposits. Radiopharmaceuticals targeted at specific tumour cell properties and processes can be used to provide sensitive and specific whole-body imaging. Functional imaging also allows for patient selection for receptor-based therapies and prediction of the efficacy of such therapies. Positron emission tomography/computed tomography (CT) and single-photon emission CT/CT are used to map functional images with anatomical localisations. As a result, tumour imaging and tumour follow-up strategies can be optimised for every individual GEP-NET patient. In some cases, functional imaging might give indications with regard to future tumour behaviour and prognosis.

An immunohistochemical study on the distribution of endocrine cells in the digestive tract of gray goose (Anser anser)

Jun YANG1, Lei ZHANG,, Xin LI, , Leii ZHANG, , Xiangjiang LIU, , Kemei PENG

Turk. J. Vet. Anim. Sci. 2012; 36(4): 373-379
http://dx.doi.org:/10.3906/vet-1101-654

The objective of this study was to investigate the morphology and the distribution of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), somatostatin (SS), gastrin (Gas), glucagon (Glu), and substance P immunoreactive (IR) cells in the digestive tract of gray goose by the immunohistochemical streptavidin-peroxidase method.

The samples were taken from 10 healthy  adult gray geese. Th e results showed that 5 kinds of IR cells were mainly distributed between the mucous epithelium and intestinal gland. The number of 5-HT-IR cells was highest in the rectum and duodenum, but none were observed  in the pylorus. SS-IR cells appeared in great numbers in the pylorus, duodenum, and cecum; however, they were not found in esophagus. Gas-IR cells were mainly distributed in the glandular stomach and jejunum. Glu-IR cells appeared  in small numbers in the glandular stomach, duodenum, and jejunum, but were not detected in other tissues. Substance  P-IR cells were located in the jejunum, cecum, and rectum. Analysis of the present study showed that the distribution and morphological features of these 5 different endocrine cells were related to the feeding habits and metabolism in the digestive tract of the gray goose

Chapter 154 – Somatostatin

Mathias Guggera, Jean-Claude Meunierb

Handbook of Biologically Active Peptides 2006, Pages 1123–1130
http:/dx.doi.org:/10.1016/B978-012369442-3/50157-4

Somatostatin is abundant in the mucosa and in the enteric nervous system of the gastrointestinal tract and in the pancreas. In these tissues, it exerts a broad range of mainly inhibitory physiological actions in multiple targets, including endocrine glands, exocrine glands, smooth muscles, blood vessels, and immune cells, mediated by up to six somatostatin receptor subtypes. Several diseases of the gastrointestinal tract are characterized by disturbances in the somatostatin production or by overexpression of somatostatin receptors. In particular, somatostatin receptors have been found to be overexpressed in neuroendocrine gastroenteropancreatic tumors. These tumors can be diagnostically and therapeutically targeted with somatostatin analogs. In addition, various nonneoplastic diseases, including bleeding in the upper gastrointestinal tract, fistulas, and diarrhea can also be treated with somatostatin analogs.

Immunocytochemical study of the distribution of endocrine cells in the pancreas of the Brazilian sparrow species Zonotrichia Capensis Subtorquata (Swaison, 1837)

Nascimento, AA.*; Sales, A.; Cardoso, TRD.; Pinheiro, NL.; Mendes, RMM.
Braz. J. Biol. Nov. 2007; 67(4):  São Carlos

In the present study, we investigated types of pancreatic endocrine cells and its respective peptides in the Brazilian sparrow species using immunocytochemistry. The use of polyclonal specific antisera for somatostatin, glucagon, avian pancreatic polypeptide (APP), YY polypeptide (PYY) and insulin, revealed a diversified distribution in the pancreas. All these types of immunoreactive cells were observed in the pancreas with different amounts. Insulin- Immunoreactive cells to (B cells) were most numerous, preferably occupying the central place in the pancreatic islets. Somatostatin, PPA, PYY and glucagon immunoreactive cells occurred in a lower frequency in the periphery of pancreatic islets.

Immunolocalisation of the serotonin in the fundus ventriculi and duodenum of the Asia minor ground squirrel: (Spermophilus xanthoprymnus)

Timurkaan, S., Özkan, E., Ilgün, R., Gür, F.M
Veterinarski Arhiv 2009; 79 (1), pp. 69-76

Serotonin immunoreactive cells were located and distributed in the fundus and duodenum with variable frequencies. They were spherical or spindle-shaped and the highest frequency serotonin immunoreactive cells were detected in the whole fundic region. The regional distribution of the endocrine cells in the fundus and duodenum of the citellus resembled other mammalian species.

An Immunohistochemical Study of Gastrointestinal Endocrine Cells in the BALB/c Mouse

Ku, S.K., Lee, H.S., Lee, J.H.
J Vet Med Series C: Anatomia Histologia Embryologia 2004; 33 (1), pp. 42-48

The distributions and frequencies of some endocrine cells in the eight portions of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of BALB/c mouse were studied. Endocrine cells were stained using immunohistochemical method with seven types of anti-sera against bovine chromogranin (BCG), serotonin, gastrin, cholecystokinin (CCK)-8, somatostatin, glucagon and human pancreatic polypeptide (HPP), and the regional distributions and their relative frequencies were observed in the eight portions of the GIT of BALB/c mice. All seven types of immunoreactive (IR) cells were identified. Most of the IR cells in the intestinal portion were generally spherical or spindle in shape (open type cell) while round-shaped cells (closed type cell) were found in the intestinal gland and stomach regions occasionally. Their relative frequencies varied according to each portion of the GIT. BCG-IR cells were observed throughout the whole GIT except for the rectum and they were most predominant in the pylorus. Serotonin-IR cells were detected throughout the whole GIT and they showed the highest frequency in the fundus. Gastrin- and CCK-IR cells were restricted to the pylorus and duodenum with a majority in the pylorus and rare or a few frequencies in the duodenum. Compared with other mammals, somatostatin-IR cells were restricted to the fundus and pylorus with a few frequencies, respectively. In addition, glucagon- and HPP-IR cells were restricted to the fundus and duodenum, respectively, with relative low frequencies. Some species-dependent unique distributions and frequencies of endocrine cells were observed in the GIT of BALB/c mouse compared with other rodents.

Immunohistochemical study of the distribution of serotonin in the gastrointestinal tract of the porcupines (Hystrix cristata)

Timurkaan, S., Karan, M., Aydin, A.
Revue de Medecine Veterinaire 2005; 156 (11), pp. 533-536

Serotonin immunoreactive cells were located in the gastric glands and in the intestinal epithelium with variable frequencies. They were spherical or spindle-shaped. Serotonin immuno-reactive cells were detected in almost all regions of the gastrointestinal tract and they showed highest frequency in the stomach and colon.

Effects of carbachol on gastrin and somatostatin release in rat antral tissue culture

Wolfe, M.M., Jain, D.K., Reel, G.M., McGuigan, J.E.
Gastroenterology 1984; 87 (1), pp. 86-93

Recent studies have demonstrated that somatostatin-containing cells are in close anatomic proximity to gastrin-producing cells in antral mucosa, suggesting a potential local regulatory role for somatostatin. The purpose of this study was to examine further the relationships between gastrin and somatostatin and the effects of the cholinergic agonist carbachol on content and release of gastrin and somatostatin using rat antral mucosa in tissue culture. Antral mucosa was cultured at 37 °C in KrebsHenseleit buffer, pH 7.4, gassed with 95% O2-5% CO2. After 1 h, the culture medium was decanted and the tissue was boiled to extract mucosal gastrin and somatostatin. Inclusion of carbachol 2.5 × 10-6 M in the culture medium decreased medium somatostatin from 1.91 ± 0.28 (SEM) ng/mg tissue protein to 0.62 ± 0.12 ng/mg (p < 0.01), extracted mucosal somatostatin from 2.60 ± 0.30 to 1.52 ± 0.16 ng/mg (p < 0.001), and percentage of somatostatin released from 42% ± 2.6% to 27% ± 2.2% (p < 0.01). Carbachol also increased culture media gastrin from 14 ± 2.5 to 27 ± 3.0 ng/mg protein (p < 0.01). Tissue content and release of gastrin and somatostatin were also examined during culture of rat antral mucosa in culture media containing antibodies to somatostatin in the presence and in the absence of carbachol. Incubation with somatostatin antisera, both with and without carbachol, markedly increased culture media concentrations of somatostatin, all of which was effectively bound by antibodies present in the media. Antibody binding of somatostatin was accompanied by significant increases in culture media gastrin concentrations, both in the presence and in the absence of carbachol. Results of these studies support the hypothesis that antral somatostatin exerts a local regulatory effect on gastrin release and that cholinergic stimulation of gastrin release is mediated, at least in part, through inhibition of somatostatin synthesis and release.

Endogenous somatostatin-28 modulates postprandial insulin secretion. Immunoneutralization studies in baboons

J W Ensinck, R E Vogel, E C Laschansky, D J Koerker, et al.
J Clin Invest. 1997; 100(9):2295–2302.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1172/JCI119767

Somatostatin-28 (S-28), secreted into the circulation from enterocytes after food, and S-14, released mainly from gastric and pancreatic D cells and enteric neurons, inhibit peripheral cellular functions. We hypothesized that S-28 is a humoral regulator of pancreatic B cell function during nutrient absorption. Consistent with this postulate, we observed in baboons a two to threefold increase in portal and peripheral levels of S-28 after meals, with minimal changes in S-14. We attempted to demonstrate a hormonal effect of these peptides by measuring their concentrations before and after infusing a somatostatin-specific monoclonal antibody (mAb) into baboons and comparing glucose, insulin, and glucagon-like peptide-1 levels before and for 4 h after intragastric nutrients during a control study and on 2 d after mAb administration (days 1 and 2). Basal growth hormone (GH) and glucagon levels and parameters of insulin and glucose kinetics were also measured. During immunoneutralization, we found that (a) postprandial insulin levels were elevated on days 1 and 2; (b) GH levels rose immediately and were sustained for 28 h, while glucagon fell; (c) basal insulin levels were unchanged on day 1 but were increased two to threefold on day 2, coincident with decreased insulin sensitivity; and (d) plasma glucose concentrations were similar to control values. We attribute the eventual rise in fasting levels of insulin to its enhanced secretion in compensation for the heightened insulin resistance from increased GH action. Based on the elevated postmeal insulin levels after mAb administration, we conclude that S-28 participates in the enteroinsular axis as a decretin to regulate postprandial insulin secretion.

The Therapeutic Value of Somatostatin and Its Analogues

Sadaf Farooqi, John S. Bevan, Michael C. Shepperd, John A. H. Wass
Pituitary June 1999; 2(1), pp 79-88
http:/dx.doi.org:/10.1023/A:1009978106476

In this review we discuss the physiological effects of somatostatin, which are mediated by specific receptor subtypes on different tissues. These observations have suggested new therapeutic possibilities for the use of the synthetic somatostatin analogues in the treatment of acromegaly as well as a number of other endocrine and non-endocrine disorders.

Somatostatin and Somatostatin Receptors

Ujendra Kumar, Michael Grant
Cellular Peptide Hormone Synthesis and Secretory Pathways
(Results and Problems in Cell Differentiation) 2010; 50: pp 97-120
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1007/400_2009_29

The biological effects of somatostatin (SST) were first encountered unexpectedly in the late 1960s in two unrelated studies, one by Krulich et al. (1968) who reported on a growth hormone (GH)-releasing inhibitory substance from hypothalamic extracts, and the other, by Hellman and Lernmark (1969), on the presence of a potent insulin inhibitory factor from the extracts of pigeon pancreatic islets. However, the inhibitory substance was not officially identified until 1973 by Guillemin’s group (Brazeau et al. 1973). In both synthetic and naturally occurring forms, this tetradecapeptide, originally coined as somatotropin release-inhibitory factor (SRIF, SST-14) was shown by Brazeau et al. to be the substance controlling hypothalamic GH release. This single achievement not only pioneered SST research but was also duly recognized, as Guillemin shared the 1977 Nobel Prize in Medicine. The following years bequeathed an exponential increase in SST-related studies. It soon became clear that SST-synthesis was not restricted to the hypothalamus. Its production is widely distributed throughout the central nervous system (CNS), peripheral neurons, the gastrointestinal tract, and the pancreatic islets of Langerhans (Luft et al. 1974; Arimura et al. 1975; Dubois 1975; Hokfelt et al. 1975; Orci et al. 1975; Pelletier et al. 1975; Polak et al. 1975; Patel and Reichlin 1978). In fact, SST-like immunoreactivity can be found throughout various tissues of vertebrates and invertebrates, including the plant kingdom (Patel 1992; Tostivint et al. 2004). Given its broad anatomical distribution, it is no wonder that SST produces a wide spectrum of biological effects. Generally regarded as an inhibitory factor, SST can function either locally on neighboring cells or distantly through the circulation, to regulate such physiological processes as glandular secretion, neurotransmission, smooth muscle contractility, nutrient absorption, and cell division (Reichlin 1983a, b; Patel 1992, 1999; Patel et al. 2001; Barnett 2003).

Receptor-Mediated Tumor Targeting with Radiopeptides. Part 1. General Concepts and Methods: Applications to Somatostatin Receptor-Expressing Tumors

Alex N. Eberle, Gabriele Mild, and Sylvie Froidevaux
Journal of Receptors and Signal Transduction  2004; 24(4) , Pages 319-455
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1081/RRS-200040939

Radiolabeled peptides have become important tools in nuclear oncology, both as diagnostics and more recently also as therapeutics. They represent a distinct sector of the molecular targeting approach, which in many areas of therapy will implement the old “magic bullet” concept by specifically directing the therapeutic agent to the site of action. In this three-part review, we present a comprehensive overview of the literature on receptor-mediated tumor targeting with the different radiopeptides currently studied. Part I summarizes the general concepts and methods of targeting, the selection of radioisotopes, chelators, and the criteria of peptide ligand development. Then, the >400 studies on the application to somatostatin/somatostatin-release inhibiting factor receptor-mediated tumor localization and treatment will be reviewed, demonstrating that peptide radiopharmaceuticals have gained an important position in clinical medicine.

The somatostatin neuroendocrine system: physiology and clinical relevance in gastrointestinal and pancreatic disorders

Malcolm J. Low
Best Practice & Res Clin Endocr & Metab, 2004; 18(4), pp. 607–622
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.beem.2004.08.005

The physiologic functions of hypothalamic somatostatin in the regulation of pituitary hormone secretion and the clinical use of somatostatin analogs for the treatment of pituitary adenomas have been reviewed. Similarly, the distribution, normal function and potential pathogenic roles of somatostatin in the central nervous system have been reported in detail. This review will focus exclusively on the physiologic actions of somatostatin and its receptors in the gastrointestinal tract, pancreas and immune system. Diagnostic and therapeutic roles of somatostatin analogs in a diverse catalog of neoplastic, inflammatory and autoimmune conditions affecting peripheral systems are outlined, with an emphasis on both well-established indications and current areas of exploration.

Somatostatin is produced in enteroendocrine D cells and intrinsic neurons of the stomach, intestines and pancreas. Its physiologic actions are mediated primarily by somatostatin receptors type 2 and 5, and include the inhibition of secretion of most endocrine and exocrine factors. Diseases directly attributable to somatostatin excess or deficiency are rare, although there is a complex pathogenic relationship between persistent Helicobacter pylori infection and reduced somatostatin in chronic gastritis. Abundant somatostatin receptors on many neoplastic and inflammatory cells are the basis for sensitive in vivo imaging with radiolabeled somatostatin analogs and provide a therapeutic target. Current indications for somatostatin therapy include hormone-expressing neuroendocrine tumors, intractable diarrhea and variceal bleeding secondary to portal hypertension. Exciting advances are being made in the development of high-affinity nonpeptide analogs with receptor-subtype selectivity and increased bioavailability. Somatostatin analogs coupled to high-energy radionuclides show promise as novel cytotoxic agents for certain metastatic tumors.

Evolution of the somatostatin gene family Both forms of mammalian somatostatin are derived post-translationally from a common pro-hormone by the action of specific pro-protein convertases (PCs). Genetic studies indicate a primary role for PC2 in the generation of SST147, which is the predominant form of somatostatin produced in the brain and most other tissues. SST28 is found in its highest concentrations in the gastrointestinal tract, especially the mucosal epithelial cells of the intestines.
A revised evolutionary concept of the somatostatin gene family is that a primordial gene underwent duplication during or before the advent of chordates and that the two resulting genes subsequently underwent differing rates of mutation to produce the distinct prepro-somatostatin and prepro-cortistatin genes in mammals. A second gene duplication event likely occurred in teleosts to generate PSS1 and PSS-II from the ancestral somatostatin gene.
It is possible that additional related genes have not yet been identified. Recent studies utilizing unique polyclonal antisera and a strain of somatostatin-deficient mouse have demonstrated the existence of a novel gastrointestinal peptide with homology to the amino acid sequence of SST28(1–13) that has been named thrittene.
Somatostatin gene organization and regulation The mammalian PPS1 (or SMST) gene has a relatively simple organization consisting of two coding exons separated by one intron. A single promoter directs transcription of the PPS1 gene in all tissues, and there are no known alternative mRNA splicing events. The molecular mechanisms underlying the developmental and hormonal regulation of somatostatin gene transcription have been most extensively studied in pancreatic islets and islet-derived cell lines. The proximal enhancer elements in the somatostatin gene promoter that bind complexes of homeodomain-containing transcription factors (PAX6, PBX, PREP1) to upregulate transcription in pancreatic islets may actually represent gene silencer elements in neurons (promoter elements TSEII and UE-A). Conversely, another related cis-element in the somatostatin gene (promoter element TSEI) apparently binds a homeodomain transcription factor PDX1 (also called STF1/ IDX1/IPF1) that is common to developing brain, pancreas and foregut, and regulates gene expression in both the CNS and gut.
Enteroendocrine cells of the gut mucosa differentiate from pluripotential stem cells in the crypts, share molecular phenotypes and retain close paracrine interactions among the daughter cells. Similarly, pancreatic islet cells share common precursors. Recent studies have demonstrated that bone marrow contains a stem cell population capable of producing islet-like cell clusters in vitro that contain somatostatin-positive cells together with the other cell types found in normally differentiated islets.
Somatostatin Receptors  There are five somatostatin receptor subtypes (SSTR1–5) encoded by separate genes located on different chromosomes. Alternative mRNA splicing generates SSTR2α and SSTR2β from heteronuclear RNA after transcription from the single SSTR2 gene. SSTRs are members of the rhodopsin-like G protein-coupled receptor superfamily and are most closely related structurally to the opioid receptors. The unique amino acid signature of SSTRs is contained in a seven-element fingerprint of peptide sequences located in conserved regions of the N and C termini, extra- and intra-cellular loops, and transmembrane domains. SSTRs are expressed in discrete or partially overlapping distributions in multiple target organs and differ in their coupling to second messenger signaling molecules, and therefore in their range and mechanism of intracellular actions. The subtypes also differ in their binding affinity to specific somatostatin-like ligands. Some of these differences have important implications for the use of somatostatin analogs in diagnostic imaging and in pharmacotherapy.
All SSTR subtypes are coupled to pertussis toxin-sensitive G proteins and bind SST14 and SST28 with high affinity in the low nanomolar range, although SST28 has a modestly higher affinity for SSTR5. All the subtypes are expressed in brain and pituitary to varying degrees with different distributions, but SSTR2 and SSTR5 are clearly the most abundant in peripheral tissues. These two subtypes are also the most physiologically important in pancreatic islets. SSTR5 is responsible for the inhibition of insulin secretion from b-cells, and SSTR2 is essential for the inhibition of glucagon from a-cells. SSTR1 is expressed at low levels in gastrointestinal structures. The binding of somatostatin to its receptors leads to the activation of one or more inhibitory G proteins (Gi/o), which in turn decrease adenylyl cyclase activity and the concentration of intracellular cAMP. Other G protein-mediated actions common to all The somatostatin neuroendocrine system 609 SSTRs are activation of a vanadate-sensitive phosphotyrosine phosphatase (PTP) and modulation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs).
Inhibition of endocrine and exocrine secretion Somatostatin has diverse biologic activities in the gastrointestinal system. It is secreted from D cells into the extracellular space to act as a paracrine factor on nearby endocrine cells and as an autocrine factor to inhibit its own secretion. Most of the circulating hormonal somatostatin originates from the stomach and intestines. Basal plasma levels are in the range of 30–100 pg/ml and increase postprandially by as much as 100% over baseline for a duration up to 2 hours. The release of somatostatin from enteric D cells is regulated by a combination of nutritional, humoral, neural and paracrine signals.

The modulatory role of somatostatin in gastric acid secretion by parietal cells illustrates the typical complexity of hormonal, paracrine and neural integration within the gastrointestinal tract.
Somatostatin secreted from gastric D cells modulates the gastrin-enterochromaffin-like cell—parietal cell axis. Gastrin, secreted from G cells, stimulates the release of histamine from enterochromaffin-like cells (ECL), which is in turn a major secretagog of hydrochloric acid (HCl) from gastric parietal (P) cells. Somatostatin (SST14) inhibits secretion from each of these cell types, although the predominant actions are on the G and ECL cells. Food intake mediates gastric acid secretion by activating both vagal nerves and intrinsic gastric neurons. D cells are stimulated by the autocrine release of amylin, the paracrine release of bombesin and atrial natiuretic peptide (ANP), the enteric neuron release of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP) and cholecystokinin (CCK), and the T lymphocyte release of interleukin-4 (IL-4).D cells are inhibited by histamine acting on H3 receptors in a negative paracrine feedback loop from ECL cells and by other factors, including gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and opioid peptides. The pathways illustrated are not all-inclusive but represent many of the key regulatory steps.

Practice points

† long-acting somatostatin analogs are primary therapeutic tools for the symptomatic treatment of the excessive hormone and monoamine secretion from carcinoids and other neuroendocrine tumors

† somatostatin and long-acting somatostatin analogs are effective first-line
medical treatment for upper gastrointestinal bleeding from esophageal varices associated with hepatic cirrhosis and portal hypertension but are not indicatedfor the treatment of bleeding from gastric varices or duodenal ulcers

† radiolabeled somatostatin analogs provide a sensitive imaging technique for a wide range of neoplastic and inflammatory disorders, including neuroendocrine tumors, meningiomas and sarcoidosis because of their high level expression of somatostatin receptors.

The role(s) of somatostatin, structurally related peptides and somatostatin receptors in the gastrointestinal tract: a review

J Van Op den bosch, D Adriaensen, L Van Nassauw, Jean-Pierre Timmermans
Regulatory Peptides 156 (2009) 1–8
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.regpep.2009.04.003

Extensive functional and morphological research has demonstrated the pivotal role of somatostatin (SOM) in the regulation of a wide variety of gastrointestinal activities. In addition to its profound inhibitory effects on gastrointestinal motility and exocrine and endocrine secretion processes along the entire gastrointestinal tract, SOM modulates several organ-specific activities. In contrast to these well-known SOM-dependent effects, knowledge on the SOM receptors (SSTR) involved in these effects is much less conclusive. Experimental data on the identities of the SSTRs, although species- and tissue-dependent, point towards the involvement of multiple receptor subtypes in the vast majority of gastrointestinal SOM-mediated effects. Recent evidence demonstrating the role of SOM in intestinal pathologies has extended the interest of gastrointestinal research in this peptide even further. More specifically, SOM is supposed to suppress intestinal inflammatory responses by interfering with the extensive bidirectional communication between mucosal mast cells and neurons. This way, SOM not only acts as a powerful inhibitor of the inflammatory cascade at the site of inflammation, but exerts a profound anti-nociceptive effect through the modulation of extrinsic afferent nerve fibers. The combination of these physiological and pathological activities opens up new opportunities to explore the potential of stable SOM analogues in the treatment of GI inflammatory pathologies.

Schematic overview of the distribution of the SSTRs 1–5

Schematic overview of the distribution of the SSTRs 1–5

Schematic overview of the distribution of the SSTRs 1–5 in the murine small intestine under control conditions (left panel) and during intestinal schistosomiasis (right panel). In non-inflamed conditions, SSTR1, SSTR2A and SSTR4 are expressed in non-neuronal (glial cells, enterocytes…) and neuronal cells, both from intrinsic and extrinsic origin. SSTR3 and SSTR5 are undetectable. In response to intestinal schistosomiasis, profound sprouting of nerve fibres expressing SSTR1, SSTR3 and SSTR4 is observed, in addition to the expression of SSTR1 and SSTR3 in mucosal mast cells (MMC).

Somatostatin and Its Receptor Family

Yogesh C. Patel
Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 1999; 20, 157–198 Article ID frne.1999.0183

Somatostatin (SST), a regulatory peptide, is produced by neuroendocrine, inflammatory, and immune cells in response to ions, nutrients, neuropeptides, neurotransmitters, thyroid and steroid hormones, growth factors, and cytokines. The peptide is released in large amounts from storage pools of secretory cells, or in small amounts from activated immune and inflammatory cells, and acts as an endogenous inhibitory regulator of the secretory and proliferative responses of target cells that are widely distributed in the brain and periphery. These actions are mediated by a family of seven  transmembrane (TM) domain G-protein-coupled receptors that comprise five distinct subtypes (termed SSTR1–5) that are endoded by separate genes segregated on different chromosomes. The five receptor subtypes bind the natural SST peptides, SST-14 and SST-28, with low nanomolar affinity. Short synthetic octapeptide and hexapeptide analogs bind well to only three of the subtypes, 2, 3, and 5. Selective nonpeptide agonists with nanomolar affinity have been developed for four of the subtypes (SSTR1, 2, 3, and 4) and putative peptide antagonists for SSTR2 and SSTR5 have been identified. The ligand binding domain for SST ligands is made up of residues in TMs III–VII with a potential contribution by the second extracellular loop. SSTRs are widely expressed in many tissues, frequently as multiple subtypes that coexist in the same cell. The five receptors share common signaling pathways such as the inhibition of adenylyl cyclase, activation of phosphotyrosine phosphatase (PTP), and modulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) through G-protein-dependent mechanisms.

Somatostatin receptors

Lars Neisig Møller, Carsten Enggaard Stidsen, Bolette Hartmann, Jens Juul Holst
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1616 (2003) 1 – 84
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/S0005-2736(03)00235-9

In 1972, Brazeau et al. isolated somatostatin (somatotropin release-inhibiting factor, SRIF), a cyclic polypeptide with two biologically active isoforms (SRIF-14 and SRIF-28). This event prompted the successful quest for SRIF receptors. Then, nearly a quarter of a century later, it was announced that a neuropeptide, to be named cortistatin (CST), had been cloned, bearing strong resemblance to SRIF. Evidence of special CST receptors never emerged, however. CST rather competed with both SRIF isoforms for specific receptor binding. And binding to the known subtypes with affinities in the nanomolar range, it has therefore been acknowledged to be a third endogenous ligand at SRIF receptors. This review goes through mechanisms of signal transduction, pharmacology, and anatomical distribution of SRIF receptors. Structurally, SRIF receptors belong to the superfamily of G protein-coupled (GPC) receptors, sharing the characteristic seven-transmembrane-segment (STMS) topography. Years of intensive research have resulted in cloning of five receptor subtypes (sst1-sst5), one of which is represented by two splice variants (sst2A and sst2B). The individual subtypes, functionally coupled to the effectors of signal transduction, are differentially expressed throughout the mammalian organism, with corresponding differences in physiological impact. It is evident that receptor function, from a physiological point of view, cannot simply be reduced to the accumulated operations of individual receptors. Far from being isolated functional units, receptors co-operate. The total receptor apparatus of individual cell types is composed of different-ligand receptors (e.g. SRIF and non-SRIF receptors) and co-expressed receptor subtypes (e.g. sst2 and sst5 receptors) in characteristic proportions. In other words, levels of individual receptor subtypes are highly cell-specific and vary with the co-expression of different-ligand receptors. However, the question is how to quantify the relative contributions of individual receptor subtypes to the integration of transduced signals, ultimately the result of collective receptor activity. The generation of knock-out (KO) mice, intended as a means to define the contributions made by individual receptor subtypes, necessarily marks but an approximation. Furthermore, we must now take into account the stunning complexity of receptor co-operation indicated by the observation of receptor homo- and heterodimerisation, let alone oligomerisation. Theoretically, this phenomenon adds a novel series of functional megareceptors/super-receptors, with varied pharmacological profiles, to the catalogue of monomeric receptor subtypes isolated and cloned in the past. SRIF analogues include both peptides and non-peptides, receptor agonists and antagonists. Relatively long half lives, as compared to those of the endogenous ligands, have been paramount from the outset. Motivated by theoretical puzzles or the shortcomings of present-day diagnostics and therapy, investigators have also aimed to produce subtype-selective analogues. Several have become available.

Somatostatin And Its Analogues In The Therapy Of Gastrointestinal Disease

Wynick, J. M. Polak And S. R. Bloom
Pharmac. Ther. 1989; 41, pp. 353-370

During the course of efforts to determine the distribution of growth hormone-releasing factor (GHRF) in rat hypothalamus a substance that inhibited growth hormone release was unexpectedly detected by Krulich et aL (1968). Their findings led them to hypothesize that the secretion of growth hormone from the pituitary was regulated by two different interacting neurohumoral factors–one stimulatory, the other inhibitory–each under the control of the nervous system. At about the same time Hellman and Lernmark (1969) found a factor in extracts of pigeon pancreatic islet-cells that inhibited insulin release in vivo from cultured pancreatic islet-cells. These two observations, seemingly unrelated, were ultimately to converge with the chemical identification of somatostatin, as an inhibitory peptide found in both the hypothalamus and pancreas.

Growth hormone-release inhibitory activity was re-discovered in 1972 by Brazeau et al. (1973). A concentrated effort to isolate and sequence the active principal was successful and it proved to be a cyclic peptide, to which the term ‘somatostatin’ (somatotrophin release inhibitory factor) was applied.               Subsequent work (Reichlin, 1982a,b, 1983a,b; Iverson, 1983; Guillemin, 1978a,b) has considerably expanded the initially simple concept of somatostatin as a 14 amino-acid containing peptide (tetradecapeptide), bridged by a sulphur-sulphur bond whose main function was the regulation of growth-hormone secretion (Bonfils, 1985). Somatostatin related peptides are now known to constitute a family that includes the original identified peptide (designated somatostatin 14), an N-terminal extended somatostatin (somatostatin 28), several species specific variants and larger prohormone forms.
The name somatostatin may now be considered to be inappropriate because this compound is distributed widely in cells that have nothing to do with growth-hormone regulation or release. Tissues where somatostatin may be found include the nervous system, the gut and endocrine glands.
Somatostatin is present in every vertebrate class and even in primitive invertebrates (Vale et al., 1976; Falkmer et al., 1978; Jackson, 1978). This would suggest that this molecule and its controlling gene or genes evolved before the appearance on earth of differentiated cell-cell and nerve-cell communication (Roth et al., 1982). The evolutionary paths of mammals and fish are thought to have diverged at least 400 million years ago. The fact that the phenotype of somatostatin 14 is so well conserved (as to a lesser degree is that of somatostatin 28) suggests that throughout evolutionary history the specific configuration of somatostatin 14 has endowed a selective advantage on the animal kingdom, and its absence is not compatible with life.
Though widely distributed in cells throughout the body of vertebrates somatostatin does not in Guillemin’s words (1978a), “inhibit secretion of everything and anything” (since, for example it has no effect on the release of LH and FSH). Despite this it has certainly earned itself the nickname ‘endocrine cyanide’ (Bloom and Polak, 1987). The peptide is found in most but not all organs and displays specific and selective functions depending on its location. Within the nervous system somatostatinergic neurons are found in the cortex, limbic system, anterior pituitary, brain stem and spinal cord.
The various biological effects of somatostatin seem to be mediated through its specific high affinity receptors found in the brain, pituitary, adrenal, pancreas and gastrointestinal tract. Not only normal target tissue, but also tumors from the same endocrine tissues i.e. human pituitary adenomas, human and hamster pancreatic insulinomas, glucagonomas and VIPomas all bear somatostatin receptors (Reubi et al., 1981, 1982a, 1984a, 1985a, 1987a,b). Interestingly, tumors from tissues which are not established targets for somatostatin also seem to bear somatostatin receptors (Goodman et al., 1982; Reubi et al., 1986). Reubi et al. (1987b) demonstrated that many endocrine tumors including meningiomas, breast, pancreatic and pituitary tumors all have somatostatin receptors however, they demonstrated no receptors in prostatic carcinomas, ovarian carcinomas, endometrial carcinomas, primary liver cell carcinomas, pheochromocytomas, aldosterone secreting tumors, medullary carcinoma of the thyroid and a number of pulmonary carcinoids. Somatostatin receptors were also found in benign or malignant tumors originating from tissues not primarily known as somatostatin target organs, the biological function of such receptors is therefore unknown though it may be that they mediate the anti-proliferative effect of somatostatin and may therefore potentially be of therapeutic interest (Blankenstein et al., 1983, 1984).

Review article: somatostatin analogues in the treatment of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine (carcinoid) tumoursModlin,

M. Pavel[1], M. Kidd & B. I. Gustafsson
Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2009; 31, 169–188
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1111/j.1365-2036.2009.04174.x

Background

The discovery of somatostatin (SST) and the synthesis of a variety of analogues constituted a major therapeutic advance in the treatment of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine (carcinoid) tumours (GEP-NETs). They currently provide the most efficient treatment to achieve symptomatic relief and have recently been demonstrated to inhibit tumour growth.

Aim To review 35 years of experience regarding the clinical application and

efficacy of SST analogues. Methods The PubMed database (1972–2009) was searched using somatostatin as a search term with combinations of terms including ‘treatment’; ‘neuroendocrine’; ‘carcinoid’; ‘tumor’; ‘octreotide’; ‘lanreotide’ and ‘pasireotide’. Results In a review of 15 studies including 481 patients, the slow-release formulations Sandostatin LAR and Somatuline SR⁄ Autogel achieved symptomatic relief in 74.2% (61.9–92.8%) and 67.5% (40.0–100%), biochemical response in 51.4% (31.5–100%) and 39.0% (17.9–58%), and tumor response in 69.8% (47.0–87.5%) and 64.4% (48.0–87.0%) respectively. New SST analogues like SOM230 (pasireotide) that exhibit pan SST receptor activity and analogues with high affinity to specific somatostatin receptor (sstr) subtypes show promise. Conclusion As more precise understanding of NET cell biology evolves and molecular biological tools advance, more accurate identification of individual tumours sstr profile will probably facilitate a more precise delineation of SST analogue treatment.

Novel Autonomic Neurotransmitters And Intestinal Function

S. Taylor and R. A. R. Bywater
Pharmac. Ther. 1989; 40, pp. 401 to 438

In this review we will discuss some of the difficulties encountered in ascribing a neurotransmitter function to the more recently discovered peptides and other substances within the intestine. We will also provide a brief (and of necessity incomplete) account of some of the properties of intestinal putative neurotransmitters, and their possible roles in the functions of the small and large intestine.
The Enteric Nervous System The diverse intestinal functions associated with transit, digestion and absorption rely upon an intact enteric nervous system. The enteric nervous system essentially consists of those neurons whose cell bodies lie within the walls of the gastrointestinal tract. In the small and large intestine the cell bodies lie within the myenteric and submucous plexuses; their processes ramify throughout the majority of the intestinal wall and in many areas give rise to additional plexuses (Furness and Costa, 1987; Gabella, 1987). Functionally, these neurons can be divided into sensory neurons, interneurons and motor neurons. Some enteric neurons receive projections from extrinsic neurons and/or send projections centrally; we will not consider these projections further here.
The early observations of the co-existence of peptides in the enteric nervous system (Schultzberg et al., 1980) have now been extended and these studies demonstrate that the co-existence of two or more peptides is the rule rather than the exception (H6kfelt et al., 1987). The mix of peptides within neurons does not appear to be random; rather, there appears to be a systematic grouping of peptides in neurons with particular projections. This has led to the concept of “chemical coding” of enteric neurons. According to this concept, particular combinations of peptides are associated with particular neural pathways and perhaps with particular functions. For example, in the guinea pig small intestine, two chemically coded groups of submucous neurons have projections of different lengths running to the mucosa. Cell bodies with longer projections show immunoreactivity for dynorphin (DYN) and VIP. The other group shows immunoreactivity for choline acetyltransferase (CHAT), cholecystokinin, (CCK), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), neuropeptide Y (NPY) and somatostatin (SOM) (Costa et al., 1986a; Furness et al., 1987a). More recently it has been demonstrated that both groups of neurons show immunoreactivity for galanin (GAL) (Furness et al., 1987a,b). As for the neurotransmitter roles in the gut, the key question then becomes; “How does the presence of specific combinations of chemical substances (including peptides) relate to neuronal function?” It has been known for several years that “classical” transmitter substances can coexist in combination with various peptides (H6kfelt et al., 1980; Gilbert and Emson, 1983).
The above commentary upon the possible co-existence of several putative transmitter substances highlights the complex neurochemistry of the enteric nervous system. A corresponding degree of complexity appears to exist for the neuronal circuitry that ultimately directs the differing, but highly organized, patterns of motility and the secretory/absorptive functions of the intestinal tract. In vitro electrophysiological studies of the myenteric and submucous plexuses have indicated that several different types of neurons are present, each with their own biophysical characteristics. Furthermore, neurotransmission through, and probably between, the plexuses involves synaptic potentials which have time courses ranging from several milliseconds up to several minutes, depending upon the characteristics (stimulus strength, frequency and train length, etc.) and location of the applied electrical stimulus (see Wood, 1987, for references). Intracellular recordings from smooth muscle cells have also shown that excitatory and inhibitory junction potentials (EJPs and IJPS) of varying time courses can be evoked at various locations along the intestine during transmural electrical stimulation in response to selective stimulus regimens (see, for instance, Bywater and Taylor, 1986).
A number of authors have proposed criteria which should be fulfilled in order that transmitter status can be bestowed upon a particular substance (see Furness and Costa, 1982, for references). These criteria were developed with reference to the classical transmitter substances such as ACh, using the paradigm of a single transmitter per neuron. Regardless of the coexistence of several putative transmitters, status can only be granted to those substances that are found to be released from that nerve terminal. In the enteric nervous system a particular putative transmitter may be contained in several different functional pathways. However, in general, the methods used for eliciting release of putative transmitter substances (e.g. transmural electrical stimulation) are not specific for particular projections. Thus, for any substance, the association of demonstrated release with a given transmitter role is not facile.

New roles of the multidimensional adipokine: Chemerin

Syeda Sadia Fatima, Rehana Rehman, Mukhtiar Baig, Taseer Ahmed Khan
Peptides 62 (2014) 15–20
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2014.09.019

The discovery of several adipokines with diverse activities and their involvement in regulation of various pathophysiological functions of human body has challenged the researchers. In the family of adipokine, chemerin is a novel and unique addition. Ever since the first report on chemerin as a chemo-attractant protein, there are numerous studies showing a multitasking capacity of chemerin in the maintenance of homeostasis, for the activation of natural killer cells, macrophages and dendritic cells in both innate and adaptive immunity. Its diversity ranges from generalized inflammatory cascades to being explicitly involved in the manifestation of arthritis, psoriasis and peritonitis. Its association with certain cancerous tissue may render it as a potential tumor marker. In present review, we aim to consolidate recent data of investigations on chemerin in context to functional characteristics with a special reference to its role as a metabolic signal in inflammation and non-metabolic syndromes.

Neuropeptide Y is expressed in subpopulations of insulin- and non-insulin-producing islet cells in the rat after dexamethasone treatment: a combined immunocytochemical and in situ hybridisation study

Myrs6n a, *, B. Ahr6n b, F. Sundler
Regulatory Peptides 1995; 60, 19-31

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is known to occur in adrenergic and non-adrenergic nerves in rat pancreatic islets. Analysis of islet extracts has revealed local NPY synthesis after glucocorticoid treatment. The cellular localization of NPY expression in rat islets following dexamethasone treatment (2 mg/kg daily, for 12 days), was investigated by a combination of immunocytochemistry (ICC) and in situ hybridization (ISH). NPY-immunoreactive nerve fibers were seen in pancreatic islets of both control and dexamethasone-treated rats. In the controls weak NPY immunoreactivity but no NPY mRNA was observed in occasional i:dets. After dexamethasone treatment, clusters of islet cells distributed both centrally and peripherally displayed intense NPY immunoreactivity and NPY mRNA labelling. Immunocytochemical double staining and ISH combined with ICC for NPY and islet hormones revealed that most NPY expressing cells were identical with insulin cells; a few cells were identical[ with somatostatin or pancreatic polypeptide (PP) cells. In contrast, glucagon cells seemed to be devoid of NPY immunoreactivity and NPY mRNA labelling. Thus, in the rat, glucocorticoids cause a marked upregulation of NPY expression in islet cells, preferentially the insulin cells. The expression of NPY might represent an islet adaptation mechanism to the reduced peripheral insulin sensitivity.

Neuropeptide Y is expressed in islet somatostatin cells of the hamster pancreas: a combined immunocytochemical and in situ hybridization study

Ulrika Myrsrn, Frank Sundler
Regulatory Peptides 1995; 57, 65-76

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is known to occur in the autonomic nervous system, including the pancreatic islet innervation. We now present evidence that NPY is also expressed in endocrine islet cells in hamster pancreas. Thus, NPY-immunoreactivity and gene expression were detected in peripheral islet cells, using immunocytochemistry (ICC), in situ hybridization (ISH), and a combination of these techniques. Double immunostaining for NPY and somatostatin enabled localization of NPY to the vast majority of the somatostatin cells. However, a few somatostatin cells were devoid of NPY immunoreactivity and an occasional NPY-immunoreactive cell was devoid of somatostatin. ISH with an NPY mRNA specific probe, showed labelling of cells in the islet periphery. Furthermore, combined ISH for NPY mRNA and ICC for somatostatin showed autoradiographic labelling of somatostatin cells to a varying degree. Both somatostatin and NPY are inhibitors of insulin and/or glucagon secretion. Thus, in the islets these two peptides may be coreleased and cooperate in the, regulation of islet hormone secretion. The role for NPY emanating from islet cells is probably paracrine rather than endocrine.

Neuropeptide Y and Peptide YY Immunoreactivities in the Pancreas of Various Vertebrates

Wei-Guang Ding, Hiroshi Kimura, Masaki Fujimura And Mineko Fujimiya
Peptides,  1997; 18(10), pp. 1523–1529   PII S0196-9781(97)00237-4

NPY-like immunoreactivity was observed in nerve fibers and endocrine cells
in pancreas of all species examined except the eel, which showed no NPY innervation. The density of NPY-positive nerve fibers was higher in mammals than in the lower vertebrates. These nerve fibers were distributed throughout the parenchyma, and were particularly associated with the pancreatic duct
and vascular walls. In addition, the density of NPY-positive endocrine cells was found to be higher in lower vertebrates than mammals; in descending order; eel 5 turtle 5 chicken . bullfrog . mouse 5 rat 5 human . guinea pig 5 dog. These NPY-positive cells in the eel and certain mammals tended to be localized throughout the islet region, whereas in the turtle and chicken they were mainly scattered in the exocrine region. PYY-immunoreactivity was only present in the pancreatic endocrine cells of all species studied, and localized similarly to NPY. Thus these two peptides may play endocrine or paracrine roles in the regulation of islet hormone secretion in various vertebrate species.

Inhibitory effect of somatostatin on inflammation and nociception

Erika Pintér, Zsuzsanna Helyes, János Szolcsányi
Pharmacology & Therapeutics 112 (2006) 440–456

Somatostatin is released from capsaicin-sensitive, peptidergic sensory nerve endings in response to noxious heat and chemical stimuli such as vanilloids, protons or lipoxygenase products. It reaches distant parts of the body via the circulation and exerts systemic anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects. Somatostatin binds to G-protein coupled membrane receptors (sst1–sst5) and diminishes neurogenic inflammation by prejunctional action on sensory-efferent nerve terminals, as well as by postjunctional mechanisms on target cells. It decreases the release of pro-inflammatory neuropeptides from sensory nerve endings and also acts on receptors of vascular endothelial, inflammatory and immune cells. Analgesic effect is mediated by an inhibitory action on peripheral terminals of nociceptive neurons, since circulating somatostatin cannot exert central action.
Somatostatin itself is not suitable for drug development because of its broad spectrum and short elimination half-life, stable, receptor-selective agonists have been synthesized and investigated. The present overview is aimed at summarizing the physiological importance of somatostatin and sst receptors, pharmacological significance of synthetic agonists and their potential in the development of novel anti-inflammatory and analgesic drugs. These compounds might provide novel perspectives in the pharmacotherapy of acute and chronic painful inflammatory diseases, as well as neuropathic conditions.

the sources, target cells and effects of somatostatin (SST) involved in inflammatory and nociceptive processes

the sources, target cells and effects of somatostatin (SST) involved in inflammatory and nociceptive processes

This schematic drawing demonstrates the sources, target cells and effects of somatostatin (SST) involved in inflammatory and nociceptive processes

Characterization, detection and regulation of somatostatin receptors

The physiological actions of SST are initiated by its binding to membrane receptors. Five human somatostatin receptors (sst), have been cloned and characterized and referred to as sst1-5 receptors using the nomenclature suggested by Hoyer et al. (1995). Structurally, sst receptors are 7 transmembrane domain glycoproteins, comprised of 7 membrane spanning α helical domains connected by short loops, an N-terminal extracellular domain and a C-terminal intracellular domain. On the basis of binding studies using synthetic somatostatin analogs, sst receptors can be divided into 2 different subgroups: SRIF1 group comprising sst2, sst3 and sst5 are able to bind octapeptide analogs, whereas SRIF2 group comprising sst1 and sst4 have negligible affinity for these compounds. Within sst2 receptors, sst2A and sst2B are encoded on the same chromosome 17 and generated through alternative splicing of sst2 mRNA (Patel et al., 1993). None of the peptide analogs bind exclusively to only one of the sst subtypes, although new approaches might yield subtype-selective agonists and antagonists (Hofland et al., 1995; Hoyer et al., 1995; Patel et al., 1995; Reisine & Bell, 1995; Florio & Schettini, 1996; Patel, 1997; Meyerhof, 1998; Janecka et al., 2001). Somatostatin receptors are linked to multiple cellular effector systems via G-proteins. They mediate the inhibition of adenylate cyclase activity (Jakobs et al., 1983; Patel et al., 1995), reduce the conductance of voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels (Schally, 1988; Patel et al., 1995) and activate K+ channels (Mihara et al., 1987; Moore et al., 1988; Wang et al., 1989). Somatostatin receptors also mediate the stimulation of tyrosine phosphatase activity, induce a reduction of cell proliferation and inhibit a Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE1) (Barber et al., 1989; Buscail et al., 1994; Patel et al., 1995). Sst receptors represent a major class of inhibitory receptors which play an important role in modulating higher brain functions, secretory processes, cell proliferation and apoptosis.
Endogenous Somatostatin-28 Modulates Postprandial Insulin Secretion Immunoneutralization Studies in Baboons

John W. Ensinck, Robin E. Vogel, Ellen C. Laschansky, Donna J. Koerker, et al.
J Clin Invest 1997. 100: 2295–2302.).  http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI119767

Somatostatin-28 (S-28), secreted into the circulation from enterocytes after food, and S-14, released mainly from gastric and pancreatic δ cells and enteric neurons, inhibit peripheral cellular functions. We hypothesized that S-28 is a humoral regulator of pancreatic β cell function during nutrient absorption. Consistent with this postulate, we observed in baboons a two to threefold increase in portal and peripheral levels of S-28 after meals, with minimal changes in S-14. We attempted to demonstrate a hormonal effect of these peptides by measuring their concentrations before and after infusing a somatostatin-specific monoclonal antibody (mAb) into baboons and comparing glucose, insulin, and glucagon-like peptide-1 levels before and for 4 h after intragastric nutrients during a control study and on 2 d after mAb administration (days 1 and 2). Basal growth hormone (GH) and glucagon levels and parameters of insulin and glucose kinetics were also measured. During immunoneutralization, we found that
(a) postprandial insulin levels were elevated on days 1 and 2;
(b) GH levels rose immediately and were sustained for 28 h, while glucagon fell; (c) basal insulin levels were unchanged on day 1 but were increased two to threefold on day 2, coincident with decreased insulin sensitivity; and
(d) plasma glucose concentrations were similar to control values.
We attribute the eventual rise in fasting levels of insulin to its enhanced secretion in compensation for the heightened insulin resistance from increased GH action. Based on the elevated postmeal insulin levels after mAb administration, we conclude that S-28 participates in the enteroinsular axis as a decretin to regulate postprandial insulin secretion.

Effects of glucagon-like peptide 1 on appetite and body weight: focus on the CNS

L van Bloemendaal, J S ten Kulve, S E la Fleur, R G Ijzerman and M Diamant
Journal of Endocrinology 2014; 221, T1–T16
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1530/JOE-13-0414

The delivery of nutrients to the gastrointestinal tract after food ingestion activates the secretion of several gut-derived mediators, including the incretin hormone glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1). GLP-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RA), such as exenatide and liraglutide, are currently employed successfully in the treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. GLP-1RA improve glycaemic control and stimulate satiety, leading to reductions in food intake and body weight. Besides gastric distension and peripheral vagal nerve activation, GLP-1RA induce satiety by influencing brain regions involved in the regulation of feeding, and several routes of action have been proposed. This review summarises the evidence for a physiological role of GLP-1 in the central regulation of feeding behavior and the different routes of action involved. Also, we provide an overview of presently available data on pharmacological stimulation of GLP-1 pathways leading to alterations in CNS activity, reductions in food intake and weight loss.

Critical role for peptide YY in protein-mediated satiation and body-weight regulation

Rachel L. Batterham, Helen Heffron, Saloni Kapoor, Joanna E. Chivers, et al.
Cell Metab 2006; 4, 223–233 http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.cmet.2006.08.001

Dietary protein enhances satiety and promotes weight loss, but the mechanisms by which appetite is affected remain unclear. We investigated the role of gut hormones, key regulators of ingestive behavior, in mediating the satiating effects of different macronutrients. In normal-weight and obese human subjects, high-protein intake induced the greatest release of the anorectic hormone peptide YY (PYY) and the most pronounced satiety. Long-term augmentation of dietary protein in mice increased plasma PYY levels, decreased food intake, and reduced adiposity. To directly determine the role of PYY in mediating the satiating effects of protein, we generated PYY null mice, which were selectively resistant to the satiating and weight-reducing effects of protein and developed marked obesity that was reversed by exogenous PYY treatment. Our findings suggest that modulating the release of endogenous satiety factors, such as PYY, through alteration of specific diet constituents could provide a rational therapy for obesity.

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Parathyroids and Bone Metabolism

Posted in Biological Networks, Bone Disease and Musculoskeletal Disease, Calcium, Cell Biology, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Curation, Diagnostic Immunology, Diagnostics and Lab Tests, Endocrine Diseases, Liver & Digestive Diseases Research, Metabolism, Nephrology, Nutrition, Population Health Management, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Translational Science, tagged , , , , , , , , , , on February 10, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Parathyroids and Bone Metabolism

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP 

 

 

Parathyroid hormone (PTH), parathormone or parathyrin, is secreted by the chief cells of the parathyroid glands as a polypeptide containing 84 amino acids. It acts to increase the concentration of calcium (Ca2+) in the blood, whereas calcitonin (a hormone produced by the parafollicular cells (C cells) of the thyroid gland) acts to decrease calcium concentration. PTH acts to increase the concentration of calcium in the blood by acting upon the parathyroid hormone 1 receptor (high levels in bone and kidney) and the parathyroid hormone 2 receptor (high levels in the central nervous system, pancreas, testis, and placenta). PTH half-life is approximately 4 minutes.[2] It has a molecular mass of 9.4 kDa.

hPTH-(1-34) crystallizes as a slightly bent, long helical dimer. Analysis reveals that the extended helical conformation of hPTH-(1-34) is the likely bioactive conformation.[4] The N-terminal fragment 1-34 of parathyroid hormone (PTH) has been crystallized and the structure has been refined to 0.9 Å resolution.

The_ribbon_cartoon_structure - hPTH helical dimer

The_ribbon_cartoon_structure – hPTH helical dimer

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/The_ribbon_cartoon_structure.png

Regulation of serum calcium

PTH was one of the first hormones to be shown to use the G-protein, adenylyl cyclase second messenger system.

Normal total plasma calcium level ranges from 8.5 to 10.2 mg/dL (2.12 mmol/L to 2.55 mmol/L).

Region Effect
bone It enhances the release of calcium from the large reservoir contained in the bones.[7] Bone resorption is the normal destruction of bone by osteoclasts, which are indirectly stimulated by PTH. Stimulation is indirect since osteoclasts do not have a receptor for PTH; rather, PTH binds to osteoblasts, the cells responsible for creating bone. Binding stimulates osteoblasts to increase their expression of RANKL and inhibits their expression of Osteoprotegerin (OPG). OPG binds to RANKL and blocks it from interacting with RANK, a receptor for RANKL. The binding of RANKL to RANK (facilitated by the decreased amount of OPG available for binding the excess RANKL) stimulates these osteoclast precursors to fuse, forming new osteoclasts, which ultimately enhances bone resorption
kidney It enhances active reabsorption of calcium and magnesium from distal tubules and the thick ascending limb. As bone is degraded, both calcium and phosphate are released. It also decreases the reabsorption of phosphate, with a net loss in plasma phosphate concentration. When the calcium:phosphate ratio increases, more calcium is free in the circulation
intestine via kidney It enhances the absorption of calcium in the intestine by increasing the production of activated vitamin D. Vitamin D activation occurs in the kidney. PTH up-regulates25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1-alpha-hydroxylase, the enzyme responsible for 1-alpha hydroxylation of 25-hydroxy vitamin D, converting vitamin D to its active form (1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D). This activated form of vitamin D increases the absorption of calcium (as Ca2+ ions) by the intestine via calbindin.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parathyroid_hormone

Development of Present Concepts of the Parathyroid –
The Parathyroids – Progress, problems and practice,
in Current Problems in Surgery, 1971; 8(8): 3-64.
Leon Goldman, Gilbert Gordon, Betty S. Roof
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0011-3840(71)80008-4

The parathyroid gland first achieved clinical significance because of hypoparathyroid tetany. Tetany: a syndrome manifested by painful muscle spasms or rigors; is derived from the Greek:  tetanos, past participle of the verb teinein, meaning “to stretch,” Tetany : stretched, or spastic, in modern terms “up tight.,’ When the word was used by Hippocrates, no differentiation was made between the types of muscular spasms caused by neurotoxins (e.g., lockjaw) and those of metabolic causes. The word ~ went through the Latin, tetanus, and to French. Te’tanie, where the attribute of intermittent muscular spasm was added.

Owea's drawing of parathyroid gland of Indian rhinoceros

Owea’s drawing of parathyroid gland of Indian rhinoceros

Owea’s drawing of parathyroid gland of Indian rhinoceros

According to file Oxford English Dictionary, the relation of tetany to surgical operations was noted in tile year 1805 in The Medical Journal XIV, 304: “tetanie affections very often to|low the great operations. . .” It is not clear from this reference what type of operations were invo]ved.  The relationship of tetany to thyroidectomy was recognized as early as 1878 when WoIfler described convulsions in one of the patients on whom Billroth had performed a total thyroidectomy. The great surgeon WilIiam Stewart Halsted suggested that postoperative hypoparathyroidism had not been reported earlier because before that time total thyroidectomy had always been fatal, leaving insufficient time for tetany to develop. In 1883 Weiss collected 13 cases of tetany, all following total thyroidcctomy. The relation to total thyroidectomy became historically significant later when postoperative tetany was misinterpreted as the acute form of thyroid insufficiency, while myxedema was correctly recognized as the chronic form.
Anatomically, the parathyroid glands had been noted fleetingly by Remak (1855), by Virchow (1863) and probably by others in the course of human dissection. Perhaps better publicized was the description by Sir Richard Owen, published in 1852. As Hunterian Professor and Conservator of the Museum in the Royal College of Surgeons, Owen anatomized animals that died at the London Zoo. In 1849, while performing an autopsy on tile Great Indian rhinoceros, Owen clearly noted, drew and named the parathyroid gland (Fig. 1). However, microscopic examination was not reported, and it was not known at that time whether the parathyroid gland was separate.
The causal relationship of the parathyroid gland to post-thyroidectomy tetany was clarified by the French physiologist Eugdne Gley in 1891. He showed that, in the rabbit, removal of the thyroid gland was not responsible for these seizures but that removal of the parathyroid glands caused fatal convulsions.
Very soon after this, a parallel discovery was made in Berkeley, California, by Jacques Loeb.  Loeb noticed that the rhythmic contractions of a frog muscle in a saline medium were stopped by the addition of calcium. He concluded that calcium has the important function of inhibiting excessive neuromuscular
irritability.  Loeb’s studies led MacCallum, in 1909, to investigate the possibility that a low blood calcium level might be responsible for the increased excitability of the muscles, in hypoparathyroid tetany.  He and Voegtlin removed the parathyroids from dogs and showed that tetany ensued when the serum calcium level fell. They also showed that administration of calcium promptly relieved tetany. Less well known is their publication in the following
year, which entirely recanted the earlier view. Their observations that calcium, magnesium and strontium immediately abolish tetany, and the report of Joseph and Sleltzer that infusion of hypertonic sodium chloride slowly relieves this kind of tetany, led MacCallum to believe that the effect of calcium was nonspecific.
By this time thyroid surgery was being performed widely. The Reverdin brothers in Geneva noted what they considered complex nervous manifestations following total thyroidectomv, Moussu’ s observations in animals were confirmed in patients; post-thyroidectomy convulsions were not necessarily fatal.
Thyroid surgery was now sufficiently improved so that Kocher was able to find symptoms of tetany–and these were transient ….. in only 1 of his 18 cases of total thyroidectomy. How many more would have been identified as victims of hypoparathyroidism by appropriate chemical examination can only be conjectured. By 1907 Halsted had recognized the importance of the parathyroids and how essential the intimate knowledge of their anatomy is to the goiter surgeon. Halsted put a bright young medical student to work on this project as a penalty for delinquent attendance at lectures. The sketch of the beautiful dissection by the student, Herbert McLean Evans, was used by Halsted to illustrate his monograph on The Operative History of Goiter. On the basis of this knowledge, of anatomy, it was established that the parathyroids are usually related to the posterior capsule and that leaving this capsule intact greatly reduces the risk of tetany.
In 1923 the distinguished Norwegian physician-physiologist, Harald Salvesen published beautiful, imaginative and thorough studies in which he showed, that complete parathyroid ablation invariably lowered the blood calcium, that the blood sugar level was not altered and that guanidine accumulation occurred only terminally during agonal convulsions. He further found that parathyroid tetany could be prevented by calcium feeding and confirmed MacCallum’s earlier observation that it could be promptly corrected by calcium infusion. He also noted that one of his dogs with parathyroid tetany developed a cataract. In our opinion, the relation of the parathyroid gland to calcium metabolism was first firmly established by Salvesen in 1923.
Consider the knowledge and use of endocrines in 1923. Desiccated thyroid, which Osler had praised as the miracle of modern metabolic therapy, was the only orally effective endocrine preparation. ]nsulin had just been discovered. Another potent preparation was the hydrochloric acid extract of parathyroid glands made by Adolph Hanson. That it was an effective preparation is perhaps best attested by the fact that it is still used, under the name Parathyroid Extract USP, and that much of the work on the actions of parathyroid hormone has been carried out with this crude extract. In 1925 Collip, who had been of such immeasurable help to Banting, Best and McLeod in preparing a clean, potent insulin extract from normal pancreas, applied his genius to the parathyroid with an equally satisfactory result. His relatively clean parathyroid extract  made it possible for the first time to elucidate the actions of the parathyroid glands in man.
Using this preparation, Albright and Ellsworth in 1929 clarified the two fundamental actions of parathyroid hormone (PTH) identical with those obtained nowadays with the most highly purified preparations. These two actions are:
(1) elevation of serum calcium and
(2) excretion of phosphate by the kidneys, with a consequent lowering of the serum phosphate.
It will later be shown that the action that raises serum calcium levels is, for the most part, an increase in the rate of bone breakdown. It remained for Copp and associates to show in 1961 that another horrnone, calcitonin, with an opposite action, is necessary for maintenance of calcium homeostasis. And still later Chase and Aurbach showed in 1968 that the phosphaturic action of PTH is mediated by the enzyme adenyl cyclase, which stimulates production of cyclic 3’5′-adenosine monophosphate (AMP).
It is now clear that hypophosphatemia predisposes to hyperealcemia and that hyperphosphatemia can actually abolish hypercalcemia. However, numerous experiments, one of them by Albright’s collaborators, Ellsworth and Futeher in 1935 showed that parathyroid extract raised the serum calcium level in the absence of the kidneys.  Clearly, therefore, the calcium-mobilizing effect of PTH is not the result of the phosphate diuretic action only. Conclusive evidence was obtained by Barnicot of Cambridge in 1948. …
The brilliant group at the Massachusetts General Hospital, led by Aub and including two young men destined to make brilliant records in American medicine Fuller Albright and Waiter Bauer soon showed that the kind of hyperparathyroidism described by Recklinghausen, Mandl and Askanazy is, in fact, the end stage of a series of chemical events predictable from the known actions of PTH. Starting with the famous case of Captain Charles Martell, a mariner with severe bone disease, who shrank in stature in 10 years, Albright soon clarified the most significant feature of hyperparathyroidism: the hypercalcemia that is found in at least 99% of patients with proved primary hyperparathyroidism.
It was not until 1953 that Jonas Shota directly demonstrated the other action of excess PTH in hyperparathyroidism: a low rate of tubular reabsorption of phosphate (TRP), as fifteen years later, in 1968, Chase and Aurbach would show that this action is mediated by renal adenyl cyclase and cyclic AMP. Meanwhile, in 1935, Pappenheimer and Wilens had described another form of hyperparathyroidism arising not as a primary tumor, but as a secondary or compensatory response to the metabolic abnormalities of uremia. Goldman independently described this phenomenon. It .is noteworthy that hyperparathyroidism secondary to lack of dietary calcium had already been described by Erdheiqm and that  these 2 causes of secondary hyperparathyroidism, Uremia and intestinal malabsorption, have subsequently been shown, to have in comrnon inadequate intestinal absorption of calcium.
Since the classic studies of Sandstrom, Gley, Loeb, Salvesen, Cotlip, Aub, Bauer and Albright, enormous strides have advanced our knowledge of parathyroid physiology. Isolation, purification, and characterization of  the hormone and development of a highly sensitive  radioimmunoassay for PTH.  Almost slmultaneously in1959, Aurbach, Rasmussen and Craig obtained a purified bovine PTH. These two groups of investigators identified a similar peptide with a molecular weight of about 8,500 and with biological activity of about 3.000 units/mg. This peptide contains 84 amino acid residfies the first 30-45 are necessary for biologic and immunologic activity. A tentative molecular structure reported by Potts, Aurbach and Sherwood in 1965 has subsequently been modified by Brewer and Ronan, with confirmation by Niall et aI. in Potts’s laboratory. The heterogeneous  nature of circulating PTH was first: shown by Berson and Yalow using two antisera prepared from beef PTH but showing quantitative differences in reaction to circulating PTH. They were able  to detect two parathormones, one with a half-life of only 10-20 minutes, and another with a half-life of about 1.5 hours.
The parathyroid hormone-regulated transcriptome in osteocytes: Parallel actions with 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 to oppose gene expression changes during differentiation and to promote mature cell function

Hillary C. St. John, MB Meyer, NA Benkusky, AH Carlson, M Prideaux, et al.
Bone 72 (2015) 81–91
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bone.2014.11.010

Although localized to the mineralized matrix of bone, osteocytes are able to respond to systemic factors such as the calciotropic hormones 1, 25-(OH)2 D3 and PTH. In the present studies, we examined the transcriptomic response to PTH in an osteocyte cell model and found that this hormone regulated an extensive panel of genes. Surprisingly, PTH uniquely modulated two cohorts of genes, one that was expressed and associated with the osteoblast to osteocyte transition and the other a cohort that was expressed only in the mature osteocyte. Interestingly, PTH’s effects were largely to oppose the expression of differentiation-related genes in the former cohort, while potentiating the expression of osteocyte-specific genes in the latter cohort. A comparison of the transcriptional effects of PTH with those obtained previously with 1, 25-(OH)2 D3 revealed a subset of genes that was strongly overlapping. While 1, 25-(OH)2 D3 potentiated the expression of osteocyte-specific genes similar to that seen with PTH, the overlap between the two hormones was more limited. Additional experiments identified the PKA-activated phospho-CREB (pCREB) cistrome, revealing that while many of the differentiation-related PTH regulated genes were apparent targets of a PKA-mediated signaling pathway, a reduction in pCREB binding at sites associated with osteocyte-specific PTH targets appeared to involve alternative PTH activation pathways. That pCREB binding activities positioned near important hormone-regulated gene cohorts were localized to control regions of genes was reinforced by the presence of epigenetic enhancer signatures exemplified by unique modifications at histones H3 and H4. These studies suggest that both PTH and 1, 25-(OH)2 D3 may play important and perhaps cooperative roles in limiting osteocyte differentiation from its precursors while simultaneously exerting distinct roles in regulating mature osteocyte function. Our results provide new insight into transcription factor-associated mechanisms through which PTH and 1, 25-(OH)2 D3 regulate a plethora of genes important to the osteoblast/osteocyte lineage.

Bone, a dynamic and integrating tissue

The guest editors Bram C.J. van der Eerden, Anna Teti, Willian F. Zambuzzi
Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 561 (2014) 1–2
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.abb.2014.08.012

The special issue ‘Bone, a dynamic and integrating tissue’ provides the most recent information regarding the interacting nature of bone cells with their immediate neighboring cells within the skeleton as well as with distant target cells in other organs, using different types of both cellular and non-cellular communication. It should appeal to any scientist or clinician in the field, given the wide variety of topics, covering molecular, experimental cell and animal biology, biomechanics and -physics, genetics and medicine.

This special issue arose from a collaboration between the guest editors within ‘INTERBONE’, a European Union funded Marie Curie Actions – People – International Research Staff Scheme (PIRSESGA-2011-295181) on the interplay among bone cells, matrices and systems.

Over the recent years, many developments have paved new avenues to study signaling pathways and mechanisms in bone in much greater detail. Genetic progress has been made, which has provided us with novel genes behind already known as well as hitherto idiopathic bone diseases. The enormous expansion of specific animal models has enabled us to study new mechanisms and pathways in vivo in great spatial and temporal detail. As a consequence, novel treatment modalities have seen the light, which are predominantly focusing on bone anabolic therapies. These advances will not cease to exist and an exciting biological era lies ahead of us, with many discoveries to be made.

In this special issue of Archives in Biochemistry and Biophysics, experts in the field of bone metabolism have addressed the recent developments in which special attention is paid to the concept that bone is not just a static, isolated organ, but a dynamic and integrating tissue. Over the last decade, discoveries have led to the notion that bone cells are interacting with many other cell types within bone. Besides this intraskeletal communication, bone cells produce factors that are capable of controlling cell types and organs elsewhere in the organism, which are now being recognized as bona fide hormones.

All contributors have explored the recent advances made in their research area. The latest progress in osteoblast/osteocyte and osteoclast biology is revisited with special focus on bone morphogenetic proteins, microRNAs and extracellular vesicles as illustrative examples of different levels of communication between cell types. In separate chapters, the interaction of osteoblasts and osteoclasts, as well as their cross-talk with endothelial cells, fat cells, immune cells, hematopoietic stem cells and different types of cancer cells is discussed extensively, further emphasizing the interactive nature of bone cells in their microenvironment. Beside cell–cell interaction, attention has been paid to the osteointegration of bone cells in a non-cellular context, including extracellular matrix and metal devices, combining main components for bone bioengineering. Finally, the endocrine role of bone is discussed in great detail by several contributors, focusing on the control of bone cell function by the brain as well as the role of bone-produced factors in, amongst others, phosphate homeostasis, energy metabolism and fertility.

The Great Beauty of the osteoclast

Alfredo Cappariello, Antonio Maurizi, Vimal Veeriah, Anna Teti
Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 561 (2014) 13–21
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.abb.2014.08.009

Much has been written recently on osteoclast biology, but this cell type still astonishes scientists with its multifaceted functions and unique properties. The last three decades have seen a change in thinking about the osteoclast, from a cell with a single function, which just destroys the tissue it belongs to, to an ‘‘orchestrator’’ implicated in the concerted regulation of bone turnover. Osteoclasts have unique morphological features, organelle distribution and plasma membrane domain organization. They require polarization to cause extracellular bone breakdown and release of the digested bone matrix products into the circulation. Osteoclasts contribute to the control of skeletal growth and renewal. Alongside other organs, including kidney, gut, thyroid and parathyroid glands, they also affect calcemia and phosphatemia. Osteoclasts are very sensitive to pro-inflammatory stimuli, and studies in the ‘00s ascertained their tight link with the immune system, bringing about the question why bone needs a cell regulated by the immune system to remove the extracellular matrix components. Recently, osteoclasts have been demonstrated to contribute to the hematopoietic stem cell niche, controlling local calcium concentration and regulating the turnover of factors essential for hematopoietic stem cell mobilization. Finally, osteoclasts are important regulators of osteoblast activity and angiogenesis, both by releasing factors stored in the bone matrix, and secreting ‘‘clastokines’’ that regulate the activity of neighboring cells. All these facets will be discussed in this review article, with the aim of underscoring The Great Beauty of the osteoclast.

Osteoclasts: more than ‘bone eaters’

Julia F. Charles and Antonios O. Aliprantis
Trends in Molecular Medicine, Aug 2014; 20(8): 449-459
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2014.06.001

As the only cells definitively shown to degrade bone, osteoclasts are key mediators of skeletal diseases including osteoporosis. Bone-forming osteoblasts, and hematopoietic and immune system cells, each influence osteoclast formation and function, but the reciprocal impact of osteoclasts on these cells is less well appreciated. We highlight here the functions that osteoclasts perform beyond bone resorption.
First, we consider how osteoclast signals may contribute to bone formation by osteoblasts and to the pathology of bone lesions such as fibrous dysplasia and giant cell tumors.
Second, we review the interaction of osteoclasts with the hematopoietic system, including the stem cell niche and adaptive immune cells. Connections between osteoclasts and other cells in the bone microenvironment are discussed within a clinically relevant framework.

Bone is a composite tissue of protein and mineral which undergoes continual remodeling to grow, heal damage, and regulate calcium and phosphate metabolism. This remodeling process is executed by the concerted and sequential effort of bone-resorbing osteoclasts and bone-forming osteoblasts, acting in what has been termed the basic multicellular unit (BMU) (Figure 1A). Osteocytes, long-lived osteoblast-derived cells that reside within the bone matrix, monitor bone quality and stress, and coordinate remodeling through membrane-bound and secreted factors. Skeletal integrity is maintained throughout the life-span by matching bone formation and resorption, a process referred to as osteoclast:osteoblast  ‘coupling.’ Coupling is thoroughly summarized in recent excellent reviews and in Figure 1.

Coupling: how osteoclasts ‘talk back’ to cells of the osteoblast lineage Coupling of bone formation to resorption is likely achieved through multiple mechanisms, including signals that stimulate the proliferation of pre-osteoblasts, their recruitment to resorption lacunae, and their differentiation into bone-forming cells. Cellular mediators of coupling include osteoclasts, osteoblasts, osteocytes, macrophages, and T cells, which produce a variety of factors including Wnt pathway regulators, such as sclerostin, and cytokines such as oncostatin M

Osteoclasts–osteoblast interactions in the basic multicellular unit (BMU).

Osteoclasts–osteoblast interactions in the basic multicellular unit (BMU).

Osteoclasts–osteoblast interactions in the basic multicellular unit (BMU).
Cell–cell contact mechanisms may also mediate OC-OB communication. Bidirectional signaling from OC ephrins and OB Eph receptors, and reverse signaling through RANKL on OBs, have both been invoked.

Box 1. Usurping local resources: osteoclasts feed bone invaders

Liberation of growth factors embedded in bone matrix by osteoclasts may promote metastatic tumor growth in bone. Reciprocal stimulation of osteoclasts by cancer cell derived parathyroid hormone related protein (PTHrP), and other factors, could potentiate growth factor release in what has been termed the ‘vicious cycle’ ]. Xenograft experiments utilizing breast cancer cells expressing a TGFβ responsive reporter demonstrated osteolytic metastases had high TGFβ activity. Inhibition of osteoclastic bone resorption with pamidronate reduced TGFβ activity and osteolytic lesions, suggesting that matrix resorption is a relevant source of TGFβ for skeletal metastasis in vivo. Although prophylactic pamidronate treatment decreased frequency of bone metastasis, the drug did not decrease disease progression if administered after tumor cell inoculation. Thus, whether inhibiting the release of matrix growth factors by osteoclasts has a substantive effect on tumor growth is unclear. Several bisphosphonates, as well as the anti-RANKL antibody denosumab, reduce skeletal events in metastatic cancer, but data on whether they prevent bone metastasis are inconsistent.

Immunoregulation by osteoclasts. Osteoclast precursors (OCPs) and osteoclasts (OCs) inhibit CD4 and CD8 T cell proliferation via nitric oxide (NO) production in response to T cell derived interferon g (IFNg). IFNg in turn inhibits differentiation of OCPs into mature OCs. OCs also present antigen through major histocompatibility complex class I (MHCI) to skew CD8+ T cells toward an induced Treg phenotype termed OC-iTcreg. OC-iTcreg cells in turn inhibit OCP differentiation to mature OC through IFNg, interleukin 10 (IL10), and IL6.

In mouse models, we suggest that systems for the temporal deletion of conditional alleles in osteoclasts and their precursors be established. Moreover, clinical research in humans with emerging therapeutics which specifically target key regulators of bone remodeling, such as RANKL, cathepsin K, and sclerostin, could include nested translational studies that specifically address their effects on the immune system, HSCs, and tumor growth, where appropriate. In these ways, a clear picture of osteoclast biology beyond their role as ‘bone eaters’ will emerge.

Leukemia inhibitory factor: A paracrine mediator of bone metabolism

Natalie A. Sims & Rachelle W. Johnson
Growth Factors, April 2012; 30(2): 76–87
http://dx.doi.org:/10.3109/08977194.2012.656760

Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) is a soluble interleukin-6 family cytokine that regulates a number of physiologic functions, including normal skeletal remodeling. LIF signals through the cytokine co-receptor glycoprotein-130 in complex with its cytokine-specific receptor [LIF receptor (LIFR)] to activate signaling cascades in cells of the skeletal system, including stromal cells, chondrocytes, osteoblasts, osteocytes, adipocytes, and synovial fibroblasts. LIF action on skeletal cells is cell-type specific, and frequently dependent on the state of cell differentiation. This review describes the expression patterns of LIF and LIFR in bone, their regulation by physiological and inflammatory agents, as well as cell-specific influences of LIF on osteoblast, osteoclast, chondrocyte, and adipocyte differentiation. The actions of LIF in normal skeletal growth and maintenance, in pathological states (e.g. autocrine tumor cell signaling and growth in bone) and inflammatory conditions (e.g. arthritis) will be discussed, as well as the signaling pathways activated by LIF and their importance in bone formation and resorption.

In vivo evidence of IGF-I–estrogen crosstalk in mediating the cortical bone response to mechanical strain

Subburaman Mohan, CG Bhat, JE Wergedal and C Kesavan
Bone Research (2014) 2, 14007 http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/boneres.2014.7

Although insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and estrogen signaling pathways have been shown to be involved in mediating the bone anabolic response to mechanical loading, it is not known whether these two signaling pathways crosstalk with each other in producing a skeletal response to mechanical loading. To test this, at 5 weeks of age, partial ovariectomy (pOVX) or a sham operation was performed on heterozygous IGF-I conditional knockout (HIGF-I KO) and control mice generated using a Cre-loxP approach. At 10 weeks of age, a 10 N axial load was applied on the right tibia of these mice for a period of 2 weeks and the left tibia was used as an internal non-non-loaded control. At the cortical site, partial estrogen loss reduced total volumetric bone mineral density (BMD) by 5% in control pOVX mice (P50.05, one-way ANOVA), but not in the H IGF-I KO pOVX mice. At the trabecular site, bone volume/total volume (BV/TV) was reduced by 5%–6% in both control pOVX (P,0.05) and H IGF-I KO pOVX (P50.05) mice. Two weeks of mechanical loading caused a 7%–8% and an 11%–13%(P,0.05 vs. non-loaded bones) increase in cortical BMD and cortical thickness (Ct.Th), respectively, in the control sham, control pOVX and H IGF-I KO sham groups. By contrast, the magnitude of cortical BMD (4%, P50.13) and Ct.Th (6%, P,0.05) responses were reduced by 50% in the H IGF-I KO pOVX mice compared to the other three groups. The interaction between genotype and estrogen deficiency on the mechanical loading-induced cortical bone response was significant (P,0.05) by two-way ANOVA. Two weeks of axial loading caused similar increases in trabecular BV/TV (13%–17%) and thickness (17%–23%) in all four groups of mice. In conclusion, partial loss of both estrogen and IGF-I significantly reduced cortical but not the trabecular bone response to mechanical loading, providing in vivo evidence of the above crosstalk in mediating the bone response to loading.

Role of FGF/FGFR signaling in skeletal development and homeostasis: learning from mouse models

Nan Su, Min Jin and Lin Chen
Bone Research (2014) 2, 14003; http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/boneres.2014.3

Fibroblast growth factor (FGF)/fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) signaling plays essential roles in bone development and diseases. Missense mutations in FGFs and FGFRs in humans can cause various congenital bone diseases, including chondrodysplasia syndromes, craniosynostosis syndromes and syndromes with dysregulated phosphate metabolism. FGF/FGFR signaling is also an important pathway involved in the maintenance of adult bone homeostasis. Multiple kinds of mouse models, mimicking human skeleton diseases caused by missense mutations in FGFs and FGFRs, have been established by knock-in/out and transgenic technologies. These genetically modified mice provide good models for studying the role of FGF/FGFR signaling in skeleton development and homeostasis. In this review, we summarize the mouse models of FGF signaling-related skeleton diseases and recent progresses regarding the molecular mechanisms, underlying the role of FGFs/FGFRs in the regulation of bone development and homeostasis. This review also provides a perspective view on future works to explore the roles of FGF signaling in skeletal development and homeostasis.

Osteoporosis in men: a review

Robert A Adler
Bone Research (2014) 2, 14001; http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/boneres.2014.1

Osteoporosis and consequent fracture are not limited to postmenopausal women. There is increasing attention being paid to osteoporosis in older men. Men suffer osteoporotic fractures about 10 years later in life than women, but life expectancy is increasing faster in men than women. Thus, men are living long enough to fracture, and when they do the consequences are greater than in women, with men having about twice the 1-year fatality rate after hip fracture, compared to women. Men at high risk for fracture include those men who have already had a fragility fracture, men on oral glucocorticoids or those men being treated for prostate cancer with androgen deprivation therapy. Beyond these high risk men, there are many other risk factors and secondary causes of osteoporosis in men. Evaluation includes careful history and physical examination to reveal potential secondary causes, including many medications, a short list of laboratory tests, and bone mineral density testing by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) of spine and hip. Recently, international organizations have advocated a single normative database for interpreting DXA testing in men and women. The consequences of this change need to be determined. There are several choices of therapy for osteoporosis in men, with most fracture reduction estimation based on studies in women.

From skeletal to non skeletal: The intriguing roles of BMP-9: A literature review

  1. Leblanc, G. Drouin, G. Grenier, N. Faucheux, R. Hamdy
    Advances in Bioscience and Biotechnology, 2013; 4: 31-46
    http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/abb.2013.410A4004

In the well-known superfamily of transforming growth factors beta (TGF-), bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are one of the most compelling cytokines for their major role in regulation of cell growth and differentiation in both embryonic and adult tissues. This subfamily was first described for its ability of potentiating bone formation, but nowadays, the power of BMPs is well beyond the bone healing scope. Some of the BMPs have been well studied and described in the literature, but the BMP9 is still worthy of attention. It has been shown by many authors that it is the most potent osteogenic BMP. Moreover, it has been de- scribed as one of the rare circulating BMPs. In this paper, we will review the recent literature on BMP9 and the different avenues for future research in that field. Our primary scope is to review its relation to bone formation and to elaborate on the available literature on other systems.

Fong et al. recently demonstrated in vitro that rhBMP9 can also augment bone resorption. This increase was shown to be functional and not related to osteoclast formation. Furthermore, rhBMP9 could alter the intrinsic apoptosis pathway and increase survival of osteoclasts. The effect of rhBMP9 on osteoclast was explained by the presence of ALK1 and BMPRII co-receptors and their activation of the Smad 1/5/8 and non-smad MAPK/ERK pathways. These results show for the first time that BMP9 can directly affect human osteoclasts, acting on their function and their survival.

Insulin resistance is a systemic multifactorial impairment of glucose uptake. Muscle, a glucose consuming organ, needs Akt2 to be able to activate insulin-induced glucose uptake and this pathway seems to be severely impaired in insulin resistance. Interestingly, a combination of bioinformatic and high- throughput functional analyses have shown BMP9 to be the first hepatic factor to regulate blood glucose concencentration. Moreover, this effect was thought to be mediated by activation of Akt kinase in differentiated myotubes. Then, it has been demonstrated that recombinant BMP9 (1 and 5 mg/kg) improves glucose homeostasis in vivo in diabetic and non-diabetic rodents. The mechanism relied on the upregulation of Smad5 and Akt2 in differentiated rats myotubes. On the opposite side, Smad5 was downregulated in myotubes by de xamethasone, a well known hyperglycemia inducer and Smad5 knockdown in rats decreased Akt2 expression and phosphorylation leading to a decrease in insulin-induced glucose uptake by myotubes. It was then hypothesized that Smad5 regulated glucose uptake in skeletal muscle through Akt2 expression and phosphorylation. These findings also revealed Smad5 as a potential target for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Hence, BMP9 could be seen as a potential activator of Smad5 for that purpose.

BMP9 is a major member of the TGF- superfamily that is implied in many fundamental developmental and pa- thologic processes. Future research will certainly bring answers to the many questions left open, and those an- swers will unquestionably lead to clinical applications.

Understanding Bone Loss

Max Stanley Chartrand, PhD.
DigiCare® Behavioral Research

During their lifetimes, at least half of those over age 50 will be at risk of developing osteoporosis. When we speak of bone loss we are primarily speaking of three diagnostic stages: Osteoarthritis (1-2% loss per annum), Osteopenia (3% per annum), and Osteoporosis (4-5%+ per annum) that are caused almost entirely by diet, hydration, lifestyle, medications, and environ-mental stressors.

Human bones are highly vascularized and mineralized tissues that are constantly being shaped and developed by cells called osteoblasts and torn down and resorbed by cells called osteoclasts. Recent research confirms that throughout one’s lifespan it is osteoblast activity that controls and dictates osteoclast activity as long as the body receives the nutrients it requires to maintain homeostasis. Growing children, for instance, have a far greater abundance of osteoblasts than of osteoclasts. By the time they reach young adulthood (at about age 26 for men, 22 for women) osteoclasts increase while osteoblasts slow down. Even so, humans of any age can increase osteoblast activity and slow the formation of osteoclasts through weight bearing exercise and other methods.

Long bone

Long bone

Long bone
The problem of bone shrinkage and decline in strength presents most often in health states involving:

  1. Sedentary Lifestyle, making weight bearing exercise a frontline defense against bone loss for everyone.
  2. Acidosis (low pH), from a diet that is nutritionally lacking, genetically modified, degerminated, irradiated, laden with toxins & over-processed.
  3. Chronic dehydration from too much caffeine and high fructose corn syrup (a GMO) and not enough water that is both ionized and alkalized.
  4. Lacking in calcium that is live, ionically charged, as well as phosphorus, magnesium, boron, and other minerals comprised in human bones. On the other hand, commercially available calcium causes atherosclerosis, kidney stones, bone spurs, cataracts, and yet MORE bone loss!
  5. Taking prescription medications, especially acid reflux meds, NSAIs and steroids. These and more interfere with osteoblast activity and weaken immunology. Osteoporosis meds prevent living bone mass!
  6. Unhealed injuries and deterioration of the spine, such as compression fractures (>50% of the US adult population), spinal stenosis, kyphosis, and scoliosis. These cause even more rapid loss of bone mass.
  7. Subclinical infections: tooth and gum sepsis, around artificial joints, keratosis obturans, kidney and bladder infections, neuropathies, and osteomyelitis as a result of injuries and/or shock to the bones.
  8. Heavy metal accumulations: lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, formaldehyde, cyanide, etc. found in the drinking water, fresh foods, cosmetics, paints, fuels, and a host of commonly used products.
  9.  Lifestyle Substances– Smoking, alcohol, excess coffee, marijuana, opium (including opiate pain killers), diet sodas, caffeine drinks.

The Kinetics of Skeletal Remodeling

Jan 1, 1966  by Lent C. Johnson
Semin Musculoskelet Radiol. 2000;4(1):1-15.

Bone tumor dynamics: an orthopedic pathology perspective.
Johnson LC1, Vinh TN, Sweet DE.

The diagnosis and classification of primary bone tumors remains as much a challenge today as it has for the last 80 plus years. Although pathology is invariably equated with the image of a diagnostic microscope, the vast majority of diagnoses are made grossly with the unaided eye, as are the tissue specimens selected for microscopic “confirmation.” Radiologic studies, particularly plain radiographs, remain the gold standard in gross pathologic diagnosis of the skeleton. Today, confirmation and final classification continue as the pathologist’s domain, but perhaps not for long, considering the evolving ancillary imaging techniques and progressive sophistication of magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. The bone tumor cases collected and compiled by Ernest Codman, M.D. during the second through fourth decades of this century formed the basis of the first tumor registry. The Codman Bone Sarcoma Registry demonstrated among other things the importance of radiographic/pathologic correlation, underscoring the reliability of a bone tumor’s location, margin (host bone/tumor interface), periosteal reaction, and matrix patterns as an accurate guide to classification and likely future biologic behavior. “A General Theory of Bone Tumors,” written by Lent C. Johnson nearly 50 years ago and published in the Bulletin of The New York Academy of Medicine (February 1953, second series, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 164-171), provided a conceptual cellular approach to the understanding bone tumor dynamics reinforcing radiologic/pathologic correlation as a reliable diagnostic tool. At the time of Dr. Lent C. Johnson’s death (1910-1998), he was literally working on an updated version of his original article, the latter of which is being reprinted as the core of this illustrated revision. Our continued experience with bone tumors over the past five decades has only served to validate, on a daily basis, the fundamental principles outlined in Johnson’s original article. In like fashion, it is important to keep in mind that terminology and nomenclature has also evolved since 1953, despite a continued inability to achieve complete consensus.
PMID:  11061688    http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11061688

Interactions between adrenal-regulatory and calcium-regulatory hormones in human health

Brown, J.M., Vaidya, A.

Curr Opinion in Endocr, Diabetes and Obesity 2014; 21 (3), pp. 193-201

Purpose of review: To summarize the evidence characterizing the interactions between adrenal-regulating and calcium-regulating hormones, and the relevance of these interactions to human cardiovascular and skeletal health. Recent findings: Human studies support the regulation of parathyroid hormone (PTH) by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS): angiotensin II may stimulate PTH secretion via an acute and direct mechanism, whereas aldosterone may exert a chronic stimulation of PTH secretion.
Studies in primary aldosteronism, congestive heart failure, and chronic
kidney disease have identified associations between hyperaldosteronism, hyperparathyroidism, and bone loss, which appear to improve when
inhibiting the RAAS. Conversely, elevated PTH and insufficient vitamin D
status have been associated with adverse cardiovascular outcomes, which
may be mediated by the RAAS. Studies of primary hyperparathyroidism implicate PTH-mediated stimulation of the RAAS, and recent evidence shows that the vitamin D-vitamin D receptor complex may negatively regulate renin expression and RAAS activity. Ongoing human interventional studies are evaluating the influence of RAAS inhibition on PTH and the influence of vitamin D receptor agonists on RAAS activity. Summary: Although previously considered independent endocrine systems, emerging evidence supports a complex web of interactions between adrenal-regulating and calcium-regulating hormones, with implications for human cardiovascular and
skeletal health.

Backbone modification of a polypeptide drug alters duration of action in vivo

Cheloha, R.W., Maeda, A., Dean, T., Gardella, T.J., Gellman, S.H.

Nature Biotechnology 2014; 32 (7), pp. 653-655 http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1038/nbt.2920

Systematic modification of the backbone of bioactive polypeptides through amino acid residue incorporation could provide a strategy for generating molecules with improved drug properties, but such alterations can result in lower receptor affinity and potency. Using an agonist of parathyroid hormone receptor-1 (PTHR1), a G protein-coupled receptor in the B-family, we present an approach for residue replacement that enables both high activity and improved pharmacokinetic properties in vivo.

Mouse and human BAC transgenes recapitulate tissue-specific expression
of the vitamin D receptor in mice and rescue the VDR-null phenotype

Lee, S.M., Bishop, K.A., Goellner, J.J., O’Brien, C.A., Pike, J.W.
Endocrinology 2014; 155 (6), pp. 2064-2076
http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2014-1107

The biological actions of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3) are mediated by the vitamin D receptor (VDR), which is expressed in numerous target tissues in a cell type-selective manner. Recent studies using genomic analyses and recombined bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) have defined the specific features of mouse and human VDR gene loci in vitro. In the current study, we introduced recombined mouse and human VDR BACs as transgenes into mice and explored their expression capabilities in vivo. Individual transgenic mouse strains selectively expressed BAC derived mouse or human VDR proteins in appropriate vitamin D target tissues, thereby recapitulating the tissue-specific expression of endogenous mouse VDR. The mouse VDR transgene was also regulated by 1,25(OH)2D3 and dibutyryl-cAMP. When crossed into a VDR-null mouse background, both transgenes restored wild-type basal as well as 1,25(OH)2D3-inducible gene expression patterns in the appropriate tissues. This maneuver resulted in the complete rescue of the aberrant phenotype noted in the VDR-null mouse, including systemic features associated with altered calcium and phosphorus homeostasis and disrupted production of parathyroid hormone and fibroblast growth factor 23, and abnormalities associated with the skeleton, kidney, parathyroid gland, and the skin. This study suggests that both mouse and human VDR transgenes are capable of recapitulating basal and regulated expression of the VDR in the appropriate mouse tissues and restore 1,25(OH)2D 3 function. These results provide a baseline for further dissection of mechanisms integral to mouse and human VDR gene expression and offer the potential to explore the consequence of selective mutations in VDR proteins in vivo.

The sclerostin-independent bone anabolic activity of intermittent PTH treatment is mediated by T-cell-produced Wnt10β

Li, J.-Y., Walker, L.D., Tyagi, A.M., (…), Neale Weitzmann, M., Pacifici, R
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 2014; 29 (1), pp. 43-54
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jbmr.2044/pdf

Both blunted osteocytic production of the Wnt inhibitor sclerostin (Scl) and increased T-cell production of the Wnt ligand Wnt10b contribute to the bone anabolic activity of intermittent parathyroid hormone (iPTH) treatment. However, the relative contribution of these mechanisms is unknown. In this study, we modeled the repressive effects of iPTH on Scl production in mice by treatment with a neutralizing anti-Scl antibody (Scl-Ab) to determine the contribution of T-cell-produced Wnt10b to the Scl-independent modalities of action of iPTH. We report that combined treatment with Scl-Ab and iPTH was more potent than either iPTH or Scl-Ab alone in increasing stromal cell production of OPG, osteoblastogenesis, osteoblast life span, bone turnover, bone mineral density, and trabecular bone volume and structure in mice with T cells capable of producing Wnt10b. In T-cell-null mice and mice lacking T-cell production of Wnt10b, combined treatment increased bone turnover significantly more than iPTH or Scl-Ab alone. However, in these mice, combined treatment with Scl-Ab and iPTH was equally effective as Scl-Ab alone in increasing the osteoblastic pool, bone volume, density, and structure. These findings demonstrate that the Scl-independent activity of iPTH on osteoblasts and bone mass is mediated by T-cell-produced Wnt10b. The data provide a proof of concept of a more potent therapeutic effect of combined treatment with iPTH and Scl-Ab than either alone.

N-cadherin restrains PTH activation of Lrp6/β-catenin signaling and osteoanabolic action

Revollo, L., Kading, J., Jeong, S.Y., (…), Mbalaviele, G., Civitelli, R.
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 2015; 30 (2), pp. 274-28

Interaction between parathyroid hormone/parathyroid hormone-related peptide receptor 1 (PTHR1) and low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 6 (Lrp6) is important for parathyroid hormone (PTH) signaling and anabolic action. Because N-cadherin has been shown to negatively regulate canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling, we asked whether N-cadherin alters PTH signaling and stimulation of bone formation. Ablation of the N-cadherin gene (Cdh2) in primary osteogenic lineage cells resulted in increased Lrp6/PTHR1 interaction in response to PTH1-34, associated with enhanced PTH-induced PKA signaling and PKA-dependent β-catenin C-terminus phosphorylation, which promotes β-catenin transcriptional activity. β-catenin C-terminus phosphorylation was abolished by Lrp6 knockdown. Accordingly, PTH1-34 stimulation of Tcf/Lef target genes, Lef1 and Axin2, was also significantly enhanced in Cdh2-deficient cells. This enhanced responsiveness to PTH extends to the osteo-anabolic effect of PTH, as mice with a conditional Cdh2 deletion in Osx+ cells treated with intermittent doses of PTH1-34 exhibited significantly larger gains in trabecular bone mass relative to control mice, the result of accentuated osteoblast activity. Therefore, N-cadherin modulates Lrp6/PTHR1 interaction, restraining the intensity of PTH-induced β-catenin signaling, and ultimately influencing bone formation in response to intermittent PTH administration.

EphrinB2 signaling in osteoblasts promotes bone mineralization by preventing apoptosis

Tonna, S., Takyar, F.M., Vrahnas, C., (…), Martin, T.J., Sims, N.A.
FASEB Journal 2014; 28 (10), pp. 4482-4496 10.1096/fj.14-254300

Cells that form bone (osteoblasts) express both ephrinB2 and EphB4, and previous work has shown that pharmacological inhibition of the ephrinB2/ EphB4 interaction impairs osteoblast differentiation in vitro and in vivo. The purpose of this study was to determine the role of ephrinB2 signaling in the osteoblast lineage in the process of bone formation. Cultured osteoblasts from mice with osteoblast-specific ablation of ephrinB2 showed delayed expression of osteoblast differentiation markers, a finding that was reproduced by ephrinB2, but not EphB4, RNA interference. Microcomputed tomography, histomorphometry, and mechanical testing of the mice lacking ephrinB2 in osteoblasts revealed a 2-fold delay in bone mineralization, a significant reduction in bone stiffness, and a 50% reduction in osteoblast differentiation induced by anabolic parathyroid hormone (PTH) treatment, compared to littermate sex- and age-matched controls. These defects were associated with significantly lower mRNA levels of late osteoblast differentiation markers and greater levels of osteoblast and osteocyte apoptosis, indicated by TUNEL staining and transmission electron microscopy of bone samples, and a 2-fold increase in annexin V staining and 7-fold increase in caspase 8 activation in cultured ephrinB2 deficient osteoblasts. We conclude that osteoblast differentiation and bone strength are maintained by antiapoptotic actions of ephrinB2 signaling within the osteoblast lineage.-
Bone involvement in primary hyperparathyroidism and changes after parathyroidectomy

Rolighed, L., Rejnmark, L., Christiansen, P.
European Endocrinology 2014; 10 (1), pp. 84-87

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is produced and secreted by the parathyroid glands and has primary effects on kidney and bone. During the pathological growth of one or more parathyroid glands, the plasma level of PTH increases and causes primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT). This disease is normally characterized by hyperparathyroid hypercalcemia. In PHPT a continuously elevated PTH stimulates
the kidney and bone causing a condition with high bone turnover, elevated plasma calcium and increased fracture risk. If bone resorption is not followed by a balanced formation of new bone, irreversible bone loss may occur in these patients. Medical treatment can help to minimize the loss of bone but the cure of PHPT is by parathyroidectomy. After operation, bone mineral density increases during the return to normal bone metabolism. Supplementation with calcium and vitamin D after operation may improve the normalization to normal bone metabolism with a secondary reduction in fracture risk.

Primary hyperparathyroidism and the skeleton

Mosekilde, L.
Clinical Endocrinology 2008; 69 (1), pp. 1-19
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1111/j.1365-2265.2007.03162.x

Today, primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) in the developed countries is typically a disease with few or no obvious clinical symptoms. However, even in the asymptomatic cases the endogenous excess of PTH increases bone turnover leading to an insidious reversible loss of cortical and trabecular bone because of an expansion of the remodelling space and an irreversible loss of cortical bone due to increased endocortical resorption. In contrast trabecular bone structure and integrity to a large extent is maintained and there may be a slight periosteal expansion. Most studies have reported decreased bone mineral density (BMD) in PHPT mainly located at cortical sites, whereas sites rich in trabecular bone only show a modest reduction or even a slight increase in BMD. The frequent occurrence of vitamin D insufficiency and deficiency in PHPT and increased plasma FGF23 levels may also contribute to the decrease in BMD. The effect of smoking is unsolved. Epidemiological studies have shown that the relative risk of spine and nonspine fractures is increased in untreated PHPT starting up to 10 years before the diagnosis is made. Successful surgery for PHPT normalizes bone turnover, increases BMD and decreases fracture risk based on larger epidemiological studies. However, 10 years after surgery fracture risk appears to increase again due to an increase in forearm fractures. There are no randomized controlled studies (RCTs) demonstrating a protective effect of medical treatment on fracture risk in PHPT. Less conclusive studies suggest that vitamin D supplementation may have a beneficial effect on plasma PTH and BMD in vitamin D deficient PHPT patients. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and maybe SERM appear to reduce bone turnover and increase BMD. However, their nonskeletal side-effects preclude their use for this purpose. Bisphosphonates reduce bone turnover and increase BMD in PHPT as in osteoporosis and may be a therapeutical option in selected patients with low BMD. Obviously, there is a need for larger RCTs with fractures as end-points that appraise this possibility. Calcimimetics reduce plasma calcium and PTH in PHPT but has no beneficial effect on bone turnover or BMD. In symptomatic hypercalcemic PHPT with low BMD where curative surgery is impossible or contraindicated a combination of a calcimimetic and a bisphosphonate may be an undocumented therapeutical option that needs further evaluation.

Current Issues in the Presentation of Asymptomatic Primary Hyperparathyroidism: Proceedings of the Fourth International Workshop

Shonni J. Silverberg, Bart L. Clarke, Munro Peacock, Francisco Bandeira, et al. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2014; 99(10) http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2014-1415

Objective: This report summarizes data on traditional and nontraditional manifestations of primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) that have been published since the last International Workshop on PHPT.

Participants: This subgroup was constituted by the Steering Committee to address key questions related to the presentation of PHPT. Consensus was established at a closed meeting of the Expert Panel that followed.

Evidence: Data from the 5-year period between 2008 and 2013 were
presented and discussed to determine whether they support changes in recommendations for surgery or nonsurgical follow-up.

Consensus Process: Questions were developed by the International Task
Force on PHPT. A comprehensive literature search for relevant studies was undertaken. After extensive review and discussion, the subgroup came to agreement on what changes in the recommendations for surgery or nonsurgical follow-up of asymptomatic PHPT should be made to the Expert Panel.

Conclusions:

1) There are limited new data available on the natural history of
asymptomatic PHPT. Although recognition of normocalcemic PHPT
(normal serum calcium with elevated PTH concentrations; no secondary
cause for hyperparathyroidism) is increasing, data on the clinical
presentation and natural history of this phenotype are limited.
2) Although there are geographic differences in the predominant
phenotypes of PHPT (symptomatic, asymptomatic, normocalcemic),
they do not justify geography-specific management guidelines.
3) Recent data using newer, higher resolution imaging and analytic
methods have revealed that in asymptomatic PHPT, both trabecular
bone and cortical bone are affected.
4) Clinically silent nephrolithiasis and nephrocalcinosis can be detected
by renal imaging and should be listed as a new criterion for surgery.
5) Current data do not support a cardiovascular evaluation or surgery
for the purpose of improving cardiovascular markers, anatomical or
functional abnormalities.
6) Some patients with mild PHPT have neuropsychological complaints
and cognitive abnormalities, and some of these patients may benefit
from surgical intervention. However, it is not possible at this time to
predict which patients with neuropsychological complaints or cognitive
issues will improve after successful parathyroid surgery.

Sclerosing Bone Dysplasias: Leads Toward Novel Osteoporosis Treatments

Igor Fijalkowski, Eveline Boudin, Geert Mortier, Wim Van Hul
Current Osteoporosis Reports Sept 2014; 12(3), pp 243-251
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1007/s11914-014-0220-5

Sclerosing bone dysplasias are a group of rare, monogenic disorders characterized by increased bone density resulting from the disturbance in the fragile equilibrium between bone formation and resorption. Over the last decade, major contributions have been made toward better understanding of the pathogenesis of these conditions. These studies provided us with important insights into the bone biology and yielded the identification of numerous drug targets for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. Here, we review this heterogeneous group of disorders focusing on their utility in the development of novel osteoporosis therapies.

Clinical development of neridronate: potential for new applications

Gatti D, Rossini M, Viapiana O, Idolazzi L, Adami S
Ther & Clin Risk Manag Apr 2013; 2013(9): Pages 139—147

Neridronate is an aminobisphosphonate, licensed in Italy for the treatment
of osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) and Paget’s disease of bone (PDB).  A characteristic property of neridronate is that it can be administered both intravenously and intramuscularly, providing a useful system for administration in homecare. In this review, we discuss the latest clinical results of neridronate administration in OI and PDB, as well as in osteoporosis and other conditions. We will focus in particular on the latest evidence of the effect of neridronate on treatment of complex regional pain syndrome type I.

Disorders of bone remodeling

Feng, X., McDonald, J.M.
Ann Rev of Pathol: Mechanisms of Disease 2011; 6, pp. 121-145
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1146/annurev-pathol-011110-130203

The skeleton provides mechanical support for stature and locomotion, protects vital organs, and controls mineral homeostasis. A healthy skeleton must be maintained by constant bone modeling to carry out these crucial functions throughout life. Bone remodeling involves the removal of old or damaged bone by osteoclasts (bone resorption) and the subsequent replacement of new bone formed by osteoblasts (bone formation). Normal bone remodeling requires a tight coupling of bone resorption to bone formation to guarantee no alteration in bone mass or quality after each remodeling cycle. However, this important physiological process can be derailed by a variety of factors, including menopause-associated hormonal changes, age-related factors, changes in physical activity, drugs, and secondary diseases, which lead to the development of various bone disorders in both women and men. We review the major diseases of bone remodeling, emphasizing our current understanding of the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms.

Paget’s disease and hypercalcemia: Coincidence or causal relationship?

Green, I., Altman, A.
Harefuah 2009; 148 (10), pp. 708-710

Paget’s disease is a chronic disease in which osteoclast mediated bone resorption precedes imperfect osteoblast mediated bone repair. Symptoms include bone pain, pathological fractures, osteoarthritis and neurological symptoms. There is evidence that genetic and viral component are involved in the etiology. Hypercalcemia is rare and when it is diagnosed, primary hyperparathyroidism should be ruled out. The authors present a patient with Paget’s disease and concomitant hypercalcemia. Evaluation for hypercalcemia revealed an adenoma of the parathyroid. However, despite the removal of the adenoma, the symptoms persisted. Previous studies
showed that hyperparathyroidism causes hypercalcemia in Paget’s disease patients. Removal of the adenoma led to improvement in calcium and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels but clinical improvement is seen only in patients with high calcium level prior to the operation. This leads to the assumption that symptoms of Paget’s disease are due to osteoclast hypersensitivity to parathyroid hormone (PTH) and by removing the adenoma the osteoclast activity is also reduced. In summary, the most common cause of hypercalcemia in Paget’s disease patients is hyperparathyroidism and adenectomy may improve the biochemical and sometimes also the clinical symptoms of Paget’s disease.

Signaling networks that control the lineage commitment and differentiation of bone cells

Soltanoff, C.S., Yang, S., Chen, W., Li, Y.-P.
Critical Reviews in Eukaryotic Gene Expression 2009; 19 (1), pp. 1-46

Osteoblasts and osteoclasts are the two major bone cells involved in the bone remodeling process. Osteoblasts are responsible for bone formation while osteoclasts are the bone-resorbing cells. The major event that triggers osteogenesis and bone remodeling is the transition of mesenchymal stem cells into differentiating osteoblast cells and monocyte/macrophage precursors into differentiating osteoclasts. Imbalance in differentiation and function of these two cell types will result in skeletal diseases such as osteoporosis, Paget’s disease, rheumatoid arthritis, osteopetrosis, periodontal disease, and bone cancer metastases.
Osteoblast and osteoclast commitment and differentiation are controlled by complex activities involving signal transduction and transcriptional regulation of gene expression. Recent advances in molecular and genetic studies using gene targeting in mice enable a better understanding of the multiple factors and signaling networks that control the differentiation process at a molecular level.
This review summarizes recent advances in studies of signaling transduction pathways and transcriptional regulation of osteoblast and osteoclast cell lineage commitment and differentiation. Understanding the signaling networks that control the commitment and differentiation of bone cells will not only expand our basic understanding of the molecular mechanisms of skeletal development but will also aid our ability to develop therapeutic means of intervention in skeletal diseases.

Salmon calcitonin: a review of current and future therapeutic indications

  1. H. Chesnut III, M. Azria, S. Silverman, M. Engelhardt, M. Olson, L. Mindeholm Osteoporosis International 2008; 19(4), pp 479-491
    http://dx.doi.org:/10.1007/s00198-007-0490-1

Salmon calcitonin, available as a therapeutic agent for more than 30 years, demonstrates clinical utility in the treatment of such metabolic bone diseases as osteoporosis and Paget’s disease, and potentially in the treatment of osteoarthritis. This review considers the physiology and pharmacology of salmon calcitonin, the evidence based research demonstrating efficacy and safety of this medication in postmenopausal osteoporosis with potentially an effect on bone quality to explain its abilities to reduce the risk of spine fracture, the development of an oral salmon calcitonin preparation, and the therapeutic rationale for this preparation’s chondroprotective effect in osteoarthritis.

Pharmacotherapies to Manage Bone Loss-Associated Diseases:  A Quest for the Perfect Benefit-to-Risk Ratio

Valverde

Current Medicinal Chemistry : 15 (3): Pages 284-304
http://dx.doi.org:/10.2174/092986708783497274

In this review, benefits and side-effects of current and emerging therapies to treat and prevent pathological bone loss are described. Bisphosphonates are the antiresorptive compounds most widely used in the treatment of bone-loss associated diseases. They are generally well-tolerated although have recently been associated with osteonecrosis of the jaw and other complications. Therapies modulating estrogen receptor activation are indicated in the prevention and treatment of either breast cancer or osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. Thus, hormone replacement therapy is effective in prevention of osteoporosis, but its long-term use can increase the risk of breast cancer, stroke and embolism. Tamoxifen benefits all stages of breast cancer, but its use may lead to uterine cancer and thromboembolism. Raloxifene is approved in prevention of breast cancer and treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis, but its use can increase the risk of fatal stroke. Aromatase inhibitors are superior to tamoxifen at advanced stages of disease and as adjuvants, but their use increase fracture incidence. Fulvestrant is as effective as aromatase inhibitors in the treatment of advanced breast cancer and does not cause bone fractures. Another antiresorptive available for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis, Pagets disease and hypercalcemia is calcitonin, which also exhibits analgesic effects. A promising antiresorptive agent currently in clinical trials is denosumab. Aditional therapies for osteoporosis that decrease fracture risk consist of PTH-like anabolic agents and the dual action bone agent strontium ranelate. Antiseptics and antibiotics are used extensively in periodontal disease intervention to target bacterial biofilm, although hostdirected therapies are also being developed. – See more at: http://www.eurekaselect.com/66301/article#sthash.EGNCH4Eu.dpuf

Parathyroid Hormone An Anabolic Treatment for Osteoporosis

Paul Morley, James F. Whitfield and Gordon E. Willick
Current Pharmaceutical Design Pages 671-687
http://dx.doi.org:/10.2174/1381612013397780

Osteoporosis is a disease characterised by low bone mass, structural deterioration of bone and increased risk of fracture. The prevalence, and cost, of osteoporosis is increasing dramatically with our ageing population and the World Health Organization now considers it to be the second-leading healthcare problem. All currently approved therapies for osteoporosis (eg., estrogen, bisphosphonates, calcitonin and selective estrogen receptor modulators) are anti-resorptive agents that act on osteoclasts to prevent further bone loss. A new class of bone anabolic agent capable of building mechanically strong new bone in patients with established osteoporosis is
in development. While the parathyroid hormone (PTH) is classically considered to be a bone catabolic agent, when delivered intermittently at low doses PTH potently stimulates cortical and trabecular bone growth in animals humans. The native hPTH-(1-84) and its osteogenic fragment, hPTH-(1-34), have already entered Phase III clinical trials. Understanding the mechanism of PTHs osteogenic actions has led to the development of smaller PTH analogues which can also build mechanically normal bone in osteopenic rats. These new PTH analogues are promising candidates for treating osteoporosis in humans as they are as efficacious as hPTH-(1-84) and hPTH-(1-34), but there is evidence that they may have considerably less ability to induce hypercalcemia, the major side effect of PTH therapy. In addition to treating osteoporosis, PTHs may be used to promote fracture healing, to restore bone loss in immobilized patients, or following excessive glucocorticoid or prolonged spaceflight, and to treat psoriasis. http://www.eurekaselect.com/65008/article#sthash.FWa67NrB.dpuf

Effects of Parathyroid Hormone on Cancellous Bone Mass and Structure in Osteoporosis

Naohisa Miyakoshi
Current Pharmaceutical Design  ;10(21): Pages 2615-2627
http://dx.doi.org:/10.2174/1381612043383737

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is the major hormonal regulator of calcium homeostasis. PTH is a potent stimulator of bone formation and can restore bone to an osteopenic skeleton, when administered intermittently. Osteoblasts are the primary target cells for the anabolic effects of PTH in bone tissue. Anabolic effects of PTH on bone have been demonstrated in animals and humans, by numerous measurement techniques including bone mineral density and bone histomorphometry. Clinically, the most important aspect of treatment for osteoporosis is prevention of fractures. Microstructural alterations, such as loss of trabecular connectivity, have been implicated in increased propensity for fracture. Recent two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) assessments of cancellous bone structure have shown that PTH can re-establish lost trabecular connectivity in animals and humans.
These results provide new insight into the positive clinical effects of PTH in osteoporosis. In recent randomized controlled clinical trials of intermittent
PTH treatment, PTH decreased incidence of vertebral and non-vertebral fractures
in postmenopausal women. Thus, PTH shows strong potential as therapy for osteoporosis. However, 2D and 3D structural analysis of advanced osteopenia in animals has shown that there is a critical limit of trabecular connectivity and bone strength below which PTH cannot completely reverse the condition. Given that PTH treatment fails to completely restore trabecular connectivity and bone strength in animals with advanced osteopenia, early treatment of osteoporosis appears important and efficacious for preventing fractures caused by decreased bone strength resulting from decreased trabecular connectivity. – See more at: http://www.eurekaselect.com/62780/article#sthash.OnoaRPyh.dpuf

Clinical applications of RANK-ligand inhibition

Romas, E.
Internal Medicine Journal 2009; 39 (2), pp. 110-116
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1111/j.1445-5994.2008.01732.x

An enhanced rate of bone remodelling fuelled by osteoclastogenesis mediates diseases such as osteoporosis, arthritic bone destruction, Paget’s disease and malignancy-induced bone loss. Thus, the control of osteoclastogenesis is of major clinical importance. The receptor activator of nuclear factor κB (RANK); its ligand, RANKL and decoy receptor, osteoprotegerin, are critical determinants of osteoclastogenesis, and increased RANK signalling is involved in several bone diseases, providing the rationale for RANKL inhibition. The effects of RANKL inhibition are being witnessed in clinical trials of neutralizing fully human monoclonal antibodies that target RANKL (e.g. denosumab) and which induce profound and sustained inhibition of bone resorption. The relative efficacy, cost-effectiveness and side-effects of targeted RANKL inhibition compared with conventional antiresorptive drugs (i.e. bisphosphonates) should be resolved by clinical trials in coming years.

Clinical development of neridronate: potential for new applications

Davide Gatti, M Rossini, O Viapiana, L Idolazzi, SAdami
Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management 2013:9 139–147
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/TCRM.S35788

Neridronate is an aminobisphosphonate, licensed in Italy for the treatment of osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) and Paget’s disease of bone (PDB). A characteristic property of neridronate is that it can be administered both intravenously and intramuscularly, providing a useful system for administration in homecare. In this review, we discuss the latest clinical results of neridronate administration in OI and PDB, as well as in osteoporosis and other conditions. We will focus in particular on the latest evidence of the effect of neridronate on treatment of complex regional pain syndrome type I.

The Sclerostin‐Independent Bone Anabolic Activity of Intermittent PTH Treatment Is Mediated by T‐Cell–Produced Wnt10β

Jau‐Yi Li, Lindsey D Walker, Abdul Malik Tyagi, Jonathan Adams, et al.
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, Jan 2014; 29(1): pp 43–54
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1002/jbmr.2044

Both blunted osteocytic production of the Wnt inhibitor sclerostin (Scl) and increased T‐cell production of the Wnt ligand Wnt10β contribute to the bone anabolic activity of intermittent parathyroid hormone (iPTH) treatment. However, the relative contribution of these mechanisms is unknown. In this study, we modeled the repressive effects of iPTH on Scl production in mice by treatment with a neutralizing anti‐Scl antibody (Scl‐Ab) to determine the contribution of T‐cell–produced Wnt10β to the Scl‐independent modalities of action of iPTH. We report that combined treatment with Scl‐Ab and iPTH was more potent than either iPTH or Scl‐Ab alone in increasing stromal cell production of OPG, osteoblastogenesis, osteoblast life span, bone turnover, bone mineral density, and trabecular bone volume and structure in mice with T cells capable of producing Wnt10β. In T‐cell–null mice and mice lacking T‐cell production of Wnt10β, combined treatment increased bone turnover significantly more than iPTH or Scl‐Ab alone. However, in these mice, combined treatment with Scl‐Ab and iPTH was equally effective as Scl‐Ab alone in increasing the osteoblastic pool, bone volume, density, and structure. These findings demonstrate that the Scl‐independent activity of iPTH on osteoblasts and bone mass is mediated by T‐cell–produced Wnt10β. The data provide a proof of concept of a more potent therapeutic effect of combined treatment with iPTH and Scl‐Ab than either alone.

Treatment of Paget’s disease with hypercalcemia

Donald H. Gutteridge – Letter to the Editor
Bone 12 Jan 2006; 39(668)
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.bone.2006.01.165

Selby et al. [7] “Guidelines on the management of Paget’s disease of bone” produced a very helpful review, with 139 references. I take issue however with their approach to the clinical problem of concurrent Paget’s and hypercalcemia.
Firstly, the combination is not rare. Of 1836 literature and personally reported unselected patients with Paget’s disease, 90 had concurrent hypercalcemia due to primary hyperparathyroidism [PHPT], i.e., 4.9% [4]. The number with unspecified hypercalcemia would have exceeded 5%.                                     Secondly, the authors give similar weight to immobilization and PHPT as causes. Immobilization as a cause of hypercalcemia in Paget’s disease is rare [4,3]. The former paper studied 184 consecutive new referrals with Paget’s disease over 15 years. Hypercalcemia was present in 21: two had malignancy (multiple myeloma, secondary cancer); the remaining 19 had biochemical PHPT with most confirmed by neck exploration; none had hypercalcemia of immobilization. Gillespie [3] reported two patients who died following pagetic fractures with immobilization. One was diagnosed and treated as immobilization hypercalcemia; both had large parathyroid adenomas at autopsy.
Thirdly, they have recommended that “patients with Paget’s disease and hypercalcemia should be treated with bisphosphonate”. Since most patients with this combination have PHPT, since bisphosphonate treatment of Paget’s disease is associated with parathyroid hormone (PTH) stimulation [5] and since activation of Paget’s disease occurs with increased PTH [2], it seems reasonable to exclude PHPT (and other causes— e.g., milk alkali syndrome and vitamin D toxicity) and consider neck exploration before bisphosphonate treatment. The response to parathyroidectomy can be profound—and is predictable. In those with PHPT there is a significant linear relationship between preoperative severity (plasma calcium corrected for plasma albumin) and postoperative improvement in bone turnover (%fall in plasma alkaline phosphatase) [4]. In those 7 patients with a preoperative calcium >3.0 mmol/l, the postoperative mean fall in plasma alkaline phosphatase was 68%. Bisphosphonate treatment may be an option in those with PHPT and mild asymptomatic hypercalcemia; likewise following a reasonable interval (say 6 months) after successful neck exploration, should increased bone turnover and pagetic symptoms persist.

In those rare cases with the combination of Paget’s disease, hypercalcemia and immobilized pagetic fracture, where other causes of hypercalcemia have been excluded [1,6], bisphosphonate treatment is eminently reasonable.

[1] Bannister P, Roberts M, Sheridan P. Recurrent hypercalcaemia in a young man with mono-ostotic Paget’s disease. Postgrad Med J 1986;62:481–3.
[2] Genuth SM, Klein L. Hypoparathyroidism and Paget’s disease: the effect of parathyroid hormone administration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1972;35: 693–9.
[3] Gillespie WJ. Hypercalcaemia in Paget’s disease of bone. Aust N Z J Surg 1979;49:84–6.
[4] Gutteridge DH, Gruber HE, Kermode DG, Worth GK. Thirty cases of concurrent Paget’s disease and primary hyperparathyroidism: sex distribution, histomorphometry, and prediction of the skeletal response to parathyroidectomy. Calcif Tissue Int 1999;65:427–35.
[5] Harinck HIJ, Bijvoet OLM, Blanksma HJ, Dahlinghaus-Nienhuys PJ. Efficacious management with aminobisphosphonate (APD) in Paget’s disease of bone. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1987;217:79–98.
[6] Nathan AW, Ludlam HA, Wilson DW, Dandona P. Hypercalcaemia due to immobilization of a patient with Paget’s disease of bone. Postgrad Med J 1982;58:714–5.
[7] Selby PL, Davie MWJ, Ralston SH, Stone MD. Guidelines on the management of Paget’s disease of bone. Bone 2002;31:10–9.

The authors of the article entitled “Guidelines on the management of Paget’s disease of bone” published in BONE 2002:31:10–9, have elected not to respond to the above letter to the Editor.

Safety of Bisphosphonates in the Treatment of Osteoporosis

Robert R. Recker, E. Michael Lewiecki, Paul D. Miller, James Reiffel
The American Journal of Medicine (2009) 122, S22–S32
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.amjmed.2008.12.004

In this review 4 experts consider the major safety concerns relating to bisphosphonate therapy for osteoporosis. Specific topics covered are skeletal safety (particularly with respect to atypical fractures and delayed healing), gastrointestinal intolerance, hypocalcemia, acute-phase (i.e., postdose) reactions, chronic musculoskeletal pain, renal safety, and cardiovascular safety (specifically, atrial fibrillation).

The bone-remodeling cycle

The bone-remodeling cycle

The bone-remodeling cycle.
Remodeling of bone in a multicellular bone unit starts with osteoblastic activation of osteoclast differentiation, fusion, and activation (A and B).
When resorption lacunae are formed, the osteoclasts leave the area and mononucleated cells of uncertain origin appear and “clean up” the organic matrix remnants left by the osteoclast, also possibly forming the cement line (dotted line) at the bottom of the lacunae
(C). During the resorption process, coupling factors, including insulin-like growth factor–I and transforming growth factor–β, are released from the bone-extracellular matrix, and these growth factors contribute to the recruitment of osteoblasts to the resorption lacunae and their activation.
(D). The osteoblasts will then fill the lacunae with new bone; when the same amount of bone is formed as is being resorbed, the remodeling process is finished, and the mineralized extracellular matrix will be covered by osteoid and a single-cell layer of osteoblasts
(E). (Reprinted with permission from J Dent Res.6)

SUMMARY

Persistent, long-term antifracture efficacy has been demonstrated for bisphosphonates, and there is no evidence that the antifracture efficacy declines during treatment periods lasting as long as 10 years. Bisphosphonate-induced oversuppression of remodeling and return of fracturing remains a theoretical possibility.
It is likely that a few patients who are potential candidates for bisphosphonate treatment have preexisting oversuppression of bone remodeling. Treatment with a bisphosphonate in these cases would not be helpful and might even be harmful. The problem when encountering a patient with fractures and deciding whether to recommend treatment with a bisphosphonate is that no reliable diagnostic method exists that allows detection of the rare instance of preexisting oversuppression of remodeling.  When pretreatment BMD is not particularly low, that is, not lower than normal or mildly osteopenic, the persistence of fracturing during treatment may mean that oversuppression of remodeling was already present and a change in medication would be appropriate. There is no evidence that bisphosphonate treatment impairs fracture healing. Indeed, there are a substantial number of reports involving animal models, as well as a few human case reports, to suggest that bisphosphonate treatment actually improves fracture healing. In general, it is important to bear in mind the positive benefit-to-risk ratio for this therapeutic class when making treatment recommendations for patients with osteoporosis.

Bisphosphonate Safety:

1.               Gastrointestinal Intolerance,2.               Hypocalcemia,

3.               Acute-Phase Reaction, and

4.               Chronic Bone and Muscle Pain

PTH: Potential role in management of heart failure

  1. Gruson, A. Buglioni, J.C. Burnett Jr.
    Clinica Chimica Acta 433 (2014) 290–296
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2014.03.029

Biomarkers play an important role for the diagnosis and prognosis of heart failure (HF), a disease with high morbidity and mortality as well as a huge impact on healthcare budgets. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a major systemic calcium-regulating hormone and an important regulator of bone and mineral homeostasis. PTH testing is important for differential diagnosis of calcemia related disorders and for the management of patients with chronic kidney disease. As secondary hyperparathyroidism has been evidenced in HF patients, PTH testing might be relevant in HF patients for risk stratification and more personalized selection of treatment.

Heart failure and neurohormonal activation

Heart failure is a syndrome characterized by increasing prevalence, high morbidity, elevated hospital readmission rate and high mortality. The continuing improvement of diagnosis, prognosis, treatment and management of HF requires a better understanding of the different sub-phenotypes and heterogeneity of this syndrome at the cellular, organ, and systemic level. Neurohormonal activation, one of the hallmarks of HF, plays a significant role in the myocardial and multi-organ adaptation. The comprehensive understanding of neurohormonal activation has allowed the identification of several biomarkers, such as natriuretic peptides, which are now playing an important role in HF management. Beside their contribution to the diagnosis of HF, natriuretic peptides are also relevant for follow-up and prognosis of HF patients.  Nevertheless, natriuretic peptides are more related to ventricular stretch, and biomarkers from other biological pathways like cardiac remodeling might provide additional value for the risk stratification of HF patients. The integration of biomarkers from several pathophysiological pathways along with imaging and genetic testing, might therefore be used to define HF subtypes, responding differently to specific therapeutic actions and contributing to more tailored based approaches.
Abnormalities of bone and mineral metabolism are also found in HF.  Secondary hyperparathyroidism has been evidenced in this context and several recent reports have documented the potential use of parathyroid hormone (PTH) testing for a more personalized management of HF patients. The aim of this article is therefore to review some of the cardiac effects of PTH and the potential role of PTH testing in HF.

Parathyroid hormone: biology and cardiac effects
PTH is one of the major regulators of the bone and mineral metabolism and its secretion is modulated by changes in concentration of calcium in the blood; decreased calcium concentrations stimulating PTH secretion via calcium-sensing receptors in the parathyroid gland. In response to hypocalcemia,
PTH has different targets to increase circulating calcium concentration. A fundamental target is the renal tubule where PTH will increase phosphorus excretion in the proximal tract and will enhance calcium reabsorption from the ascending limb of the loop of Henle to the collecting duct. The proximal renal tubule is also a target where PTH will stimulate the 1-α hydroxylation of 25-hydroxyvitamin D to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D: this biologically active form of vitamin D acts on the gut to increase absorption of both dietary calcium and phosphorus. Another target of PTH is the osteoclasts, leading to increased bone resorption with release of phosphorus and calcium in the blood.
PTH is a polypeptide containing 84 amino acids secreted by the parathyroid glands after cleavage from preproparathyroid hormone to proparathyroid hormone to the mature hormone. However, it displays several circulating forms and related fragments. PTH is secreted predominantly as an intact molecule, but it is rapidly cleaved in peripheral tissues to amino terminus and carboxy terminus fragments. The amino terminus fragment is biologically active and has a relatively short circulating half-life. The carboxy-terminal species include a 7-84 peptide and a variety of shorter fragments. These fragments can have a longer half-life and accumulate in renal failure. PTH assays measure not only the full-length form of PTH but also isoforms as well as fragments and differences can be observed between assays depending on the antibody specificities.

Cardiac effects of PTH
Primary hyperparathyroidism has been associated with heart diseases, underlying the potential cardiac consequences of increased circulating levels of PTH. Furthermore, as the heart is one of the target organs of PTH, the involvement of this hormone in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases was previously suggested. PTH has different effects on the heart and can stimulate hypertrophy, arrhythmias and a pro-oxidative state. PTH has a direct hypertrophic action on cardiomyocytes. PTH is able, through a direct effect mediated through its receptors, to activate protein kinase C which further stimulates hypertrophic growth and reexpression of fetal type proteins in cardiomyocytes. PTH was also reported as a potent activator of protein kinase A (PKA) and several other downstream effectors related to cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. The hypertrophic effect of PTH on cardiac cells is also reinforced by its ability to stimulate an anti-hypertrophic response, including the natriuretic peptide gene transcription and by the increased of plasma concentrations of N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) observed in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism. The hypertrophic effect of PTH on the heart was also evidence by a close relation between PTH levels and left ventricular mass.
In addition to its hypertrophic action, PTH can stimulate cardiac arrhythmias. PTH was documented as a chronotropic agent able to cause early death ofmyocytes in rat. Importantly, Bogin et al. showed in cultured heart cells of rat, that both amino-terminal PTH 1–34 and intact PTH 1–84 produced an immediate, sustained and significant rise in beats per minute and that the cells died earlier than control cardiomyocytes. Similar bservations were obtained by Shimoyama et al. In human, recent data showed that chronic renal failure and hyperparathyroidism are associated with a sympathetic over-activity. In that case, PTH 1–34 was able to facilitate norepinephrine release in human heart atria by activating the PTH-receptors. Therefore, highly increased PTH levels that can be observed in HF patients can participate to the elevated sympathetic nerve activity and the associated cardiovascular mortality.
The cardiac impact of PTH is also related to calcium overloading in myocardial cells. This cytoplasmic calcium overloading induced by PTH in myocardial cells appears as a paradox for hyperparathyroidism states. The mechanisms behind the increase of intracellular calcium involve a receptor-mediated rise in L-type calcium channel at the plasma membrane level leading to a secondary entry of calcium into cardiomyocyte and mobilization of calcium from sarcoplasmic reticulum. Both PTH 1–34 and PTH 1–84 produced such a dose dependent increase of intracellular calcium in cardiomyocytes. This increase of cytosolic calcium can be prevented by the calcium channel blocker verapamil.
Hyperparathyroidism has also been documented to trigger oxidative stress. When PTH levels are increased, a higher H2O2 production is observed in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. The increase in intracellular calcium induced by PTH might impair the mitochondrial function and ATP production, inducing the production of reactive oxygen species and leading to oxidative stress as well as inflammation and, at the end, to cardiomyocyte necrosis.
Lastly, increased circulating concentrations of PTH might stimulate adrenal aldosterone synthesis, initiating a vicious circle between hyperparathyroidism and hyperaldosteronism and leading to more proinflammatory, pro-oxidant and pro-fibrotic actions.

The rise of PTH in HF
Through its cardiac effects PTH can participate to the pathophysiology of cardiovascular diseases and a chronic excess to high circulating levels of PTH can have some deleterious consequences for the HF patients. Several factors might explain the increase of circulating PTH levels in HF patients.
First of all, impaired cation homeostasis and calcium loss should be considered.   Alteration in electrolyte equilibrium is frequent in HF patients as a consequence of hormonal changes in this pathological condition (hyperadrenergic state and secondary hyperaldosteronism). Calcium wasting is also triggered by diuretics, used to treat HF patients.
A second important factor can be a deficiency of vitamin D. Low vitamin D levels are frequently observed in HF patients and can lead to a rise in PTH levels.
Another documented factor is the interrelationship between hemodynamic state and serum intact PTH levels in patients with HF. Indeed, in a cross-sectional study including 105 patients with chronic HF, log-transformed intact PTH levels were positively and significantly correlated with pulmonary capillary wedge pressure and inversely correlated with stroke volume index after adjusting for variables associated with PTH.

The cross talk between PTH and aldosterone
The cross talk between PTH and FGF-23
Circulating levels of PTH and heart failure
PTH levels in HF patients
PTH testing and heart failure: conclusions and perspectives
PTH testing: assay matters

secondary hyperparathyroidism

secondary hyperparathyroidism

Potential involvement of secondary hyperparathyroidism in the worsening course of heart failure significant correlations were observed, through generation assays, between PTH and natriuretic peptides aswell as galectin-3. Importantly, the different immunoreactivities might impact on the value of PTH testing in treatment and prognosis of HF.

The measurement of PTH concentrations in HF can, like in patients with chronic kidney disease, help to monitor the efficiency of the treatment (drugs as well as medical devices). The use of PTH testing in HF patients might also allow the selection of more personalized and tailored therapies. HF patients with higher PTH levels could be relevant candidates for vitamin D supplementation or other pharmacological treatment. Based on the positive relationship between aldosterone and PTH, higher PTH levels can be an additional reason to use aldosterone blockers in HF patients.

Parathyroid hormone and cardiovascular disease events: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies

Adriana J. van Ballegooijen, I Reinders, M Visser, and IA Brouwer
Am Heart J 2013;165:655-664.e5
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ahj.2013.02.014

The parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a key hormone for the maintenance of calcium homeostasis. Low serum calcium triggers the secretion of PTH from the parathyroid glands.1 This results in a raise in serum calcium by promoting the release of calcium from bone, reduces calcium excretion by the kidneys, and increases the calcium absorption by the small intestine. In turn, the increase in calcium inhibits PTH secretion from the parathyroid glands.
In addition to traditionally known target organs, PTH is of interest for its potential impact on cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. Observational studies have demonstrated that chronic PTH elevation is linked to hypertension, cardiac hypertrophy, and myocardial dysfunction. Furthermore, PTH receptors are present in the myocardium and exert hypertrophic effects on cardiomyocytes. Taken together, these associations suggest plausible mechanisms whereby elevated PTH concentrations may be involved in pathological processes that lead to CVD.

Background Parathyroid hormone (PTH) excess might play a role in cardiovascular health. We therefore conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate the association between PTH and cardiovascular disease (CVD) events, and intermediate outcomes.
Methods We conducted a systematic and comprehensive database search using MEDLINE and Embase between 1947 and October 2012. We included English-language prospective studies that reported risk estimates for PTH and CVD events, and intermediate outcomes. The characteristics of study populations, exposure, and outcomes of total CVD events, fatal and non-fatal CVD events were reported, and a quality assessment was conducted. Results were extracted for the highest versus lowest PTH concentrations, and meta-analyses were carried out using random effects models.
Results The systematic literature search yielded 5770 articles, and 15 studies were included. Study duration ranged between 2 and 14 years. All studies were performed primarily in whites with a mean age between 55 and 75 years. The metaanalyses included 12 studies, of which 10 investigated total CVD events; 7, fatal CVD events; and 3, non-fatal CVD events. PTH excess indicated an increased risk for total CVD events: pooled HR (95% CI), 1.45 (1.24-1.71). The results for fatal CVD events and non-fatal CVD events were: HR 1.50 (1.18-1.91) and HR 1.48 (1.14-1.92). Heterogeneity was moderately present; however, sensitivity analyses for follow-up duration, prior CVD, or PTH as dichotomous values showed similar results.
Conclusions The meta-analysis indicates that higher PTH concentrations are associated with increased risk of CVD events.

Impact of estrogen on mechanically stimulated cells in vitro

Jörg Neunzehn, Ulrich Meyer and Hans-Peter Wiesman
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2014) 3(5) 898-906
Estrogen deficiency and decreased exercise known to be major causes for osteoporosis in elderly patients are assumed on important role in implant failure. Hormone replacement therapy and exercise are established methods to prevent the accompanying bone loss, thereby improving the conditions for implant osseointegration. Whereas the clinical effects of estrogen on bone are well documented, less is known about estrogen effects on loaded and unloaded osteoblasts on a cellular level. This study was aimed at investigating the effects of estrogen on mechanically stimulated osteoblast like cells in culture. Mechanically unstimulated cultures served as controls. Our investigations revealed that estrogen had a suppressive effect on the proliferative response of osteoblasts towards mechanical strain. Estrogen increased the synthesis of bone specific proteins in mechanically stimulated cultures whereas estrogen had no effect on unstimulated cells. The differentiation effects significant altered at estrogen doses of 10nmol and 10 μmol. Our data suggest a positive effect of hormone substitution on the composition of the extracellular matrix in loaded bones. In the context of implant dentistry, hormone repaints therapy should be regarded as a medical tool to improve the conditions for an undisturbed implant healing.

Normal bone physiology, remodelling and its hormonal regulation

Jennifer S Walsh
Surgery 2014; 33:1

The skeleton has structural and locomotor functions, and is a mineral reservoir. Bone turnover by osteoclasts and osteoblasts is a lifelong process, incorporating growth, modelling and remodeling to repair microdamage and access the mineral reservoir.
Bone formation and resorption are the basis of growth, modeling and remodeling. The bone remodeling cycle is an ongoing process that renews bone to repair microdamage and maintain strength. It also maintains serum calcium in the normal physiological range by release of mineral from the bone matrix as required. About 5-10% of the adult skeleton is replaced by remodeling each year.
On trabecular bone and at the endocortical surface, remodeling takes place on the surface of bone, but within cortical bone the osteoclasts form a cutting cone through the bone matrix. The signal to initiate remodeling may be endocrine (such as increased parathyroid hormone (PTH) in response to hypocalcaemia), which leads to generalized increases in osteoclast activation. Localized remodeling is initiated in response to microdamage, probably by signals from osteocytes. During a remodeling cycle, osteoclasts on the bone surface become activated and resorb bone matrix, creating a defect which is filled in by osteoblasts. The cycle usually takes about 200 days to complete. The bone remodeling cycle is highly regulated, and resorption and formation are closely coupled.
Signaling between bone cells is essential for the coordination of these processes. Osteoblasts regulate osteoclast activity through the receptor activator of nuclear factor-kB (RANK)/RANK ligand/osteoprotegerin system, and osteocytes regulate osteoblast activity through sclerostin secretion. If resorption and formation are balanced there is no net change in bone mass after each cycle, but with ageing and some disease states resorption exceeds formation leading to remodeling imbalance, decreased bone mass and loss of microstructural integrity. The rate of remodeling is determined by loading and endocrine influences. The most important endocrine regulator of bone turnover is probably estrogen, but other hormones regulating bone metabolism include insulin-like growth factor-1, parathyroid hormone and gut and adipocyte hormones.

Differential Diagnosis, Causes, and Management of Hypercalcemia

Fredriech K. W. Chan, et al.
Current Problems In Surgery June 1997; 34(6)

Hypercalcemia is a challenging clinical syndrome, both in diagnosis and therapy. The two most common causes of hypercalcemia, primary hyperparathyroidism and malignancy, account for approximately 90% of all patients with an elevated calcium level. In the general population, primary hyperparathyroidism is more common than malignancy. In a hospitalized population, malignancy is by far the more common. The differential diagnosis of hypercalcemia should be focused initially on the distinction between primary hyperparathyroidism and malignancy.

Primary hyperparathyroidism is caused by excessive, abnormally regulated secretion of parathyroid hormone from one or more adenomatous or hyperplastic parathyroid glands. In 80% of cases, primary hyperparathyroidism is due to a single adenoma. In 15% to 20% of patients, all four glands are enlarged as a result of hyperplasia. Parathyroid hyperplasia is also encountered in patients with Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia, Type I or II. Rarely, in fewer than 0.5% of patients, primary hyperparathyroidism is due to parathyroid carcinoma. The clinical features of primary hyperparathyroidism result from the hypercalcemia and the excessive output of parathyroid hormone (PTH).
The major target organs are the bones and the kidneys. The classic but rare bone disease of primary hyperparathyroidism is osteitis fibrosa cystica. Since the advent of the multichannel autoanalyzer in the early 1970s, an era marked by a great increase in incidence of primary hyperparathyroidism, the prevalence of radiologically apparent bone disease in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism has declined from 10% to 15% to a vanishingly small 1% to 2%. Sensitive technologies such as bone densitometry and bone histomorphometry, however, have revealed skeletal involvement with preferential reduction of cortical bone mass and relative preservation of cancellous bone mass. Although the incidence of nephrolithiasis in primary hyperparathyroidism has also decreased markedly, from approximately 60% in the 1940s and 1950s to 15% to 20% now, nephrolithiasis is still the most frequent complication of primary hyperparathyroidism.
Primary hyperparathyroidism also can be associated with neuropsychiatric, gastrointestinal, and cardiovascular manifestations. However, evidence that these features are pathophysiologically linked to the hyperparathyroid process or are reversible after successful parathyroidectomy is not compelling.

Management of Skeletal Health in Patients With Asymptomatic Primary Hyperparathyroidism

  1. Michael Lewiecki
    J Clin Densitometry: Assessment of Skeletal Health, 2010; 13(4), 324e334.
    http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.jocd.2010.06.004

Asymptomatic primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) may cause adverse skeletal effects that include high bone remodeling, reduced bone mineral density (BMD), and increased fracture risk. Parathyroid surgery, the definitive treatment for PHPT, has been shown to increase BMD and appears to reduce fracture risk. Current guidelines recommend parathyroid surgery for patients with symptomatic PHPT or asymptomatic PHPT with serum calcium > 1 mg/dL above the upper limit of normal, calculated creatinine clearance < 60 mL/min, osteoporosis, previous fracture, or age > 50 yr. The type of operation performed (parathyroid exploration or minimally invasive procedure) and localizing studies to identify the abnormal parathyroid glands preoperatively should be individualized according to the skills of the surgeon and the resources of the institution. In patients who choose not to be treated surgically or who have contraindications for surgery, medical therapy should include a daily calcium intake of at least 1200 mg and maintenance of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels of at least 20 ng/mL (50 nmol/L). Bisphosphonates and estrogens have been shown to provide skeletal benefits that appear to be similar to parathyroid surgery. Cinacalcet reduces serum calcium in PHPT patients with intractable hypercalcemia but has not been shown to improve BMD. It is not known whether any medical intervention reduces fracture risk in patients with PHPT. There are insufficient data on the natural history and treatment of normocalcemic PHPT to make recommendations for management of this disorder.

Hyperparathyroidism

William D Fraser
thelancet July 11, 2009; 374: 145-158 – Seminar

Hyperparathyroidism is due to increased activity of the parathyroid glands, either from an intrinsic abnormal change altering excretion of parathyroid hormone (primary or tertiary hyperparathyroidism) or from an extrinsic abnormal change affecting calcium homoeostasis stimulating production of parathyroid hormone (secondary hyperparathyroidism). Primary hyperparathyroidism is the third most common endocrine disorder, with the highest incidence in postmenopausal women. Asymptomatic disease is common, and severe disease with renal stones and metabolic bone disease arises less frequently now than it did 20–30 years ago. Primary hyperparathyroidism can be cured by surgical removal of an adenoma, increasingly by minimally invasive parathyroidectomy. Medical management of mild disease is possible with bisphosphonates, hormone replacement therapy, and calcimimetics. Vitamin D deficiency is a common cause of secondary hyperparathyroidism, particularly in elderly people. However, the biochemical definition of vitamin D deficiency and its treatment are subject to much debate. Secondary hyperparathyroidism as the result of chronic kidney disease is important in the genesis of renal bone disease, and several new treatments could help achieve the guidelines set out by the kidney disease outcomes quality initiative.

Table 1: Changing clinical presentation of primary hyperparathyroidism
1930–1970 1970–2000
Nephrolithiasis 51–57% 17–37%
Hypercalciuria 36% 40%
Overt skeletal disease 10–23% 4–14%
Asymptomatic 6–18% 22–80%
Modified from reference 12
Panel 1: Recommendations for surgery from the National Institutes of Health
consensus conference on primary hyperparathyroidism in 1990 and 2002• Serum albumin-adjusted calcium greater than 0·25 mmol/L
above the upper limit of local laboratory reference range

• Urine calcium greater than 10 mmol per 24 h

• Creatinine clearance reduced by 30% or more

• Bone mineral density T score less than –2·5 (at any site)

• Age younger than 50 years

• Patient request; adequate follow-up unlikely

Aldosterone and parathyroid hormone interactions as mediators of metabolic and cardiovascular disease

Andreas Tomaschitz, Eberhard Ritz, Burkert Pieske, Jutta Rus-Machan
Metabolism Clinical and  Experimental 2014; 63: 20 31
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2013.08.016

Several studies demonstrated a strong link between dysregulation of the aldosterone and parathyroid hormone (PTH) axes on the one hand and CV pathology on the other hand. Such evidence documents clinically relevant interactions between aldosterone and PTH and a resulting impact on CV health. This review provides an up to date overview discussing the mechanisms and the clinical relevance underlying the interactions between aldosterone and PTH.

Inappropriate aldosterone and parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion is strongly linked with development and progression of cardiovascular (CV) disease. Accumulating evidence suggests a bidirectional interplay between parathyroid hormone and aldosterone. This interaction may lead to a disproportionally increased risk of CV damage, metabolic and bone diseases.

This review focuses on mechanisms underlying the mutual interplay between aldosterone and PTH as well as their potential impact on CV, metabolic and bone health. PTH stimulates aldosterone secretion by increasing the calcium concentration in the cells of the adrenal zona glomerulosa as a result of binding to the PTH/PTH-rP receptor and indirectly by potentiating angiotensin 2 induced effects. This may explain why after parathyroidectomy lower aldosterone levels are seen in parallel with improved cardiovascular outcomes.

Aldosterone mediated effects are inappropriately pronounced in conditions such as chronic heart failure, excess dietary salt intake (relative aldosterone excess) and primary aldosteronism.

PTH is increased as a result of
(1) the MR (mineralocorticoid receptor)mediated calciuretic and magnesiuretic effects with a trend of hypocalcemia and hypomagnesemia; the resulting secondary hyperparathyroidism causes myocardial fibrosis and disturbed bone metabolism; and

(2) direct effects of aldosterone on parathyroid cells via binding to the MR. This adverse sequence is interrupted by mineralocorticoid receptor blockade and adrenalectomy.

Hyperaldosteronism due to klotho deficiency results in vascular calcification, which can be mitigated by spironolactone treatment. In view of the documented reciprocal interaction between aldosterone and PTH as well as the potentially ensuing target organ damage, studies are needed to evaluate diagnostic and therapeutic strategies to address this increasingly recognized pathophysiological phenomenon.

The classical view that aldosterone acts exclusively on the electrolyte transport in epithelial cells has been broadened after the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) has been identified in non-epithelial cells as well, e.g. vascular smooth muscle cells and cardiomyocytes. Apart from classical genomic effects, non-genomic aldosterone mediated effects have been identified in various tissues and organs outside of the kidneys and colon, e.g. inner ear, choroid plexus, endothelial cells and cardiomyocytes.

In the past it had been documented that primary aldosteronism (PA; absolute aldosterone excess) contributed to the development of CVD. Several studies suggested, however, that “absolute aldosterone excess” is only the tip of the iceberg leading to the concept of “relative aldosterone excess” . Several large cross-sectional and prospective studies demonstrated a consistent relationship between circulating aldosterone levels, CV risk factors and mortality risk.

Such recent studies also document that even circulating aldosterone concentrations in the “normal” range may result in inappropriate aldosterone–MR interaction which may be reversed by MR blockade.
The identification of PTH receptors within the CV system e.g. in cardiomyocytes, vascular smooth muscle, and endothelial cells, indicates that inappropriate PTH secretion may impact on the CV health beyond the dysregulation of calcium and phosphate homeostasis.

Application of PTH after myocardial infarction attenuates ischaemic cardiomyopathy by increasing migration of bone marrow-derived stem cells to the ischaemic myocardium. On the other hand the PTH excess in primary hyperparathyroidism (pHPT) is linked in the long-term to a spectrum of adverse effects e.g. bone loss and increased fracture risk, coronary microvascular dysfunction, derangement of lipid and glucose metabolism, subclinical aortic valve calcification, increased aortic stiffness, endothelial dysfunction and arterial hypertension.

Interactions between vitamin D, klotho and aldosterone
Increased activity of systemic or local renin–angiotensin systems (RAS) is linked to increased target organ damage. The organ and tissue protective effects of vitamin D have in part been explained by vitamin D induced modulation of RAS activity.

In landmark experiments Li et al. documented markedly elevated renin mRNA expression in the juxtaglomerular apparatus of vitamin D receptor (VDR) knock-out mice compared to wild type mice. Furthermore, 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D (1,25(OH2)D3) modulated renin gene transcription and renin synthesis and this was independent of serum calcium, PTH and angiotensin 2. Angiotensin 2 in turn reduces renal klotho expression resulting in modulations of FGF-23-signaling and of 1-α hydroxylase activity. Klotho is a membrane (and circulating) protein which is highly expressed in the kidney and modulates the inhibitory effects of FGF-23 on calcitriol formation; klotho contributes to the regulation of renal tubular calcium and phosphate reabsorption. The modulatory effects of vitamin D on the RAS might result in a lower risk of development and progression of CV morbidity and mortality.

Evidence for stimulating effects of PTH on adrenal aldosterone secretion Aldosterone synthesis is mainly initiated by angiotensin 2 and potassium via activating the Ca2+-messenger system in zona glomerulosa (ZG) cells to stimulate the steroidogenic cascade within the mitochondria. The Ca2+-messenger system further participates in the initiation of steroidogenesis by facilitating the cholesterol transfer into the mitochondria. Findings from experimental, mechanistic, observational and interventional studies suggest that PTH contributes to the regulation of aldosterone secretion in the ZG of the adrenal glands.

The interaction between aldosterone and Klotho and its relationship to vascular osteoinduction

The interaction between aldosterone and Klotho and its relationship to vascular osteoinduction

The interaction between aldosterone and Klotho and its relationship to vascular osteoinduction

Estradiol determines the effects of PTH on ERa-dependent transcription in MC3T3-E1 cells

Monika H.E. Christensen, IS Fenne, MH Flågeng, B Almås, et al.
Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 450 (2014) 360–365
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.05.109

Bone remodeling is a continuous process regulated by several hormones such as estrogens and parathyroid hormone (PTH). Here we investigated the influence of PTH on estrogen receptor alpha (ERa)-dependent transcriptional activity in MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts. Cells that were transfected with an ER-responsive reporter plasmid and treated with PTH showed increased luciferase activity. However, in the presence of 17b-estradiol, we observed that PTH inhibited ERa-mediated transcription. cAMP mimicked the effects by PTH, and the findings were confirmed in COS-1 cells transfected with expression vector encoding the catalytic subunit of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA). Furthermore, PTH exhibited specific effects on the mRNA expression of the decoy receptor osteoprotegerin (OPG) and the receptor activator of NF kappa-B ligand (RANKL) in MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts. In the absence of 17b-estradiol, PTH and cAMP enhanced the OPG/RANKL ratio, whereas, OPG/RANKL was suppressed when estradiol was present. In conclusion, our results indicate that the presence of estradiol determines whether PTH and cAMP stimulates or inhibits ERa-dependent activity and the OPG/RANKL mRNA expression in an osteoblastic cell line.

Ginsenoside-Rb2 displays anti-osteoporosis effects through reducing oxidative damage and bone-resorbing cytokines during osteogenesis

Qiang Huang, Bo Gao, Qiang Jie, Bo-Yuan Wei, et al.
Bone 66 (2014) 306–314
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bone.2014.06.010

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are a significant pathogenic factor of osteoporosis. Ginsenoside-Rb2 (Rb2), a 20(S)-protopanaxadiol glycoside extracted from ginseng, is a potent antioxidant that generates interest regarding the bone metabolism area. We tested the potential anti-osteoporosis effects of Rb2 and its underlying mechanism in this study. We produced an oxidative damage model induced by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells to test the essential anti-osteoporosis effects of Rb2 in vitro. The results indicated that treatment of 0.1 to 10 μMRb2 promoted the proliferation of MC3T3-E1 cells, improved alkaline phosphatase (ALP) expression, elevated calcium mineralization and mRNA expressions of Alp, Col1a1, osteocalcin (Ocn) and osteopontin (Opn) against oxidative damage induced by H2O2. Importantly, Rb2 reduced the expression levels of receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL) and IL-6 and inhibited the H2O2-induced production of ROS. The in vivo study indicated that the Rb2 administered for 12 weeks partially decreased blood malondialdehyde (MDA) activity and elevated the activity of reduced glutathione (GSH) in ovariectomized (OVX)mice. Moreover, Rb2 improved the micro-architecture of trabecular bones and increased bone mineral density (BMD) of the 4th lumbar vertebrae (L4) and the distal femur. Altogether, these results demonstrated that the potential anti-osteoporosis effects of Rb2 were linked to a reduction of oxidative damage and bone-resorbing cytokines, which suggests that Rb2 might be effective in preventing and alleviating osteoporosis.

Inflammatory cytokines in Paget’s disease of bone

GRW de Castro, Z Buss, JS Da Rosa, TS Fröde
International Immunopharmacology 18 (2014) 277–281
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2013.12.003

This study was undertaken to evaluate the expression of inflammatory cytokines in patients with Paget’s disease of bone (PDB). Serum levels of tumoral necrosis factor-α, interleukin 1β, interleukin-6 and interleukin-17
were measured in 51 patients with PDB and in 24 controls with primary osteoarthritis. Compared to controls, patients with Paget’s disease of bone presented higher levels of interleukin 6 and reduced interleukin 17, but levels of tumoral necrosis factor α and interleukin 1 β did not differ significantly. We found no significant differences when patients were compared according to disease activity or current treatment. There were no correlations between cytokine levels and bone-specific alkaline phosphatase or extension of Paget’s disease of bone on bone scintigraphs. In conclusion, patients with PDB present significant differences on levels of certain cytokines in comparison to primary osteoarthritis patients, but these alterations did not appear to have a clear correlation with parameters of disease activity or severity.

Development and validation of a novel cell-based assay for potency determination of human parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Axel Hohenstein, Meike Hebell, Heidi Zikry, Maria El Ghazaly, et al.
Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 98 (2014) 345–350
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2014.06.004

Disorders of bone metabolism
Orthopaedics I: General Principles

Nicola Peel
Surgery 33:1

Bone remodeling is critical to bone health. Alterations in the normal processes and regulation of remodeling may impact on bone mass and bone strength. Changes may be generalized or focal and underlie many of the common disorders of bone metabolism. This article focuses on the changes in bone remodeling which underlie both the development and treatment of osteoporosis. Osteomalacia, as an example of a mineralization disorder and Paget’s disease as an example of a focal disorder of bone remodeling, are also briefly reviewed.

There are many causes of increased bone turnover with the most common being the loss of estrogen at menopause. Increased bone turnover is initiated by increased activation frequency of osteoclasts. The consequent increase in remodeling space leads to bone loss which is, at least in part, reversible. Increased bone turnover is also associated with an increased risk of trabecular perforation with the increased number of remodeling sites acting as stress risers within the trabecular architecture. Bone loss within the trabecular compartment occurs preferentially from the horizontal, non-weight bearing plates resulting in disproportionate loss of bone strength for the reduction in bone mass.
Alterations in bone turnover also have potential to affect bone.

strength by changing the degree of mineralization. Primary mineral apposition occurs early after production of bone matrix by osteoblasts. After completion of the cycle, secondary mineral apposition occurs over many months. Increased bone turnover leads to reduced mineralization as the time between remodeling cycles reduces. Conversely, decreased bone turnover rates reduce the average time between remodeling at any site and hence lead to a greater degree of mineralization. Biomechanical principles indicate that the yield strength (stiffness) of highly mineralized bone increases but that it will withstand less deformation before fracture and therefore becomes brittle. A reduced degree of mineralization results in greater pliability but a reduction in bone strength.
Alterations in bone remodeling underpin changes in bone mass and bone strength. The impact of these changes is manifest in the development and clinical presentation of osteoporosis.

Paget’s disease

Paget’s disease

Paget’s disease: (a) increased uptake on nuclear medicine scanning in the right hemipelvis, sacrum and left femur and (b) left femur showing radiological changes of Paget’s including a fissure fracture in the proximal lateral cortex

Paget’s disease is an example of a localised disorder of bone turnover. Its aetiology remains unclear. Paget’s disease is not uncommon but is often asymptomatic and diagnosed coincidentally. It is estimated to affect approximately 2% of adults over the age of 55 in the UK but the prevalence varies markedly between populations. It is increasingly prevalent with increasing age and affects men more frequently than women. In 80% of cases more than one bone is involved, characteristically in an asymmetric distribution.
Pagetic bone is characterized by the presence of giant multinucleated osteoclasts resulting in dramatic increases in bone resorption in the affected bones. These regions undergo a lytic phase followed by a compensatory increase in bone formation. Rapid bone formation results in an accumulation of woven bone, which is mechanically abnormal resulting in loss of bone strength.
The typical clinical manifestation is of bone pain, which may be associated with bone expansion and deformity. Complications of Paget’s disease include the development of secondary osteoarthritis, fissure fractures and very rarely, osteosarcomatous change (<1% of cases).

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Pancreatic Islets

Posted in Curation, Diabetes Mellitus, Diagnostics and Lab Tests, Disease Biology, Endocrine Diseases, Epigenetics and Cardiovascular Risks, Fatty acids, Frontiers in Cardiology and Cardiovascular Disorders, Gene Regulation, Genomic Endocrinology, Lipid metabolism, Lipids, Metabolism, Nephrology, Neurodegenerative Diseases, Nitric Oxide in Health and Disease, Nutrition, Nutritional Supplements: Atherogenesis, Origins of Cardiovascular Disease, tagged , , , , , , , , on February 8, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Pancreatic Islets

Writer and Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP 

Part I. Endocrine Pancreas

The eclipse and rehabilitation of JJR Macleod, Scotland’s insulin laureate

Bliss, M
Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh  2013;  43(4): 1-8

John JR Macleod (1876-1935,) an Aberdonian Scot who had emigrated to North America, shared the 1923 Nobel Prize with Frederick Banting for their discovery of insulin at the University of Toronto in 1921-22. Macleod finished his career as Regius Professor of Physiology at the University of Aberdeen from 1928 to 1935.Macleod’s posthumous reputation was deeply tarnished by the campaigns against him carried out by his fellow laureate, Banting, and by Banting’s student assistant during the insulin research, Charles Best. Banting’s denigration of Macleod was based on their almost total personality conflict; Best’s was based on a hunger for personal recognition. New research indicates how scarred both men were in their obsessions.The rehabilitation of Macleod’s reputation, begun in 1982 with my book, The Discovery of Insulin, has continued in both scholarly and popular circles. By 2012, the ninetieth anniversary of the discovery of insulin, it had become complete both at the University of Toronto and in Canada.

Almost famous: E. Clark Noble, the common thread in the discovery of insulin and vinblastine

Wright Jr., J.R.
CMAJ 2002; 167 (12), pp. 1391-1396

CLARK NOBLE WAS ONE OF THE FIRST members of the University of Toronto insulin team and came within a coin toss of replacing Charles Best as Frederick Banting’s assistant during the summer of 1921. Noble performed important early studies helping to characterize insulin’s action, and he co-authored many of the original papers describing insulin. Because mass production of insulin from livestock pancreata had proved elusive throughout 1922, J.J.R. Macleod hired Noble during the summer of 1923 to help him test and develop a new method for producing commercial quantities of insulin that Macleod believed would revolutionize insulin production. However, commercial production of insulin from fish proved impractical and was dropped by 1924, as methods to produce large quantities of mammalian insulin had improved very rapidly. Noble later played a small but critical role in the most important Canadian contribution to cancer chemotherapy research: the discovery of vinca alkaloids by his brother Robert Laing Noble. Although one might expect that a physician involved in 2 of Canada’s most important medical discoveries during the 20th century must be famous, such was not Clark Noble’s fate. He died without so much as an obituary in CMAJ.

The Pathophysiology of Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reviewer and Curator
and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN, Curator

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/01/15/pathophysiological-effects-of-diabetes-on-ischemic-cardiovascular-disease-and-on-chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-copd/

This is a multipart article that develops the pathological effects of type-2 diabetes in the progression of a systemic inflammatory disease with a development of neuropathy, and fully developing into cardiovascular disease.  It also identifies a systemic relationship to the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. In medical school we were taught that syphilis is the great masquerader. The more we learn about diabetes, we learn about its generalized systemic effects.

Part 1. Role of Autonomic Cardiovascular Neuropathy in Pathogenesis

This article is an abstract only of a related publication of the pathogenesis of autonomic neuropathy in diabetics leading to ischemic heart disease.

The role of autonomic cardiovascular neuropathy in pathogenesis of ischemic heart disease in patients with diabetes mellitus

Subjects: Medicine (General), Medicine, Medicine (General), Health Sciences
Authors: Popović-Pejičić Snježana, Todorović-Đilas Ljiljana, Pantelinac Pavle
Publisher: Društvo lekara Vojvodine Srpskog lekarskog društva
Publication: Medicinski Pregled 2006; 59(3-4): Pp 118-123 (2006)
http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/MPNS0604118P

http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0025-8105/2006/0025-81050604118P.pdf

Keywords: diabetes mellitus, autonomic nervous system diseases, heart diseases, myocardial ischemia, comorbidity

Introduction. Diabetes is strongly associated with macrovascular complications, among which ischemic heart disease is the major cause of mortality. Autonomic neuropathy increases the risk of complications, which calls for an early diagnosis. The aim of this study was to determine both presence and extent of cardiac autonomic neuropathy, in regard to the type of diabetes mellitus, as well as its correlation with coronary disease and major cardiovascular risk factors. Material and methods. We have examined 90 subjects, classified into three groups, with 30 patients each: those with type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes and control group of healthy subjects. All patients underwent cardiovascular tests (Valsalva maneuver, deep breathing test, response to standing, blood pressure response to standing sustained, handgrip test), electrocardiogram, treadmill exercise test and filled out a questionnaire referring to major cardiovascular risk factors: smoking, obesity, hypertension, and dyslipidemia. Results. Our results showed that cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy was more frequent in type 2 diabetes, manifesting as autonomic neuropathy. In patients with autonomic neuropathy, regardless of the type of diabetes, the treadmill test was positive, i.e. strongly correlating with coronary disease. In regard to coronary disease risk factors, the most frequent correlation was found for obesity and hypertension. Discussion.  Cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy is considered to be the principal cause of arteriosclerosis and coronary disease. Our results showed that the occurrence of cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy increases the risk of coronary disease due to dysfunction of autonomic nervous system. Conclusions. Cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy is a common complication of diabetes that significantly correlates with coronary disease. Early diagnosis of cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy points to increased cardiovascular risk, providing a basis for preventive and therapeutic measures.

Part 2. a longitudinal cohort study of the cardiovascular experience of individuals at high risk for diabetes

Protocol for ADDITION-PRO: a longitudinal cohort study of the cardiovascular experience of individuals at high risk for diabetes recruited from Danish primary care

Subjects: Public aspects of medicine, Medicine, Public Health, Health Sciences
Authors: Johansen Nanna B, Hansen Anne-Louise S, Jensen Troels M, Philipsen Annelotte, Rasmussen Signe S, Jørgensen Marit E, Simmons Rebecca K, Lauritzen Torsten, Sandbæk Annelli, Witte Daniel R
Publisher: BioMed Central Date of publication: 2012 December
Published in: BMC Public Health 2012; 12(1): 1078
ISSN(s): 1471-2458   Added to DOAJ: 2013-03-12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-1078 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/12/1078

Keywords: Diabetes, Cardiovascular disease, Primary care, Complications, Microvascular, Impaired fasting glucose, Impaired glucose intolerance, Aortic stiffness, Physical activity, Body composition.

Background: Screening programmes for type 2 diabetes inevitably find more individuals at high risk for diabetes than people with undiagnosed prevalent disease. While well established guidelines for the treatment of diabetes exist, less is known about treatment or prevention strategies for individuals found at high risk following screening. In order to make better use of the opportunities for primary prevention of diabetes and its complications among this high risk group, it is important to quantify diabetes progression rates and to examine the development of early markers of cardiovascular disease and microvascular diabetic complications. We also require a better understanding of the mechanisms that underlie and drive early changes in cardiometabolic physiology. The ADDITION-PRO study was designed to address these issues among individuals at different levels of diabetes risk recruited from Danish primary care. Methods/Design: ADDITION-PRO is a population-based, longitudinal cohort study of individuals at high risk for diabetes. 16,136 eligible individuals were identified at high risk following participation in a stepwise screening programme in Danish general practice between 2001 and 2006. All individuals with impaired glucose regulation at screening, those who developed diabetes following screening, and a random sub-sample of those at lower levels of diabetes risk were invited to attend a follow-up health assessment in 2009–2011 (n = 4,188), of whom 2,082 (50%) attended. The health assessment included detailed measurement of anthropometry, body composition, biochemistry, physical activity and cardiovascular risk factors including aortic stiffness and central blood pressure. All ADDITION-PRO participants are being followed for incident cardiovascular disease and death. Discussion: The ADDITION-PRO study is designed to increase understanding of cardiovascular risk and its underlying mechanisms among individuals at high risk of diabetes. Key features of this study include (i) a carefully characterised cohort at different levels of diabetes risk; (ii) detailed measurement of cardiovascular and metabolic risk factors; (iii) objective measurement of physical activity behaviour; and (iv) long-term follow-up of hard clinical outcomes including mortality and cardiovascular disease. Results will inform policy recommendations concerning cardiovascular risk reduction and treatment among individuals at high risk for diabetes. The detailed phenotyping of this cohort will also allow a number of research questions concerning early changes in cardiometabolic physiology to be addressed.

Part 3.  Clinical significance of cardiovascular dysmetabolic syndrome

This third part is a description of a longitudinal cohort study of individuals at high-risk for diabetes.  Unlike the SSA study, the study is not focused on protein-energy malnutrition. This study also addresses the issue of diabetes insulin resistance leading to cardiovascular dysmetabolic syndrome.

Subjects: Diseases of the circulatory (Cardiovascular) system, Specialties of internal medicine, Internal medicine, Medicine, Cardiovascular, Medicine (General), Health Sciences
Authors: Deedwania Prakash C
Publisher: BioMed Central Date of publication: 2002 January
Published in: Trials 2002; 3: 1(2)
ISSN(s): 1468-6708
Added to DOAJ: 2004-06-03
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1468-6708-3-2
Full text: http://cvm.controlled-trials.com/content/3/1/2

Keywords: cardiovascular dysmetabolic syndrome, coronary heart disease, diabetes mellitus, hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance

Although diabetes mellitus is predominantly a metabolic disorder, recent data suggest that it is as much a vascular disorder. Cardiovascular complications are the leading cause of death and disability in patients with diabetes mellitus. A number of recent reports have emphasized that many patients already have atherosclerosis in progression by the time they are diagnosed with clinical evidence of diabetes mellitus. The increased risk of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular complications in diabetic patients is related to the frequently associated dyslipidemia, hypertension, hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, and endothelial dysfunction.

The evolving knowledge regarding the variety of metabolic, hormonal, and hemodynamic abnormalities in patients with diabetes mellitus has led to efforts designed for early identification of individuals at risk of subsequent disease. It has been suggested that insulin resistance, the key abnormality in type II diabetes, often precedes clinical features of diabetes by 5–6 years.

Careful attention to the criteria described for the cardiovascular dysmetabolic syndrome should help identify those at risk at an early stage. The application of nonpharmacologic as well as newer emerging pharmacologic therapies can have beneficial effects in individuals with cardiovascular dysmetabolic syndrome and/or diabetes mellitus by improving insulin sensitivity and related abnormalities. Early identification and implementation of appropriate therapeutic strategies would be necessary to contain the emerging new epidemic of cardiovascular disease related to diabetes.

Part 4.   Waist circumference a good indicator of future risk for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease

Subjects: Public aspects of medicine, Medicine, Public Health, Health Sciences Authors: Siren Reijo, Eriksson Johan G, Vanhanen Hannu
Publisher: BioMed Central Date of publication: 2012 August
Published in: BMC Public Health 2012; 12: 1(631)
ISSN(s): 1471-2458
Added to DOAJ: 2013-03-12
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-631
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/12/631

Keywords: Waist circumference, Type 2 diabetes, Cardiovascular disease, Middle-aged men.

Background: Abdominal obesity is a more important risk factor than overall obesity in predicting the development of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. From a preventive and public health point of view it is crucial that risk factors are identified at an early stage, in order to change and modify behaviour and lifestyle in high risk individuals. Methods: Data from a community based study was used to assess the risk for type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and prevalence of metabolic syndrome in middle-aged men. In order to identify those with increased risk for type 2 diabetes and/or cardiovascular disease sensitivity and specificity analysis were performed, including calculation of positive and negative predictive values, and corresponding 95% CI for eleven different cut-off points, with 1 cm intervals (92 to 102 cm), for waist circumference. Results: A waist circumference ≥94 cm in middle-aged men, identified those with increased risk for type 2 diabetes and/or for cardiovascular disease with a sensitivity of 84.4% (95% CI 76.4% to 90.0%), and a specificity of 78.2% (95% CI 68.4% to 85.5%). The positive predictive value was 82.9% (95% CI 74.8% to 88.8%), and negative predictive value 80.0%, respectively (95% CI 70.3% to 87.1%). Conclusions: Measurement of waist circumference in middle-aged men is a reliable test to identify individuals at increased risk for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. This measurement should be used more frequently in daily practice in primary care in order to identify individuals at risk and when planning health counselling and interventions.

Part 5.  Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and glucose metabolism: a bitter sweet symphony

Subjects: Diseases of the circulatory (Cardiovascular) system, Specialties of internal medicine, Internal medicine, Medicine, Cardiovascular, Medicine (General), Health Sciences
Authors: Mirrakhimov Aibek E
Publisher: BioMed Central
Date of publication: Oct 2012
ISSN(s): 1475-2840
ADDED to DOAJ: 2013-03-12
Published in: Cardiovascular Diabetology 2012; 11(1):132
Journal Language(s): English Country of publication: United Kingdom
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1186/1475-2840-11-132
Full text: http://www.cardiab.com/content/11/1/132

Keywords: COPD, Dysglycemia, Insulin resistance, Obesity, Metabolic syndrome, Diabetes mellitus endothelial dysfunction, Vasculopathy

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, metabolic syndrome and diabetes mellitus are common and underdiagnosed medical conditions. It was predicted that chronic obstructive pulmonary disease will be the third leading cause of death worldwide by 2020. The healthcare burden of this disease is even greater if we consider the significant impact of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on the cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease may be considered as a novel risk factor for new onset type 2 diabetes mellitus via multiple pathophysiological alterations such as: inflammation and oxidative stress, insulin resistance, weight gain and alterations in metabolism of adipokines.

On the other hand, diabetes may act as an independent factor, negatively affecting pulmonary structure and function. Diabetes is associated with an increased risk of pulmonary infections, disease exacerbations and worsened COPD outcomes. On the top of that, coexistent OSA may increase the risk for type 2 DM in some individuals.

The current scientific data necessitate a greater outlook on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease may be viewed as a risk factor for the new onset type 2 diabetes mellitus. Conversely, both types of diabetes mellitus should be viewed as strong contributing factors for the development of obstructive lung disease. Such approach can potentially improve the outcomes and medical control for both conditions, and, thus, decrease the healthcare burden of these major medical problems.

The Economic Costs of Diabetes: Is It Time for a New Treatment Paradigm?

Commentary: William H. Herman
Diabetes Care Apr 2013; 36: 775-776

In a series of rigorous and exhaustive descriptive cost analyses conducted over the past decade, the American Diabetes Association (ADA) has documented an inexorable increase in the cost of diabetes in the U.S. and its detrimental impact on productivity. For the 2012 study, the ADA estimated that there were 22.3 million Americans diagnosed with diabetes. These patients incurred $306 billion in direct medical costs, more than 1 of 5 dollars spent on medical care in the U.S. The direct medical costs attributed to diabetes, that is, the costs of medical care for people with diabetes in excess of those that would be expected in the absence of diabetes, were $176 billion or approximately 1 of 8 dollars spent on medical care in the U.S. Americans with diagnosed diabetes have annual medical expenditures that are $7,900 or approximately 2.3 times higher than they would be in the absence of diabetes ($13,700 vs. $5,800). Americans with diabetes also incur $69 billion in costs related to absenteeism, reduced productivity while at work or at home, diabetes-related disability, and premature mortality. The increasing economic burden of diabetes is due in large part to the increase in the number of people with diagnosed diabetes.

Randomized controlled clinical trials have demonstrated that intensive glycemic management can delay the onset of microvascular, neuropathic, and cardiovascular complications in people with both type 1 and type 2 diabetes, and that the benefits of early intensive treatment persist over time. Randomized controlled clinical trials have also demonstrated that blood pressure management (target blood pressure 135/80 mmHg) and lipid management using statin medications can delay or prevent the development of adverse cardiovascular outcomes.

The growing economic and societal burden of diabetes as documented by the ADA in this issue of Diabetes Care highlights the urgent need to implement interventions to delay the development of type 2 diabetes. Both intensive lifestyle and pharmacologic interventions are proven effective and cost-effective. Health policy should support their implementation.

Complimentary societal interventions to delay the onset of type 2 diabetes include school-based health promotion programs and interventions that address advertising, food availability and price, the built and workplace environment, and even tax policy. In addition, early aggressive management of glycemia and cardiovascular risk factors must be implemented for persons diagnosed with diabetes. Increasing access to care, including self management education and nutritional counseling, and ensuring access to necessary treatments and supplies are critical, especially in light of the proven value of early intensive treatment in preventing chronic complications. The cost estimates provided by the ADA from 2002, 2007, and 2012 show that the economic and societal burden of diabetes is growing in the U.S. This trend underscores the importance of prevention and interventions to mitigate the complications of diabetes.

Insulin regulates carboxypeptidase E by modulating translation initiation scaffolding protein eIF4G1 in pancreatic β cells

Liew, C.W., Assmann, A., Templin, A.T., (…), Urano, F., Kulkarni, R.N
2014 Proc National Academy of Sciences  USA  111 (22), pp. E2319-E2328

Insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia, and hyperproinsulinemia occur early in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes (T2D). Elevated levels of proinsulin and proinsulin intermediates are markers of β-cell dysfunction and are strongly associated with development of T2D in humans. However, the mechanism(s) underlying β-cell dysfunction leading to hyperproinsulinemia is poorly understood. Here, we show that disruption of insulin receptor (IR) expression in β cells has a direct impact on the expression of the convertase enzyme carboxypeptidase E (CPE) by inhibition of the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4 gamma 1 translation initiation complex scaffolding protein that is mediated by the key transcription factors pancreatic and duodenal homeobox 1 and sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1, together leading to poor proinsulin processing. Reexpression of IR or restoring CPE expression each independently reverses the phenotype. Our results reveal the identity of key players that establish a previously unknown link between insulin signaling, translation initiation, and proinsulin processing, and provide previously unidentified mechanistic insight into the development of hyperproinsulinemia in insulin-resistant states.

Disruption of growth factor receptor-binding protein 10 in the pancreas enhances β-cell proliferation and protects mice from streptozotocin-induced β-cell apoptosis

Zhang, J., Zhang, N., Liu, M., (…), Lu, X.-Y., Liu, F.
2014 Environmental Science and Technology 48 (9), pp. 5179-5186

It has been reported that organotin compounds such as triphenyltin or tributyltin (TBT) induce diabetes and insulin resistance. However, histopathological effects of organotin compounds on the Islets of Langerhans and exocrine pancreas are still unclear. In the present study, male KM mice were orally administered with TBT (0.5, 5, and 50 µg/kg) once every 3 days. The fasting plasma glucose levels significantly elevated, and the levels of serum insulin or glucagon decreased in the animals treated with TBT for 60 days. In animals treated for 45 days, the number of apoptotic cells in the islets and exocrine pancreas was elevated in a dose-dependent manner. The percentage of proliferating (PCNA-positive) cells was decreased in the islets, while it was increased in exocrine acinar cells. Immunohistochemistry analysis showed that estrogen receptor (ER) and androgen receptor (AR) were present in vascular endothelium, ductal cells, and islet cells, but absent from pancreatic exocrine cells. TBT exposure decreased the production of estradiol and triiodothyronine and elevated the concentration of testosterone, and resulted in a decrease of ERβ expression and an elevation of AR in the pancreas measured by Western blotting. The results suggested that TBT inhibited the proliferation and induced the apoptosis of islet cells via multipathways, causing a decrease of relative islet area in the animals treated for 60 days, which could result in a disruption of glucose homeostasis. The different presence of ERs and AR between the islets and exocrine pancreas might be one of reasons causing different effects on cell proliferation

Pancreatic alpha-cell dysfunction contributes to the disruption of glucose homeostasis and compensatory insulin hypersecretion in glucocorticoid-treated rats

Rafacho, A., Gonçalves-Neto, L.M., Santos-Silva, J.C., (…), Nadal, A., Quesada, I.
2014 Journal of Biological Chemistry 289 (9), pp. 6028-604

In α-cells, syntaxin (Syn)-1A interacts with SUR1 to inhibit ATP-sensitive potassium channels (KATP channels). PIP2 binds the Kir6.2 subunit to open KATP channels. PIP2 also modifies Syn-1A clustering in plasma membrane (PM) that may alter Syn-1A actions on PM proteins like SUR1. Here, we assessed whether the actions of PIP 2 on activating KATP channels is contributed by sequestering Syn-1A from binding SUR1. In vitro binding showed that PIP 2 dose-dependently disrupted Syn-1A·SUR1 complexes, corroborated by an in vivo Forster resonance energy transfer assay showing disruption of SUR1-(-EGFP)/Syn-1A(-mCherry) interaction along with increased Syn-1A cluster formation. Electrophysiological studies of rat α-cells, INS-1, and SUR1/Kir6.2-expressing HEK293 cells showed that PIP2 dose-dependent activation of KATP currents was uniformly reduced by Syn-1A. To unequivocally distinguish between PIP2 actions on Syn-1A and Kir6.2, we employed several strategies. First, we showed that PIP 2-insensitive Syn-1A-5RK/A mutant complex with SUR1 could not be disrupted by PIP2, consequently reducing PIP2 activation of KATP channels. Next, Syn-1A·SUR1 complex modulation of KATP channels could be observed at a physiologically low PIP 2 concentration that did not disrupt the Syn-1A·SUR1 complex, compared with higher PIP2 concentrations acting directly on Kir6.2. These effects were specific to PIP2 and not observed with physiologic concentrations of other phospholipids. Finally, depleting endogenous PIP 2 with polyphosphoinositide phosphatase synaptojanin-1, known to disperse Syn-1A clusters, freed Syn-1A from Syn-1A clusters to bind SUR1, causing inhibition of KATP channels that could no longer be further inhibited by exogenous Syn-1A. These results taken together indicate that PIP2 affects islet β-cell KATP channels not only by its actions on Kir6.2 but also by sequestering Syn-1A to modulate Syn-1A availability and its interactions with SUR1 on PM.

Aging and sleep deprivation induce the unfolded protein response in the pancreas: Implications for metabolism

Naidoo, N., Davis, J.G., Zhu, J., (…), Agarwal, B., Baur, J.A.
2014 Aging Cell 13 (1), pp. 131-141

Sleep disruption has detrimental effects on glucose metabolism through pathways that remain poorly defined. Although numerous studies have examined the consequences of sleep deprivation (SD) in the brain, few have directly tested its effects on peripheral organs. We examined several tissues in mice for induction of the unfolded protein response (UPR) following acute SD. In young animals, we found a robust induction of BiP in the pancreas, indicating an active UPR. At baseline, pancreata from aged animals exhibited a marked increase in a pro-apoptotic transcription factor, CHOP, that was amplified by SD, whereas BiP induction was not observed, suggesting a maladaptive response to cellular stress with age. Acute SD increased plasma glucose levels in both young and old animals. However, this change was not overtly related to stress in the pancreatic beta cells, as plasma insulin levels were not lower following acute SD. Accordingly, animals subjected to acute SD remained tolerant to a glucose challenge. In a chronic SD experiment, young mice were found to be sensitized to insulin and have improved glycemic control, whereas aged animals became hyperglycemic and failed to maintain appropriate plasma insulin concentrations. Our results show that both age and SD cooperate to induce the UPR in pancreatic tissue. While changes in insulin secretion are unlikely to play a major role in the acute effects of SD, CHOP induction in pancreatic tissues suggests that chronic SD may contribute to the loss or dysfunction of endocrine cells and that these effects may be exacerbated by normal aging

Bayesian total internal reflection fluorescence correlation spectroscopy reveals hIAPP-induced plasma membrane domain organization in live cells

Guo, S.-M., Bag, N., Mishra, A., Wohland, T., Bathe, M.
2014 Biophysical Journal 106 (1), pp. 190-200

Amyloid fibril deposition of human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP) in pancreatic islet cells is implicated in the pathogenesis of type II diabetes. A growing number of studies suggest that small peptide aggregates are cytotoxic via their interaction with the plasma membrane, which leads to membrane permeabilization or disruption. A recent study using imaging total internal reflection-fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (ITIR-FCS) showed that monomeric hIAPP induced the formation of cellular plasma membrane microdomains containing dense lipids, in addition to the modulation of membrane fluidity. However, the spatial organization of microdomains and their temporal evolution were only partially characterized due to limitations in the conventional analysis and interpretation of imaging FCS datasets. Here, we apply a previously developed Bayesian analysis procedure to ITIR-FCS data to resolve hIAPP-induced microdomain spatial organization and temporal dynamics. Our analysis enables the visualization of the temporal evolution of multiple diffusing species in the spatially heterogeneous cell membrane, lending support to the carpet model for the association mode of hIAPP aggregates with the plasma membrane. The presented Bayesian analysis procedure provides an automated and general approach to unbiased model-based interpretation of imaging FCS data, with broad applicability to resolving the heterogeneous spatial-temporal organization of biological membrane systems.

SMAD2 disruption in mouse pancreatic beta cells leads to islet hyperplasia and impaired insulin secretion due to the attenuation of ATP-sensitive K + channel activity

Nomura, M., Zhu, H.-L., Wang, L., (…), Takayanagi, R., Teramoto, N.
2014 Diabetologia 57 (1), pp. 157-166

Aims/hypothesis: The TGF-β superfamily of ligands provides important signals for the development of pancreas islets. However, it is not yet known whether the TGF-β family signalling pathway is required for essential islet functions in the adult pancreas. Methods: To identify distinct roles for the downstream components of the canonical TGF-β signalling pathway, a Cre-loxP system was used to disrupt SMAD2, an intracellular transducer of TGF-β signals, in pancreatic beta cells (i.e. Smad2-β- knockout [KO] mice). The activity of ATP-sensitive K+ channels (KATP channels) was recorded in mutant beta cells using patch-clamp techniques. Results: The Smad2-β-KO mice exhibited defective insulin secretion in response to glucose and overt diabetes. Interestingly, disruption of SMAD2 in β-cells was associated with a striking islet hyperplasia and increased pancreatic insulin content, together with defective glucose-responsive insulin secretion. The activity of KATP channels was decreased in mutant β-cells. Conclusions/interpretation: These results suggest that in the adult pancreas, TGF-β signalling through SMAD2 is crucial for not only the determination of beta cell mass but also the maintenance of defining features of mature pancreatic beta cells, and that this involves modulation of KATP channel activity.

Disruption of protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1B expression in the pancreas affects β-cell function

Liu, S., Xi, Y., Bettaieb, A., (…), Kulkarni, R.N., Haj, F.G.
2014 Endocrinology 155 (9), pp. 3329-3338

Protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) is a physiological regulator of glucose homeostasis and energy balance. However, the role of PTP1B in pancreatic endocrine function remains largely unknown. To investigate the metabolic role of pancreatic PTP1B, we generated mice with pancreas PTP1B deletion (panc-PTP1B KO). Mice were fed regular chow or a high-fat diet, and metabolic parameters, insulin secretion and glucose tolerance were determined. On regular chow, panc-PTP1B KO and control mice exhibited comparable glucose tolerance whereas aged panc-PTP1B KO exhibited mild glucose intolerance. Furthermore, high-fat feeding promoted earlier impairment of glucose tolerance and attenuated glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in panc-PTP1B KO mice. The secretory defect in glucose-stimulated insulin secretion was recapitulated in primary islets ex vivo, suggesting that the effects were likely cell-autonomous. At the molecular level, PTP1B deficiency in vivo enhanced basal and glucose-stimulated tyrosyl phosphorylation of EphA5 in islets. Consistently, PTP1B overexpression in the glucose-responsive MIN6 β-cell line attenuated EphA5 tyrosyl phosphorylation, and substrate trapping identified EphA5 as a PTP1B substrate. In summary, these studies identify a novel role forPTP1Bin pancreatic endocrine function.

Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching reveals regulation and distribution of connexin36 gap junction coupling within mouse islets of Langerhans

Farnsworth, N.L., Hemmati, A., Pozzoli, M., Benninger, R.K.P.
2014 Journal of Physiology 592 (20), pp. 4431-4446

Key points: Gap junctions provide electrical coupling that is critical to the function of pancreatic islets. Disruptions to connexin36 (Cx36) have been suggested to occur in diabetes. No accurate and non-invasive technique has yet been established to quantify changes in Cx36 gap junction coupling in the intact islet. This study developed fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) as a non-invasive technique for quantifying Cx36 gap junction coupling in living islets. The study identified treatments that modulate gap junction coupling, confirmed that the cellular distribution of coupling throughout the islet is highly heterogeneous and confirmed that β-cells and β-cells do not form functional Cx36 gap junctions. This technique will enable future studies to examine the regulation of Cx36 gap junction coupling and its disruption in diabetes, and to uncover potential novel therapeutic targets associated with gap junction coupling. The pancreatic islets are central to the maintenance of glucose homeostasis through insulin secretion. Glucose-stimulated insulin secretion is tightly linked to electrical activity in β-cells within the islet. Gap junctions, composed of connexin36 (Cx36), form intercellular channels between β-cells, synchronizing electrical activity and insulin secretion. Loss of gap junction coupling leads to altered insulin secretion dynamics and disrupted glucose homeostasis. Gap junction coupling is known to be disrupted in mouse models of pre-diabetes. Although approaches to measure gap junction coupling have been devised, they either lack cell specificity, suitable quantification of coupling or spatial resolution, or are invasive. The purpose of this study was to develop fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) as a technique to accurately and robustly measure gap junction coupling in the islet. The cationic dye Rhodamine 123 was used with FRAP to quantify dye diffusion between islet β-cells as a measure of Cx36 gap junction coupling. Measurements in islets with reduced Cx36 verified the accuracy of this technique in distinguishing between distinct levels of gap junction coupling. Analysis of individual cells revealed that the distribution of coupling across the islet is highly heterogeneous. Analysis of several modulators of gap junction coupling revealed glucose- and cAMP-dependent  modulation of gap junction coupling in islets. Finally, FRAP was used to determine cell population specific coupling, where no functional gap junction coupling was observed between β-cells and β-cells in the islet. The results of this study show FRAP to be a robust technique which provides the cellular resolution to quantify the distribution and regulation of Cx36 gap junction coupling in specific cell populations within the islet. Future studies utilizing this technique may elucidate the role of gap junction coupling in the progression of diabetes and identify mechanisms of gap junction regulation for potential therapies.

Glucocorticoid treatment and endocrine pancreas function: Implications for glucose homeostasis, insulin resistance and diabetes

Rafacho, A., Ortsäter, H., Nadal, A., Quesada, I.
2014 Journal of Endocrinology 223 (3), pp. R49-R62

Glucocorticoids (GCs) are broadly prescribed for numerous pathological conditions because of their anti-inflammatory, antiallergic and immunosuppressive effects, among other actions. Nevertheless, GCs can produce undesired diabetogenic side effects through interactions with the regulation of glucose homeostasis. Under conditions of excess and/or long-term treatment, GCs can induce peripheral insulin resistance (IR) by impairing insulin signalling, which results in reduced glucose disposal and augmented endogenous glucose production. In addition, GCs can promote abdominal obesity, elevate plasma fatty acids and triglycerides, and suppress osteocalcin synthesis in bone tissue. In response to GC-induced peripheral IR and in an attempt to maintain normoglycaemia, pancreatic β-cells undergo several morphofunctional adaptations that result in hyperinsulinaemia. Failure of β-cells to compensate for this situation favours glucose homeostasis disruption, which can result in hyperglycaemia, particularly in susceptible individuals. GC treatment does not only alter pancreatic β-cell function but also affect them by their actions that can lead to hyperglucagonaemia, further contributing to glucose homeostasis imbalance and hyperglycaemia. In addition, the release of other islet hormones, such as somatostatin, amylin and ghrelin, is also affected by GC administration. These undesired GC actions merit further consideration for the design of improved GC therapies without diabetogenic effects. In summary, in this review, we consider the implication of GC treatment on peripheral IR, islet function and glucose homeostasis.

β-Cell failure in type 2 diabetes: Postulated mechanisms and prospects for prevention and treatment

Halban, P.A., Polonsky, K.S., Bowden, D.W., (…), Sussel, L., Weir, G.C.
2014 Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 99 (6), pp. 1983-1992

OBJECTIVE: This article examines the foundation of β-cell failure in type 2 diabetes (T2D) and suggests areas for future research on the underlying mechanisms that may lead to improved prevention and treatment. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A group of experts participated in a conference on 14-16 October 2013 cosponsored by the Endocrine Society and the American Diabetes Association. A writing group prepared this summary and recommendations. RESULTS: The writing group based this article on conference presentations, discussion, and debate. Topics covered include genetic predisposition, foundations of β-cell failure, natural history of β-cell failure, and impact of therapeutic interventions. CONCLUSIONS: β-Cell failure is central to the development and progression of T2D. It antedates and predicts diabetes onset and progression, is in part genetically determined, and often can be identified with accuracy even though current tests are cumbersome and not well standardized. Multiple pathways underlie decreased β-cell function and mass, some of which may be shared and may also be a consequence of processes that initially caused dysfunction. Goals for future research include to 1) impact the natural history of β-cell failure; 2) identify and characterize genetic loci for T2D; 3) target β-cell signaling, metabolic, and genetic pathways to improve function/mass; 4) develop alternative sources of β-cells for cell-based therapy; 5) focus on metabolic environment to provide indirect benefit to β-cells; 6) improve understanding of the physiology of responses to bypass surgery; and 7) identify circulating factors and neuronal circuits underlying the axis of communication between the brain and β-cells.

Metabolic effects of sleep disruption, links to obesity and diabetes

Nedeltcheva, A.V., Scheer, F.A.J.L
2014 Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity 21 (4), pp. 293-298

Purpose of Review: To highlight the adverse metabolic effects of sleep disruption and to open ground for research aimed at preventive measures. This area of research is especially relevant given the increasing prevalence of voluntary sleep curtailment, sleep disorders, diabetes, and obesity. Recent Findings: Epidemiological studies have established an association between decreased self-reported sleep duration and an increased incidence of type 2 diabetes (T2D), obesity, and cardiovascular disease. Experimental laboratory studies have demonstrated that decreasing either the amount or quality of sleep decreases insulin sensitivity and decreases glucose tolerance. Experimental sleep restriction also causes physiological and behavioral changes that promote a positive energy balance. Although sleep restriction increases energy expenditure because of increased wakefulness, it can lead to a disproportionate increase in food intake, decrease in physical activity, and weight gain. SUMMARY: Sleep disruption has detrimental effects on metabolic health. These insights may help in the development of new preventive and therapeutic approaches against obesity and T2D based on increasing the quality and/or quantity of sleep. Video abstract http://links.lww.com/COE/A6.

Impaired proteostasis: Role in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus

Jaisson, S., Gillery, P.
2014 Diabetologia 57 (8), pp. 1517-1527

In living organisms, proteins are regularly exposed to ‘molecular ageing’, which corresponds to a set of non-enzymatic modifications that progressively cause irreversible damage to proteins. This phenomenon is greatly amplified under pathological conditions, such as diabetes mellitus. For their survival and optimal functioning, cells have to maintain protein homeostasis, also called ‘proteostasis’. This process acts to maintain a high proportion of functional and undamaged proteins. Different mechanisms are involved in proteostasis, among them degradation systems (the main intracellular proteolytic systems being proteasome and lysosomes), folding systems (including molecular chaperones), and enzymatic mechanisms of protein repair. There is growing evidence that the disruption of proteostasis may constitute a determining event in pathophysiology. The aim of this review is to demonstrate how such a dysregulation may be involved in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus and in the onset of its long-term complications.

Influence of miRNA in insulin signaling pathway and insulin resistance: Micro-molecules with a major role in type-2 diabetes

Chakraborty, C., Doss, C.G.P., Bandyopadhyay, S., Agoramoorthy, G.
2014 Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: RNA 5 (5), pp. 697-712

The prevalence of type-2 diabetes (T2D) is increasing significantly throughout the globe since the last decade. This heterogeneous and multifactorial disease, also known as insulin resistance, is caused by the disruption of the insulin signaling pathway. In this review, we discuss the existence of various miRNAs involved in regulating the main protein cascades in the insulin signaling pathway that affect insulin resistance. The influence of miRNAs (miR-7, miR-124α, miR-9, miR-96, miR-15α/β, miR-34α, miR-195, miR-376, miR-103, miR-107, and miR-146) in insulin secretion and beta (β) cell development has been well discussed. Here, we highlight the role of miRNAs in different significant protein cascades within the insulin signaling pathway such as miR-320, miR-383, miR-181β with IGF-1, and its receptor (IGF1R); miR-128α, miR-96, miR-126 with insulin receptor substrate (IRS) proteins; miR-29, miR-384-5p, miR-1 with phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K); miR-143, miR-145, miR-29, miR-383, miR-33α/β miR-21 with AKT/protein kinase B (PKB) and miR-133α/β, miR-223, miR-143 with glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4). Insulin resistance, obesity, and hyperlipidemia (high lipid levels in the blood) have a strong connection with T2D and several miRNAs influence these clinical outcomes such as miR-143, miR-103, and miR-107, miR-29α, and miR-27β. We also corroborate from previous evidence how these interactions are related to insulin resistance and T2D. The insights highlighted in this review will provide a better understanding on the impact of miRNA in the insulin signaling pathway and insulin resistance-associated diagnostics and therapeutics for T2D

Genetic disruption of sod1 gene causes glucose intolerance and impairs β-cell function

Muscogiuri, G., Salmon, A.B., Aguayo-Mazzucato, C., (…), Van Remmen, H., Musi, N.
2013 Diabetes 62 (12), pp. 4201-4207

Oxidative stress has been associated with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. However, it is not clear whether oxidative damage is a cause or a consequence of the metabolic abnormalities present in diabetic subjects. The goal of this study was to determine whether inducing oxidative damage through genetic ablation of superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) leads to abnormalities in glucose homeostasis. We studied SOD1-null mice and wild-type (WT) littermates. Glucose tolerance was evaluated with intraperitoneal glucose tolerance tests. Peripheral and hepatic insulin sensitivity was quantitated with the euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamp. β-Cell function was determined with the hyperglycemic clamp and morphometric analysis of pancreatic islets. Genetic ablation of SOD1 caused glucose intolerance, which was associated with reduced in vivo β-cell insulin secretion and decreased b-cell volume. Peripheral and hepatic insulin sensitivity were not significantly altered in SOD1-null mice. High-fat diet caused glucose intolerance in WT mice but did not further worsen the glucose intolerance observed in standard chow-fed SOD1-null mice. Our findings suggest that oxidative stress per se does not play a major role in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance and demonstrate that oxidative stress caused by SOD1 ablation leads to glucose intolerance secondary to β-cell dysfunction.

VHL-mediated disruption of Sox9 activity compromises β-cell identity and results in diabetes mellitus

Puri, S., Akiyama, H., Hebrok, M.
2013 Genes and Development 27 (23), pp. 2563-2575

Precise functioning of the pancreatic β cell is paramount to whole-body glucose homeostasis, and β-cell dysfunction contributes significantly to diabetes mellitus. Using transgenic mouse models, we demonstrate that deletion of the von Hippel-Lindau (Vhlh) gene (encoding an E3 ubiquitin ligase implicated in, among other functions, oxygen sensing in pancreatic β cells) is deleterious to canonical β-cell gene expression. This triggers erroneous expression of factors normally active in progenitor cells, including effectors of the Notch, Wnt, and Hedgehog signaling cascades. Significantly, an up-regulation of the transcription factor Sox9, normally excluded from functional β cells, occurs upon deletion of Vhlh. Sox9 plays important roles during pancreas development but does not have a described role in the adult β cell. β-Cell-specific ectopic expression of Sox9 results in diabetes mellitus from similar perturbations in β-cell identity. These findings reveal that assaults on the β cell that impact the differentiation state of the cell have clear implications toward our understanding of diabetes mellitus

Second generation antipsychotic-induced type 2 diabetes: A role for the muscarinic M3 receptor

Weston-Green, K., Huang, X.-F., Deng, C.
2013 CNS Drugs 27 (12), pp. 1069-1080

Second generation antipsychotics (SGAs) are widely prescribed to treat various disorders, most notably schizophrenia and bipolar disorder; however, SGAs can cause abnormal glucose metabolism that can lead to insulin-resistance and type 2 diabetes mellitus side-effects by largely unknown mechanisms. This review explores the potential candidature of the acetylcholine (ACh) muscarinic M3 receptor (M3R) as a prime mechanistic and possible therapeutic target of interest in SGA-induced insulin dysregulation. Studies have identified that SGA binding affinity to the M3R is a predictor of diabetes risk; indeed, olanzapine and clozapine, SGAs with the highest clinical incidence of diabetes side-effects, are potent M3R antagonists. Pancreatic M3Rs regulate the glucose-stimulated cholinergic pathway of insulin secretion; their activation on β-cells stimulates insulin secretion, while M3R blockade decreases insulin secretion. Genetic modification of M3Rs causes robust alterations in insulin levels and glucose tolerance in mice. Olanzapine alters M3R density in discrete nuclei of the hypothalamus and caudal brainstem, regions that regulate glucose homeostasis and insulin secretion through vagal innervation of the pancreas. Furthermore, studies have demonstrated a dynamic sensitivity of hypothalamic and brainstem M3Rs to altered glucometabolic status of the body. Therefore, the M3R is in a prime position to influence glucose homeostasis through direct effects on pancreatic β-cells and by potentially altering signaling in the hypothalamus and brainstem. SGA-induced insulin dysregulation may be partly due to blockade of central and peripheral M3Rs, causing an initial disruption to insulin secretion and glucose homeostasis that can progressively lead to insulin resistance and diabetes during chronic treatment.

Islet amyloid polypeptide toxicity and membrane interactions

Cao, P., Abedini, A., Wang, H., (…), Schmidt, A.M., Raleigh, D.P.
2013 Proc National Academy of Sciences USA  110 (48), pp. 19279-19284

Islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) is responsible for amyloid formation in type 2 diabetes and contributes to the failure of islet cell transplants, however the mechanisms of IAPP-induced cytotoxicity are not known. Interactions with model anionic membranes are known to catalyze IAPP amyloid formation in vitro. Human IAPP damages anionic membranes, promoting vesicle leakage, but the features that control IAPP-membrane interactions and the connection with cellular toxicity are not clear. Kinetic studies with wild type IAPP and IAPP mutants demonstrate that membrane leakage is induced by prefibrillar IAPP species and continues over the course of amyloid formation, correlating additional membrane disruption with fibril growth.  Analyses of a set of designed mutants reveal that membrane leakage does not require the formation of α-sheet or α-helical structures.  A His-18 to Arg substitution enhances leakage, whereas replacement of all of the aromatic residues via a triple leucine mutant has no effect. Biophysical measurements in conjunction with cytotoxicity studies show that nonamyloidogenic rat IAPP is as effective as human IAPP at disrupting standard anionic model membranes under conditions where rat IAPP does not induce cellular toxicity. Similar results are obtained with more complex model membranes, including ternary systems that contain cholesterol and are capable of forming lipid rafts. A designed point mutant, I26P-IAPP; a designed double mutant, G24P, I26P-IAPP; a double N-methylated variant; and pramlintide, a US Food and Drug Administration-approved IAPP variant all induce membrane leakage, but are not cytotoxic, showing that there is no one-to-one relationship between disruption of model membranes and induction of cellular toxicity.

Diabetes and beta cell function: From mechanisms to evaluation and clinical implications

Cernea, S., Dobreanu, M.
2013 Biochemia Medica 23 (3), pp. 266-280

Diabetes is a complex, heterogeneous condition that has beta cell dysfunction at its core. Many factors (e.g. hyperglycemia/glucotoxicity, lipotoxicity, autoimmunity, inflammation, adipokines, islet amyloid, incretins and insulin resistance) influence the function of pancreatic beta cells. Chronic hyperglycemia may result in detrimental effects on insulin synthesis/secretion, cell survival and insulin sensitivity through multiple mechanisms: gradual loss of insulin gene expression and other beta-cell specific genes; chronic endoplasmic reticulum stress and oxidative stress; changes in mitochondrial number, morphology and function; disruption in calcium homeostasis. In the presence of hyperglycemia, prolonged exposure to increased free fatty acids result in accumulation of toxic metabolites in the cells (“lipotoxicity”), finally causing decreased insulin gene expression and impairment of insulin secretion. The rest of the factors/mechanisms which impact on the course of the disease are also discusses in detail. The correct assessment of beta cell function requires a concomitant quantification of insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity, because the two variables are closely interrelated. In order to better understand the fundamental pathogenetic mechanisms that contribute to disease development in a certain individual with diabetes, additional markers could be used, apart from those that evaluate beta cell function. The aim of the paper was to overview the relevant mechanisms/factors that influence beta cell function and to discuss the available methods of its assessment. In addition, clinical considerations are made regarding the therapeutical options that have potential protective effects on beta cell function/mass by targeting various underlying factors and mechanisms with a role in disease progression.

The PACAP-regulated gene selenoprotein T is abundantly expressed in mouse and human β-cells and its targeted inactivation impairs glucose tolerance

Prevost, G., Arabo, A., Jian, L., (…), Pattou, F., Anouar, Y
2013 Endocrinology 154 (10), pp. 3796-3806

Selenoproteins are involved in the regulation of redox status, which affects several cellular processes, including cell survival and homeostasis. Considerable interest has arisen recently concerning the role of selenoproteins in the regulation of glucose metabolism. Here, we found that selenoprotein T (SelT), a new thioredoxin-like protein of the endoplasmic reticulum, is present at high levels in human and mouse pancreas as revealed by immunofluorescence and quantitative PCR. Confocal immunohistochemistry studies revealed that SelT is mostly confined to insulin- and somatostatin-producing cells in mouse and human islets. To elucidate the role of SelT in β-cells, we generated, using a Cre-Lox strategy, a conditional pancreatic β-cell SelT-knockout C57BL/6J mice (SelT-insKO) in which SelT gene disruption is under the control of the rat insulin promoter Cre gene. Glucose administration revealed that male SelT-insKO mice display impaired glucose tolerance. Although insulin sensitivity was not modified in the mutant mice, the ratio of glucose to insulin was significantly higher in the SelT-insKO mice compared with wild-type littermates, pointing to a deficit in insulin production/secretion in mutant mice. In addition, morphometric analysis showed that islets from SelT-insKO mice were smaller and that their number was significantly increased compared with islets from their wild-type littermates. Finally, we found that SelT is up-regulated by pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) in β-pancreatic cells and that SelT could act by facilitating a feed-forward mechanism to potentiate insulin secretion induced by the neuropeptide. Our findings are the first to show that the PACAP-regulated SelT is localized in pancreatic α- and β-cells and is involved in the control of glucose homeostasis

SIRT1 deacetylates FOXA2 and is critical for Pdx1 transcription and β-cell formation

Wang, R.-H., Xu, X., Kim, H.-S., Xiao, Z., Deng, C.-X.
2013 International Journal of Biological Sciences 9 (9), pp. 934-946

Pancreas duodenum homeobox 1 (PDX1) is essential for pancreas development and β-cell formation; however more studies are needed to clearly illustrate the precise mechanism regarding spatiotemporal regulation of Pdx1 expression during β-cell formation and development. Here, we demonstrate that SIRT1, FOXA2 and a number of proteins form a protein complex on the promoter of the Pdx1 gene. SIRT1 and PDX1 are expressed in the same set of cells during β-cell differentiation and maturation. Pancreas-specific disruption of SIRT1 diminished PDX1 expression and impaired islet development. Consequently, SIRT1 mutant mice develop progressive hyperglycemia, glucose intolerance, and insulin insufficiency, which directly correlate with the extent of SIRT1 deletion. We further show that SIRT1 interacts with and deacetylates FOXA2 on the promoter of the Pdx1gene, and positively regulates its transcription. These results uncover an essential role of SIRT1 in β-cell formation by maintaining expression of PDX1 and its downstream genes, and identify pancreas-specific SIRT1 mutant mice as a relevant model for studying insulin insufficiency.

NOX, NOX who is there? The contribution of NADPH oxidase one to beta cell dysfunction

Taylor-Fishwick, D.A.
2013 Frontiers in Endocrinology 4 (APR), Article 40

Predictions of diabetes prevalence over the next decades warrant the aggressive discovery of new approaches to stop or reverse loss of functional beta cell mass. Beta cells are recognized to have a relatively high sensitivity to reactive oxygen species (ROS) and become dysfunctional under oxidative stress conditions. New discoveries have identified NADPH oxidases in beta cells as contributors to elevated cellular ROS. Reviewed are recent reports that evidence a role for NADPH oxidase-1 (NOX-1) in β-cell dysfunction. NOX-1 is stimulated by inflammatory cytokines that are elevated in diabetes. First, regulation of cytokine-stimulated NOX-1 expression has been linked to inflammatory lipid mediators derived from 12-lipoxygenase activity. For the first time in beta cells these data integrate distinct pathways associated with beta cell dysfunction. Second, regulation of NOX-1 in
β-cells involves feed-forward control linked to elevated ROS and Src-kinase activation. This potentially results in unbridled ROS generation and identifies candidate targets for pharmacologic intervention. Third, consideration is provided of new, first-in-class, selective inhibitors of NOX-1. These compounds could have an important role in assessing a disruption of NOX-1/ROS signaling as a new approach to preserve and protect beta cell mass in diabetes.

Retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein in pancreatic progenitors controls α- and β-cell fate

Cai, E.P., Wu, X., Schroer, S.A., (…), Zacksenhaus, E., Woo, M.
2013 Proc National Academy of Sciences USA 110 (36), pp. 14723-14728

Pancreatic endocrine cells expand rapidly during embryogenesis by neogenesis and proliferation, but during adulthood, islet cells have a very slow turnover. Disruption of murine retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein (Rb) in mature pancreatic β-cells has a limited effect on cell proliferation. Here we show that deletion of Rb during embryogenesis in islet progenitors leads to an increase in the neurogenin 3-expressing precursor cell population, which persists in the postnatal period and is associated with increased β-cell mass in adults. In contrast, Rb-deficient islet precursors, through repression of the cell fate factor aristaless related homeobox, result in decreased β-cell mass. The opposing effect on survival of Rb-deficient β- and β-cells was a result of opposing effects on p53 in these cell types. As a consequence, loss of Rb in islet precursors led to a reduced α- to β-cell ratio, leading to improved glucose homeostasis and protection against diabetes.

Statin therapy and new-onset diabetes: Molecular mechanisms and clinical relevance

Banach, M., Malodobra-Mazur, M., Gluba, A., (…), Rysz, J., Dobrzyn, A.
2013 Current Pharmaceutical Design 19 (27), pp. 4904-4912

Despite positive effects on the plasma lipid profile and vascular events, statin use is associated with various side effects. Among these, statins might cause a disruption of a number of regulatory pathways including insulin signaling. This may affect insulin sensitivity, pancreatic beta-cell function and adipokine secretion. The statin-associated risk of new-onset diabetes (NOD) appears to be a dose-dependent class effect. It still remains unclear whether statin treatment is associated with increased risk of NOD in the general population or if there are groups of individuals at particular risk. However, according to the available data it seems that cardiovascular (CV) benefits in high-risk individuals strongly favor statin therapy since it outweighs other risks. Whether statins should be used for primary prevention among patients with a relatively low baseline CV risk is still questionable, however the results of primary prevention trials have shown reductions in mortality in this population. Thus, there is a need for randomized, placebo-controlled statin studies with carefully selected groups of patients and NOD as a key end point in order to resolve queries concerning this issue.

Basement membrane extract preserves islet viability and activity in vitro by up-regulating α3 integrin and its signal

Miao, G., Zhao, Y., Li, Y., (…), Li, J., Wei, J
2013 Pancreas 42 (6), pp. 971-976

OBJECTIVE: Survival of transplanted islets is limited partly because of the disruption of the islet basement membrane (BM) occurring during isolation. We hypothesized that the embedment of BM extract (BME) could induce a viable cell mass and prolong islet functionality before transplantation. METHODS: A special reconstituted BME that solidifies into a gel at 37 C was used to embed isolated islets in this study. The strategy was used to re-establish the interaction between the islets and peri-islet BM. RESULTS: Islets embedded in BME showed lower caspase-3 levels and higher Akt activity than those in suspension. Moreover, we found for the first time that the expression of β3 integrin and focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and FAK activity was up-regulated in islets after BME embedment. The reverse effect was observed on islet apoptosis when islets rescued from a 24-hour suspension culture were embedded in BME for the next 24 hours. In addition, expression of pancreatic duodenal homeobox factor-1 and phospho-extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 was partially preserved, suggesting the positive effect of BME on islet development. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that BME embedment of islets can up-regulate the expression of β3 integrin and its signal transduction, which may improve islet viability.

Involvement of the Clock Gene Rev-erb alpha in the Regulation of Glucagon Secretion in Pancreatic Alpha-Cells

Vieira, E., Marroquí, L., Figueroa, A.C., (…), Gomis, R., Quesada, I.
2013 PLoS ONE 8 (7), e6993

Disruption of pancreatic clock genes impairs pancreatic β-cell function, leading to the onset of diabetes. Despite the importance of pancreatic α-cells in the regulation of glucose homeostasis and in diabetes pathophysiology, nothing is known about the role of clock genes in these cells. Here, we identify the clock gene Rev-erbα as a new intracellular regulator of glucagon secretion. Rev-erbα down-regulation by siRNA (60-70% inhibition) in alphaTC1-9 cells inhibited low-glucose induced glucagon secretion (p<0.05) and led to a decrease in key genes of the exocytotic machinery. The Rev-erbα agonist GSK4112 increased glucagon secretion (1.6 fold) and intracellular calcium signals in αTC1-9 cells and mouse primary alpha-cells, whereas the Rev-erbα  antagonist SR8278 produced the opposite effect. At 0.5 mM glucose, alphaTC1-9 cells exhibited intrinsic circadian Rev-erbα expression oscillations that were inhibited by 11 mM glucose. In mouse primary alpha-cells, glucose induced similar effects (p<0.001). High glucose inhibited key genes controlled by AMPK such as Nampt, Sirt1 and PGC-1 alpha in alphaTC1-9 cells (p<0.05). AMPK activation by metformin completely reversed the inhibitory effect of glucose on Nampt-Sirt1-PGC-1 alpha and Rev-erb alpha. Nampt inhibition decreased Sirt1, PGC-1 alpha and Rev-erb alpha mRNA expression (p<0.01) and glucagon release (p<0.05). These findings identify Rev-erb alpha as a new intracellular regulator of glucagon secretion via AMPK/Nampt/Sirt1 pathway.

Bmal1 and β-cell clock are required for adaptation to circadian disruption, and their loss of function leads to oxidative stress- induced β-cell failure in mice

Lee, J., Moulik, M., Fang, Z., (…), Moore, D.D., Yechoor, V.K.
2013 Molecular and Cellular Biology 33 (11), pp. 2327-2338

Circadian disruption has deleterious effects on metabolism. Global deletion of Bmal1, a core clock gene, results in β-cell dysfunction and diabetes. But  it is unknown if this is due to loss of cell-autonomous function of Bmal1 in β cells. To address this, we generated mice with β-cell clock disruption by deleting Bmal1 in β cells (β-Bmal1-/-).  β-Bmal1-/- mice develop diabetes due to loss of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). This loss of GSIS is due to the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and consequent mitochondrial uncoupling, as it is fully rescued by scavenging of the ROS or by inhibition of uncoupling protein 2. The expression of the master antioxidant regulatory factor Nrf2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2) and its targets, Sesn2, Prdx3, Gclc, and Gclm, was decreased in β-Bmal1-/- islets, which may contribute to the observed increase in ROS accumulation. In addition, by chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments, we show that Nrf2 is a direct transcriptional target of Bmal1. Interestingly, simulation of shift work-induced circadian misalignment in mice recapitulates many of the defects seen in Bmal1-deficient islets.

Thus, the cell-autonomous function of Bmal1 is required for normal β-cell function by mitigating oxidative stress and serves to preserve β-cell function in the face of circadian misalignment.

A common landscape for membraneactive peptides

Last, N.B., Schlamadinger, D.E., Miranker, A.D.
2013 Protein Science 22 (7), pp. 870-882

Three families of membrane-active peptides are commonly found in nature and are classified according to their initial apparent activity. Antimicrobial peptides are ancient components of the innate immune system and typically act by disruption of microbial membranes leading to cell death. Amyloid peptides contribute to the pathology of diverse diseases from Alzheimer’s to type II diabetes. Preamyloid states of these peptides can act as toxins by binding to and permeabilizing cellular membranes. Cell-penetrating peptides are natural or engineered short sequences that can spontaneously translocate across a membrane. Despite these differences in classification, many similarities in sequence, structure, and activity suggest that peptides from all three classes act through a small, common set of physical principles. Namely, these peptides alter the Brownian properties of phospholipid bilayers, enhancing the sampling of intrinsic fluctuations that include membrane defects. A complete energy landscape for such systems can be described by the innate membrane properties, differential partition, and the associated kinetics of peptides dividing between surface and defect regions of the bilayer. The goal of this review is to argue that the activities of these membrane-active families of peptides simply represent different facets of what is a shared energy landscape.

Membrane disordering is not sufficient for membrane permeabilization by islet amyloid polypeptide: Studies of IAPP(20-29) fragments

Brender, J.R., Heyl, D.L., Samisetti, S., (…), Pesaru, R.R., Ramamoorthy, A.
2013 Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 15 (23), pp. 8908-8915

A key factor in the development of type II diabetes is the loss of insulin-producing beta-cells. Human islet amyloid polypeptide protein (human-IAPP) is believed to play a crucial role in this process by forming small aggregates that exhibit toxicity by disrupting the cell membrane. The actual mechanism of membrane disruption is complex and appears to involve an early component before fiber formation and a later component associated with fiber formation on the membrane. By comparing the peptide-lipid interactions derived from solid-state NMR experiments of two IAPP fragments that cause membrane disordering to IAPP derived peptides known to cause significant early membrane permeabilization, we show here that membrane disordering is not likely to be sufficient by itself to cause the early membrane permeabilization observed by IAPP, and may play a lesser role in IAPP membrane disruption than expected.
Downregulation of Fas activity rescues early onset of diabetes in c-KitWv/+ mice

Feng, Z.-C., Riopel, M., Li, J., Donnelly, L., Wang, R.
2013 American Journal of Physiology – Endocrinology and Metabolism 304 (6), pp. E557-E565

c-Kit and its ligand stem cell factor (SCF) are important for β-cell survival and maturation; meanwhile, interactions between the Fas receptor (Fas) and Fas ligand are capable of triggering β-cell apoptosis. Disruption of c-Kit signaling leads to severe loss of β-cell mass and function with upregulation of Fas expression in c-KitWv/++ mouse islets, suggesting that there is a critical balance between c-Kit and Fas activation in β-cells. In the present study, we investigated the interrelationship between c-Kit and Fas activation that mediates β-cell survival and function. We generated double mutant, c-KitWv/++;Faslpr/lpr (Wv-/-), mice to study the physiological and functional role of Fas with respect to β-cell function in c-KitWv/++ mice. Isolated islets from these mice and the INS-1 cell line were used. We observed that islets in c-KitWv/++ mice showed a significant increase in β-cell apoptosis along with upregulated p53 and Fas expression. These results were verified in vitro in INS-1 cells treated with SCF or c-Kit siRNA combined with a p53 inhibitor and Fas siRNA. In vivo, Wv-/- mice displayed improved β-cell function, with significantly enhanced insulin secretion and increased β-cell mass and proliferation compared with Wv+/+ mice. This improvement was associated with downregulation of the Fas-mediated caspase-dependent apoptotic pathway and upregulation of the cFlip/NF-?B pathway. These findings demonstrate that a balance between the c-Kit and Fas signaling pathways is critical in the regulation of β-cell survival and function.
Study Suggests Genetic Susceptibility to T2D May Have Shifted with Human Migration

May 24, 2013  By a GenomeWeb staff reporter

NEW YORK (GenomeWeb News) – The apparent genetic risk for type 2 diabetes seems to vary between human populations from different parts of the world, new research suggests, with populations in Africa and East Asia showing particularly pronounced differences in T2D susceptibility.

A pair of papers appearing online — both led by investigators at Stanford University — outline the approaches and analyses used to reach that conclusion.

For the first study, published in PLOS Genetics, researchers trolled through data on more than 1,000 individuals from around the world who’d been genotyped for the Human Genome Diversity Panel project. Patterns in that data revealed geography or population-related differentiation in the genetic risk associated with certain diseases.

“We demonstrated that differences in genetic risk for multiple diseases go well beyond what is expected by genetic drift,” the study authors noted. “In addition, using a human population phylogenetic tree allowed us to elucidate a substructure of worldwide relationships.”

In the East Asian population, for instance, the team saw diminished genetic risk for both T2D and pancreatic cancer. On the other hand, individuals of African ancestry appeared to be more apt to carry T2D risk alleles, results of the analysis suggest, pointing to possible migration-related shifts in genetic susceptibility to T2D.

For their PLOS Genetics analysis, the researchers used data for 1,043 individuals genotyped for the HGDP to delve into the genetic risk associated with more than 100 diseases, including T2D.

Because the individuals hailed from 51 different populations around the world, the group was able to get a glimpse at relationships between these genetic risk contributors and human migration and population patterns.

From that data, investigators saw at least 11 conditions for which risk variant profiles differed across human populations, researchers reported, including ulcerative colitis, bladder cancer, lupus, and inflammatory bowel disease.

For T2D, that genetic differentiation appeared to correspond with population patterns stemming from human migrations out of Africa and into other parts of the world. For instance, the analysis indicated that genetic risk for T2D dips in East Asian populations but tends to be elevated in populations from Africa — particularly the Mandinka population, which appeared to be at highest genetic risk of T2D.

“East Asians definitely get diabetes,” Stanford University’s Atul Butte, senior author on the study, said in a statement.

Nevertheless, he added, it’s possible that there are population-specific differences in the risk alleles and genetic pathways involved, potentially producing somewhat distinct forms of the disease.

Those involved in the study noted that additional, follow-up research is needed, including whole-genome sequencing analysis, which can offer a look at larger structural variants contributing to disease risk in different populations, for instance.

But if findings from the current analysis hold in future studies, that may ultimately prompt a shift in researchers’ understanding of T2D and the factors contributing to it.

“Other fields of medicine have undergone a radical rethinking in disease taxonomy,” Butte said in a statement, “but this has not happened yet for diabetes, one of the world’s public health menaces.”

“If these are separate diseases at a molecular level, we need to try to understand that,” he added.

A related study in the journal Diabetes Care, also by Stanford’s Butte and his colleagues, touched on the consequences of such genetic differences. That work highlighted apparent clinical differences in T2D-related traits — particularly in insulin resistance and insulin response — in African, East Asian, and Caucasian populations.

More generally, Butte and his colleagues put together a so-called “Genetic Risk World Map” to tie together the information generated from their study of disease risk genetics in the context of human migration. The resource is available online through a Stanford website.
Use of pioglitazone in the treatment of diabetes: effect on cardiovascular risk

Authors: Zou C, Hu H
Published Date: 25 July 2013; 9: 429 – 433
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/VHRM.S34421

Pioglitazone and other thiazolidinediones (TZDs) initially showed great promise as unique receptor-mediated oral therapy for type 2 diabetes, but a host of serious side effects, primarily cardiovascular, have limited their utility. It is crucial at this point to perform a risk–benefit analysis to determine what role pioglitazone should play in our current treatment of type 2 diabetes and where the future of this class of drugs is headed. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the present literature. Clinical data currently available indicate that pioglitazone is an effective and generally well-tolerated treatment option for use in patients with type 2 diabetes. Pioglitazone can still reduce adverse cardiovascular risk.

Glucophage, Glucophage XR

In a US double-blind clinical study of GLUCOPHAGE in patients with type 2 diabetes, a total of 141 patients received GLUCOPHAGE therapy (up to 2550 mg per day) and 145 patients received placebo. Adverse reactions reported in greater than 5% of the GLUCOPHAGE patients, and that were more common in GLUCOPHAGE- than placebo-treated patients are reported.

The following adverse reactions were reported in ≥ 1.0% to ≤ 5.0% of GLUCOPHAGE patients and were more commonly reported with GLUCOPHAGE than placebo:

abnormal stools, – myalgia, – lightheaded, – dyspnea,

the following adverse reactions were reported in ≥ 1.0% to ≤ 5.0% of GLUCOPHAGE XR patients and were more commonly reported with GLUCOPHAGE XR than placebo

dizziness, – More common

Metabolic side effects have included lactic acidosis, which is a potentially fatal metabolic complication. The incidence of lactic acidosis has been about 1.5 cases per 10,000 patient years. The risk of lactic acidosis has been particularly high in patients with underlying renal insufficiency. Cases of lactic acidosis occurring in patients with normal renal function have been rarely reported.

  • Signs and symptoms of severe acidosis may include bradycardia  (lactic acidosis)
  • lactic acid concentration, serum electrolytes, blood pH

High-Fructose Corn Syrup Linked to Diabetes

By Brenda Goodman, MA   WebMD Health News
Reviewed By Louise Chang, MD

In a study published in the journal Global Health, researchers compared the average availability of high-fructose corn syrup to rates of diabetes in 43 countries.

About half the countries in the study had little or no high-fructose corn syrup in their food supply. In the other 20 countries, high-fructose corn syrup in foods ranged from about a pound a year per person in Germany to about 55 pounds each year per person in the United States.

The researchers found that countries using high-fructose corn syrup had rates of diabetes that were about 20% higher than countries that didn’t mix the sweetener into foods. Those differences remained even after researchers took into account data for differences in body size, population, and wealth.

But couldn’t that mean that people in countries that used more high-fructose corn syrup were just eating more sugar or more total calories?

The researchers say no: There were no overall differences in total sugars or total calories between countries that did and didn’t use high-fructose corn syrup, suggesting that there’s an independent relationship between high-fructose corn syrup and diabetes.

“It raises a lot of questions about fructose,” says researcher Michael I. Goran, PhD, co-director of the Diabetes and Obesity Research Institute at the Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, in Los Angeles. Although the study found an association, it doesn’t establish a cause/effect relationship.
Genetic association of ADIPOQ gene variants with type 2 diabetes, obesity and serum adiponectin levels in south Indian population.

Ramya K; Ayyappa KA; Ghosh S; Mohan V; Radha V
Gene 2013 Dec 15;532(2):253-62    (ISSN: 1879-0038)

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the genetic association of eight variants of the adiponectin gene with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), obesity and serum adiponectin level in the south Indian population. METHODS: The study comprised of 1100 normal glucose tolerant (NGT) and 1100 type 2 diabetic, unrelated subjects randomly selected from the Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiology Study (CURES), in southern India. Fasting serum adiponectin
levels were measured by radioimmunoassay. The variants were screened by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism. Linkage disequilibrium was estimated from the estimates of haplotype frequencies. RESULTS: Of the 8 variants, four SNPs namely, +276 G/T (rs1501299), -4522 C/T (rs822393), -11365 C/G (rs266729), and +712 G/A (rs3774261) were significantly associated with T2DM in our study population. The -3971 A/G (rs822396) and -11391 G/A (rs17300539) SNPs’ association with T2DM diabetes was mediated through obesity (where  the association with  type 2 diabetes was lost after adjusting for BMI). There was an independent
association of +276 G/T (rs1501299) and -3971 A/G (rs822396) SNPs with generalized obesity and +349 A/G (rs2241767) with central obesity. Four SNPs, -3971 A/G (rs822396), +276 G/T (rs1501299), -4522 C/T (rs822393) and Y111H T/C (rs17366743) were significantly associated with hypoadiponectinemia. The haplotypes GCCATGAAT and AGCGTGGGT conferred lower risk of T2DM in this south Indian population. CONCLUSION: The adiponectin gene variants and haplotype contribute to the genetic risk towards the development of type 2 diabetes, obesity and hypoadiponectinemia in the south Indianpopulation. [ 2013.].

Association of family history of type 2 diabetes mellitus with markers of endothelial dysfunction in South Indian population.

Dhananjayan R; Malati T; Brindha G; Kutala VK
Indian J Biochem Biophys 2013 Apr;50(2):93-8    (ISSN: 0301-1208)

Studies indicate that risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) or cardiovascular disease is detectable in childhood, though these disorders may not emerge until adulthood. This study was aimed to assess the markers of endothelial dysfunction in patients with the family history of T2D from South Indian population. A total of 450 subjects were included in the study comprising Group I (n = 200) of T2D, Group II (n = 200) of age- and sex-matched healthy controls, Group III (n = 25) of children of T2D patients and Group IV (n = 25) of children of healthy controls. Results showed that intimal medial thickening (IMT) was significantly higher in T2D patients, compared with control subjects with no family history of diabetes. The fasting plasma glucose, glycated hemoglobin, serum total cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL-cholesterol, apolipoprotein B (ApoB) and high-sensitive C-reactive protein (hsCRP) levels were significantly increased, whereas HDL-cholesterol and serum nitrite levels were significantly decreased in T2D patients. However, children of T2D patients who were not diabetic did not show significant increase in the IMT, as compared to those of healthy controls. In conclusion, the present study demonstrate that IMT was significantly higher in the T2D patients and increased with age and family history. The increased levels of lipids, hsCRP, IMT and decreased nitrite levels might contribute to the risk of endothelial dysfunction in patients with T2D. However, further studies are warranted with other biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction in T2D patients with increased sample size.

Hemoglobin A1c variability as an independent correlate of cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes: a cross-sectional analysis of the renal insufficiency and cardiovascular events (RIACE) Italian multicenter study.

Penno G; Solini A; Zoppini G; Orsi E; Fondelli C; Zerbini G; Morano S; and
Renal Insufficiency and Cardiovascular Events (RIACE) Study Group.
Cardiovasc Diabetol 2013;12:98    (ISSN: 1475-2840)

BACKGROUND: Previous reports have clearly indicated a significant relationship between hemoglobin (Hb) A1c change from one visit to the next and microvascular complications, especially nephropathy (albuminuria and albuminuric chronic kidney disease, CKD). In contrast, data on macrovascular disease are less clear. This study was aimed at examining the association of HbA1c variability with cardiovascular disease (CVD) in the large cohort of subjects with type 2 diabetes from the Renal Insufficiency and Cardiovascular Events (RIACE) Italian Multicenter Study. METHODS: Serial (3-5) HbA1c values obtained during the 2-year period preceding recruitment, including that obtained at the enrolment, were available from 8,290 subjects from 9 centers (out of 15,773 patients from 19 centers). Average HbA1c and HbA1c variability were calculated as the intra-individual mean (HbA1c-MEAN) and standard deviation (HbA1c-SD), respectively, of 4.52 0.76 values. Prevalent CVD, total and by vascular bed, was assessed from medical history by recording previous documented major acute events. Diabetic retinopathy (DR) was assessed by dilated fundoscopy. CKD was defined based on albuminuria, as measured by immunonephelometry or immunoturbidimetry, and estimated glomerular filtration rate, as calculated from serum creatinine. RESULTS: HbA1c-MEAN, but not HbA1c-SD, was significantly higher (P <0.0001) in subjects with history of any CVD (n. 2,133, 25.7%) than in those without CVD (n. 6,157, 74.3%). Median and interquartile range were 7.78 (7.04-8.56) and 7.49 (6.81-8.31), respectively, for HbA1c-MEAN, and 0.47 (0.29-0.75) and 0.46 (0.28-0.73), respectively, for HbA1c-SD. Logistic regression analyses showed that HbA1c-MEAN, but not HbA1c-SD (and independent of it), was a significant correlate of any CVD. Similar findings were observed in subjects with versus those without any coronary or cerebrovascular event or myocardial infarction. Conversely, none of these measures were associated with stroke, whereas both correlated with any lower limb vascular event and HbA1c-SD alone with ulceration/gangrene. All these associations were independent of known CVD risk factors and microvascular complications (DR and CKD). CONCLUSIONS: In patients with type 2 diabetes, HbA1c variability has not a major impact on macrovascular complications, at variance with average HbA1c, an opposite finding as compared with microvascular disease, and particularly nephropathy. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.Gov NCT00715481.

Genetic association of adiponectin gene polymorphisms (+45T/G and +10211T/G) with type 2 diabetes in North Indians.

Saxena M; Srivastava N; Banerjee M
Diabetes Metab Syndr 2012 Apr-Jun;6(2):65-9    (ISSN: 1878-0334)

Adiponectin (ADIPOQ) is an abundant protein hormone which belongs to a family of so-called adipokines. It is expressed mostly by adipocytes and is an important regulator of lipid and glucose metabolism. It was shown that decreased serum adiponectin concentration indicated insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes (T2DM) with the risk of cardiovascular complications. The fact that adiponectin is an insulin-sensitizing hormone with anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory and anti-atherogenic properties, we proposed to study the association of ADIPOQ gene polymorphisms in subjects with T2DM. DNA was isolated from venous blood samples, quantified and subjected to Polymerase Chain Reaction-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) using suitable primers and restriction endonucleases. Adiponectin levels were measured in serum using ELISA. The genotypic, allelic and carriage rate frequencies distribution in patients and controls were analyzed by PSAW software (ver. 17.0). Odd ratios (OR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) were determined to describe the strength of association by logistic regression model. Out of the two polymorphisms studied, +10211T/G showed significant association (P=0.042), the ‘G’ allele association being highly significant (P=0.022). Further analysis showed that individuals with ‘GG’ haplotype were at increased risk of T2DM up to 15.5 times [P=0.015, OR (95% CI); 15.558 (1.690-143.174)]. The present study showed that the ‘G’ allele of ADIPOQ gene (+10211T/G) plays a prominent role with respect to T2DM susceptibility in North-Indian population. [Copyright 2012 Diabetes India. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.].

Association of RAGE gene polymorphism with vascular complications in Indian type 2 diabetes mellitus patients [In Process Citation]

Tripathi AK; Chawla D; Bansal S; Banerjee BD; Madhu SV; Kalra OP
Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2014 Mar;103(3):474-81    (ISSN: 1872-8227)

AIMS: The study was designed to evaluate the association of -374T/A and -429T/C polymorphism in the promoter region and Gly82Ser polymorphism in exon 3 region of RAGE gene with diabetic vascular complications in Indian population. METHODS: We screened 603 subjects which includes 176 healthy controls, 140 type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) subjects without any vascular complications (DM), 152 T2DM subjects with microvascular complications (DM-micro) and 135 T2DM subjects with macrovascular complications (DM-macro) for -374T/A, -429T/C and Gly82Ser polymorphisms of RAGE gene. DNA isolated from the enrolled subjects were genotyped by PCR-RFLP. Logistic regression analysis was used to evaluate the association of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). RESULTS: The -429 T/C and Gly82Ser RAGE polymorphisms were found to be significantly associated with the development of macrovascular and microvascular complications, respectively, in T2DM subjects while -374A allele showed reduced risk towards the development of macrovascular complications. Further, -429T/C, -374T/A and Gly82Ser haplotype analysis revealed association of CTG haplotype with development of macrovascular complications while haplotype TAG was observed to be significantly protective towards development of macrovascular complications in T2DM subjects (OR=0.617, p=0.0202). CONCLUSIONS: Our data indicates significant association of RAGE SNPs and haplotypes with vascular complications in North Indian T2DM subjects.
Clinical profile and complications of childhood- and adolescent-onset type 2 diabetes seen at a diabetes center in south India.

Amutha A; Datta M; Unnikrishnan R; Anjana RM; Mohan V
Diabetes Technol Ther 2012 Jun;14(6):497-504    (ISSN: 1557-8593)

OBJECTIVE: This study describes the clinical characteristics of childhood- and adolescent-onset type 2 diabetes mellitus (CAT2DM) seen at a diabetes center in southern India. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Between January 1992 and December 2009, 368 CAT2DM patients were registered. Anthropometric measurements were done using standardized techniques. Biochemical investigations included C-peptide measurements and glutamic acid decarboxylase antibody assay wherever feasible. Retinopathy was diagnosed by retinal photography; microalbuminuria, if urinary albumin excretion was between 30 and 299vmg/1/4g of creatinine; nephropathy, if urinary albumin excretion was (yen)300vmg/1/4g; and neuropathy, if vibration perception threshold on biothesiometry was (yen)20vV. RESULTS: The proportion of CAT2DM patients, expressed as percentage of total patients registered at our center, rose from 0.01% in 1992 to 0.35% in 2009 (P <0.001). Among the 368 cases of CAT2DM, 96 (26%) were diagnosed before the age of 15 years. The mean age at first visit and age at diagnosis of the CAT2DM subjects were 22.29.7 and 16.12.5 years, respectively. Using World Health Organization growth reference charts, 56% of boys and 50.4% of girls were > 85(th) percentile of body mass index for age. Prevalence rates of retinopathy, microalbuminuria, nephropathy, and neuropathy were 26.7%, 14.7%, 8.4%, and 14.2%, respectively. Regression analysis revealed female gender, body mass index > 85(th) percentile, parental history of diabetes, serum cholesterol, and blood pressure to be associated with earlier age at onset of CAT2DM. CONCLUSIONS: CAT2DM appears to be increasing in urban India, and the prevalence of microvascular complications is high. Female predominance is seen at younger ages.

Variants of the adiponectin gene and diabetic microvascular complications in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Choe EY; Wang HJ; Kwon O; Kim KJ; Kim BS; Lee BW; Ahn CW;  et al.
Metabolism 2013 May;62(5):677-85    (ISSN: 1532-8600)

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to examine the association between common polymorphisms of the adiponectin gene (ADIPOQ) and microvascular complications in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Rs2241766 and rs1501299 of ADIPOQ were genotyped in 708 patients with T2DM. Fundus photography, nerve conducting velocity, and urine analysis were performed to check for the presence of microvascular complications including diabetic nephropathy, retinopathy and neuropathy. RESULTS: The prevalence of diabetic nephropathy tended to be different according to rs2241766 genotype (p=0.057) and the GG genotype of rs2241766 was associated with diabetic nephropathy [urine albumin/creatinine ratio (UACR) greater than 30 mg/g] after adjusting for age, sex, body mass index, duration of diabetes, HDL-cholesterol, smoking status, and blood pressure (odds ratio=1.96; 95% confidence interval=1.01-3.82, p=0.049). Also, the G allele of rs2241766 demonstrated a trend to be associated with an increase in UACR (p=0.087). Rs2241766 genotype was not associated with diabetic retinopathy (p=0.955) and neuropathy (p=0.104) or any diabetic microvascular complications (p=0.104). There was no significant association between the rs1501299 genotype of ADIPOQ and the prevalence of diabetic retinopathy and neuropathy or any diabetic microvascular complications even after adjustment. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that the GG genotype at rs2241766 is implicated in the pathogenesis of risk for diabetic nephropathy defined as UACR greater than 30 mg/day in patients with T2DM. [Copyright 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.].

The prevalence of presarcopenia in Asian Indian individuals with and without type 2 diabetes.

Anbalagan VP; Venkataraman V; Pradeepa R; Deepa M; Anjana RM; Mohan V
Diabetes Technol Ther 2013 Sep;15(9):768-75    (ISSN: 1557-8593)

OBJECTIVE: This study compared the skeletal muscle mass and prevalence of presarcopenia between Asian Indian individuals with and without type 2 diabetes. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Participants with type 2 diabetes (n=76) and age- and sex-matched controls without diabetes (n=76) were drawn from the Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiological Study (CURES), which was carried out on a representative sample of Chennai City in South India. Skeletal muscle mass was estimated by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, and skeletal muscle mass index (SMI) was calculated by dividing the appendicular skeletal muscle mass by the square of the individual’s height in meters and expressed as kg/m. Presarcopenia was defined as an SMI of 7.26 kg/m2 for males and  5.5 kg/m2 for females. Biochemical and anthropometric measurements were done using standardized procedures. RESULTS: The 152 participants included 68 women (44.7%). Mean age was 449 years (range, 28-67 years), and the mean body mass index (BMI) was 25.73.8 kg/m2. The prevalence rates of presarcopenia among individuals with and without diabetes were 39.5% and 15.8%, respectively (P=0.001). The mean SMI values were significantly lower in those with diabetes (6.841.02 kg/m2 compared with participants without diabetes (7.281.01 kg/m2) (P=0.009). SMI showed a positive correlation with BMI and waist circumference but a negative correlation with age, fasting plasma glucose, glycated hemoglobin, and low-density lipoprotien cholesterol in the total study population. Logistic regression analysis showed that diabetes was independently associated with presarcopenia (P=0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Prevalence of presarcopenia is higher among Asian Indian subjects with type 2 diabetes compared with age- and sex-matched participants without diabetes.

Increased risk of type 2 diabetes with ascending social class in urban South Indians is explained by obesity: The Chennai urban rural epidemiology study (CURES-116).

Skar M; Villumsen AB; Christensen DL; Petersen JH; Deepa M; Anjana RM; et al.
Indian J Endocrinol Metab 2013 Nov;17(6):1084-9    (ISSN: 2230-8210)

AIM: The aim of this study is to determine the factors responsible for differences in the prevalence of diabetes mellitus (DM) in subjects of different social class in an urban South Indian population. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Analyses were based on the cross-sectional data from the Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiology Study of 1989 individuals, aged (yen)20 years. Entered in the analyses were information obtained by self-report on (1) household income; (2) family history of diabetes; (3) physical activity; (4) smoking status; (5) alcohol consumption. Biochemical, clinical and anthropometrical measurements were performed and included in the analyses. Social class was classified based on income as low (Rs. <2000) intermediate (Rs. 2000-5000`) and high (Rs. 5000-20000). RESULTS: The prevalence rates of DM were 12.0%, 18.4% and 21.7% in low, intermediate and high social class, respectively (P < 0.001). A significant increase in the risk of diabetes was found with ascending social class (Intermediate class: Odds ratio [OR], 1.7 [confidence interval [CI], 1.2-2.3]; High class: OR, 2.0 [CI-1.4-2.9]). The multivariable adjusted logistic regression analysis revealed that the effect of social class on the risk of diabetes remained significant (P = 0.016) when age, family history of diabetesand blood pressure were included. However, with the inclusion of abdominal obesity in the model, the significant effect of social class disappeared (P = 0.087). CONCLUSION: An increased prevalence of DM was found in the higher social class in this urban South Indian population, which is explained by obesity.

Prevalence of inflammatory markers (high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, nuclear factor-(ordM)B, and adiponectin) in Indian patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus with and without macrovascular complications.

Misra DP; Das S; Sahu PK
Metab Syndr Relat Disord 2012 Jun;10(3):209-13    (ISSN: 1557-8518)

BACKGROUND: Atherosclerosis is more prevalent in subjects with diabetes mellitus. Recent evidence suggests that diabetic atherosclerosis is not simply a disease of hyperlipidemia, but is also an inflammatory disorder. Our aim was to study the prevalence of inflammatory markers such as high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), adiponectin, and nuclear factor-(ordM)B (NF-(ordM)B) expression, in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in Indian patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) with and without macrovascular disease (MVD). METHODS: A total of 29 consecutive cases of T2DM with proven MVD (group A), 28 matched cases without MVD (group B), and 14 healthy controls (group C) were evaluated for the clinical parameters fasting blood glucose (FBG), 2-h postprandial blood glucose (PPBG), glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c), lipid profile, and the above-mentioned inflammatory markers. RESULTS: Diabetic subjects with T2DM had higher hsCRP and NF-(ordM)B expression and lower values of adiponectin compared to healthy controls. Group A had significantly higher serum hsCRP than group B (P=0.0001) despite comparable values of BMI, FBG, 2-h PPBG, HbA1c, and lipid parameters. Group A had significantly higher serum hsCRP and NF-(ordM)B expression and significantly lower levels of adiponectin than group C (P=0.0001, 0.007, and 0.02, respectively). In Group A, serum adiponectin negatively correlated with NF-(ordM)B expression. In Group B, adiponectin values correlated negatively with both FBG and 2-h PPBG. CONCLUSIONS: Indian subjects with T2DM with or without MVD had higher hsCRP and lower adiponectin values as compared to healthy controls, whereas hsCRP was significantly higher in those with MVD, suggesting that our patients with T2DM were in a proinflammatory state.

Adiponectin G276T gene polymorphism is associated with cardiovascular disease in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes.

Katakami N; Kaneto H; Matsuoka TA; Takahara M; Maeda N; Shimizu I; et al.
Atherosclerosis 2012 Feb;220(2):437-42    (ISSN: 1879-1484)

OBJECTIVE: Adiponectin has anti-atherogenic properties and reduced serum adiponectin levels are associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD). In this study, we examined the relationship between CVD and adiponectin (ADIPOQ) gene G276T polymorphism that is associated with serum adiponectin level in a large cohort of type 2 diabetic patients. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We enrolled 2637 Japanese type 2 diabetic subjects (males, 61.1%; age, 54.97.9 years old), determined their genotypes regarding ADIPOQ G276T polymorphisms, and evaluated the association between this polymorphism and the prevalence of CVD (myocardial infarction and/or cerebral infarction). RESULTS: The prevalence of CVD tended to be higher as the number of G alleles increased [GG (9.5%), GT (6.8%), TT (5.6%), p value for trend=0.0059] and was significantly higher in the subjects with GG genotype compared to those with GT or TT genotype (9.5% vs. 6.6%, p=0.0060). Multiple logistic regression analyses revealed that the number of G alleles (Odds ratio (OR)=1.49 with 95%CI 1.09-2.05, p=0.0125) and GG genotype (OR=1.66 with 95%CI 1.13-2.43, p=0.0098) were significantly associated with CVD even after adjustment for conventional risk factors. Interestingly, the presence of obesity further and significantly increased the risk of CVD in the subjects with GG genotype (OR=1.67 with 95%CI 1.14-2.44, p=0.0090) but not in the subjects with TT or GT genotype (OR=1.17 with 95%CI 0.73-1.89, NS). CONCLUSIONS: It is likely that the G allele of the ADIPOQ G276T polymorphism is a susceptibility allele for CVD in Japanese type 2 diabetic patients, especially when they accompany obesity. [Copyright 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.].

A comprehensive investigation of variants in genes encoding adiponectin (ADIPOQ) and its receptors (ADIPOR1/R2), and their association with serum adiponectin, type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance and the metabolic syndrome.

Peters KE; Beilby J; Cadby G; Warrington NM; Bruce DG; Davis WA; et al.
BMC Med Genet 2013;14:15    (ISSN: 1471-2350)

BACKGROUND: Low levels of serum adiponectin have been linked to central obesity, insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes. Variants in ADIPOQ, the gene encoding adiponectin, have been shown to influence serum adiponectin concentration, and along with variants in theadiponectin receptors (ADIPOR1 and ADIPOR2) have been implicated in metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes. This study aimed to comprehensively investigate the association of common variants in ADIPOQ, ADIPOR1 and ADIPOR2 with serum adiponectin and insulin resistance syndromes in a large cohort of European-Australian individuals. METHODS: Sixty-four tagging single nucleotide polymorphisms in ADIPOQ, ADIPOR1 and ADIPOR2 were genotyped in two general population cohorts consisting of 2,355 subjects, and one cohort of 967 subjects with type 2 diabetes. The association of tagSNPs with outcomes were evaluated using linear or logistic modelling. Meta-analysis of the three cohorts was performed by random-effects modelling. RESULTS: Meta-analysis revealed nine genotyped tagSNPs in ADIPOQ significantly associated with serum adiponectinacross all cohorts after adjustment for age, gender and BMI, including rs10937273, rs12637534, rs1648707, rs16861209, rs822395, rs17366568, rs3774261, rs6444175 and rs17373414. The results of haplotype-based analyses were also consistent. Overall, the variants in the ADIPOQ gene explained <5% of the variance in serum adiponectin concentration. None of the ADIPOR1/R2 tagSNPs were associated with serum adiponectin. There was no association between any of the genetic variants and insulin resistance or metabolic syndrome. A multi-SNP genotypic risk score for ADIPOQ alleles revealed an association with 3 independent SNPs, rs12637534, rs16861209, rs17366568 and type 2 diabetes after adjusting foradiponectin levels (OR=0.86, 95% CI=(0.75, 0.99), P=0.0134). CONCLUSIONS: Genetic variation in ADIPOQ, but not its receptors, was associated with altered serum adiponectin. However, genetic variation in ADIPOQ and its receptors does not appear to contribute to the risk of insulin resistance or metabolic syndrome but did for type 2
diabetes in a European-Australian population.
Autophagy: Protection Against T2D?

By Salynn Boyles, Contributing Writer,
MedPage Today  Published: Jul 27, 2014 | Updated: Jul 28, 2014

The cellular regulatory system known as autophagy appeared to play a key role in preventing type 2 diabetes by protecting insulin-secreting beta cells from the accumulation of toxic amylin oligomers, researchers reported.

Findings from three independent research teams, published online in the Journal of Clinical Investigation, suggested autophagy boosting therapies could prove to be a novel approach for type 2 diabetes prevention.

Autophagy — derived from the Greek words for “self” (auto) and “to eat” (phagein) — describes the controlled disposal of damaged organelles within the cell. This cell-cleaning process is increasingly being recognized as a potential protective mechanism against many diseases, including Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Alzheimer’s disease.

Earlier studies found autophagy to be important for normal beta-cell functionand autophage activity to be increased in beta cells from patients with type 2 diabetes.

The studies provide new insight into how beta cells are normally protected against amylin (IAPP) toxic oligomers, wrote Dhananjay Gupta, PhD, and Jack L. Leahy, MD, of the University of Vermont in Burlington in an accompanying editorial.

Action Points:

  • Autophagy appeared to play a key role in preventing type 2 diabetes by protecting insulin-secreting beta cells from the accumulation of toxic amylin oligomers.
  • Note that the studies suggest that autophagy — controlled disposal of damaged organelles within the cell — boosting therapies could prove to be a novel approach for type 2 diabetes prevention.

Autophagy – continued

IAPP: Co-Expressed With Insulin

Type 2 diabetes is characterized by loss of beta-cell, beta-cell dysfunction, and increased beta-cell apoptosis. Islet pathology in type 2 diabetes is also characterized by accumulation of extracellular islet amyloid derived from islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP).

“IAPP is a 37-amino acid protein co-expressed and secreted by pancreatic [beta cells] along with insulin,” wrote Peter Butler, MD, from the University of California Los Angeles, and colleagues. “While the extracellular islet amyloid is relatively inert, intracellular membrane-permeant toxic oligomers of IAPP that form within [beta cells in type 2 diabetes] are thought to induce [beta-cell dysfunction and apoptosis].”

In contrast to the human form of IAPP (h-IAPP), which forms toxic membrane-permeant oligomers, the rodent form of IAPP (r-IAPP) is nonamyloidogenic and nontoxic due to proline substitutions. Transgenic expression of h-IAPP in [beta cells] of rodents may lead to development of diabetes as a consequence of [beta-cell] apoptosis and formation of intracellular IAPP oligomers comparable to those found in humans with type 2 diabetes.

In earlier in vitro studies, the authors reported that enhancement of autophagy was protective while attenuated lysosomal degradation rendered beta cells more vulnerable to h-IAPP-induced apoptosis.

In the current study, the researchers determined that beta-cell IAPP content is regulated by autophagy through p62-dependent lysosomal degradation.

“Induction of high levels of human IAPP in mouse [beta cells] resulted in accumulation of this amyloidogenic protein as relatively inert fibrils with cytosolic p62-positive inclusions, which temporarily averts formation of toxic oligomers,” they wrote.

Mice hemizygous for transgenic expression of human IAPP did not develop diabetes. But the loss of beta cell-specific autophagy in the mice induced diabetes as a result of the accumulation of toxic human IAPP oligomers and loss of beta-cell mass, the researchers noted.

“In human IAPP-expressing mice that lack [beta-cell] autophagy, increased oxidative damage and loss of an antioxidant-protective pathway appeared to contribute to increased [beta- cell] apoptosis,” they wrote. “These findings indicate that autophagy/lysosomal degradation defends [beta cells] against proteotoxicity induced by oligomerization-prone human IAPP.”

‘Enhance the Toxic Potential of h-IAPP’

In a separate study, Yoshio Fujitani, PhD, of Juntendo University, Tokyo, and colleagues, examined the pathogenic role of human-IAPP and its relation to autophagy in h-IAPP-knock-in mice.

In animals fed a standard diet, h-IAPP had no toxic effects on beta-cell function. However, h-IAPP-knock-in mice did not exhibit a high-fat diet-induced compensatory increase in beta-cell mass, which was due to limited beta-cell proliferation and enhanced beta-cell apoptosis, the researchers wrote.

Expression of h-IAPP in mice with a beta-cell-specific autophagy defect resulted in substantial deterioration of glucose tolerance and dispersed cytoplasmic expression of p62-associated toxic oligomers, which were otherwise sequestrated within p62-positive inclusions.

“Together, our results indicate that increased insulin resistance in combination with reduced autophagy may enhance the toxic potential of h-IAPP and enhance [beta-cell] dysfunction and progression of type 2 diabetes,” the researchers noted.

Autophagy Enhancers

In the third paper, Myung-Shik Lee, MD, PhD, of the Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine in Seoul, and colleagues, studied transgenic mice with beta cell-specific expression of h-IAPP to evaluate the contribution of autophagy in type 2 diabetes-associated accumulation of h-IAPP.

In mice with beta-cell-specific expression of h-IAPP, a deficiency in autophagy resulted in development of overt diabetes, which was not observed in mice expressing h-IAPP alone or lacking autophagy alone. Lack of autophagy in h-IAPP-expressing animals also resulted in h-IAPP oligomer and amyloid accumulation in pancreatic islets, leading to increased death and decreased mass of beta cells.

“Expression of h-IAPP in purified monkey islet cells or a murine [beta cell] line resulted in pro-h-IAPP dimer formation, while dimer formation was absent or reduced dramatically in cells expressing either nonamyloidogenic mouse-IAPP or nonfibrillar mutant h-IAPP,” the researchers wrote. “In autophagy-deficient cells, accumulation of pro-h-IAPP dimers increased markedly, and pro-h-IAPP trimers were detected in the detergent-insoluble fraction.”

Enhancement of autophagy also improved the metabolic profile of h-IAPP-expressing mice fed a high-fat diet.

“These results suggest that autophagy promotes clearance of amyloidogenic h-IAPP, autophagy deficiency exacerbates pathogenesis of human [type 2 diabetes], and autophagy enhancers have therapeutic potential for islet amyloid accumulation-associated human [type 2 diabetes],” the researchers concluded.

Building on Previous Work

Gupta and Leahy noted that all three research teams generated human IAPP-expressing mice with a beta-cell-specific deficiency of the autophagy indicator ATG7, and all three found that autophagy-dependent packaging of monomeric or unprocessed IAPP dimers or trimers into p62-associated vacuoles allowed autophagosomes to dispose of these molecules, keeping them nontoxic.

Each team showed the activity of this detoxification system to be increased when a high-fat diet was fed to the mice with hyperexpression of h-IAPP.

The studies build on previous work and the findings that don’t discern – “how and when during the course of type 2 diabetes development this autophagy-dependent detoxification system might be overcome, allowing toxic IAPP oligomers to form.”

“There are many additional mechanisms that have been proposed for [beta-cell] dysfunction and death in type 2 diabetes, including ER stress, oxidative stress, and autoimmune damage, all of which have been linked to IAPP toxicity,” they wrote. “While it is tempting to try and connect the dots through a single, unified mechanism, all of these proposed pathways of [beta-cell] dysfunction have been recapitulated and extensively studied in rodent models of diabetogenic systems, such as high-fat feeding and partial pancreatectomy, or through genetic modification.”

Given the absence of rodent IAPP oligomerization, these mechanisms of reduced beta-cell function clearly do not require IAPP activation, they noted.

These papers have implications for the study of target therapies for type 2 diabetes based on the common link to T2D and IAPP oligomerization.

“Patients with type 2 diabetes have an increased risk of Alzheimer’s disease, suggesting a common pathogenesis,” they wrote. Disordered neuronal autophagy, described in Alzheimer’s, with alteration in the clearance of amyloidogenic proteins may be a tie between these two diseases

They concluded that acceptance of the hypothesis that IAPP oligomer formation and subsequent plaque development are a major cause of type 2 diabetes will require a better understanding of

  • when this mechanism is activated and
  • what modulates its destructive potential.

“These current studies may shift the focus away from

  • the biology of how IAPP oligomers cause [beta cell] destruction
  • to probing for defects within the protective system against the formation of toxic IAPP oligomers,” they wrote.

Part 2. Pancreatic Islet Cell Dysfunction
N-terminal fragment of probrain natriuretic peptide is associated with diabetes microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes

Kumiko Hamano, Ikue Nakadaira, Jun Suzuki, Megumi Gonai
Vascular Health and Risk Management 2014:10 585–589
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/VHRM.S67753

Aim/introduction: Circulating levels of N-terminal fragment of probrain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) are established as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and mortality in patients with diabetes, as well as in the general population. We sought to examine the possibility of NT-proBNP as a biomarker of microvascular complications in patients with type 2 diabetes.  Materials and methods: In total, 277 outpatients with type 2 diabetes were consecutively enrolled as a hospital cohort. Two hundred and seventeen of these patients (132 males; mean age, 63.4 years) were designated as cases with any of the diabetic complications (retinopathy, neuropathy, nephropathy, ischemic heart disease, strokes, peripheral artery disease), and 60 (42 males; mean age, 54.1 years) were set as controls without clinical evidence of diabetic complications. Diabetic complications were evaluated by medical record and routine laboratory examinations. NT-proBNP was measured and investigated with regard to the associations with diabetic complications. Results: Mean NT-proBNP levels were significantly higher in patients with any of the diabetic complications (59 versus 33 pg/mL; P,0.0001). In logistic regression analysis, NT-proBNP levels .79 pg/mL, which was the highest tertile, were independently associated with a 5.04 fold increased risk of all complications (P,0.0051) compared to the lowest tertile (NT-proBNP levels ,31 pg/mL). Odd ratios of cardiovascular disease and nephropathy, neuropathy, and retinopathy were 9.33, 6.23, 6.6 and 13.78 respectively, in patients with NT-proBNP values in the highest tertile (.79 pg/mL), independently of age, sex, duration of diabetes or other risk factors, such as body mass index or hemoglobin A1c. In addition, NT-proBNP levels were associated with surrogate markers of atherosclerosis, such as brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity (r=0.449, P,0.0001) and left ventricular hypertrophy (r=0.212, P,0.001). Conclusion: In this hospital-based cohort of type 2 diabetes, the NT-proBNP levels were associated with systemic atherosclerosis and comorbid diabetic microvascular as well as macrovascular complications. It is useful to stratify high-risk diabetic patients by measuring NT-proBNP and to start comprehensive care for preventing the progression of diabetic complications. It is necessary to elucidate the underlying mechanism for the progression of diabetic complications represented by an elevation of NT-proBNP and to demonstrate the ability of NT-proBNP as a predictive global biomarker for diabetic complications in Japanese type 2 diabetic patients.
How are patients with type 2 diabetes and renal disease monitored and managed? Insights from the observational OREDIA study

Alfred Penfornis, J F Blicklé, B Fiquet, S Quéré, S Dejager
Vascular Health and Risk Management 2014:10 341–352
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/VHRM.S60312

Background and aim: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is frequent in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), and therapeutic management of diabetes is more challenging in patients with renal impairment (RI). The place of metformin is of particular interest since most scientific societies now recommend using half the dosage in moderate RI and abstaining from use in severe RI, while the classic contraindication with RI has not been removed from the label. This study aimed to assess the therapeutic management, in particular the use of metformin, of T2DM patients with CKD in real life. Methods: This was a French cross-sectional observational study: 3,704 patients with T2DM diagnosed for over 1 year and pharmacologically treated were recruited in two cohorts (two-thirds were considered to have renal disease [CKD patients] and one-third were not [non-CKD patients]) by 968 physicians (81% general practitioners) in 2012. Results: CKD versus non-CKD patients were significantly older with longer diabetes history, more diabetic complications, and less strict glycemic control (mean glycated hemoglobin [HbA1c] 7.5% versus 7.1%; 25% of CKD patients had HbA1c $8% versus 15% of non-CKD patients). Fifteen percent of CKD patients had severe RI, and 66% moderate RI. Therapeutic management of T2DM was clearly distinct in CKD, with less use of metformin (62% versus 86%) but at similar mean daily doses (∼2 g/d). Of patients with severe RI, 33% were still treated with metformin, at similar doses. For other oral anti-diabetics, a distinct pattern of use was seen across renal function (RF): use of sulfonylureas (32%, 31%, and 20% in normal RF, moderate RI, and severe RI, respectively) and DPP4-i (dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors) (41%, 36%, and 25%, respectively) decreased with RF, while that of glinides increased (8%, 14%, and 18%, respectively). CKD patients were more frequently treated with insulin (40% versus 16% of non-CKD patients), and use of insulin increased with deterioration of RF (19%, 39%, and 61% of patients with normal RF, moderate RI, and severe RI, respectively). Treatment was modified at the end of the study-visit in 34% of CKD patients, primarily to stop or reduce metformin. However, metformin was stopped in only 40% of the severe RI patients.   Conclusion: Despite a fairly good detection of CKD in patients with T2DM, RI was insufficiently taken into account for adjusting anti-diabetic treatment.

Efficacy and safety of insulin glargine added to a fixed-dose combination of metformin and a dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor: results of the GOLD observational study

Jochen Seufert, Katrin Pegelow, Peter Bramlage
Vascular Health and Risk Management 2013:9 711–717
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/VHRM.S54362

Background: For patients with type 2 diabetes who are uncontrolled on a combination of two oral antidiabetic agents, addition of the long-acting basal insulin glargine is a well established treatment option. However, data on the efficacy and safety of a combination of metformin, a dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor, and insulin glargine are limited in real-world settings. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze blood glucose control, rates of hypoglycemia and body weight in a large cohort of patients with type 2 diabetes treated with this combination therapy in real practice. Methods: This noninterventional, multicenter, prospective, observational trial with a follow-up of 20 weeks enrolled insulin-naïve patients who had been on a stable fixed dose of metformin and a DPP-4 inhibitor for at least 3 months, and had a glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) between 7.5% and 10%. Patients were selected at the investigators’ discretion for initiation of insulin glargine at baseline. A total of 1,483 patients were included, of whom 1,262 were considered to be the efficacy set. Primary efficacy parameters were HbA1c and fasting plasma glucose. Secondary outcome measures included achievement of glycemic targets, body weight, rates of hypoglycemia, and other safety parameters, as well as resource consumption. Results: Upon initiation of insulin glargine, mean HbA1c decreased from 8.51% to 7.36% (−1.15%±0.91%; 95% confidence interval [CI] −1.20 to −1.10). An HbA1c level ,6.5% was achieved in 8.2% of patients and a level ,7.0% in 31.5%. Mean fasting plasma glucose decreased from 174±47 mg/dL to 127±31 mg/dL (−47.3±44.1 mg/dL; 95% CI −49.8 to −44.8). In 11.9% of patients, a fasting plasma glucose level ,100 mg/dL was achieved. Bodyweight decreased on average by 0.98±3.90 kg (95% CI 1.19–0.76). Hypoglycemia (blood glucose #70 mg/dL) was observed in 29 patients (2.30%), of whom six (0.48%) had nocturnal hypoglycemia and four (0.32%) had documented severe events (blood glucose ,56 mg/dL). Conclusion: The results of this observational study show that insulin glargine, when added to a fixed-dose combination of metformin and a DPP-4 inhibitor, resulted in a significant and clinically relevant improvement of glycemic control. Importantly, this intervention did not interfere with the action of the DPP-4 inhibitors, resulting in neutral effects on weight and low rates of hypoglycemia. We conclude that this treatment intensification approach may be useful, efficient, and safe in daily clinical practice for patients with type 2 diabetes.

Long-term insulin glargine therapy in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a focus on cardiovascular outcomes

Joshua J Joseph, Thomas W Donner
Vascular Health and Risk Management 2015:11 107–116
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/VHRM.S50286

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of mortality in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Hyperinsulinemia is associated with increased cardiovascular risk, but the effects of exogenous insulin on cardiovascular disease progression have been less well studied. Insulin has been shown to have both cardioprotective and atherosclerosis-promoting effects in laboratory animal studies. Long-term clinical trials using insulin to attain improved diabetes control in younger type 1 and type 2 diabetes patients have shown improved cardiovascular outcomes. Shorter trials of intensive diabetes control with high insulin use in higher risk patients with type 2 diabetes have shown either no cardiovascular benefit or increased all cause and cardiovascular mortality. Glargine insulin is a basal insulin analog widely used to treat patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes. This review focuses on the effects of glargine on cardiovascular outcomes. Glargine lowers triglycerides, leads to a modest weight gain, causes less hypoglycemia when compared with intermediate-acting insulin, and has a neutral effect on blood pressure. The Outcome Reduction With Initial Glargine Intervention (ORIGIN trial), a 6.2 year dedicated cardiovascular outcomes trial of glargine demonstrated no increased cardiovascular risk.

Visceral obesity is not an independent risk factor of mortality in subjects over 65 years

Frédérique Thomas, Bruno Pannier, Athanase Benetos, Ulrich M Vischer
Vascular Health and Risk Management 2013:9 739–745
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/VHRM.S49922

The aim of the study was to determine the role of obesity evaluated by body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), and their combined effect on all-cause mortality according to age and related risk factors. This study included 119,090 subjects (79,325 men and 39,765 women), aged from 17 years to 85 years, who had a general health checkup at the Centre d’Investigations Préventives et Cliniques, Paris, France. The mean follow-up was 5.6±2.4 years. The prevalence of obesity, defined by WC and BMI categories, was determined according to age groups (< 55, 55–65, > 65 years). All-cause mortality according to obesity and age was determined using Cox regression analysis, adjusted for related risk factors and previous cardiovascular events.
For the entire population, WC adjusted for BMI, an index of central obesity, was strongly associated with mortality, even after adjustment for hypertension, dyslipidemia, and diabetes. The prevalence of obesity increased with age, notably when defined by WC. Nonetheless, the association between WC adjusted for BMI and mortality was not observed in subjects .65 years old (hazard ratio [HR] =1.010, P=NS) but was found in subjects  < 55 (HR =1.030,
P < 0.0001) and 55–65 years old (HR =1.023, P,0.05). By contrast, hypertension
(HR =1.31, P < 0.05), previous cardiovascular events (HR =1.98, P < 0.05), and smoking (HR =1.33, P < 0.05) remained associated with mortality even after
age 65.
In conclusion, WC adjusted for BMI is strongly and independently associated with all-cause mortality before 65 years of age, after taking into account the associated risk factors. This relationship disappears in subjects
> 65 years of age, suggesting a differential impact of visceral fat deposition according to age.

Insulin degludec/insulin aspart combination for the treatment of type 1 and type 2 diabetes

Angela Dardano, Cristina Bianchi, Stefano Del Prato, Roberto Miccoli
Vascular Health and Risk Management 2014:10 465–475
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/VHRM.S40097

Glycemic control remains the major therapeutic objective to prevent or delay the onset and progression of complications related to diabetes mellitus. Insulin therapy represents a cornerstone in the treatment of diabetes and has been used widely for achieving glycemic goals. Nevertheless, a large portion of the population with diabetes does not meet the internationally agreed glycemic targets. Moreover, insulin treatment, especially if intensive, may be associated with emergency room visits and hospitalization due to hypoglycemic events. Therefore, fear of hypoglycemia or hypoglycemic events represents the main barriers to the attainment of glycemic targets. The burden associated with multiple daily injections also remains a significant obstacle to initiating and maintaining insulin therapy. The most attractive insulin treatment approach should meet the patients’ preference, rather than demanding patients to change or adapt their lifestyle. Insulin degludec/insulin aspart (IDegAsp) is a new combination, formulated with ultra-long-acting insulin degludec and rapid-acting insulin aspart, with peculiar pharmacological features, clinical efficacy, safety, and tolerability. IDegAsp provides similar, noninferior glycemic control to a standard basal–bolus regimen in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus, with additional benefits of significantly lower episodes of hypoglycemia (particularly nocturnal) and fewer daily insulin injections. Moreover, although treatment strategy and patients’ viewpoint are different in type 1 and type 2 diabetes, trial results suggest that IDegAsp may be an appropriate and reasonable option for initiating insulin therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled on maximal doses of conventional oral agents. This paper will discuss the role of IDegAsp combination as a novel treatment option in diabetic patients.

UCP2 Regulates the Glucagon Response to Fasting and Starvation

Emma M. Allister, Christine A. Robson-Doucette, Kacey J. Prentice, et al.
Diabetes  Feb 22, 2013; p 1-11.  http://dx.doi.org:/10.2337/db12-0981
http://diabetes.diabetesjournals.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.2337/db12-0981/-/DC1

Glucagon is important for maintaining euglycemia during fasting/starvation, and abnormal glucagon secretion is associated with type 1 and type 2 diabetes; however, the mechanisms of hypoglycemia-induced glucagon secretion are poorly understood. We previously demonstrated that global deletion of mitochondrial uncoupling protein 2 (UCP22/2) in mice impaired glucagon secretion from isolated islets. Therefore, UCP2 may contribute to the regulation of hypoglycemia-induced glucagon secretion, which is supported by our current finding that UCP2 expression is increased in nutrient-deprived murine and human islets. Further to this, we created a-cell–specific UCP2 knockout (UCP2AKO) mice, which we used to demonstrate that blood glucose recovery in response to hypoglycemia is impaired owing to attenuated glucagon secretion. UCP2-deleted a-cells have higher levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), due to enhanced  mitochondrial coupling, which translated into defective stimulus/secretion coupling. The effects of UCP2 deletion were mimicked by the UCP2 inhibitor genipin on both murine and human islets and also by application of exogenous ROS, confirming that changes in oxidative status and electrical activity directly reduce glucagon secretion. Therefore, a-cell UCP2 deletion perturbs the fasting/hypoglycemic glucagon response and shows that UCP2 is necessary for normal a-cell glucose sensing and the maintenance of euglycemia.

Main points:

  • UCP2 is efficiently deleted specifically from islet a-cells of UCP2AKO mice.
  • α-Cell UCP2 deletion reduces glucagon secretion in vivo
  • UCP2AKO mice display normal glucose tolerance and GLP-1 secretion
  • α-Cell UCP2 deletion reduces the gluconeogenic response of the liver and switches fatty acid usage during a prolonged fast
  • UCP2 expression is increased after nutrient depletion and glucagon secretion from UCP2AKO islets was impaired.
  • UCP2AKO α-cells display enhanced hyperpolarization of ΔψCm and increased superoxide levels
  • UCP2AKO α-cells have more depolarized plasma membranes and reduced intracellular calcium
  • UCP2 is required for normal glucagon secretion in response to hypoglycemia

Management of Diabetes Mellitus: Could Simultaneous Targeting of Hyperglycemia and Oxidative Stress Be a Better Panacea?

Omotayo O. Erejuwa

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2012, 13, 2965-2972; http://dx.doi.org:/10.3390/ijms13032965

Oxidative stress is defined as an “imbalance between oxidants and antioxidants in favor of the oxidants, potentially leading to damage”. It is implicated in the pathogenesis and complications of diabetes mellitus. The role of oxidative stress is more definite in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus than in type 1 diabetes mellitus. In regard to diabetic complications, there is compelling evidence in support of the role of oxidative stress in both types of diabetes mellitus. Evidence suggests that elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS), which causes oxidative stress, accumulate in certain micro milieu or tissues (such as retina and kidney) where they cause damage or toxicity. In diabetes mellitus, oxidative stress is enhanced through various sources such as hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance, impaired antioxidant defense network, uncoupling of ROS-generating enzymes, elevated level of leptin and sedentary lifestyle.

A number of mechanisms or pathways by which hyperglycemia, the major contributing factor of increased ROS production, causes tissue damage or diabetic complications have been identified. These include: hyperglycemia-enhanced polyol pathway; hyperglycemia-enhanced formation of advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs); hyperglycemia-activated protein kinase C (PKC) pathway; hyperglycemia-enhanced hexosamine pathway; and hyperglycemia-activated Poly-ADP ribose polymerase (PARP) pathway. These pathways are activated or enhanced by hyperglycemia-driven mitochondrial superoxide overproduction. Even though oxidative stress plays an important role in its pathogenesis and complications, unlike other diseases characterized by oxidative stress, diabetes mellitus is unique. Its cure (restoration of euglycemia, e.g., via pancreas transplants) does not prevent oxidative stress and diabetic complications. This is very important because hyperglycemia exacerbates oxidative stress which is linked to diabetic complications]. Theoretically, restoration of euglycemia should prevent oxidative stress and diabetic complications. However, this is not the case.

The primary aim of the current management of diabetes mellitus is to achieve and/or maintain a glycated hemoglobin level of ≤6.5%. However, recent evidence indicates that intensive treatment of hyperglycemia is characterized by increased weight gain, severe hypoglycemia and higher mortality. Besides, evidence suggests that it is difficult to achieve and/or maintain optimal glycemic control in many diabetic patients; and that the benefits of intensively-treated hyperglycemia are restricted to microvascular complications only. In view of these adverse effects and limitations of intensive treatment of hyperglycemia in preventing diabetic complications, which is linked to oxidative stress, this commentary proposes a hypothesis that “simultaneous targeting of hyperglycemia and oxidative stress” could be more effective than “intensive treatment of hyperglycemia” in the management of diabetes mellitus.

 

The Relationship between Inflammation, Oxidative Stress, and Metabolic Risk Factors in Type 2 Diabetic Patients

Fatemeh Azizi Soleiman, N Pahlavani, H Rasad, O Sadeghi, MR Gohari
Iranian Journal Of Diabetes And Obesity 2013; 5(4): 151-156

Increased production of free radicals due to the imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants load may reduce antioxidants levels, partial clearing of free radicals, and cause oxidation of lipids, sugars, proteins and nucleic acids which eventually leads to widespread pathological consequences of diabetes. One of the factors that facilitate formation of atherosclerosis in diabetes is oxidative stress.

Objective: Globally, 3-5.2 percent of people suffer from diabetes which is one of the most serious metabolic disorders resulting in an increase in inflammatory biomarkers e.g. interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and C-reactive protein. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between inflammation, oxidative stress and fasting blood glucose, lipid profile and anthropometric parameters in patients with type 2 diabetes. Material and methods: This study was conducted as a cross sectional study in Tehran through 2009-2010 on 45 men and women aged 35-65 years old with type 2 diabetes. Blood glucose, lipid profile, C-reactive protein, and malonedialdehyde were measured. Independent sample T-test and linear regression analysis were used. Results: Fasting blood glucose, malonedialdehyde, total cholesterol and body mass index were higher in women than in men; but there was no difference between two sexes in other factors. Malonedialdehyde, neither directly or after adjustment for sex was related to fasting blood glucose, total cholesterol, triglycerides and anthropometric indices (weight, body mass index, and body fat mass). Conclusion: This study showed that oxidative stress had no relationship with blood glucose, lipid profile, and anthropometric index, but inflammation was related to glycemia, body mass index, and fat mass. Control of inflammation and oxidative stress is necessary for accelerating treatment process and preventing complications due to them.

This study showed that in diabetic patients, oxidative stress which was measured by MDA, was not significantly associated with fasting blood glucose, lipid profile and anthropometric parameters. However, fasting plasma glucose, body mass index and body fat mass were significant predictors of the inflammatory factor, CRP.

Oxidative Stress as an Underlying Contributor in the Development of Chronic Complications in Diabetes Mellitus

Suziy de M. Bandeira, Lucas José S. da Fonseca, Glaucevane da S. Guedes, et al.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14, 3265-3284; http://dx.doi.doi:/10.3390/ijms14023265

The high prevalence of diabetes mellitus and its increasing incidence worldwide, coupled with several complications observed in its carriers, have become a public health issue of great relevance. Chronic hyperglycemia is the main feature of such a disease, being considered the responsible for the establishment of micro and macrovascular complications observed in diabetes. Several efforts have been directed in order to better comprehend the pathophysiological mechanisms involved in the course of this endocrine disease. Recently, numerous authors have suggested that excess generation of highly reactive oxygen and nitrogen species is a key component in the development of complications invoked by hyperglycemia. Overproduction and/or insufficient removal of these reactive species result in vascular dysfunction, damage to cellular proteins, membrane lipids and nucleic acids, leading different research groups to search for biomarkers which would be capable of a proper and accurate measurement of the oxidative stress (OS) in diabetic patients, especially in the presence of chronic complications.
In the face of this scenario, the present review briefly addresses the role of hyperglycemia in OS, considering basic mechanisms and their effects in diabetes mellitus, describes some of the more commonly used biomarkers of oxidative/nitrosative damage and includes selected examples of studies which evaluated OS biomarkers in patients with diabetes, pointing to the relevance of such biological components in general oxidative stress status of diabetes mellitus carriers.
The role of FOXO1 in β‑cell failure and type 2 diabetes mellitus

Tadahiro Kitamura
Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 2013; 9, 615–623
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nrendo.2013.157

Over the past two decades, insulin resistance has been considered essential to the etiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). However, insulin resistance does not lead to T2DM unless it is accompanied by pancreatic β‑cell dysfunction, because healthy β cells can compensate for insulin resistance by increasing in number and functional output. Furthermore, β‑cell mass is decreased in patients with diabetes mellitus, suggesting a primary role for β‑cell dysfunction in the pathogenesis of T2DM. The dysfunction of β cells can develop through various mechanisms, including oxidative, endoplasmic reticulum or hypoxic stress, as well as via induction of cytokines; these processes lead to apoptosis, uncontrolled autophagy and failure to proliferate. Transdifferentiation between β cells and α cells occurs under certain pathological conditions, and emerging evidence suggests that β‑cell dedifferentiation or transdifferentiation might account for the reduction in β‑cell mass observed in patients with severe T2DM. FOXO1, a key transcription factor in insulin signaling, is implicated in these mechanisms. This Review discusses advances in our understanding of the contribution of FOXO1 signaling to the development of β‑cell failure in T2DM.

Selective peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor g (PPARg) modulation as a strategy for safer therapeutic PPARg activation

Linda Slanec Higgins and Alex M DePaoli
Am J Clin Nutr 2010;91(suppl):267S–72S.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.3945/ajcn.2009.28449E

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor c (PPARc) is a clinically validated target for treatment of insulin resistance. PPARc activation by full agonists such as thiazolidinediones has shown potent and durable glucose-lowering activity in patients with type 2 diabetes without the concern for hypoglycemia or gastrointestinal toxicities associated with some other medications used to treat this disease. However, thiazolidinediones are linked to safety and tolerability issues such as weight gain, fluid retention, edema, congestive heart failure, and bone fracture. Distinctive properties of PPARc provide the opportunity for selective modulation of the receptor such that desirable therapeutic effects may be attained without the unwanted effects of full activation. PPARc is a nuclear receptor that forms a complex with coreceptor RXR and a cell type– and cell state– specific array of coregulators to control gene transcription. PPARc affinity for these components, and hence transcriptional response, is determined by the conformational changes induced by ligand binding within a complex pocket with multiple interaction points. This molecular mechanism thereby offers the opportunity for selective modulation. A desirable selective PPARc modulator profile would include high-affinity interaction with the PPARc-binding pocket in a manner that leads to retention of the insulin-sensitizing activity that is characteristic of full agonists as well as mitigation of the effects leading to increased adiposity, fluid retention, congestive heart failure, and bone fracture. Examples of endogenous and synthetic selective PPARc modulator (SPPARM) ligands have been identified. SPPARM drug candidates are being tested clinically and provide support for this strategy.

Predicting response to incretin-based therapy

Sanjay Kalra, Bharti Kalra, Rakesh Sahay, Navneet Agrawal
Research and Reports in Endocrine Disorders 2011:1 11–19
http://dx.doi.org:/10.2147/RRED.S16282

There are two important incretin hormones, glucose-dependent insulin tropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1). The biological activities of GLP-1 include stimulation of glucose-dependent insulin secretion and insulin biosynthesis, inhibition of glucagon secretion and gastric emptying, and inhibition of food intake. GLP-1 appears to have a number of additional effects in the gastrointestinal tract and central nervous system. Incretin based therapy includes GLP-1 receptor agonists like human GLP-1 analogs (liraglutide) and exendin-4 based molecules (exenatide), as well as DPP-4 inhibitors like sitagliptin, vildagliptin and saxagliptin. Most of the published studies showed a significant reduction in HbA1c using these drugs. A critical analysis of reported data shows that the response rate in terms of target achievers of these drugs is average. One of the first actions identified for GLP-1 was the glucose-dependent stimulation of insulin secretion from islet cell lines. Following the detection of GLP-1 receptors on islet beta cells, a large body of evidence has accumulated illustrating that GLP-1 exerts multiple actions on various signaling pathways and gene products in the β cell. GLP-1 controls glucose homeostasis through well-defined actions on the islet β cell via stimulation of insulin secretion and preservation and expansion of β cell mass. In summary, there are several factors determining the response rate to incretin therapy. Currently minimal clinical data is available to make a conclusion. Key factors appear to be duration of diabetes, obesity, presence of autonomic neuropathy, resting energy expenditure, plasma glucagon levels and plasma free fatty acid levels. More clinical evidence is required to identify the factors affecting response rate to incretin therapy.

Regulation of Large Conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (BK) Channel β1 Subunit Expression by Muscle RING Finger Protein 1 in Diabetic Vessels

Fu Yi, Huan Wang, Qiang Chai, Xiaoli Wang, et al.
J. Biol. Chem. 2014, 289: 10853-10864
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1074/jbc.M113.520940

Background: Impaired BK channel function in diabetic vessels is associated with decreased BK channel[1]1 subunit (BK-β1) expression. Results: Muscle RING finger protein 1 (MuRF1) physically interacts with BK-β1 and accelerates BK-β1 proteolysis. Conclusion: Increased MuRF1 expression is a novel mechanism underlying diabetic BK channelopathy and vasculopathy. Significance: MuRF1 is a potential therapeutic target of BK channel dysfunction and vascular complications in diabetes.

The large conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (BK) channel, expressed abundantly in vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs), is a key determinant of vascular tone. BK channel activity is tightly regulated by its accessory β1 subunit (BK-β1). However, BK channel function is impaired in diabetic vessels by increased ubiquitin/proteasome-dependent BK-β1 protein degradation. Muscle RING finger protein 1 (MuRF1), a muscle-specific ubiquitin ligase, is implicated in many cardiac and skeletal muscle diseases. However, the role of MuRF1 in the regulation of vascular BK channel and coronary function has not been examined. In this study, we hypothesized that MuRF1 participated in BK-β1 proteolysis, leading to the down-regulation of BK channel activation and impaired coronary function in diabetes. Combining patch clamp and molecular biological approaches, we found that MuRF1 expression was enhanced, accompanied by reduced BK-β1 expression, in high glucose-cultured human

coronary SMCs and in diabetic vessels. Knockdown of MuRF1 by siRNA in cultured human SMCs attenuated BK-β1 ubiquitination and increased BK-β1 expression, whereas adenoviral expression of MuRF1 in mouse coronary arteries reduced BK-β1 expression and diminished BK channel-mediated vasodilation. Physical interaction between the N terminus of BK-β1 and the coiled-coil domain of MuRF1 was demonstrated by pulldown assay. Moreover, MuRF1 expression was regulated by NF-κB. Most importantly, pharmacological inhibition of proteasome and NF-κB activities preserved BK-β1 expression and BK-channel-mediated coronary vasodilation in diabetic mice. Hence, our results provide the first evidence that the up-regulation of NF-κB-dependent MuRF1 expression is a novel mechanism that leads to BK channelopathy and vasculopathy in diabetes.
The origin of circulating CD36 in type 2 diabetes

MJ Alkhatatbeh, AK Enjeti, S Acharya, RF Thorne, and LF Lincz
Nutrition and Diabetes (2013) 3, e59; http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nutd.2013.1

Objective: Elevated plasma levels of the fatty acid transporter, CD36, have been shown to constitute a novel biomarker for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). We recently reported such circulating CD36 to be entirely associated with cellular microparticles (MPs) and aim here to determine the absolute levels and cellular origin(s) of these CD36 + MPs in persons with T2DM. Design: An ex vivo case-control study was conducted using plasma samples from 33 obese individuals with T2DM (body mass index (BMI) =39.9±6.4 kgm2; age=57±9 years; 18 male:15 female) and age- and gender-matched lean and obese non-T2DM controls (BMI =23.6±1.8 kgm2 and 33.5±5.9 kgm2, respectively). Flow cytometry was used to analyse surface expression of CD36 together with tissue-specific markers: CD41, CD235α, CD14, CD105 and phosphatidyl serine on plasma MPs. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to quantify absolute CD36 protein concentrations. Results: CD36 + MP levels were significantly higher in obese people with T2DM (P<0.00001) and were primarily derived from erythrocytes (CD235α + = 35.8±14.6%); although this did not correlate with hemoglobin A1c. By contrast, the main source of CD36 + MPs in non-T2DM individuals was endothelial cells (CD105 + = 40.9±8.3% and 33.9±8.3% for lean and obese controls, respectively). Across the entire cohort, plasma CD36 protein concentration varied from undetectable to 22.9 µgml-1 and was positively correlated with CD36 +MPs measured by flow cytometry (P=0.0006) but only weakly associated with the distribution of controls and T2DM (P=0.021). Multivariate analysis confirmed that plasma CD36 + MP levels were a much better biomarker for diabetes than CD36 protein concentration (P=0.009 vs P=0.398, respectively). Conclusions: Both the levels and cellular profile of CD36 + MPs differ in T2DM compared with controls, suggesting that these specific vesicles could represent distinct biological vectors contributing to the pathology of the disease.
A Novel High-Throughput Assay for Islet Respiration Reveals Uncoupling of Rodent and Human Islets

Jakob D. Wikstrom, Samuel B. Sereda, Linsey Stiles, Alvaro Elorza, et al.
PLoS ONE 7(5): e33023. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1371/journal.pone.0033023

Background: The pancreatic beta cell is unique in its response to nutrient by increased fuel oxidation. Recent studies have demonstrated that oxygen consumption rate (OCR) may be a valuable predictor of islet quality and long term nutrient responsiveness. To date, high-throughput and user-friendly assays for islet respiration are lacking. The aim of this study was to develop such an assay and to examine bioenergetic efficiency of rodent and human islets. Methodology/Principal Findings: The XF24 respirometer platform was adapted to islets by the development of a 24-well plate specifically designed to confine islets. The islet plate generated data with low inter-well variability and enabled stable measurement of oxygen consumption for hours. The F1F0 ATP synthase blocker oligomycin was used to assess uncoupling while rotenone together with myxothiazol/antimycin was used to measure the level of non-mitochondrial respiration. The use of oligomycin in islets was validated by reversing its effect in the presence of the uncoupler FCCP. Respiratory leak averaged to 59% and 49% of basal OCR in islets from C57Bl6/J and FVB/N mice, respectively. In comparison, respiratory leak of INS-1 cells and C2C12 myotubes was measured to 38% and 23% respectively. Islets from a cohort of human donors showed a respiratory leak of 38%, significantly lower than mouse islets. Conclusions/Significance: The assay for islet respiration presented here provides a novel tool that can be used to study islet mitochondrial function in a relatively high-throughput manner. The data obtained in this study shows that rodent islets are less bioenergetically efficient than human islets as well as INS1 cells.

Refeeding and metabolic syndromes: two sides of the same coin

OA Obeid, DH Hachem and JJ Ayoub
Nutrition & Diabetes (2014) 4, e120; http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nutd.2014.21

Refeeding syndrome describes the metabolic and clinical changes attributed to aggressive rehabilitation of malnourished subjects. The metabolic changes of refeeding are related to hypophosphatemia, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, sodium retention and hyperglycemia, and these are believed to be mainly the result of increased insulin secretion following high carbohydrate intake. In the past few decades, increased consumption of processed food (refined cereals, oils, sugar and sweeteners, and so on) lowered the intake of several macrominerals (mainly phosphorus, potassium and magnesium). This seems to have compromised the postprandial status of these macrominerals, in a manner that mimics low grade refeeding syndrome status. At the pathophysiological level, this condition favored the development of the different components of the metabolic syndrome. Thus, it is reasonable to postulate that metabolic syndrome is the result of long term exposure to a mild refeeding syndrome.

HSP72 protects against obesity-induced insulin resistance

Jason Chung, Anh-Khoi Nguyen, Darren C. Henstridge, Anna G. Holmes, et al.
PNAS  Feb 5, 2008; 105(5): 1739–1744
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.0705799105

Patients with type 2 diabetes have reduced gene expression of heat shock protein (HSP) 72, which correlates with reduced insulin sensitivity. Heat therapy, which activates HSP72, improves clinical parameters in these patients. Activation of several inflammatory signaling proteins such as c-jun amino terminal kinase (JNK), inhibitor of B kinase, and tumor necrosis factor-β, can induce insulin resistance, but HSP 72 can block the induction of these molecules in vitro. Accordingly, we examined whether activation of HSP72 can protect against the development of insulin resistance. First, we show that obese, insulin resistant humans have reduced HSP72 protein expression and increased JNK phosphorylation in skeletal muscle. We next used heat shock therapy, transgenic overexpression, and pharmacologic means to overexpress HSP72 either specifically in skeletal muscle or globally in mice. Herein, we show that regardless of the means used to achieve an elevation in HSP72 protein, protection against diet- or obesity induced hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, glucose intolerance, and insulin resistance was observed. This protection was tightly associated with the prevention of JNK phosphorylation. These findings identify an essential role for HSP72 in blocking inflammation and preventing insulin resistance in the context of genetic obesity or high-fat feeding.

pH-responsive modulation of insulin aggregation and structural transformation of the aggregates

Ekaterina Smirnova, I Safenkova, V Stein-Margolina, V Shubin, et al.
Biochimie 109 (2015) 49e59
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biochi.2014.12.006

Over the past two decades, much information has appeared on electrostatically driven molecular mechanisms of protein self-assembly and formation of aggregates of different morphology, varying from soluble amorphous structures to highly-ordered amyloid-like fibrils. Protein aggregation represents a special tool in biomedicine and biotechnology to produce biological materials for a wide range of applications. This has awakened interest in identification of pH-triggered regulators of transformation of aggregation-prone proteins into structures of higher order. The objective of the present study is to elucidate the effects of low-molecular-weight biogenic agents on aggregation and formation of supramolecular structures of human recombinant insulin, as a model therapeutic protein. Using dynamic light scattering, turbidimetry, circular dichroism, fluorescence spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance, we have demonstrated that the amino acid L-arginine (Arg) has the striking potential to influence insulin aggregation propensity. It was shown that modification of the net charge of insulin induced by changes in the pH level of the incubation medium results in dramatic changes in the interaction of the protein with Arg. We have revealed the dual effects of Arg, highly dependent on the pH level of the solution e suppression or acceleration of the aggregation of insulin at pH 7.0 or 8.0, respectively. These effects can be regulated by manipulating the pH of the environment. The results of this study may be of interest for development of appropriate drug formulations and for the more general insight into the functioning of insulin in living systems, as the protein is known to release by exocytosis from pancreatic beta cells in a pH-dependent manner.
Human β-cell proliferation by promoting Wnt signaling

Carol Wilson
Original article Aly, H. et al. A novel strategy to increase the proliferative potential of adult human β-cells while maintaining their differentiated phenotype. PLoS ONE 2013; 8, e66131
Nature Reviews Endocrinology 2013; 9, 502
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nrendo.2013.130

Islet transplantation for patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus typically requires 2–4 donors for one recipient, whereas use of one donor would minimize the risk of immune rejection. Proliferation of adult β cells in vitro could hold the key to providing one donor for one recipient.

“In previous studies, we found that activation of the Wnt/GSK-3/β-catenin pathway by pharmacologic inhibition of GSK-3 in combination with nutrient activation of mTOR, modestly enhanced human β-cell proliferation in vitro,” says lead researcher Haytham Aly of the Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, MO, USA. “However, expansion of human islets was associated with a loss of insulin content and secretory function.”

In the current study, the researchers aimed to engage canonical and noncanonical Wnt signalling at the receptor level to increase the proliferation of human β cells in vitro, without losing the capacity of the cells to produce and secrete insulin.

The researchers treated cadaver-derived intact human islets with a conditioned medium from L cells that constitutively produce Wnt-3a, R-spondin-3 and Noggin. A similar medium had previously enabled successful proliferation of mouse colonic intestinal epithelial cells. The researchers added inhibitors of ROCK and RhoA to this medium to augment cell survival.

The conditioned medium with the inhibitors lead to ~20-fold proliferation of the human β cells above that with glucose alone. Crucially, treatment with this conditioned medium did not impair glucose-stimulated insulin secretion or decrease insulin content of the cells.

“This novel strategy has clear potential for use in the in vitro expansion of human islets and the subsequent treatment of impaired β-cell functional mass in type 1 diabetes mellitus and type 2 diabetes mellitus,” concludes Aly.

Betatrophin—inducing β-cell expansion to treat diabetes mellitus?

Elisabeth Kugelberg
Original article Yi, P. et al. Betatrophin: a hormone that controls pancreatic β cell proliferation. Cell http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.cell.2013.04.008
Nature Reviews Endocrinology 2013; 9, 379; http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nrendo.2013.98

Betatrophin, a newly identified hormone, increases the production and expansion of insulin-secreting β cells in mice, research from Harvard University suggests.

When insulin resistance develops, pancreatic β cells undergo an expansion in mass and proliferation to compensate for increasing insulin needs. To date, the mechanisms regulating β-cell replication are unclear.

Yi et al. developed a mouse model of insulin resistance using the insulin receptor antagonist S961. Subcutaneous injections of the S961 peptide into mice led to dose-dependent, instant β-cell proliferation and hyperglycemia.

Microarray analysis revealed that a highly conserved mammalian gene, betatrophin, was upregulated fourfold in liver and threefold in white adipose tissue cells in response to the acute peripheral insulin resistance induced by S961.

Yi and coworkers found that Betatrophin encodes a secreted protein that can be detected in human plasma. Intravenous injection of betatrophin-expressing constructs into mice resulted in a 17-fold higher β-cell proliferation rate compared with control vectors, and ultimately led to increased islet size and insulin content, with improvements in glucose tolerance, in betatrophin-injected animals.

The mechanisms of action of betatrophin are still unknown, and the next step is to test the effects of recombinant betatrophin protein on β-cell mass. The authors conclude that the identification of betatrophin and its control of β-cell proliferation opens a new door to possible diabetes therapy.

Blocking RANKL signaling might prevent T2DM

Carol Wilson
Original article Kiechl, S. et al. Blockade of receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB (RANKL) signaling improves hepatic insulin resistance and prevents development of diabetes mellitus. Nat. Med.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nm.3084

Nature Reviews Endocrinology 2013; 9, 188;
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nrendo.2013.43

Blockade of receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL) signaling in hepatocytes protects against type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), report researchers.

“It is well known that activation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) in the liver is a crucial event in the development of hepatic insulin resistance and T2DM,” explains lead author Stefan Kiechl of the Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria. “RANKL, a member of the tumour necrosis factor superfamily, is a potent activator of NF-κB, and its receptor RANK is expressed on liver cells. We, thus, hypothesized that RANKL is involved in hepatic NF-κB activation, leading to T2DM.”

The researchers studied the association between serum levels of soluble RANKL and osteoprotegerin and subsequent risk of developing T2DM in 844 men and women without T2DM aged 40–79 years. Soluble RANKL was assessed because it has been shown to be functionally active.

During follow-up, between 1990 and 2005, 78 individuals of the cohort developed T2DM. Baseline levels of soluble RANKL between individuals who had and had not developed T2DM differed considerably: risk of T2DM was elevated in the group with the top tertile T2DM of concentrations of soluble RANKL compared with the group with the bottom tertile (OR 4.06, 95% CI 2.01–8.20). Adjustment for lifestyle factors and body composition did not significantly affect the risk association. Interestingly, although concentrations of osteoprotegerin were not elevated preceding T2DM onset, as they were for soluble RANKL, increased levels were found in individuals after disease occurrence.

In a series of mouse models in which RANKL signaling was downregulated systemically or in the liver, the investigators showed that hepatic insulin sensitivity and plasma glucose concentrations improved with blockade of RANKL signaling. In one such experiment, mice with a hepatocyte-specific Rank knockout were fed a high-fat diet for 4 weeks. These mice did not develop insulin resistance, whereas control mice did.

The investigators note that medications for T2DM already available, such as metformin, lower RANKL activity in bone and might also lower RANKL activity in the liver. They speculate that RANKL antagonism could be a yet unknown.

SFRP4—a biomarker for islet dysfunction?

Carol Wilson
Original article Mahdi, T. et al. Secreted frizzled-related protein 4 reduces insulin secretion and is overexpressed in type 2 diabetes. Cell Metab. http://doi.org:/10.1016/j.cmet.2012.10.009

Secreted frizzled-related protein 4 (SFRP4) reduces insulin secretion and is a potential biomarker for islet dysfunction in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), report researchers.

Mahdi et al. discovered these insights into the pathophysiology of T2DM by the analysis of global gene expression in human pancreatic islets. The researchers identified a group of co-expressed genes (also called a gene co-expression module) associated with T2DM, reduced insulin secretion and elevated HbA1c levels after analysing global microarray expression data from human islets of 48 individuals, including 10 with T2DM. This module was enriched for IL-1-related genes.

The investigators identified SFRP4 as a gene highly expressed in islets from patients with T2DM. The protein encoded by SFRP4 is an extracellular regulator of the Wnt pathway, and has roles in tissue development, cancer and phosphate metabolism. Further study revealed that the expression and release of SFRP4 from islets was stimulated by IL-1β. Furthermore, elevated systemic SFRP4 levels led to reduced glucose tolerance as a result of decreased islet expression of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels and supressed insulin exocytosis.

Interestingly, levels of SFRP4 were elevated in serum of patients a few years before they developed T2DM, which indicates that this protein has potential to be used as a biomarker for T2DM. The researchers also point out that their data suggest that SFRP4 could be a therapeutic target for the treatment of islet dysfunction.

Add-on to metformin in T2DM —linagliptin or glimepiride?

Mikkel Christensen and Filip K. Knop
Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 2012; 8, 576–578  http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nrendo.2012.163

Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4) inhibitors, also known as gliptins, are a rapidly expanding class of oral antidiabetic drugs for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Since 2006, five DPP4 inhibitors have reached the market and, because they can be administered orally and have an almost impeccable safety profile, these drugs have gained widespread use in the treatment of T2DM. The DPP4 inhibitor linagliptin was approved in 2011 by the FDA and the European Medicines Agency (EMA) for use in patients with T2DM as second-line therapy to add on to metformin either alone or in combination with another second-line treatment.

The UK Prospective Diabetes Study trial showed that sulphonylurea treatment was more effective than metformin treatment after 1 year in terms of reducing HbA1c levels; however, after 6 years of treatment, the effectiveness of sulphonylurea treatment declined and metformin treatment was more effective. A decline in the effectiveness of the sulphonylurea treatment over time could be due to sulphonylureas inducing stress and possibly causing apoptosis in β cells. However, in the trial by Gallwitz et al. the sustained efficacies of the add-on treatments with linagliptin and glimepiride were similar after 2 years.

The inhibitors of DPP4 enhance glucose-dependent insulin secretion and could even augment the counter-regulatory glucagon response to hypoglycemia. DPP4 inhibition generally has a neutral effect upon body weight.

The study by Gallwitz et al. included patients whose plasma glucose levels were near-normal whilst they were receiving metformin monotherapy (baseline level 6–7 mmol/l), which could result in increased occurrence of hypoglycemia. Treating patients whose blood glucose levels were, by many standards, already adequately controlled with metformin with a drug known to be associated with inducing hypoglycemia would be expected to increase the frequency of hypoglycemia in this group, inflating the differences in the frequency of this event between the group receiving linagliptin and that receiving glimepiride.

The most groundbreaking findings in the study by Gallwitz et al. are related to cardiovascular outcomes. Although the study was not adequately powered to detect subtle differences in cardiovascular event frequency, significantly fewer patients who received linagliptin than glimepiride experienced major cardiovascular events (12 versus 26 individuals, respectively). This difference was driven by fewer patients experiencing nonfatal myocardial infarctions and nonfatal strokes in the linagliptin-treated group than in the glimepiride-treated group (9 versus 21 individuals, respectively).

Clinicians are responsible for selecting a suitable second-line treatment for patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus when metformin monotherapy fails. New evidence could aid clinicians in deciding between one of the most commonly used second-line agents, glimepiride, and the recently approved dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitor linagliptin.

Relation of Mitochondrial Oxygen Consumption in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells to Vascular Function in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Mor-Li Hartman, Orian S. Shirihai, Monika Holbrook, Guoquan Xu, et al.
Vasc Med. 2014 February ; 19(1): 67–74. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1177/1358863X14521315.

Recent studies have shown mitochondrial dysfunction and increased production of reactive

oxygen species in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC’s) and endothelial cells from patients with diabetes mellitus. Mitochondria oxygen consumption is coupled to ATP production and also occurs in an uncoupled fashion during formation of reactive oxygen species by components of the electron transport chain and other enzymatic sites. We therefore hypothesized that diabetes would be associated with higher total and uncoupled oxygen consumption in PBMC’s that would correlate with endothelial dysfunction. We developed a method to measure oxygen consumption in freshly isolated PBMC’s and applied it to 26 patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and 28 non-diabetic controls. Basal (192±47 vs. 161±44 pMoles/min, P=0.01), uncoupled (64±16 vs. 53±16 pMoles/min, P=0.007), and maximal (795±87 vs. 715±128 pMoles/min, P=0.01) oxygen consumption rates were higher in diabetic patients compared to controls. There were no significant correlations between oxygen consumption rates and endothelium-dependent flow-mediated dilation measured by vascular ultrasound. Non-endothelium-dependent nitroglycerin-mediated dilation was lower in diabetics (10.1±6.6 vs. 15.8±4.8%, P=0.03) and correlated with maximal oxygen consumption (R= −0.64, P=0.001). In summary, we found that diabetes mellitus is associated with a pattern of mitochondrial oxygen consumption consistent with higher production of reactive oxygen species. The correlation between oxygen consumption and nitroglycerin-mediated dilation may suggest a link between mitochondrial dysfunction and vascular smooth muscle cell dysfunction that merits further study. Finally, the described method may have utility for assessment of mitochondrial function in larger scale observational and interventional studies in humans.

Musashi expression in b-cells coordinates insulin expression, apoptosis and proliferation in response to endoplasmic reticulum stress in diabetes

M Szabat, TB Kalynyak, GE Lim, KY Chu, YH Yang, A Asadi, BK Gage, et al.
Cell Death and Disease (2011) 2, e232
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/cddis.2011.119

Diabetes is associated with the death and dysfunction of insulin-producing pancreatic b-cells. In other systems, Musashi genes regulate cell fate via Notch signaling, which we recently showed regulates b-cell survival. Here we show for the first time that human and mouse adult islet cells express mRNA and protein of both Musashi isoforms, as well Numb/Notch/Hes/neurogenin-3 pathway components. Musashi expression was observed in insulin/glucagon double-positive cells during human fetal development and increased during directed differentiation of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) to the pancreatic lineage. De-differentiation of b-cells with activin A increased Msi1 expression. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress increased Msi2 and Hes1, while it decreased Ins1 and Ins2 expression, revealing a molecular link between ER stress and b-cell dedifferentiation in type 2 diabetes. These effects were independent of changes in Numb protein levels and Notch activation. Overexpression of MSI1 was sufficient to increase Hes1, stimulate proliferation, inhibit apoptosis and reduce insulin expression, whereas Msi1 knockdown had the converse effects on proliferation and insulin expression. Overexpression of MSI2 resulted in a decrease in MSI1 expression. Taken together, these results demonstrate overlapping, but distinct roles for Musashi-1 and Musashi-2 in the control of insulin expression and b-cell proliferation. Our data also suggest that Musashi is a novel link between ER stress and the compensatory b-cell proliferation and the loss of b-cell gene expression seen in specific phases of the progression to type 2 diabetes.

Cooperation between brain and islet in glucose homeostasis and diabetes

Michael W. Schwartz, RJ Seeley, MH Tschöp, SC Woods, et al.
Nature  7 Nov 2013; 503: 59–66          http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature12709

Although a prominent role for the brain in glucose homeostasis was proposed by scientists in the nineteenth century, research throughout most of the twentieth century focused on evidence that the function of pancreatic islets is both necessary and sufficient to explain glucose homeostasis, and that diabetes results from defects of insulin secretion, action or both. However, insulin-independent mechanisms, referred to as ‘glucose effectiveness’, account for roughly 50% of overall glucose disposal, and reduced glucose effectiveness also contributes importantly to diabetes pathogenesis. Although mechanisms underlying glucose effectiveness are poorly understood, growing evidence suggests that the brain can dynamically regulate this process in ways that improve or even normalize glycaemia in rodent models of diabetes. Here we present evidence of a brain-centred glucoregulatory system (BCGS) that can lower blood glucose levels via both insulin-dependent and -independent mechanisms, and propose a model in which complex and highly coordinated interactions between the BCGS and pancreatic islets promote normal glucose homeostasis. Because activation of either regulatory system can compensate for failure of the other, defects in both may be required for diabetes to develop. Consequently, therapies that target the BCGS in addition to conventional approaches based on enhancing insulin effects may have the potential to induce diabetes remission, whereas targeting just one typically does not.

The traditional view holds that diabetes arises as a consequence of damage to, and ultimately failure of, beta-cell function. We propose a two-component model in which failure of glucose homeostasis can begin after initial impairment.

Schematic illustrations of brain- and islet-centred glucoregulatory systems

Schematic illustrations of brain- and islet-centred glucoregulatory systems

Schematic illustrations of brain- and islet-centred glucoregulatory systems
The BCGS is proposed to regulate tissue glucose metabolism and plasma glucose levels via mechanisms that are both insulin dependent (for example, by regulating tissue insulin sensitivity) and insulin independent

Proposed contributions of defective brain- and islet-centred glucoregulatory systems to T2D pathogenesis

Proposed contributions of defective brain- and islet-centred glucoregulatory systems to T2D pathogenesis

Proposed contributions of defective brain- and islet-centred glucoregulatory systems to T2D pathogenesis

Insulin’s discovery: New insights on its ninetieth birthday

Jesse Roth, Sana Qureshi, Ian Whitford, Mladen Vranic, et al.
Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2012; 28: 293–304
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1002/dmrr.2300

2012 marks the 90th year since the purification of insulin and the miraculous rescue from death of youngsters with type 1 diabetes. In this review, we highlight several previously unappreciated or unknown events surroundingthe discovery.
(i) We remind readers of the essential contributions of each of the four discoverers – Banting, Macleod, Collip, and Best.
(ii) Banting and Best (each with his own inner circle) worked not only to accrue credit for himself but also to minimize credit to the other discoverers.
(iii) Banting at the time of the insulin research was very likely suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) that originated during his heroic service as a surgeon in World War I on the Western Front in 1918, including an infected shrapnel wound that threatened amputation of his arm. His war record along with the newly discovered evidence of a suicide threat goes along with his paranoia, combativeness, alcohol excess, and depression, symptoms we associate with PTSD.
(iv) Banting’s eureka idea, ligation of the pancreatic duct to preserve the islets, while it energized the early research, was unnecessary and was bypassed early.
(v) Post discovery,Macleod uncovered many features of insulin action that he summarized in his 1925 Nobel Lecture.Macleod closed by raising the question – what is the mechanism of insulin action in the body? – a challenge that attracted many talented investigators but remained unanswered until the latter third of the 20th century.

Genetic Variants Associated With Glycine Metabolism and Their Role in Insulin Sensitivity and Type 2 Diabetes

Weijia Xie, Andrew R. Wood, Valeriya Lyssenko, Michael N. Weedon, et al.
Diabetes 2013; 62:2141–2150 http://dx.doi.org:/10.2337/db12-0876

Circulating metabolites associated with insulin sensitivity may represent useful biomarkers, but their causal role in insulin sensitivity and diabetes is less certain. We previously identified novel metabolites correlated with insulin sensitivity measured by the hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp. The top-ranking metabolites were in the glutathione and glycine biosynthesis pathways. We aimed to identify common genetic variants associated with metabolites in these pathways and test their role in insulin sensitivity and type 2 diabetes. With 1,004 nondiabetic individuals from the RISC study, we performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of 14 insulin sensitivity–related metabolites and one metabolite ratio. We replicated our results in the Botnia study (n = 342). We assessed the association of these variants with diabetes-related traits in GWAS meta-analyses (GENESIS [including RISC, EUGENE2, and Stanford], MAGIC, and DIAGRAM). We identified four associations with three metabolites—glycine (rs715 at CPS1), serine (rs478093 at PHGDH), and betaine (rs499368 at SLC6A12; rs17823642 at BHMT)—and one association signal with glycine-to-serine ratio (rs1107366 at ALDH1L1). There was no robust evidence for association between these variants and insulin resistance or diabetes. Genetic variants associated with genes in the glycine biosynthesis pathways do not provide consistent evidence for a role of glycine in diabetes related traits.

Fractalkine (CX3CL1), a new factor protecting b-cells against TNFa

Sabine Rutti, Caroline Arous, Domitille Schvartz, Katharina Timper, et al.
MOLMET164_proof ■ 14 Aug 2014 ■ 1/11
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molmet.2014.07.007

Objective: We have previously shown the existence of a muscleepancreas intercommunication axis in which CX3CL1 (fractalkine), a CX3C chemokine produced by skeletal muscle cells, could be implicated. It has recently been shown that the fractalkine system modulates murine β-cell function. However, the impact of CX3CL1 on human islet cells especially regarding a protective role against cytokine-induced apoptosis remains to be investigated. Methods: Gene expression was determined using RNA sequencing in human islets, sorted β- and non-β-cells. Glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) and glucagon secretion from human islets was measured following 24 h exposure to 1e50 ng/ml CX3CL1. GSIS and specific protein phosphorylation were measured in rat sorted β-cells exposed to CX3CL1 for 48 h alone or in the presence of TNFα (20 ng/ml). Rat and human β-cell apoptosis (TUNEL) and rat β-cell proliferation (BrdU incorporation) were assessed after 24 h treatment with increasing concentrations of CX3CL1.   Results: Both CX3CL1 and its receptor CX3CR1 are expressed in human islets. However, CX3CL1 is more expressed in non-β-cells than in b-cells while its receptor is more expressed in β-cells. CX3CL1 decreased human (but not rat) β-cell apoptosis. CX3CL1 inhibited human islet glucagon secretion stimulated by low glucose but did not impact human islet and rat sorted β-cell GSIS. However, CX3CL1 completely prevented the adverse effect of TNFa on GSIS and on molecular mechanisms involved in insulin granule trafficking by restoring the phosphorylation (Akt, AS160, paxillin) and expression (IRS2, ICAM-1, Sorcin, PCSK1) of key proteins involved in these processes. Conclusions: We demonstrate for the first time that human islets express and secrete CX3CL1 and CX3CL1 impacts them by decreasing glucagon secretion without affecting insulin secretion. Moreover, CX3CL1 decreases basal apoptosis of human β-cells. We further demonstrate that CX3CL1 protects β-cells from the adverse effects of TNFa on their function by restoring the expression and phosphorylation of key proteins of the insulin secretion pathway.
Heart Failure, Saxagliptin and Diabetes Mellitus: Observations from the SAVOR – TIMI 53 Randomized Trial

Benjamin M. Scirica; Eugene Braunwald; Itamar Raz, and SAVOR-TIMI 53 Steering Committee and Investigators
Circulation. Sept 4, 2014  http://dx.doi.org:/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.010389
Background—Diabetes and heart failure frequently coexist. However, few diabetes trials have prospectively evaluated and adjudicated heart failure as an endpoint. Methods and Results—16,492 patients with type 2 diabetes and a history of, or at risk for, cardiovascular events were randomized to saxagliptin or placebo (mean followup-2.1 years). The primary endpoint was the composite of cardiovascular death, myocardial infarction, or ischemic stroke. Hospitalization for heart failure was a predefined component of the secondary endpoint. Baseline NT-proBNP was measured in 12,301 patients. More patients treated with saxagliptin (289, 3.5%) were hospitalized for heart failure compared to placebo (228, 2.8%) (HR 1.27; 95%CI 1.07-1.51; p=0.007). Corresponding rates at 12-months were 1.9% vs.1.3% (HR 1.46, 95%CI 1.15-1.88, p=0.002, with no significant difference thereafter time-varying interaction
p=0.017). Subjects at greatest risk for hospitalization for heart failure had prior heart failure, EGFR < 60 ml/min and/or elevated baseline levels of NT-proBNP. There was no evidence of heterogeneity between NT-proBNP and saxagliptin (p for interaction=0.46), though the absolute risk excess for heart failure with saxagliptin was greatest in the highest NT-proBNP quartile (2.1%). Even in patients at high-risk for hospitalization for heart failure, the risk of the primary and secondary endpoints were similar between treatment groups. Conclusions—In the context of balanced primary and secondary endpoints, saxagliptin treatment was associated with an increased risk for hospitalization for heart failure. This increase in risk was highest among patients with elevated levels of natriuretic peptides, prior heart failure, or chronic kidney disease.
Angiotensin 1–7 improves insulin sensitivity by increasing skeletal muscle glucose uptake in vivo

Omar Echeverría-Rodríguez, Leonardo Del Valle-Mondragón, Enrique Hong
Peptides 51 (2014) 26– 30 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2013.10.022

The renin–angiotensin system (RAS) regulates skeletal muscle insulin sensitivity through different mechanisms. The overactivation of the ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme)/Ang (angiotensin) II/AT1R (Ang IItype 1 receptor) axis has been associated with the development of insulin resistance, whereas the stimulation of the ACE2/Ang 1–7/MasR (Mas receptor) axis improves insulin sensitivity. The in vivo mechanismsby which this axis enhances skeletal muscle insulin sensitivity are scarcely known. In this work, we investigated whether rat soleus muscle expresses the ACE2/Ang 1–7/MasR axis and determined the effect ofAng 1–7 on rat skeletal muscle glucose uptake in vivo. Western blot analysis revealed the expression ofACE2 and MasR, while Ang 1–7 levels were detected in rat soleus muscle by capillary zone electrophoresis. The euglycemic clamp exhibited that Ang 1–7 by itself did not promote glucose transport, but itincreased insulin-stimulated glucose disposal in the rat. In a similar manner, captopril (an ACE inhibitor) enhanced insulin-induced glucose uptake and this effect was blocked by the MasR antagonist A-779. Our results show for the first time that rat soleus muscle expresses the ACE2/Ang 1–7/MasR axis of the RAS,and Ang 1–7 improves insulin sensitivity by enhancing insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in rat skeletal muscle in vivo. Thus, endogenous (systemic and/or local) Ang 1–7 could regulate insulin-mediated glucose transport in vivo.

Evolving concepts in advanced glycation, diabetic nephropathy, and diabetic vascular disease

George Jerums, S Panagiotopoulos, J Forbes, T Osicka, and Mark Cooper
Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 419 (2003) 55–62
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.abb.2003.08.017

Advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) have been postulated to play a role in the development of both nephropathy and large vessel disease in diabetes. However, it is still not clear which AGE subtypes play a pathogenetic role and which of several AGE receptors mediate AGE effects on cells. This review summarises the renoprotective effect of inhibitors of AGE formation, including aminoguanidine, and of cross-link breakers, including ALT-711, on experimental diabetic nephropathy and on mesenteric vascular hypertrophy. It also demonstrates similar effects of aminoguanidine and ramipril (an angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor) on fluorescent and immunoassayable AGE levels, renal protein kinase C activity, nitrotyrosine expression, lysosomal function, and protein handling in experimental diabetes. These findings indicate that inhibition of the renin angiotensin system blocks both upstream and downstream pathways leading to tissue injury. We postulate that the chemical pathways leading to advanced glycation endproduct formation and the renin angiotensin systems may interact through the generation of free radicals, induced both by glucose and angiotensin II. There is also evidence to suggest that AGE-dependent pathways may play a role in the development of tubulointerstitial fibrosis in the diabetic kidney. This effect is mediated through RAGE and is TGF-b and CTGF-dependent.

Preconditioning with Associated Blocking of Ca2+ Inflow Alleviates Hypoxia-Induced Damage to Pancreatic β-Cells

Zuheng Ma, Noah Moruzzi, Sergiu-Bogdan Catrina, Ingrid Hals, et al.
PLoS ONE 8(7): e67498. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1371/journal.pone.0067498

Objective: Beta cells of pancreatic islets are susceptible to functional deficits and damage by hypoxia. Here we aimed to characterize such effects and to test for and pharmacological means to alleviate a negative impact of hypoxia. Methods and Design: Rat and human pancreatic islets were subjected to 5.5 h of hypoxia after which functional and viability parameters were measured subsequent to the hypoxic period and/or following a 22 h re-oxygenation period. Preconditioning with diazoxide or other agents was usually done during a 22 h period prior to hypoxia. Results: Insulin contents decreased by 23% after 5.5 h of hypoxia and by 61% after a re-oxygenation period. Preconditioning with diazoxide time-dependently alleviated these hypoxia effects in rat and human islets. Hypoxia reduced proinsulin biosynthesis (3H-leucine incorporation into proinsulin) by 35%. Preconditioning counteracted this decrease by 91%. Preconditioning reduced hypoxia-induced necrosis by 40%, attenuated lowering of proteins of mitochondrial complexes I–IV and enhanced stimulation of HIF-1-alpha and phosphorylated AMPK proteins. Preconditioning by diazoxide was abolished by co-exposure to tolbutamide or elevated potassium (i.e. conditions which increase Ca2+ inflow). Preconditioning with nifedipine, a calcium channel blocker, partly reproduced effects of diazoxide. Both diazoxide and nifedipine moderately reduced basal glucose oxidation whereas glucose-induced oxygen consumption (tested with diazoxide) was unaffected. Preconditioning with diaxoxide enhanced insulin contents in transplants of rat islets to nondiabetic rats and lowered hyperglycemia vs. non-preconditioned islets in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Preconditioning of human islet transplants lowered hyperglycemia in streptozotocin-diabetic nude mice.
Conclusions:
1) Prior blocking of Ca2+ inflow associates with lesser hypoxia-induced damage,
2) preconditioning affects basal mitochondrial metabolism and accelerates activation of hypoxia-reactive and potentially protective factors,
3) results indicate that preconditioning by K+-ATP-channel openers has therapeutic potential for islet transplantations.

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Adrenal Cortex

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Adrenal Cortex

Writer and Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

 

 

Anatomy of the Adrenal Glands

The adrenal glands are two, triangular-shaped organs that measure about 1.5 inches in height and 3 inches in length. They are located on top of each kidney. Their name directly relates to their location (ad—near or at; renes—kidneys).

Each adrenal gland is comprised of two distinct structures—the outer part of the adrenal glands is called the adrenal cortex. The inner region is known as the adrenal medulla.

Hormones of the Adrenal Glands

The adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla have very different functions. One of the main distinctions between them is that the hormones released by the adrenal cortex are necessary for life; those secreted by the adrenal medulla are not.

Adrenal Cortex Hormones

Typically, endocrinologists classify steroid hormones into five groups of molecules, based primarily on the receptor to which they bind:

Glucocorticoids; cortisol is the major representative in most mammals

Mineralocorticoids; aldosterone being most prominent

Androgens such as testosterone

Estrogens, including estrodiol and estrone

Progestogens (also known a progestins) such as progesterone

Corticosteroids: The class of chemicals that includes the steroid hormones that are produced in the adrenal cortex of vertebrates, and synthetic analogues of these hormones. They are involved in the stress response, immune response, and regulation of inflammation, carbohydrate metabolism, protein catabolism, blood electrolyte levels, and behavior.

The adrenal cortex produces two main groups of corticosteroid hormones—glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids. The release of glucocorticoids is triggered by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. Mineralocorticoids are mediated by signals triggered by the kidney.

When the hypothalamus produces corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH), it stimulates the pituitary gland to release adrenal corticotrophic hormone (ACTH). These hormones, in turn, alert the adrenal glands to produce corticosteroid hormones.

Glucocorticoids such as cortisol control carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism, and are anti-inflammatory.

Glucocorticoids released by the adrenal cortex include:

Hydrocortisone: Commonly known as cortisol regulates how the body converts fats, proteins, and carbohydrates to energy. It also helps regulate blood pressure and cardiovascular function.

Corticosterone: This hormone works with hydrocortisone to regulate immune response and suppress inflammatory reactions.

Mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone control electrolyte and water levels, mainly by promoting sodium retention in the kidney, thereby maintaining the right balance of salt and water while helping control blood pressure.

There is a third class of hormone released by the adrenal cortex in small amounts is sex steroids or sex hormones – primarily released by the testes or ovaries
(estrogen and testosterone) under the influence of gonadotrophic hormone.
http://www.endocrineweb.com/endocrinology/overview-adrenal-glands

Class of Steroid Major Representative Physiologic Effects
Mineralocorticoids Aldosterone Na+, K+ and water homeostasis
Glucocorticoids Cortisol Glucose homeostasis and many others

Adrenal Corticosteroids Animation
http://www.muschealth.com/video/Default.aspx?cId=5

Like all steroids, adrenal “corticosteroids” are synthesized from cholesterol through a series of enzyme-mediated transformations. The details of these pathways are presented elsewhere, but the major branches are easy to understand.

steroid synthesis

steroid synthesis

http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/adrenal/stersyn.gif

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corticosteroid

Steroidogenesis

The basic cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene ring structure and carbon numbering system of all steroid hormones is depicted to the right, using pregnenolone as an example. Pregnenolone is an example of what is called a “C-21 steroid” because it has 21 carbons. Similarly, a steroid such as testosterone (see below) is referred to as a “C-19 steroid”.

pregnenolone

pregnenolone

http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/basics/pregnenolone.gif

Common name “Old” name Current name
Side-chain cleavage enzyme; desmolase P450SCC CYP11A1
3 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 3 beta-HSD 3 beta-HSD
17 alpha-hydroxylase/17,20 lyase P450C17 CYP17
21-hydroxylase P450C21 CYP21A2
11 beta-hydroxylase P450C11 CYP11B1
Aldosterone synthase P450C11AS CYP11B2
Aromatase P450aro CYP19

Biosynthesis of steroid hormones requires a battery of oxidative enzymes located in both mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum. The rate-limiting step in this process is the transport of free cholesterol from the cytoplasm into mitochondria. Within mitochondria, cholesterol is converted to pregnenolone by an enzyme in the inner membrane called CYP11A1. Pregnenolone itself is not a hormone, but is the immediate precursor for the synthesis of all of the steroid hormones. The following table delineates the enzymes required to synthesize the major classes of steroid hormones.

The biosynthetic pathways for major representatives of these classes of steroid hormones is depicted in the following diagram.

major pathways of steroid synthesis

major pathways of steroid synthesis

http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/basics/steroidogenesis.gif

Target-specific utilization of transcriptional regulatory surfaces by the glucocorticoid receptor

Inez Rogatsky, Jen-Chywan Wang, Mika K. Derynck, Daisuke F. Nonaka, et al.
PNAS [1] Nov 25, 2003; 100(24): 13845–13850
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2336092100

The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) activates or represses transcription depending on the sequence and architecture of the glucocorticoid response elements in target genes and the availability and activity of interacting cofactors. Numerous GR cofactors have been identified, but they alone are insufficient to dictate the specificity of GR action. Furthermore, the role of different functional surfaces on the receptor itself in regulating its targets is unclear, due in part to the paucity of known target genes. Using DNA microarrays and real-time quantitative PCR, we identified genes transcriptionally activated by GR, in a translation-independent manner, in two human cell lines. We then assessed in U2OS osteosarcoma cells the consequences of individually disrupting three GR domains, the N-terminal activation function (AF) 1, the C-terminal AF2, or the dimer interface, on activation of these genes. We found that GR targets differed in their requirements for AF1 or AF2, and that the dimer interface was dispensable for activation of some genes in each class. Thus, in a single cell type, different GR surfaces were used in a gene-specific manner. These findings have strong implications for the nature of gene response element signaling, the composition and structure of regulatory complexes, and the mechanisms of context-specific transcriptional regulation.

Promoter-specific relevance of histone modifications induced by dexamethasone during the regulation of pro-inflammatory mediators

Linda Palma, Stefano Amatori, Ivan Cruz Chamorroa, Mirco Fanelli, Mauro Magnani
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1839 (2014) 571–578
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbagrm.2014.05.006

Glucocorticosteroids (GCs) are widely used to treat different kinds of chronic inflammatory and immune diseases through transcriptional regulation of inflammatory genes.
Modulation of gene expression by GCs is known to occur through diverse mechanisms of varying relevance to specific classes of genes. Epigenetic modifications are indeed a pivotal regulatory feature of glucocorticoid receptor and other transcription factors.
In this study, histone post-translational modifications were investigated for their involvement in the regulation of selected pro-inflammatory genes – expressed in human monocyte-derived macrophages – in response to treatment with synthetic GC dexamethasone (DEX). We show that histone tail acetylation status is modified following DEX administration, through distinct and alternative mechanisms at the promoters of interleukin-8 and interleukin-23. In addition to histone H3 acetylation, our results demonstrate that H3 lysine 4 trimethylation is affected following drug treatment.
The CYP11B subfamily

Lina Schiffer, S Anderko, F Hannemann, A Eiden-Plach, R Bernhardt
Journal of Steroid Biochemistry & Molecular Biology xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2014.10.011

The biosynthesis of steroid hormones is dependent on P450-catalyzed reactions. In mammals, cholesterol is the common precursor of all steroid hormones, and its conversion to pregnenolone is the initial and rate-limiting step in hormone biosynthesis in steroidogenic tissues such as gonads and adrenal glands. The production of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids takes place in the adrenal gland and the final steps are catalyzed by 2 mitochondrial cytochromes P450, CYP11B1 (11b-hydroxylase or P45011b) and CYP11B2 (aldosterone synthase or P450aldo). The occurrence and development of these 2 enzymes in different species, their contribution to the biosynthesis of steroid hormones as well as their regulation at different levels (gene expression, cellular regulation, regulation on the level of proteins) is the topic of this chapter
Two-pore domain potassium channels in the adrenal cortex

Sascha Bandulik, Philipp Tauber, Enzo Lalli, Jacques Barhanin & Richard Warth
Pflugers Arch – Eur J Physiol Oct 2014
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1007/s00424-014-1628-6

The physiological control of steroid hormone secretion from the adrenal cortex depends on the function of potassium channels. The “two-pore domain K+ channels” (K2P) TWIK-related acid sensitive K+ channel 1 (TASK1), TASK3, and TWIK-related K+ channel 1 (TREK1) are strongly expressed in adrenocortical cells. They confer a background K+ conductance to these cells which is important for the K+ sensitivity as well as for angiotensin II and adrenocorticotropic hormone-dependent stimulation of aldosterone and cortisol synthesis. Mice with single deletions of the Task1 or Task3 gene as well as Task1/Task3 double knockout mice display partially autonomous aldosterone synthesis. It appears that TASK1 and TASK3 serve different functions: TASK1 affects cell differentiation and prevents expression of aldosterone synthase in the zona fasciculata, while TASK3 controls aldosterone secretion in glomerulosa cells. TREK1 is involved in the regulation of cortisol secretion in fasciculata cells. These data suggest that a disturbed function of K2P channels could contribute to adrenocortical pathologies in humans.

Visinin-like peptide 1 in adrenal gland of the rat. Gene expression andits hormonal control

Marcin Trejter, A Hochol, M Tyczewska, A Ziolkowska, K Jopek, et al.
Peptides 63 (2015) 22–29
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2014.10.017

tVSNL1 encodes the calcium-sensor protein visinin-like 1 and was identified previously as an upregulated gene in a sample set of aldosterone-producing adenomas. Recently, by means of microarray studies we demonstrated high expression of Vsnl1 gene in rat adrenal zona glomerulosa (ZG).  Only scanty data are available on the role of this gene in adrenal function as well as on regulation of its expression by factors affecting adrenal cortex structure and function. Therefore we performed relevant studies aimed at clarifying some of the above issues. By Affymetrix®Rat Gene 1.1 ST Array Strip, QPCR and immunohistochemistry we demonstrated that expression levels of Vsnl1 in the rat adrenal ZG are notably higher than in the fasciculata/reticularis zone. In QPCR assay this difference was approximately 10 times higher. Expression of this gene in the rat adrenal gland or adrenocortical cells was acutely down regulated by ACTH, while chronic administration of corticotrophin or dexamethasone did not change Vsnl1 mRNAlevels. In enucleation-induced adrenocortical regeneration expression levels of both Vsnl1 and Cyp11β2 were notably lowered and positively correlated. Despite these findings, the physiological significance of adrenal Vsnl1 remains unclear, and requires further investigation.
Sox2 Acts in a Dose-Dependent Fashion to Regulate Proliferation of Cortical Progenitors

Daniel W. Hagey, Jonas Muhr
Hagey & Muhr, 2014, Cell Reports 9, 1908–1920
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2014.11.013

Hagey and Muhr show that high levels of Sox2 maintain stem cells of the developing cortex in a slowly self-renewing state by directly repressing cell-cycle genes. They further demonstrate that proneural protein-induced commitment to differentiation induces a rapidly dividing state via the reduction of Sox2 expression levels.

A slow-cycling stem cell state is demarcated by high levels of Sox2 in the cortex

Proneural bHLHs repress Sox2 levels as a prerequisite to commit cells to proliferation

Regulatory DNA regions interpret Sox2 levels via high- and low affinity motifs

Sox2 represses Cyclin D1 in synergy with Tcf/Lef through the recruitment of Gro/Tle
reduction of Sox2 expression

reduction of Sox2 expression

reduction of Sox2 expression

Silencing diacylglycerol kinase-theta expression reduces steroid hormone biosynthesis and cholesterol metabolism in human adrenocortical cells

Kai Cai, Natasha C. Lucki, Marion B. Sewer
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1841 (2014) 552–562
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbalip.2013.12.005

Diacylglycerol kinase theta (DGKθ) plays a pivotal role in regulating adrenocortical steroidogenesis by synthesizing the ligand for the nuclear receptor steroidogenic factor 1 (SF1). In response to activation of the cAMP signaling cascade nuclear DGK activity is rapidly increased, facilitating PA-mediated, SF1-dependent transcription of genes required for cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) biosynthesis. Based on our previous work identifying DGKθ as the enzyme that produces the agonist for SF1, we generated a tetracycline-inducible H295R stable cell line to express a short hairpin RNA (shRNA) against DGKθ and characterized the effect of silencing DGKθ on adrenocortical gene expression. Genome-wide DNA microarray analysis revealed that silencing DGKθ expression alters the expression of multiple genes, including steroidogenic genes, nuclear receptors and genes involved in sphingolipid, phospholipid and cholesterol metabolism. Interestingly, the expression of sterol regulatory element binding proteins (SREBPs) was also suppressed. Consistent with the suppression of SREBPs, we observed a down-regulation of multiple SREBP target genes, including 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaric coenzyme A reductase (HMG-CoA red) and CYP51, concomitant with a decrease in cellular cholesterol. DGKθ knockdown cells exhibited a reduced capacity to metabolize PA, with a down-regulation of lipin and phospholipase D (PLD) isoforms. In contrast, suppression of DGKθ increased the expression of several genes in the sphingolipid metabolic pathway, including acid ceramidase (ASAH1) and sphingosine kinases (SPHK). In summary, these data demonstrate that DGKθ plays an important role in steroid hormone production in human adrenocortical cells.
Origin of the response to adrenal and sex steroids: Roles of promiscuity and co-evolution of enzymes and steroid receptors

Michael E. Baker, David R. Nelson, Romain A. Studer
Journal of Steroid Biochemistry & Molecular Biology xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2014.10.020

Many responses to adrenal and sex steroids are mediated by receptors that belong to the nuclear receptor family of transcription factors. We investigated the co-evolution of these vertebrate steroid receptors and the enzymes that synthesize adrenal and sex steroids through data mining of genomes from cephalochordates [amphioxus], cyclostomes [lampreys, hagfish], chondrichthyes [sharks, rays, skates], actinopterygii [ray-finned fish], sarcopterygii [coelacanths, lungfishes and terrestrial vertebrates]. An ancestor of the estrogen receptor and 3-ketosteroid receptors evolved in amphioxus. A corticoid receptor and a progesterone receptor evolved in cyclostomes, and an androgen receptor evolved in gnathostomes. Amphioxus contains CYP11, CYP17, CYP19, 3b/D5–4-HSD and 17b-HSD14, which suffice for the synthesis of estradiol and D5-androstenediol. Amphioxus also contains CYP27, which catalyzes the synthesis of 27-hydroxy-cholesterol, another estrogen. Lamprey contains, in addition, CYP21, which catalyzes the synthesis of 11-deoxycortisol. Chondrichthyes contain, in addition, CYP11A, CYP11C, CYP17A1, CYP17A2. Coelacanth also contains CYP11C1, the current descendent from a common ancestor with modern land vertebrate CYP11B genes, which catalyze the synthesis of cortisol, corticosterone and aldosterone. Interestingly, CYP11B2, aldosterone synthase, evolved from separate gene duplications in at least old world monkeys and two suborders of rodents. Sciurognathi (including mice and rats) and Hystricomorpha (including guinea pigs). Thus, steroid receptors and steroidogenic enzymes co-evolved at key transitions in the evolution of vertebrates. Together, this suite of receptors and enzymes through their roles in transcriptional regulation of reproduction, development, homeostasis and the response to stress contributed to the evolutionary diversification of vertebrates. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled ‘Steroid/Sterol signaling’.
Stress and glucocorticoid receptor-dependent mechanisms in long-term memory: From adaptive responses to psychopathologies

Charles Finsterwald, Cristina M. Alberini
Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 112 (2014) 17–29
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2013.09.017

A proper response against stressors is critical for survival. In mammals, the stress response is primarily mediated by secretion of glucocorticoids via the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical (HPA) axis and release of catecholamines through adrenergic neurotransmission. Activation of these pathways results in a quick physical response to the stress and, in adaptive conditions, mediates long-term changes in the brain that lead to the formation of long-term memories of the experience. These long-term memories are an essential adaptive mechanism that allows an animal to effectively face similar demands again. Indeed, a moderate stress level has a strong positive effect on memory and cognition, as a single arousing or moderately stressful event can be remembered for up to a lifetime. Conversely, exposure to extreme, traumatic, or chronic stress can have the opposite effect and cause memory loss, cognitive impairments, and stress-related psychopathologies such as anxiety disorders, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). While more effort has been devoted to the understanding of the negative effects of chronic stress, much less has been done thus far on the identification of the mechanisms engaged in the brain when stress promotes long-term memory formation. Understanding these mechanisms will provide critical information for use in ameliorating memory processes in both normal and pathological conditions. Here, we will review the role of glucocorticoids and glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) in memory formation and modulation. Furthermore, we will discuss recent findings on the molecular cascade of events underlying the effect of GR activation in adaptive levels of stress that leads to strong, long-lasting memories. Our recent data indicate that the positive effects of GR activation on memory consolidation critically engage the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) pathway. We propose and will discuss the hypothesis that stress promotes the formation of strong long-term memories because the activation of hippocampal GRs after learning is coupled to the recruitment of the growth and pro-survival BDNF/cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) pathway, which is well-known to be a general mechanism required for long-term memory formation. We will then speculate about how these results may explain the negative effects of traumatic or chronic stress on memory and cognitive functions.

Autophagy in the endocrine glands

Andrea Weckman, Antonio Di Ieva, Fabio Rotondo, Luis V Syro, Leon D Ortiz, et al.
Journal of Molecular Endocrinology (2014) 52, R151–R163
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1530/JME-13-0241

Autophagy is an important cellular process involving the degradation of intracellular components. Its regulation is complex and while there are many methods available, there is currently no single effective way of detecting and monitoring autophagy. It has several cellular functions that are conserved throughout the body, as well as a variety of different physiological roles depending on the context of its occurrence in the body. Autophagy is also involved in the pathology of a wide range of diseases. Within the endocrine system, autophagy has both its traditional conserved functions and specific functions. In the endocrine glands, autophagy plays a critical role in controlling intracellular hormone levels. In peptide-secreting cells of glands such as the pituitary gland, crinophagy, a specific form of autophagy, targets the secretory granules to control the levels of stored hormone. In steroid-secreting cells of glands such as the testes and adrenal gland, autophagy targets the steroid-producing organelles. The dysregulation of autophagy in the endocrine glands leads to several different endocrine diseases such as diabetes and infertility. This review aims to clarify the known roles of autophagy in the physiology of the endocrine system, as well as in various endocrine diseases.
Angiotensin IV stimulates high atrial stretch-induced ANP secretionvia insulin regulated aminopeptidase

Byung Mun Park, Seung Ah Cha, Bo Ram Han, Suhn Hee Kim
Peptides 63 (2015) 30–37
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2014.10.016

tAngiotensin IV (Ang IV) is formed by aminopeptidase N (APN) from angiotensin III (Ang III) by remov-ing the first N-terminal amino acid. Previouslt, we reported that angiotensin II (Ang II) inhibits atrialnatriuretic peptide (ANP) secretion via angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1R). In contrast, angiotensin-(1–7) [Ang-(1–7)] and Ang III stimulate ANP secretion via Mas receptor (Mas R) and angiotensin II type 2receptor (AT2R), respectively. However, it is not known whether there is any relationship between AngIV and ANP secretion. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to determine the effect of Ang IV onANP secretion and to find its downstream signaling pathway using in isolated perfused beating atria. AngIV (0.1, 1 and 10 [1]M) stimulated high atrial stretch-induced ANP secretion and ANP concentration in adose-dependent manner. The augmented effect of Ang IV (1 [1]M) on high atrial stretch-induced ANP secre-tion and concentration was attenuated by pretreatment with insulin-regulated aminopeptidase (IRAP)antagonist but not by AT1R or AT2R antagonist. Pretreatment with inhibitors of downstream signalingpathway including phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (Akt) and mammalian targetof rapamycin (mTOR) blocked Ang IV-induced ANP secretion and concentration. Therefore, these results suggest that Ang IV stimulates ANP secretion and concentration via IRAP and PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway.
Adrenal cortex tissue homeostasis and zonation: A WNT perspective

Coralie Drelon, Annabel Berthon, Mickael Mathieu, Antoine Martinez, Pierre Val
Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology ■■ (2015) ■■–■■
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2014.12.014

The adrenal cortex plays essential roles in the control of sodium and water homeostasis, stress response, inflammation and metabolism, through secretion of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids. Coordinated production of these hormones relies on functional zonation of the cortex, characterized by expression of Cyp11b2 under the control of angiotensin II and plasma potassium level in zona glomerulosa (ZG) and Cyp11b1 under the control of ACTH in zona fasciculata (ZF). The mechanisms involved in the establishment of functional zonation and its maintenance during centripetal cortex cell renewal are still poorly understood. Here, we hypothesize that the hormonal and signaling pathways that control adrenal cortex function are also involved in cortical zonation. In particular, we summarize evidence on the role of WNT/β-catenin signaling in ZG differentiation and how tight control of its activity is required to shape the adult cortex. In this context, we discuss the potential role of known WNT regulators and the possibility of a reciprocal cross-talk between PKA and WNT signaling.
Acute and chronic stress induced changes in sensitivity of peripheral inflammatory pathways to the signals of multiple stress systems — 2011 Curt Richter Award Winner

Nicolas Rohleder
Psychoneuroendocrinology (2012) 37, 307—316
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.12.015

Exposure to psychosocial stress has been associated with increasing rates of morbidity in humans and in animal models, but the underlying mechanisms are not completely understood. Major stress responsive systems, such as the hypothalamus-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis and the autonomic nervous system (ANS) are under investigation as underlying pathways, but although acute stress reliably activates these systems, findings of long-term alternations in baseline activity are inconsistent at present. Emerging evidence suggests that stress-related changes in the sensitivity of target systems toward glucocorticoid (GC) regulation, i.e. development of GC resistance, might help explain inflammatory disinhibition and development of disease related to inflammation. More recent findings further show that the autonomic nervous system might play an important role in the regulatory control of the inflammatory cascade. The major argument put forward in this manuscript is that target tissues for stress system modulation, such as the inflammatory cascade, vary in their ability to respond to stress system signaling, and that assessing alterations in this stress signal sensitivity which can be caused by stress or disease processes, might be necessary to understand and explain stress effects on health. This review focuses on the inflammatory system in particular, because anti-inflammatory effects of most stress systems have been documented, but the general assumption might have to be generalized to other target systems. The main conclusion to be made is that reduction in glucocorticoid sensitivity of target tissues is the most consistent finding at present, and that assessing such changes in glucocorticoid sensitivity might be necessary to understand many stress-related changes in physiology.

Adrenal insufficiency

Evangelia Charmandari, Nicolas C Nicolaides, George P Chrousos
The Lancet  Jun 21, 2014; 383: 2152-2167
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61684-0

Adrenal insufficiency is the clinical manifestation of deficient production or action of glucocorticoids, with or without deficiency also in mineralocorticoids and adrenal androgens. It is a life-threatening disorder that can result from primary adrenal failure or secondary adrenal disease due to impairment of the hypothalamic–pituitary axis. Prompt diagnosis and management are essential. The clinical manifestations of primary adrenal insufficiency result from deficiency of all adrenocortical hormones, but they can also include signs of other concurrent autoimmune conditions. In secondary or tertiary adrenal insufficiency, the clinical picture results from glucocorticoid deficiency only, but manifestations of the primary pathological disorder can also be present. The diagnostic investigation, although well established, can be challenging, especially in patients with secondary or tertiary adrenal insufficiency. We summarize knowledge at this time on the epidemiology, causal mechanisms, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and management of this disorder.

Molecular immunopathogenesis of primary adrenal insufficiency

A persistent subclinical viral infection or an aberrant response to inflammatory stressors could cause adrenocortical cell apoptosis or necrosis, leading to dendritic-cell activation by cellular components, including peptides derived from 21-hydroxylase. After activation, dendritic cells transport and present adrenocortical antigens to CD4-positive T-helper-1 (Th1) cells within the local draining lymph node. Activated specific CD4-positive Th1 cells could provide help for the activation and clonal expansion of cytotoxic lymphocytes and autoreactive B cells producing anti-21-hydroxylase and other antibodies. The continuing progressive destruction of adrenal cortex is mediated by several different mechanisms: direct cytotoxicity by apoptosis-inducing cytotoxic lymphocytes via perforin and granzyme B or by the FasL-Fas pathway; direct cytotoxicity by interferon-γ and lymphotoxin-α secreted by CD4-positive Th1 cells; autoantibody-induced activation of the complement system or antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity; cytotoxic effects of inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α [TNFα], interleukin-1β) and free radicals (nitric oxide, superoxide) released by monocytes and macrophages or by the adrenocortical cells themselves.

1-Phenylsulfinyl-3-(pyridin-3-yl)naphthalen-2-ols: A new class of potent and selective aldosterone synthase inhibitors

Cornelia M. Grombein, Qingzhong Hu, Ralf Heim, Sabrina Rau, Christina Zimmer
European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 89 (2015) 597e605
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmech.2014.10.027

1-Phenylsulfinyl-3-(pyridin-3-yl)naphthalen-2-ols and related compounds were synthesized and evaluated for inhibition of aldosterone synthase (CYP11B2), a potential target for cardiovascular diseases associated with elevated plasma aldosterone levels like congestive heart failure and myocardial fibrosis. Introduction of substituents at the phenylsulfinyl moiety and changes of the substitution pattern at the naphthalene core were examined. Potent compounds were further examined for selectivity versus other important steroidogenic CYP enzymes, i.e. the highly homologous 11b-hydroxylase (CYP11B1), CYP17 and CYP19. The most potent compound (IC50 ¼ 14 nM) discovered was the meta-trifluoromethoxy derivative 11, which also exhibited excellent selectivity toward CYP11B1 (SF ¼ 415), and showed no inhibition of CYP17 and CYP19.

Structural bisphenol analogues differentially target steroidogenesis in murine MA-10 Leydig cells as well as the glucocorticoid receptor

Maarke J.E. Roelofs, M van den Berg, TFH Bovee, AH Piersma, MBM van Duursen
Toxicology 329 (2015) 10–20
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2015.01.003

Although much information on the endocrine activity of bisphenol A (BPA) is available, a proper human hazard assessment of analogues that are believed to have a less harmful toxicity profile is lacking. Here the possible effects of BPA, bisphenol F (BPF), bisphenol S (BPS), as well as the brominated structural analogue and widely used flame retardant tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) on human glucocorticoid and androgen receptor (GR and AR) activation were assessed. BPA, BPF, and TBBPA showed clear GR and AR antagonism with IC50 values of 67 mM, 60 mM, and 22 nM for GR, and 39mM, 20 mM, and 982 nM for AR, respectively, whereas BPS did not affect receptor activity. In addition, murine MA-10 Leydig cells exposed to the bisphenol analogues were assessed for changes in secreted steroid hormone levels. Testicular steroidogenesis was altered by all bisphenol analogues tested. TBBPA effects were more directed towards the male end products and induced testosterone synthesis, while BPF and BPS predominantly increased the levels of progestogens that are formed in the beginning of the steroidogenic pathway. The MA-10 Leydig cell assay shows added value over the widely used H295R steroidogenesis assay because of its fetal-like characteristics and specificity for the physiologically more relevant testicular D4 steroidogenic pathway. Therefore, adding an in-vitro assay covering fetal testicular steroidogenesis, such as the MA-10 cell line, to the panel of tests used to screen potential endocrine disruptors, is highly recommendable.
Preclinical Assessment for Selectively Disrupting a Traumatic Memory via Postretrieval Inhibition of Glucocorticoid Receptors

Stephen M. Taubenfeld, Justin S. Riceberg, Antonia S. New, and Cristina M. Alberini
Biol Psychiatry 2009; 65:249–257
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.07.005

Background: Traumatic experiences may lead to debilitating psychiatric disorders including acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. Current treatments for these conditions are largely ineffective, and novel therapies are needed. A cardinal symptom of these pathologies is the reexperiencing of the trauma through intrusive memories and nightmares. Studies in animal models indicate that memories can be weakened by interfering with the postretrieval restabilization process known as memory reconsolidation. We previously reported that, in rats, intraamygdala injection of the glucocorticoid receptor antagonist RU38486 disrupts the reconsolidation of a traumatic memory. Here we tested parameters important for designing novel clinical protocols targeting the reconsolidation of a traumatic memory with RU38486.
Methods: Using rat inhibitory avoidance, we tested the efficacy of postretrieval systemic administration of RU38486 on subsequent memory retention and evaluated several key preclinical parameters.
Results: Systemic administration of RU38486 before or after retrieval persistently weakens inhibitory avoidance memory retention in a dose-dependent manner, and memory does not reemerge following a footshock reminder. The efficacy of treatment is a function of the intensity of the initial trauma, and intense traumatic memories can be disrupted by changing the time and number of interventions. Furthermore, one or two treatments are sufficient to disrupt the memory maximally. The treatment selectively targets the reactivated memory without interfering with the retention of another nonreactivated memory.
Conclusions: RU38486 is a potential novel treatment for psychiatric disorders linked to traumatic memories. Our data provide the parameters for designing promising clinical trials for the treatment of flashback-type symptoms of PTSD.

Maternal PTSD associates with greater glucocorticoid sensitivity in offspring of Holocaust survivors

Amy Lehrner, Linda M. Bierer, Vincent Passarelli, et al.
Psychoneuroendocrinology (2014) 40, 213—220
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.11.019

Intergenerational effects of trauma have been observed clinically in a wide range of populations, and parental PTSD has been associated with an increased risk for psychopathology in offspring. In studies of Holocaust survivor offspring, parental PTSD, and particularly maternal PTSD, has been associated with increased risk for PTSD, low basal urinary cortisol excretion and enhanced cortisol suppression in response to dexamethasone. Such findings implicate maternally derived glucocorticoid programming in the intergenerational transmission of trauma-related consequences, potentially resulting from in utero influences or early life experiences. This study investigated the relative influence of Holocaust exposure and PTSD in mothers and fathers on glucocorticoid sensitivity in offspring. Eighty Holocaust offspring and 15 offspring of non-exposed Jewish parents completed evaluations and provided blood and urine samples. Glucocorticoid sensitivity was evaluated using the lysozyme suppression test (LST), an in vitro measure of glucocorticoid receptor sensitivity in a peripheral tissue, the dexamethasone suppression test (DST), and 24-h urinary cortisol excretion. Maternal PTSD was associated with greater glucocorticoid sensitivity in offspring across all three measures of glucocorticoid function. An interaction of maternal and paternal PTSD on the DSTand 24-h urinary cortisol showed an effect of decreased glucocorticoid sensitivity in offspring with paternal, but not maternal, PTSD. Although indirect, these findings are consistent with the hypothesis that epigenetic programming may be involved in the intergenerational transmission of trauma-related effects on glucocorticoid regulation.

Marked Cortisol Production by Intracrine ACTH in GIP Treated Cultured Adrenal Cells in Which the GIP Receptor Was Exogenously Introduced

Hiroko Fujii, M Tamamori-Adachi, K Uchida, T Susa, T Nakakura, et al.
PLOS ONE Oct 2014;9(10):e110543
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1371/journal.pone.0110543

The ectopic expression of the glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor (GIPR) in the human adrenal gland causes significant hypercortisolemia after ingestion of each meal and leads to Cushing’s syndrome, implying that human GIPR activation is capable of robustly activating adrenal glucocorticoid secretion. In this study, we transiently transfected the human GIPR expression vector into cultured human adrenocortical carcinoma cells (H295R) and treated them with GIP to examine the direct link between GIPR activation and steroidogenesis. Using quantitative RT-PCR assay, we examined gene expression of steroidogenic related proteins, and carried out immunofluorescence analysis to prove that forced GIPR overexpression directly promotes production of steroidogenic enzymes CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 at the single cell level. Immunofluorescence showed that the transfection efficiency of the GIPR gene in H295R cells was approximately 5%, and GIP stimulation enhanced CYP21A2 and CYP17A1 expression in GIPR-introduced H295R cells (H295R-GIPR). Interestingly, these steroidogenic enzymes were also expressed in the GIPR (–) cells adjacent to the GIPR (+) cells. The mRNA levels of a cholesterol transport protein required for all steroidogenesis, StAR, and steroidogenic enzymes, HSD3b2, CYP11A1, CYP21A2, and CYP17A1 increased 1.2-2.1-fold in GIP-stimulated H295R-GIPR cells. These changes were reflected in the culture medium in which 1.5-fold increase in the cortisol concentration was confirmed. Furthermore, the levels of adenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) receptor and ACTH precursor proopiomelanocortin (POMC) mRNA were upregulated 2- and 1.5-fold, respectively. Immunofluorescence showed that ACTH expression was detected in GIP-stimulated H295RGIPR cells. An ACTH-receptor antagonist significantly inhibited steroidogenic gene expression and cortisol production. Immunostaining for both CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 was attenuated in cells treated with ACTH receptor antagonists as well as with POMC siRNA. These results demonstrated that GIPR activation promoted production and release of ACTH, and that steroidogenesis is activated by endogenously secreted ACTH following GIP administration, at least in part, in H295R cells.

Improvements in body composition, cardiometabolic risk factors and insulin sensitivity with trenbolone in normogonadic rats

Daniel G. Donner, BR Beck, AC Bulmer, AK Lam, EF Du Toit, et al.
Steroids 94 (2015) 60–69
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.steroids.2014.12.017

Trenbolone (TREN) is used for anabolic growth-promotion in over 20 million cattle annually and continues to be misused for aesthetic purposes in humans. The current study investigated TREN’s effects on body composition and cardiometabolic risk factors; and its tissue-selective effects on the cardiovascular system, liver and prostate. Male rats (n = 12) were implanted with osmotic infusion pumps delivering either cyclodextrin vehicle (CTRL) or 2 mg/kg/day TREN for 6 weeks. Dual-energy X-ray Absorptiometry assessment of body composition; organ wet weights and serum lipid profiles; and insulin sensitivity were assessed. Cardiac ultrasound examinations were performed before in vivo studies assessed myocardial susceptibility to ischemia–reperfusion (I/R) injury. Circulating sex hormones and liver enzyme activities; and prostate and liver histology were examined. In 6 weeks, fat mass increased by 34 ± 7% in CTRLs (p < 0.01). Fat mass decreased by 37 ± 6% and lean mass increased by 11 ± 4% with TREN (p < 0.05). Serum triglycerides, HDL and LDL were reduced by 62%, 57% and 78% (p < 0.05) respectively in TREN rats. Histological examination of the prostates from TREN-treated rats indicated benign hyperplasia associated with an increased prostate mass (149% compared to CTRLs, p < 0.01). No evidence of adverse cardiac or hepatic effects was observed. In conclusion, improvements in body composition, lipid profile and insulin sensitivity (key risk factors for cardiometabolic disease) were achieved with six-week TREN treatment without evidence of adverse cardiovascular or hepatic effects that are commonly associated with traditional anabolic steroid misuse. Sex hormone suppression and benign prostate hyperplasia were confirmed as adverse effects of the treatment.
Gender-dependent changes in hematological parameters in patients with Cushing’s disease before and after remission 

Ambrogio, A.G., De Martin, M., Ascoli, P., Cavagnini, F., Giraldi, F.P

European Journal of Endocrinology Mar 2014; 170(3): 393-400

Objective: Glucocorticoids stimulate several steps in red blood cell (RBC) development; however, little is known on changes in erythroid parameters in patients with Cushing’s disease. The aim of this study was to assess both RBC and white blood cell (WBC) parameters in a large cohort of patients with Cushing’s disease and report on alterations in the active phase and after surgical remission. Design and methods: A total of 80 patients with Cushing’s disease (63 women and 17 men) were studied before and for up to 254 months’ follow-up (mean follow-up 65.8±6.71 months) after pituitary/adrenal surgery. Details of blood counts were reviewed and compared with data obtained from a database of healthy subjects. Results: The RBC counts and hemoglobin levels were low in men with active Cushing’s disease (over 80% of values in the lowest quartile) and four patients were overtly anemic, whereas erythrocyte counts and hemoglobin levels were evenly distributed across the normal range in women with active Cushing’s disease. Low erythroid parameters were linked to hypogonadism in men with Cushing’s disease. Recovery in erythroid parameters occurred slowly after remission of hypercortisolism in men, in parallel with improvements in testosterone levels. Over 50% of patients with active disease presented increased WBC counts, irrespective of gender, and prompt normalization within 1 month after surgery. Conclusions: Male patients with Cushing’s disease present reduced RBC counts and hemoglobin levels, associated with low testosterone concentrations, which resolve over time after remission of hypercortisolism. Anemia should therefore be regarded as another unfavorable feature in men with Cushing’s disease.
Myopathies of endocrine disorders: A prospective clinical and biochemical study

Sharma, V., Borah, P., Basumatary, L.J., (…), Goswami, M., Kayal, A.K
Annals of Indian Academy of Neurology 2014; 17 (3), pp. 298-302
http://dx.doi.org:/10.4103/0972-2327.138505

Introduction: Major categories of endocrine myopathy include those associated with: Adrenal dysfunction (as in Cushing’s disease or steroid myopathy); thyroid dysfunction (as in myxedema coma or thyrotoxic myopathy); vitamin D deficiency; parathyroid dysfunction; and pituitary dysfunction. Steroid myopathy is the most common endocrine myopathy. Objective: To study the etiology, varied presentations, and outcome after therapy of patients with endocrine myopathies. Materials and Methods: Myopathy was evaluated by the standard clinical procedures: Detailed clinical history, manual muscle strength testing, and creatine phosphokinase (CPK). Endocrine disorders were diagnosed as per clinical features and biochemical parameters. The treatment was given to patients as per underlying endocrine disease. Myopathy was assessed before and after treatment. Results: Out of the 37 patients who were diagnosed with endocrine myopathies, thyroid dysfunction was the most common cause (17 cases), followed by vitamin D deficiency in nine, adrenal dysfunction in six, parathyroid dysfunction in three, and pituitary dysfunction in two. Some patients had atypical presentation (repeated falls in one, tongue fasciculations in one, neck weakness in five, one with ptosis and facial weakness, asymmetrical onset in one, and calf hypertrophy in one. The serum creatine kinase (CK) concentration did not correlate with muscle weakness. Following the treatment regimen which was specific for a given myopathy, 26 patients recovered fully. Conclusion: We found varied clinical presentations of endocrine myopathies. All the patients with neuromuscular complaints should be investigated for endocrine causes because significant number of them recovers fully with specific treatment.
Human Sterol Regulatory Element-Binding Protein 1a Contributes Significantly to Hepatic Lipogenic Gene Expression

Andreas Bitter, Andreas K. Nüssler, Wolfgang E. Thasler, Kathrin Klein, et al.
Cell Physiol Biochem 2015;35:803-815
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1159/000369739

Background/Aims: Sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP) 1, the master regulator of lipogenesis, was shown to be associated with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, which is attributed to its major isoform SREBP1c. Based on studies in mice, the minor isoform SREBP1a is regarded as negligible for hepatic lipogenesis. This study aims to elucidate the expression and functional role of SREBP1a in human liver. Methods: mRNA expression of both isoforms was quantified in cohorts of human livers and primary human hepatocytes. Hepatocytes were treated with PF-429242 to inhibit the proteolytic activation of SREBP precursor protein. SREBP1a-specific and pan-SREBP1 knock-down were performed by transfection of respective siRNAs. Lipogenic SREBP-target gene expression was analyzed by real-time RT-PCR. Results: In human liver, SREBP1a accounts for up to half of the total SREBP1 pool. Treatment with PF-429242 indicated SREBP-dependent auto-regulation of SREBP1a, which however was much weaker than of SREBP1c. SREBP1a-specific knock-down also reduced significantly the expression of SREBP1c and of SREBP-target genes. Regarding most SREBP-target genes, simultaneous knock-down of both isoforms resulted in effects of only similar extent as SREBP1a-specific knock-down. Conclusion: We here showed that SREBP1a is significantly contributing to the human hepatic SREBP1 pool and has a share in human hepatic lipogenic gene expression.
Greater glucocorticoid receptor activation in hippocampus of aged rats sensitizes microglia

Ruth M. Barrientos, Vanessa M. Thompson, Meagan M. Kitt, Jose Amat, et al.
Neurobiology of Aging xxx (2015) 1e13
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.12.003

Healthy aging individuals are more likely to suffer profound memory impairments following an immune challenge than are younger adults. These challenges produce a brain inflammatory response that is exaggerated with age. Sensitized microglia found in the normal aging brain are responsible for this amplified response, which in turn interferes with processes involved in memory formation. Here, we examine factors that may lead aging to sensitize microglia. Aged rats exhibited higher corticosterone levels in the hippocampus, but not in plasma, throughout the daytime (diurnal inactive phase). These elevated hippocampal corticosterone levels were associated with increased hippocampal 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 protein expression, the enzyme that catalyzes glucocorticoid formation and greater hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor (GR) activation. Intracisternal administration of mifepristone, a GR antagonist, effectively reduced immune-activated proinflammatory responses, specifically from hippocampal microglia and prevented Escherichia coli induced memory impairments in aged rats. Voluntary exercise as a therapeutic intervention significantly reduced total hippocampal GR expression. These data strongly suggest that increased GR activation in the aged hippocampus plays a critical role in sensitizing microglia.
Glucocorticoid Receptor-Mediated Cell Cycle Arrest Is Achieved through Distinct Cell-Specific Transcriptional Regulatory Mechanisms

Inez Rogatsky, Janet M. Trowbridge, and Michael J. Garabedian
Molecular and Cellular Biology, Jun 1997; 17(6): 3181–3193

Glucocorticoids inhibit proliferation of many cell types, but the events leading from the activated glucocorticoid receptor (GR) to growth arrest are not understood. Ectopic expression and activation of GR in human osteosarcoma cell lines U2OS and SAOS2, which lack endogenous receptors, result in a G1 cell cycle arrest. GR activation in U2OS cells represses expression of the cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) CDK4 and CDK6 as well as their regulatory partner, cyclin D3, leading to hypophosphorylation of the retinoblastoma protein (Rb). We also demonstrate a ligand-dependent reduction in the expression of E2F-1 and c-Myc, transcription factors involved in the G1-to-S-phase transition. Mitogen-activated protein kinase, CDK2, cyclin E, and the CDK inhibitors (CDIs) p27 and p21 are unaffected by receptor activation in U2OS cells. The receptor’s N-terminal transcriptional activation domain is not required for growth arrest in U2OS cells. In Rb-deficient SAOS2 cells, however, the expression of p27 and p21 is induced upon receptor activation. Remarkably, in SAOS2 cells that express a GR deletion derivative lacking the N-terminal transcriptional activation domain, induction of CDI expression is abolished and the cells fail to undergo ligand-dependent cell cycle arrest. Similarly, murine S49 lymphoma cells, which, like SAOS2 cells, lack Rb, require the N-terminal activation domain for growth arrest and induce CDI expression upon GR activation. These cell-type-specific differences in receptor domains and cellular targets linking GR activation to cell cycle machinery suggest two distinct regulatory mechanisms of GR-mediated cell cycle arrest: one involving transcriptional repression of G1 cyclins and CDKs and the other involving enhanced transcription of CDIs by the activated receptor.
Glucocorticoid receptor binds half sites as a monomer and regulates specific target genes

Benjamin J Schiller, R Chodankar, LC Watson, MR Stallcup and KR Yamamoto
Genome Biology 2014; 15:418 http://genomebiology.com/2014/15/7/418

Background: Glucocorticoid receptor (GR) is a hormone-activated, DNA-binding transcriptional regulatory factor that controls inflammation, metabolism, stress responses, and other physiological processes. In vitro, GR binds as an inverted dimer to a motif consisting of two imperfectly palindromic 6 bp half sites separated by 3 bp spacers. In vivo, GR employs different patterns of functional surfaces of GR to regulate different target genes. The relationships between GR genomic binding and functional surface utilization have not been defined. Results: We find that A477T, a GR mutant that disrupts the dimerization interface, differs from wild-type GRα in binding and regulation of target genes. Genomic regions strongly occupied by A477T are enriched for a novel half site motif. In vitro, GRα binds half sites as a monomer. Through the overlap between GRα- and A477T-bound regions, we identify GRα-bound regions containing only half sites. We further identify GR target genes linked with half sites and not with the full motif. Conclusions: Genomic regions bound by GR differ in underlying DNA sequence motifs and in the GR functional surfaces employed for regulation. Identification of GR binding regions that selectively utilize particular GR surfaces may discriminate sub-motifs, including the half site motif, that favor those surfaces. This approach may contribute to predictive models for GR activity and therapy.
Cortisol responses to chronic stress in adult macaques: Moderation by a polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene

Dongdong Qina, Joshua Rizaka, Xiaoli Feng, Shangchuan Yang, Lichuan Yang
Behavioural Brain Research 278 (2015) 280–285
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2014.10.001

Accumulating evidence has shown that a polymorphism in the promoter region of the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) moderates the association between stress and depressive symptoms. However, the exact etiologies underlying this moderation are not well understood. Here it is reported that among adult female rhesus macaques, an orthologous polymorphism (rh5-HTTLPR) exerted an influence on cortisol responses to chronic stress. It was found that females with two copies of the short allele were associated with increased cortisol responses to chronic stress in comparison to their counterparts who have one or two copies of the long allele. In the absence of stress, no differences related to genotype were observed in these females. This genetic moderation was found without a genetic influence on exposure to stressful situations. Rather it was found to be a genetic modulation of cortisol responses to chronic stress. These findings indicate that the rh5-HTTLPR polymorphism is closely related to hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis reactivity, which may increase susceptibility to depression in females with low serotonin transporter efficiency and a history of stress.
Downregulation of the glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper (GILZ) promotes vascular inflammation

Rebecca T. Hahn, Jessica Hoppstädter, Kerstin Hirschfelder, Nina Hachenthal, et al.
Atherosclerosis 234 (2014) 391e400
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.03.028

Objective: Glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper (GILZ) represents an anti-inflammatory mediator, whose downregulation has been described in various inflammatory processes. Aim of our study was to decipher the regulation of GILZ in vascular inflammation. Approach and results: Degenerated aortocoronary saphenous vein bypass grafts (n = 15), which exhibited inflammatory cell activation as determined by enhanced monocyte chemoattractrant protein 1 (MCP-1, CCL2) and Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) expression, showed significantly diminished GILZ protein and mRNA levels compared to healthy veins (n = 23). GILZ was also downregulated in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and macrophages upon treatment with the inflammatory cytokine TNF-α in a tristetraprolin (ZFP36, TTP)- and p38 MAPK-dependent manner. To assess the functional implications of decreased GILZ expression, we determined NF-kB activation after GILZ knockdown by siRNA and found that NF-kB activity and inflammatory gene expression were significantly enhanced. Importantly, ZFP36 is induced in TNF-α-activated HUVEC as well as in degenerated vein bypasses. When atheroprotective laminar shear stress was employed, GILZ levels in HUVEC increased on mRNA and protein level. Laminar flow also counteracted TNF-α-induced ZFP36 expression and GILZ downregulation. MAP kinase phosphatase 1 (MKP-1, DUSP1), a negative regulator of ZFP36 expression, was distinctly upregulated under laminar shear stress conditions and downregulated in degenerated vein bypasses. Conclusion: Our data show a diminished expression of the anti-inflammatory mediator GILZ in the inflamed vasculature and indicate that GILZ downregulation requires the mRNA binding protein ZFP36. We suggest that reduced GILZ levels play a role in cardiovascular disease.
Effects of Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibition or Angiotensin Receptor Blockade in Dialysis Patients: A Nationwide Data Survey and Propensity Analysis

Cho-Kai Wu, Yao-Hsu Yang,  Jyh-Ming Jimmy Juang, et al.
Medicine Jan 2015; 94(3): 1-7  Medicine 94(3):e424)
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1097/MD.0000000000000424

Long-term benefit of using a renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system blocker (an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI), or an angiotensin II receptor blocker (ARB)) for patients already receiving dialysis remains undetermined. The aim of this study is to assess the efficacy and safety of ACEI or ARB use in dialysis patients. We performed a population-based cohort study with time-to-event analyses to estimate the relation between the use of ACEI/ARB and their outcomes. We used a nationwide database (Registry for Catastrophic Illnesses) for Taiwan, which has data from 1995 to 2008 nearly of all patients who received dialysis therapy. The records of all dialysis patients aged 18 with no evidence of cardiovascular (CV) events in 1997 and 1998 (133,564 patients) were examined. Users (n=50,961) and nonusers (n=59,913) of an ACEI/ARB were derived. We then used propensity score matching and Cox proportional hazards regression models to estimate adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) for all-cause mortality and CV events in users and nonusers of an ACRI/ARB. The 15,182 patients, who used an ACEI/ARB, and the 15,182 nonusers had comparable baseline characteristics during the 14 years of follow-up. The mortality was significantly greater in patients who did not use an ACEI/ARB (HR=0.90, 95% CI=0.86–0.93). Subgroup analysis of 3 tertiles of patients who used different total amounts of ACEI/ARB during the study period indicated that CV events were more common in patients who used an ACEI/ARB for a short duration (tertile 1: HR=1.63), but less common in those who used an ACEI/ARB for long durations (tertile 2: HR=1.05; tertile 3: HR=0.94; trend for declining HR from tertile 1 to 3: P<0.001). The mortality benefit provided by use of an ACEI/ARB was consistent across most patient subgroups, as was the benefit of ARB monotherapy rather than ACEI monotherapy. Independent of traditional risk factors, overall mortality was significantly lower in dialysis patients who used an ACEI/ARB. In addition, subjects who used an ACEI/ARB for longer durations were significantly less likely to experience CV events.
Adrenal CYP11B1/2 expression in primary aldosteronism: Immunohistochemical analysis using novel monoclonal antibodies

Yasuhiro Nakamura, Takashi Maekawa, Saulo J.A. Felizola, Fumitoshi Satoh, et al.
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1842 (2014) 2601–2609
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbadis.2014.05.036

CYP11B1 and CYP11B2 play pivotal roles in adrenocorticosteroids synthesis. We performed semiquantitative immunohistochemical analysis of these proteins in adrenals from patients with primary aldosteronism using novel monoclonal antibodies. Clusters of cortical cells positive for CYP11B2 were detected in the zona glomerulosa (ZG) of normal adrenal gland (NA), idiopathic hyperaldosteronism (IHA) and the adjacent adrenal of aldosterone-producing adenoma (APA). In APA, heterogenous immunolocalization of CYP11B2 and diffuse immunoreactivity of CYP11B1 were detected in tumor cells, respectively. The relative immunoreactivity of CYP11B2 in the ZG of adjacent adrenal of APA was significantly lower than that of NA, IHA and APA tumor cells, suggestive of suppressed aldosterone biosynthesis in these cells. These findings did indicate the regulatory mechanisms of aldosterone biosynthesis were different between normal/hyperplastic and neoplastic aldosterone-producing cells in human adrenals. CYP11B2 immunoreactivity in the ZG could also serve as a potential immunohistochemical marker differentiating morphologically hyperplastic ZG of IHA and APA adjacent adrenal.

Aldosterone signaling and soluble adenylyl cyclase—A nexus for the kidney and vascular endothelium

Boris Schmitz, Stefan-Martin Brand, Eva Brand
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1842 (2014) 2601–2609
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbadis.2014.05.036

The steroid hormone aldosterone regulates the reabsorption of water and ions in the kidney and plays a central role in blood pressure regulation and homeostasis. In recent years, the vascular endothelium has been established as an important aldosterone target organ with major implications in renal and cardiovascular health and disease. Different lines of evidence suggest that the calcium- and bicarbonate-activated soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) is a novel mediator of aldosterone signaling in both the kidney and vascular endothelium. This review summarizes our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms of sAC gene expression regulation in the kidney and vascular endothelium and outlines the potential clinical implications of sAC in chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. This review is part of a special issue entitled: The role of soluble adenylyl cyclase in health and disease. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: The role of soluble adenylyl cyclase in health and disease.

Trenbolone enhances myogenic differentiation by enhancing β-catenin signaling in muscle-derived stem cells of cattle

J.-X. Zhao, J. Hu, M.-J. Zhu, M. Du

Domestic Animal Endocrinology 40 (2011) 222–229

http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.domaniend.2011.01.004

Testosterone is a key hormone regulating animal growth and development, which promotes skeletal muscle growth and inhibits fat deposition; however, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly defined. Because canonical Wingless and Int/β-catenin signaling promotes myogenesis, we hypothesized that testosterone regulates myogenesis through enhancing the β-catenin signaling pathway and the expression of its targeted genes. Muscle-derived stem cells were prepared from the skeletal muscle of fetal calf at day 180 of gestation and treated with or without trenbolone (10 nM), a synthetic analog of testosterone, in a myogenic medium. Trenbolone treatment increased the protein levels of MyoD and myosin heavy chain, as well as the androgen receptor content. The myogenic effect of trenbolone was blocked by cyproterone acetate, a specific inhibitor of androgen receptor, showing that the myogenic effect of trenbolone was mediated by the androgen receptor. Immunoprecipitation showed that androgen receptor and  -catenin formed a complex, which was increased by trenbolone treatment. Trenbolone activated adenosine monophosphate–activated protein kinase, which might phosphorylate β-catenin at Ser552, stabilizing  -catenin. Indeed, both cytoplasmic and nuclear Testosterone is a key hormone regulating animal growth and development, which promotes skeletal muscle growth and inhibits fat deposition; however, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly defined. Because canonical Wingless and Int/β-catenin signaling promotes myogenesis, we hypothesized that testosterone regulates myogenesis through enhancing the β-catenin signaling pathway and the expression of its targeted genes. Muscle-derived stem cells were prepared from the skeletal muscle of fetal calf at day 180 of gestation and treated with or without trenbolone (10 nM), a synthetic analog of testosterone, in a myogenic medium. Trenbolone treatment increased the protein levels of MyoD and myosin heavy chain, as well as the androgen receptor content. The myogenic effect of trenbolone was blocked by cyproterone acetate, a specific inhibitor of androgen receptor, showing that the myogenic effect of trenbolone was mediated by the androgen receptor. Immunoprecipitation showed that androgen receptor and β-catenin formed a complex, which was increased by trenbolone treatment. Trenbolone activated adenosine monophosphate–activated protein kinase, which might phosphorylate  β-catenin at Ser552, stabilizing β-catenin. Indeed, both cytoplasmic and nuclear β-catenin levels were increased after trenbolone treatment. As a result, β-catenin–mediated transcriptional activity was enhanced by trenbolone treatment. In conclusion, these data provide evidence that testosterone increases cellular β-catenin content which promotes the expression of β-catenin–targeted genes and myogenesis in the muscle-derived stem cells of cattle. β-catenin levels were increased after trenbolone treatment. As a result, β-catenin–mediated transcriptional activity was enhanced by trenbolone treatment. In conclusion, these data provide evidence that testosterone increases cellular β-catenin content which promotes the expression of β-catenin–targeted genes and myogenesis in the muscle-derived stem cells of cattle.
Strategic combination therapy overcomes tyrosine kinase coactivation in adrenocortical carcinoma

Chi-Iou Lin, Edward E. Whang, Jacob Moalem, and Daniel T. Ruan
Surgery 2012; 152:1045-50.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.surg.2012.08.035

Background. Coactivation of tyrosine kinase limits the efficacy of tyrosine kinase inhibitors. We hypothesized that a strategic combination therapy could overcome tyrosine kinase coactivation and compensatory oncogenic signaling in patients with adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC). Methods. We profiled 88 tyrosine kinases before and after treatment with sunitinib in H295R and SW13 ACC cells. The effects of monotherapy and strategic combination regimens were determined by the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium (ie, MTS) assay. Results. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (ICmin) of sunitinib quenched its primary targets: FLT-3, VEGFR-2, and RET. In contrast, ERK, HCK, Chk2, YES, CREB, MEK, MSK, p38, FGR, and AXL were hyperactivated. Monotherapy with sunitinib or PD98059 at their ICmin reduced proliferation by 23%and 19%, respectively, in H295R cells and by 25% and 24%, respectively, in SW13 cells. Sunitinib and PD98059 in combination decreased proliferation by 68% and 64% in H295R and in SW13 cells, respectively (P < .05 versus monotherapy). The effects of combination treatment exceeded the sum of the effects observed with each individual agent alone. Conclusion. We describe the first preclinical model to develop strategic combination therapy to overcome tyrosine kinase coactivation in ACC. Because many tyrosine kinase inhibitors are readily available, this model can be immediately tested in clinical trials for patients with advanced ACC.
Silencing diacylglycerol kinase-theta expression reduces steroid hormone biosynthesis and cholesterol metabolism in human adrenocortical cells

Kai Cai, Natasha C. Lucki, Marion B. Sewer
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1841 (2014) 552–562
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbalip.2013.12.005

Diacylglycerol kinase theta (DGKθ) plays a pivotal role in regulating adrenocortical steroidogenesis by synthesizing the ligand for the nuclear receptor steroidogenic factor 1 (SF1). In response to activation of the cAMP signaling cascade nuclear DGK activity is rapidly increased, facilitating PA-mediated, SF1-dependent transcription of genes required for cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) biosynthesis. Based on our previous work identifying DGKθ as the enzyme that produces the agonist for SF1, we generated a tetracycline-inducible H295R stable cell line to express a short hairpin RNA (shRNA) against DGKθ and characterized the effect of silencing DGKθ on adrenocortical gene expression. Genome-wide DNA microarray analysis revealed that silencing DGKθ expression alters the expression of multiple genes, including steroidogenic genes, nuclear receptors and genes involved in sphingolipid, phospholipid and cholesterol metabolism. Interestingly, the expression of sterol regulatory element binding proteins (SREBPs) was also suppressed. Consistent with the suppression of SREBPs, we observed a down-regulation of multiple SREBP target genes, including 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutary coenzyme A reductase (HMG-CoA red) and CYP51, concomitant with a decrease in cellular cholesterol. DGKθ knockdown cells exhibited a reduced capacity to metabolize PA, with a down-regulation of lipin and phospholipase D (PLD) isoforms. In contrast, suppression of DGKθ increased the expression of several genes in the sphingolipid metabolic pathway, including acid ceramidase (ASAH1) and sphingosine kinases (SPHK). In summary, these data demonstrate that DGKθ plays an important role in steroid hormone production in human adrenocortical cells.
RRM1 modulates mitotane activity in adrenal cancer cells interfering with its metabolization

Antonina Germano, I Rapa, M Volante, S De Francia, C Migliore, et al.
Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 401 (2015) 105–110
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2014.11.027

The anti-proliferative activity of mitotane (o,p′DDD) in adrenocortical cancer is mediated by its metabolites o,p′DDE and o,p′DDA. We previously demonstrated a functional link between ribonucleotide reductase M1 (RRM1) expression and o,p′DDD activity, but the mechanism is unknown. In this study we assessed the impact of RRM1 on the bioavailability and cytotoxic activity of o,p′DDD, o,p′DDE and o,p′DDA in SW13 and H295R cells. In H295R cells, mitotane and its metabolites showed a similar cytotoxicity and RRM1 expression was not influenced by any drug. In SW13 cells, o,p′DDA only showed a cytotoxic activity and did not modify RRM1 expression, whereas the lack of sensitivity to o,p′DDE was associated to RRM1 gene up-modulation, as already demonstrated for o,p′DDD. RRM1 silencing in SW13 cells increased the intracellular transformation of mitotane into o,p′DDE and o,p′DDA. These data demonstrate that RRM1 gene interferes with mitotane metabolism in adrenocortical cancer cells, as a possible mechanisms of drug resistance.
New options in the treatment of Cushing’s disease: a focus on pasireotide

Anne-Gaëlle Poullot, Nicolas Chevalier
Research and Reports in Endocrine Disorders 2013:3 31–38
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/RRED.S30972

Cushing’s disease is caused by a corticotroph pituitary adenoma secreting adrenocorticotropin and can be fatal in the absence of adequate treatment. Transsphenoidal surgery remains the treatment of choice in almost all cases. However, remission rates are relatively low, and recurrence is usual and can be diagnosed up to decades after the initial diagnosis. Repeat surgery or radiation can be useful in these cases, although both have clear limitations with respect to efficacy and/or side effects. Hence, there is a clear unmet need for an effective medical treatment in patients with recurrent or persistent Cushing’s disease. Pasireotide is a novel multireceptor-targeted somatostatin analog with a high affinity for somatostatin receptor (sstr)-1, sstr-2, sstr-3, and sstr-5. Compared with octreotide, pasireotide has an in vitro binding affinity 40-fold higher for sstr-5, which is the major receptor subtype expressed  by corticotroph pituitary adenoma. Recent studies have suggested a role for this new multireceptor somatostatin analog in Cushing’s disease. We review in this article the current data available regarding pharmacokinetics, clinical efficiency, and tolerance of pasireotide in patients with de novo, persistent, or recurrent Cushing’s disease, with a special focus on the disturbances of glucose metabolism induced by such a treatment.

Optimal management of Cushing syndrome

Edgar G Durán-Pérez, OT Moreno-Loza, G Carrasco-Tobón, A Segovia-Palomo
Research and Reports in Endocrine Disorders 2012:2 19–30
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/RRED.S25345

Cushing syndrome (CS) caused by endogenous hypercortisolism is a diagnostic challenge. The most common cause is Cushing disease. Surgical treatment is the first-line therapy for Cushing disease. However, due to the often clinical instability of the patient’s condition, which needs acute treatment of hypercortisolism or inoperable tumors, initial surgery is often not possible. It is therefore important to provide appropriate initial medical treatment. Following surgery, the patient needs to be evaluated and confirmed for disease resolution based on standard criteria, and treated with appropriate supportive measures for the rest of life if necessary. This article reviews the current data and treatment options for Cushing syndrome and proposes a therapeutic algorithm for its optimal management.

Cytotoxic activity of gemcitabine, alone or in combination with mitotane, in adrenocortical carcinoma cell lines

Antonina Germano, Ida Rapa, Marco Volante, Nicola Lo Buono, et al.
Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 382 (2014) 1–7
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2013.08.023

We aimed at investigating in vitro the cytotoxic activity (determined using WST-1, apoptosis and cell cycle assays) of gemcitabine, alone or in combination with mitotane, in mitotane-sensitive H295R and mitotane-insensitive SW-13 cells. Results of these experiments were compared with drug-induced modulation of RRM1 gene, the specific target of gemcitabine. In H295R cells, mitotane and gemcitabine combinations showed antagonistic effects and interfered with the gemcitabine-mediated inhibition of the S phase of the cell cycle. By contrast, in SW-13 cells, except  when mitotane was sequentially administered prior to gemcitabine, the combination of the two drugs was synergistic. Such opposite effects were associated with opposite expression profiles of the target gene, with significant up-modulation in H295R but not in SW-13 under gemcitabine and mitotane combination treatment.

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