Epilogue: Volume 4 – Translational, Post-Translational and Regenerative Medicine in Cardiology
- Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author and Curator, Volume Four, Co-Editor
- Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC, Content Consultant for Series A: Cardiovascular Diseases
- Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN, Co-Editor of Volume Four and Editor-in-Chief, BioMed e-Series
This completes Chapter 4 in two parts on the most dynamic developments in the regulatory pathways guiding cardiovascular dynamics and function in health and disease. I have covered key features of these in two summaries, so I shall try to look further into important expected future directions and their anticipated implications.
1. Mechanisms of Disease
Signal Transduction: Akt Phosphorylates HK-II at Thr-473 and Increases Mitochondrial HK-II Association to Protect Cardiomyocytes
David J. Roberts, Valerie P. Tan-Sah, Jeffery M. Smith and Shigeki Miyamoto
J. Biol. Chem. 2013, 288:23798-23806. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1074/jbc.M113.482026
Backgound: Hexokinase II binds to mitochondria and promotes cell survival.
Results: Akt phosphorylates HK-II but not the threonine 473 mutant. The phosphomimetic T473D mutant decreases its dissociation from mitochondria induced by G-6P and increases cell viability against stress.
Conclusion: Akt phosphorylates HK-II at Thr-473, resulting in increased mitochondrial HK-II and cell protection.
Significance: The Akt-HK-II signaling nexus is important in cell survival.
HK-II Phosphorylation
It has been demonstrated that an increased level of HK-II at mitochondria is protective and is increased by protective interventions but decreased under stress.
It has not been fully determined which molecular signals regulate the level of HK-II at mitochondria.
Thr-473 in HK-II is phosphorylated by Akt and this phosphorylation leads to increases in mitochondrial HK-II binding through inhibition of G-6P-dependent dissociation, conferring resistance to oxidative stress (Fig. 7).
Overexpression of WTHK-II increases mitochondrial HK-II and confers protection against hydrogen peroxide, which is enhanced significantly in HK-II T473D-expressing cells, whereas NHK-II, lacking the ability to bind to mitochondria, does not confer protection. Conversely, mitochondrial HK-II from mitochondria (Fig.6, A and B) inhibits the IGF-1-mediated increase in mitochondrial HK-II and cellular protection. Similar dose-dependent curves were obtained in mitochondrial HK-II against stress (15–25).
Gene Expression and Genetic Variation in Human Atria
Honghuang Lin PhD, Elena V. Dolmatova MD, Michael P. Morley, PhD, Kathryn L. Lunetta PhD, David D. McManus MD, ScM, et al.
Heart Rhythm 2013 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hrthm.2013.10.051
Background— The human left and right atria have different susceptibilities to develop atrialfibrillation (AF). However, the molecular events related to structural and functional changes that
enhance AF susceptibility are still poorly understood.
Objective— To characterize gene expression and genetic variation in human atria.
Results— We found that 109 genes were differentially expressed between left and right atrial tissues. A total of 187 and 259 significant cis-associations between transcript levels and genetic
variants were identified in left and right atrial tissues, respectively. We also found that a SNP at a known AF locus, rs3740293, was associated with the expression of MYOZ1 in both left and right
atrial tissues.
Conclusion— We found a distinct transcriptional profile between the right and left atrium, and extensive cis-associations between atrial transcripts and common genetic variants. Our results
implicate MYOZ1 as the causative gene at the chromosome 10q22 locus for AF.
Long-Term Caspase Inhibition Ameliorates Apoptosis, Reduces Myocardial Troponin-I Cleavage, Protects Left Ventricular Function, and Attenuates Remodeling in Rats With Myocardial Infarction
Y. Chandrashekhar, Soma Sen, Ruth Anway, Allan Shuros, Inder Anand,
J Am Col Cardiol 2004; 43(2) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2003.09.026
This study was designed to evaluate whether in vivo caspase inhibition can prevent myocardial contractile protein degradation, improve myocardial function, and attenuate ventricular remodeling.
Apoptosis is thought to play an important role in the development and progression of heart failure (HF) after a myocardial infarction (MI). However, it is not known whether inhibiting apoptosis can attenuate left ventricular (LV) remodeling and minimize systolic dysfunction.
A 28-day infusion of caspase inhibitor was administeredimmediately after an anterior MI. In addition, five sham-operated rats given the caspase inhibitor were compared with 17 untreated sham-operated animals to study effects in non-MI rats. Left ventricular function, remodeling parameters, and hemodynamics were studied four weeks later. Myocardial caspase 3 activation and troponin-I contractile protein cleavage were studied in the non-infarct, remote LV myocardium using Western blots. Apoptosis was assessed using immunohistochemistry for activated caspase-positive cells as well as the TUNEL method. Collagen volume was estimated using morphometry.
Caspase inhibition reduced myocardial caspase 3 activation. This was accompanied by less cleavage of troponin-I, an important component of the cardiac contractile apparatus, and fewer apoptotic cardiomyocytes. Furthermore, caspase inhibition reduced LV-weight-to- body-weight ratio, decreased myocardial interstitial collagen deposition, attenuated LV remodeling, and better preserved LV systolic function after MI.
Caspase inhibition, started soon after MI and continued for four weeks, preserves myocardial contractile proteins, reduces systolic dysfunction, and attenuates ventricular remodeling.
These findings may have important therapeutic implications in post-MI HF. J Am Col Cardiol 2004;43:295–301)
Precardiac deletion of Numb and Numblike reveals renewal of cardiac progenitors
Lincoln T Shenje, Peter P Rainer , Gun-sik Cho , Dong-ik Lee , Weimin Zhong , Richard P Harvey , David A Kass , Chulan Kwon *, et al.
eLife 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.02164.001
Cardiac progenitor cells (CPCs) must control their number and fate to sustain the rapid heart growth during development, yet the intrinsic factors and environment governing these processes remain unclear. Here, we show that deletion of the ancient cell-fate regulator Numb (Nb) and its homologue Numblike (Nbl) depletes CPCs in second pharyngeal arches (PA2s) and is associated with an atrophic heart. With histological, fow cytometric and functional analyses, we fnd that CPCs remain undifferentiated and expansive in the PA2, but differentiate into cardiac cells as they exit the arch. Tracing of Nb- and Nbl-defcient CPCs by lineage-specifc mosaicism reveals that the CPCs normally populate in the PA2, but lose their expansion potential in the PA2. These fndings demonstrate that Nb and Nbl are intrinsic factors crucial for the renewal of CPCs in the PA2 and
that the PA2 serves as a microenvironment for their expansion.
2. Diagnostics and Risk Assessment
Classical and Novel Biomarkers for Cardiovascular Risk Prediction in the United States
Aaron R. Folsom
J Epidemiol 2013;23(3):158-162 http://dx.doi.org/10.2188/jea.JE20120157
Cardiovascular risk prediction models based on classical risk factors identified in epidemiologic cohort studies are useful in primary prevention of cardiovascular disease in individuals. This article briefly reviews aspects of
cardiovascular risk prediction in the United States and efforts to evaluate novel risk factors. Even though many novel risk markers have been found to be associated with cardiovascular disease, few appear to improve risk prediction
beyond the powerful, classical risk factors. A recent US consensus panel concluded that clinical measurement of certain novel markers for risk prediction was reasonable, namely,
- hemoglobin A1c (in all adults),
- microalbuminuria (in patients with hypertension or diabetes), and
- C-reactive protein,
- lipoprotein-associated phospholipase,
- coronary calcium,
- carotid intima-media thickness, and
- ankle/brachial index (in patients deemed to be at intermediate cardiovascular risk, based on traditional risk factors).
Diagnostic accuracy of NT-proBNP ratio (BNP-R) for early diagnosis of tachycardia-mediated cardiomyopathy: a pilot study
Amir M. Nia, Natig Gassanov, Kristina M. Dahlem, Evren Caglayan, Martin Hellmich, et al.
Clin Res Cardiol (2011) 100:887–896 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00392-011-0319-y
Tachycardia-mediated cardiomyopathy (TMC) occurs as a consequence of prolonged high heart rate due to ventricular and supraventricular tachycardia. In animal models, rapid pacing induces severe biventricular remodeling with dilation and dysfunction [7]. On a cellular basis, cardiomyocytes exert fundamental morphological and functional roles.
When heart failure and tachycardia occur simultaneously, a useful diagnostic tool for early discrimination of patients with benign tachycardia-mediated cardiomyopathy (TMC) versus major structural heart disease (MSHD) is not available. Such a tool is required to prevent unnecessary and wearing diagnostics in patients with reversible TMC. Moreover, it could lead to early additional diagnostics and therapeutic approaches in patients with MSHD.
A total of 387 consecutive patients with supraventricular arrhythmia underwent assessment. Of these patients, 40 fulfilled the inclusion criteria
with a resting heart rate C100 bpm and an impaired left ventricular ejection fraction \40%. In all patients, successful electrical cardioversion was performed. At baseline, day 1 and weekly for 4 weeks, levels of NT-proBNP and echocardiographic parameters were evaluated.
NT-proBNP ratio (BNP-R) was calculated as a quotient of baseline NT-proBNP/follow-up NT-proBNP. After 4 weeks, cardiac catheterization was performed to identify patients with a final diagnosis of TMC versus MSHD.
Initial NT-proBNP concentrations were elevated and consecutively decreased after cardioversion in all patients studied. The area under the ROC curve for BNP-R to detect TMC was 0.90 (95% CI 0.79–1.00; p \ 0.001) after 1 week and 0.995 (95% CI 0.99–1.00; p \ 0.0001) after 4 weeks. One week after cardioversion already, a BNP-R cutoff C2.3 was useful for TMC diagnosis indicated by an accuracy of 90%, sensitivity of 84% and specificity of 95%.
BNP-R was found to be highly accurate for the early diagnosis of TMC.
Omega-3 Index and Cardiovascular Health
Clemens von Schacky
Nutrients 2014; 6: 799-814; http://dx. doi.org/10.3390/nu602099
Fish, marine oils, and their concentrates all serve as sources of the two marine omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), as do some products from algae.
To demonstrate an effect of EPA + DHA on heart health, a number of randomized, controlled intervention studies with clinical endpoints like overall mortality or a combination of adverse cardiac events were conducted in populations with elevated cardiovascular risk. One early intervention study with oily fish, rich in EPA + DHA, and some early studies with fish oil or fish oil concentrate or even purified EPA at doses ranging between 0.9 and 1.8 g/day indeed demonstrated effects in terms of fewer sudden cardiac deaths, fatal or non-fatal myocardial infarctions, or a combination of adverse cardiac events.
Recent meta-analyses found no significant benefits on total mortality, cardiovascular mortality, and other adverse cardiac or cardiovascular events [13–18]. This is in contrast to findings in epidemiologic studies, where intake of EPA + DHA had been found to correlate generally with an up to 50% lower incidence of adverse cardiac events [18,19], and in even sharper contrast to epidemiologic studies based on levels of EPA + DHA, demonstrating e.g., a 10-fold lower incidence of sudden cardiac death associated with high levels of the
fatty acids, as compared to low levels.
This seemingly contradictory evidence has led the American Heart Association to recommend “omega-3 fatty acids from fish or fish oil capsules (1 g/day) for cardiovascular disease risk reduction” for secondary prevention, whereas the European Society for Cardiology recommends “Fish at least twice a week, one of which to be oily fish”, but no supplements for cardiovascular prevention.
A similar picture emerges for atrial fibrillation: In epidemiologic studies, consumption of EPA + DHA or higher levels of EPA + DHA were associated with lower risk for developing atrial fibrillation, while intervention studies found no effect. Pertinent guidelines do not mention EPA + DHA. A similar picture also emerges for severe ventricular rhythm disturbances.
Why is it that trial results are at odds with results from epidemiology? What needs to be done to better translate the epidemiologic findings into trial results? The current review will try to shed some light on this issue, with a special consideration of the Omega-3 Index.
Recent large trials with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in the cardiovascular field did not demonstrate a beneficial effect in terms of reductions of clinical endpoints like
- total mortality,
- sudden cardiac arrest or
- other major adverse cardiac events.
Pertinent guidelines do not uniformly recommend EPA + DHA for cardiac patients. In contrast,
- in epidemiologic findings, higher blood levels of EPA + DHA were consistently associated with a lower risk for the endpoints mentioned.
The following points argue for the use of erythrocytes: erythrocyte fatty acid
composition has a low biological variability, erythrocyte fat consists almost exclusively of phospholipids, erythrocyte fatty acid composition reflects tissue fatty acid composition, pre-analytical stability, and other points. In 2004, EPA + DHA in erythrocyte fatty acids were defined as the Omega-3 Index and suggested as a risk factor for sudden cardiac death [39]. Integral to the definition was a specific and standardized analytical procedure, conforming the quality management routinely implemented in the field of clinical chemistry.
The laboratories adhering to the HS-Omega-3 Index methodology perform regular proficiency testing, as mandated in routine Clinical Chemistry labs. So far, the HS-Omega-3 Index is the only analytical procedure used in several laboratories. A standardized analytical procedure is a prerequisite to generate the data base necessary to transport a laboratory parameter from research into clinical routine. Moreover, standardization of the analytical procedure is the first important criterion for establishing a new biomarker for cardiovascular risk set forth by the American Heart Association and the US Preventive Services Task Force.
Because of low biological and analytical variability, a standardized analytical procedure, a large database and for other reasons,
- blood levels of EPA + DHA are frequently assessed in erythrocytes, using the HS-Omega-3 Index methodology.
Table 1. Mean HS-Omega-3 Index values in various populations, Mean (±standard deviation (SD)). Please note that in every population studied, a lower value was found to be associated with a worse condition than a higher value. References are given, if not, unpublished, n = number of individuals measured.
All levels of fatty acids are determined by the balance of substance entering the body and those leaving the body. Neither a recent meal, even if rich in EPA + DHA, nor severe cardiac events altered the HS-Omega-3 Index. However, while long-term intake of EPA + DHA, e.g., as assessed with food questionnaires, was the main predictor of the HS-Omega-3 Index, long-term intake explained only 12%–25% of its variability. A hereditary component of 24% exists. A number of other factors correlated positively (+) or negatively (−), like age (+), body mass index (−), socioeconomic status (+), smoking (−), but no other conventional cardiac risk factors. More factors determining the level of the HS-Omega-3 Index, especially regarding efflux remain to be defined. Therefore, it is impossible to predict the HS-Omega-3 Index in an individual, as it is impossible to predict the increase in the HS-Omega-3 Index in an individual in response to a given dose of EPA + DHA. In Table 2, current evidence is presented on the relation of the HS-Omega-3 Index to CV events.
The HS-Omega-3 Index has made it possible to reclassify individuals from intermediate cardiovascular risk into the respective high risk and low risk strata, the third criterion for establishing a new biomarker for CV risk.
A low Omega-3 Index fulfills the current criteria for a novel cardiovascular risk factor.
Increasing the HS-Omega-3 Index by increased intake of EPA + DHA in randomized controlled trials improved a number of surrogate parameters for cardiovascular risk:
- heart rate was reduced,
- heart rate variability was increased,
- blood pressure was reduced,
- platelet reactivity was reduced,
- triglycerides were reduced,
- large buoyant low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-particles were increased and
- small dense LDL-particles were reduced,
- large buoyant high-density lipoproteins (HDL)2 were increased,
- very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL1) + 2 was reduced,
- pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-1β, interleukins-6,8,10 and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1) were reduced,
- anti-inflammatory oxylipins were increased.
Importantly, in a two-year randomized double-blind angiographic intervention trial, increased erythrocyte EPA + DHA
- reduced progression and increased regression of coronary lesions, an intermediate parameter.
Taken together, increasing the HS-Omega-3 Index improved surrogate and intermediate parameters for cardiovascular events. A large intervention trial with clinical endpoints based on the HS-Omega-3 Index remains to be conducted. Therefore, the fourth criterion, proof of therapeutic consequence of determining the HS-Omega- Index, is only partially fulfilled.
Neutral results of intervention trials can be explained by issues of bioavailability and trial design that surfaced after the trials were initiated.
In the future, incorporating the Omega-3 Index into trial designs by
- recruiting participants with a low Omega-3 Index and
- treating them within a pre-specified target range (e.g., 8%–11%),
- will make more efficient trials possible and
- provide clearer answers to the questions asked than previously possible.
3. Stem Cells and Regenerative Biology
Bioengineers at the University of California, Berkeley in a new study published in Nature say they have identified two key regulatory pathways that control how well adult stem cells repair and replace damaged tissue. They then tweaked how those stem cells reacted to those biochemical signals to revive the ability of muscle tissue in old mice to repair itself nearly as well as the muscle in the mice’s much younger counterparts. Irina Conboy, an assistant professor of bioengineering and an investigator at the Berkeley Stem Cell Center and at the California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences (QB3), led the research team conducting this study. Because the findings relate to adult stem cells that reside in existing tissue, this approach to rejuvenating degenerating muscle eliminates the ethical and medical complications associated with transplanting tissues grown from embryonic stem cells. The researchers focused on
- the interplay of two competing molecular pathways that control the stem cells,
which sit next to the mature, differentiated cells that make up our working body parts. When the mature cells are damaged or wear out, the stem cells are called into action to begin the process of rebuilding.
old muscle tissue is left with
“We don’t realize it, but as we grow our bodies are constantly being remodeled,” said Conboy. “We are constantly falling apart, but we don’t notice it much when we’re young because we’re always being restored. As we age, our stem cells are prevented, through chemical signals, from doing their jobs.” The good news, the researchers said, is that
- the stem cells in old tissue are still ready and able to perform their regenerative function
- if they receive the appropriate chemical signals.
Studies have shown that when old tissue is placed in an environment of young blood, the stem cells behave as if they are young again. “Conversely, we have found in a study published last year that even young stem cells rapidly age when placed among blood and tissue from old mice,” said Carlson, who will stay on at UC Berkeley to expand his work on stem cell engineering.
- Adult stem cells have a receptor called Notch that, when activated,
- tells them that it is time to grow and divide
- stem cells also have a receptor for the protein TGF-beta
- that sets off a chain reaction activatingthemoleculepSmad3 and
- ultimately producing cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors, which regulate the cell’s ability to divide.
- activated Notch competeswithactivatedpSmad3 for
- binding to the regulatory regions of the same CDK inhibitors in the stem cell
“We found that Notch is capable of physically kicking off pSmad3 from the promoters for the CDK inhibitors within the stem cell’s nucleus, which tells us that a precise manipulation of the balance of these pathways would allow the ability to control stem cell responses.” Notch and TGF-beta are well known in molecular biology, but Conboy’s lab is the first to connect them to the process of aging, and the first to show that they act in opposition to each other within the nucleus of the adult stem cell. Aging and the inevitable march towards death are, in part, due to the progressive decline of Notch and the increased levels of TGF-beta , producing a one-two punch to the stem cell’s capacity to effectively rebuild the body, the researchers said.
The researchers disabled the “aging pathway” that tells stem cells to stop dividing by using an established method of RNA interference that reduced levels of pSmad3. The researchers then examined the muscle of the different groups of mice one to five days after injury to compare how well the tissue repaired itself. As expected,
- muscle tissue in the young mice easily replaced damaged cells with new, healthy cells. In contrast,
- the areas of damaged muscle in the control group of old mice were characterized by fibroblasts and scar tissue. However,
- muscles in the old mice whose stem cell “aging pathway”had been dampened showed levels of cellular regeneration that were
- comparable to their much younger peers, and that were 3 to 4 times greater than those of the group of “untreated” old mice.
Adult Stem Cells To Repair Damaged Heart Muscle
http://www.science20.com/profile/news_staff
In the first trial of its kind in the world, 60 patients who have recently suffered a major heart attack will be injected with selected stem cells from their own bone marrow during routine coronary bypass surgery. The Bristol trial will test
- whether the stem cells will repair heart muscle cells damaged by the heart attack,
- by preventing late scar formation and hence impaired heart contraction.
“ Cardiac stem cell therapy aims to repair the damaged heart as it has the potential to replace the damaged tissue.” We have elected to use a very promising stem cell type selected from the patient’s own bone marrow. This approach ensures no risk of rejection or infection. It also gets around the ethical issues that would result from use of stem cells from embryonic or foetal tissue.
In this trial (known as TransACT), all patients will have bone marrow harvested before their heart operation. Then either stem cells from their own bone marrow or a placebo will be injected into the patients’ damaged hearts during routine coronary bypass surgery. The feasibility and safety of this technique has already been demonstrated. As a result of the chosen double blind placebo-controlled design, neither the patients nor the surgeon knows whether the patient is going to be injected with stem cells or placebo. This ensures that results are not biased in any way, and is the most powerful way to prove whether or not the new treatment is effective.
Research of Stem Cells Repair Damaged Heart
By Kelvinlew Minhan | March 26th 2008
Under highly specific growth conditions in laboratory culture dishes, stem cells
- can be coaxed into developing as new cardiomyocytes and vascular endothelial cells (Kirschstein and Skirboll, 2001).
Discoveries that have triggered the interest in the application of adult stem cells to heart muscle repair in animal models have been made by researchers in the past few years (Kirschstein and Skirboll, 2001). One study demonstrated that cardiac tissue can be regenerated in the mouse heart attack model through the introduction of adult stem cells from mouse bone marrow (Kirschstein and Skirboll, 2001). These cells were transplanted into the marrow of irradiated mice approximately 10 weeks before the recipient mice were subjected to heart attack thru tying off different major heart blood vessel, the left anterior descending (LAD) coronary artery. The survival rate was 26 percent at two to four weeks after the induced cardiac injury (Kirschstein and Skirboll, 2001). Another study of the region surrounding the damaged tissue in surviving mice showed the presence of donor-derived cardiomyocytes and endothelial cells (Kirschstein and Skirboll, 2001).
- the mouse hematopoietic stem cells transplanted into the bone marrow had migrated to the border part of the damaged area, and differentiated into several types of tissue for cardiac repair.
Regenerating heart tissue through stem cell therapy
http://www.mayo.edu/research/discoverys-edge/regenerating-heart-tissue-stem-cell-therapy
Summary
A groundbreaking study on repairing damaged heart tissue through stem cell therapy has given patients hope that they may again live active lives. An international team of Mayo Clinic researchers and collaborators has done it by discovering a way to regenerate heart tissue.
“It’s a paradigm shift,” says
Andre Terzic, M.D., Ph.D., director of Mayo Clinic’s
Center for Regenerative Medicine and senior investigator of the stem cell trial. “We are moving from traditional medicine, which addresses the symptoms of disease to cure disease.” Treating patients with cardiac disease has typically involved managing heart damage with medication. In collaboration with European researchers, Mayo Clinic researchers have discovered a novel way to repair a damaged heart. In Mayo Clinic’s breakthrough process,
- stem cells are harvested from a patient’s bone marrow.
- undergo a laboratory treatment that guides them into becoming cardiac cells,
- which are then injected into the patient’s heart in an effort to grow healthy heart tissue.
The study is the first successful demonstration in people of the feasibility and safety of transforming adult stem cells into cardiac cells. Beyond heart failure, the Mayo Clinic research also is a milestone in the emerging field of regenerative medicine, which seeks to fully heal damaged tissue and organs.
Creating a heart repair kit
This image shows the process used in the clinical trials to repair damaged hearts. Cardioprogenitor cells is another term for cardiopoietic cells, those that were transformed into cardiac cells.
Transformation: The cardiopoietic cells on the left react to the cardiac environment, cluster together with like cells and form tissue.
Mayo Clinic researchers pursued this research, inspired by an intriguing discovery. In the early 2000s, they analyzed stem cells from 11 patients undergoing heart bypass surgery. The stem cells from two of the patients had an unusually high expression of certain transcription factors — the proteins that control the flow of genetic information between cells. Clinically, the two patients appeared no different from the others, yet their stem cells seemed to show unique capacity for heart repair.
That observation drove them to determine how to convert nonreparative stem cells to become reparative. Doing so required determining precisely how the human heart naturally develops, at a subcellular level. That painstaking work was led by Atta Behfar, M.D., Ph.D., a cardiovascular researcher at Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minn. With other members of the Terzic research team, Dr. Behfar identified hundreds of proteins involved in the process of heart development (cardiogenesis). The researchers then set out to identify which of these proteins are essential in driving a stem cell to become a cardiac cell. Using computer models,
- they simulated the effects of eliminating proteins one by one from the process of heart development.
- That method yielded about 25 proteins.
- The team then pared that number down to 8 proteins that their data indicated were essential.
The research team was then able to develop the lab procedure that guides stem cells to become heart cells.
The treated stem cells were dubbed cardiopoietic, or heart creative. A proof of principle
study about guided cardiopoiesis, whose results were published in the Journal of the American College of Cardiology in 2010, demonstrated that animal models with heart disease that had been injected with caridiopoietic cells had improved heart function compared with animals injected with untreated stem cells. Hailed as “
landmark work,” by the journal’s editorial writer, the study showed it was indeed possible to teach stem cells to become cardiac cells. Stem cells from each patient in the cardiopoiesis group were successfully guided to become cardiac cells. The treated cells were injected into the heart wall of each of those patients without apparent complications.
“Ihis newprocessofcardiopoiesiswas achieved in 100 percent of cases, with a very good safety profile,” Dr.Terzic says. “We are enabling the heart toregainitsinitial structure and function,” Dr.Terzic says, “and we will not stop here.” The clinicaltrialfindingsareexpectedto be published in the Journal of the American College of Cardiology in 2013. Meanwhile, research to improve the injection process and effectiveness is underway.
Stem Cells from Humans Repair Heart Damage in Monkeys
GEN News Highlights May1, 2014
The researchers found that over subsequent weeks, the stem-cell derived heart muscle cells infiltrated into the damaged heart tissue, then matured, assembled into muscle fibers, and began to beat in synchrony with the macaque heart cells. After three months, the cells appeared to have fully integrated into the macaque heart muscle. The research team published its results April 30 in Nature, in an article entitled “Human embryonic-stem-cell-derived cardiomyocytes regenerate non-human primate hearts.” In this article, the authors indicated that their work demonstrated that
Cells from human rhabdomyosarcoma tumors showed levels of the molecule that were
MiR-29 is a type of microRNA, a family of molecules that helps regulate the proteins cells produce. Researchers say this study is unusual because
it also sheds light on the how a microRNA itself is regulated.
When they raised the level of the microRNA molecule in the cells,
they began taking on the appearance of mature muscle cells.
GPCR Insights Brighten Drug Discovery Outlook
Ken Doyle, Ph.D.
GEN Apr 15, 2014 (Vol. 34, No. 8)
Recent years have seen major advances in understanding the structure-function relationships of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). This large superfamily of transmembrane receptors comprises over 800 members in humans.
GPCRs regulate a wide variety of physiological processes including
- sensation (vision, taste, and smell),
- growth,
- hormone responses, and
- regulation of the immune and
- autonomic nervous systems.
Their involvement in multiple disease pathways makes GPCRs attractive targets for drug discovery efforts.
These multifaceted proteins will be the subject of “GPCR Structure, Function and Drug Discovery,” a Global Technology Community conference scheduled to take place May 22–23 in Boston. The conference is expected to cover a broad range of topics including biased signaling, membrane protein structures, GPCR signaling dynamics, computational approaches to disease.
According to Bryan Roth, M.D., Ph.D., Michael Hooker Distinguished Professor at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill,
- drugs that can selectively target various downstream GPCR pathways hold the most promise.
Dr. Roth’s laboratory studies approximately 360 different GPCRs with therapeutic potential using massively parallel screening methods. His research focuses on “functional selectivity,” which he describes as
- “the ligand-dependent selectivity for certain signal transduction pathways in one and the same receptor.”
Dr. Roth notes that structural data have demonstrated that GPCRs exist in multiple conformations: “The structures of the 5-hydroxytryptamine 2B receptor and the recent high-resolution delta-opioid receptor structure have provided evidence for conformational rearrangements that contribute to functional selectivity.” Drugs that take advantage of this selectivity by preferentially stabilizing certain conformations may have unique therapeutic utility.
“Generally, we look at G protein versus arrestin-based signaling, although it’s also possible to examine how drugs activate one G protein-mediated signaling pathway versus another.
fluorescently tagged Arrestin and GPRC of interest
- β-Arrestins constitute a major class of intracellular scaffolding proteins that regulate GPCR signaling by preventing or enhancing the binding of GPCRs to intracellular signaling molecules. Laura Bohn, Ph.D., associate professor at Scripps Florida, studies the roles that β-arrestins play in GPCR-mediated signaling.
- a particular β-arrestin can play multiple, tissue-specific roles—shutting down the signaling of a receptor in one tissue while activating signaling in another.
- different ligands can direct GPCR signaling to different effectors, which could result in different physiological effects,” comments Dr. Bohn. “Our challenge is in determining what signaling pathways to harness to promote certain effects, while avoiding others.”
Arrestin binding to active GPCR kinase (GRK)-phosphorylated GPCRs blocks G protein coupling
Using Designer Proteins
The multifunctional signaling abilities of β-arrestins has prompted large-scale study of their properties. Vsevolod Gurevich, Ph.D., professor of pharmacology at Vanderbilt University, studies
- the structure,
- function, and
- biology of arrestin proteins.
β-arrestins have three main functions.
- First, they prevent the coupling of GPCRs to G proteins, thereby blocking further G protein-mediated signaling (a process known as desensitization).
- Second, the binding of a GCPR releases the β-arrestin’s carboxy-terminal “tail” and promotes internalization of the receptor.
- Third, receptor-bound β-arrestins bind other signaling proteins, resulting in a second wave of arrestin-mediated signaling.
Dr. Gurevich’s laboratory studies β-arrestin biology through the use of three types of specially designed mutants—
- enhanced phosphorylation-dependent,
- receptor-specific, and
- signaling-biased mutants.
an enhanced mutant of visual β-arrestin-1 partially compensates for defects of rhodopsin phosphorylation in vivo,
“Several congenital disorders are caused by mutant GPCRs that cannot be normally phosphorylated because they have lost GPCR kinase (GRK) sites. Enhanced super-active arrestins have the potential to compensate for these defects, bringing the signaling closer to normal.”
- Dr. Gurevich explains the strategy involved in creating designer β-arrestins: “We identify residues critical for individual β-arrestin functions by mutagenesis, using limited structural information as a guide.
- We also work on getting more structural information. In collaboration with different crystallographers, we solved the crystal structures of all four vertebrate β-arrestin subtypes in the basal state, as well as the structure of the arrestin-1-rhodopsin complex.”
- Dr. Gurevich believes that designer β-arrestins “are the next step in research and therapy, moving way beyond what small molecules can achieve.
- The difference in capabilities between redesigned signaling proteins, including β-arrestins, and conventional small molecule drugs is about the same as that between airplanes and horse-driven carriages.”
- Dr. Gurevich observes that redesigned signaling proteins face considerable obstacles in terms of gene delivery, but that the efforts are worth it. “Using designer signaling proteins, we can tell the cell what to do in a language it cannot disobey,” asserts Dr. Gurevich.
Synthesis and Antihypertensive Screening of Novel Substituted 1,2- Pyrazoline Sulfonamide Derivatives
Avinash M. Bhagwat , Anilchandra R. Bha , Mahesh S. Palled , Anand P. Khadke , Anuradha M. Patil, et al.
Am. J. PharmTech Res. 2014; 4(2). http://www.ajptr.com/
Angiotensin II receptor antagonists, also known as angiotensin receptor blockers , AT1-receptor antagonists or sartans, are a group of pharmaceuticals which modulate the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Their main use is in hypertension, diabetic nephropathy and congestiveheart failure. These substances are AT1-receptor antagonists which
- block the activationof angiotensin II AT1 receptors.
Blockade of AT1 receptors directly causes
1 vasodilation,
2 reduces secretion of vasopressin,
3 reduces production and secretion of aldosterone, amongst other actions –
4 the combined effect of which is reduction of blood pressure.
Irbesartan is a safe and effectiveangiotensin II receptor antagonist with an affinity for the AT1 receptor that is more than 8,500times greater than its affinity for AT2 receptor. This agent has a higher bioavailability (60-80%) than other drugs in its class . In both Losartan and Irbesartan structures imidazole moiety is being present. A structure analog of losartan and Irbesartan are designed by incorporating the heterocycles like pyrazoline group. We felt it would be interesting to explore the possibilities of 1,2-pyrazoline derivatives for Angiotensin II receptor antagonistic activity.
The Irbesartan structure was a modified Losartan structure, which had all the identity of a Losartan molecule but with groups that would fit the hydrophobic cavity with a tetramethylene group and an alkyl side chain that would fit in the pocket in the AT1 receptor. The hydroxyl methyl group of Losartan being replaced with carbonyl group of Irbesartan. With a view to introduce a hydrogen bonding interaction with AT1 receptor, these structures were further modified with a view of retaining both hydrogen bonding characteristics and as well as lipophilic groups. Losartan and Irbesartan structure contains a diphenyl molecule & imidazole ring.
In Losartan and Irbesartan diphenyl molecule is attached to the nitrogen of the imidazole ring. It is interesting to to see the activity of compounds containing two phenyl rings attached at two different positions namely3,5 position of 1, 2-pyrazoline ring. The sulphonamide derivatives known for its diuretics activity which reduces renal hypertension. We use to synthesize sulphonamide and pyrazoline in one molecule to check its possible Angiotensin II receptor antagonist property. For this reason chalcones were synthesized reacted with hydrazine hydrate to yield the corresponding 1,2-pyrazoline derivatives which further condensed with sulphanilamide and formaldehyde by mannich condensation reaction.
Acute Toxicity Study (LD50)
This study was carried out in order to establish the therapeutic and toxic doses of the newly synthesized 1,2 pyrazoline derivatives. To establish LD50 of these compounds the method described by Miller & Tainter was employed.
We report new 1,2 pyrazolines which defined combination of substituents confers appropriate polarity and charge distribution for good activity. The spectral data of compounds confirms the structures.
We also report various derivatives of 1,2 pyrazolines from Chalcones to achieve the promising and selective inhibition. The synthesized 1,2 pyrazoline derivatives have resemblance to some of Angiotensin II blocking agents like Irbesartan and Losartan. Hence it was thought of carrying out Angiotensin II blocking screening by 1K-1C Goldblatt noninvasive blood pressure measurement method. As a result, the screened compounds have shown significant Angiotensin II blocking activity. Irbesartan was used as the standard drug for Angiotensin II blocking activity.
Compounds synthesized have shown the significant Angiotensin II blocking activity when compared with the control but however are not comparable to the standard Irbesartan. The results were calculated by taking mean SE and finding the ‘P’ values. Hence from the SAR studies the chloro substituted compounds PH-2 and PH-7 exhibit better Angiotensin II blocking activityamongst the synthesized compounds. The structures of all the synthesized compounds were established on the basis of M.P., TLC, IR, NMR (PMR) . The compounds synthesized were found to be non-toxic and could be synthesized in good yields. The active compounds could be taken as lead for structural and molecular modification was thought of in future.
The present work, which was undertaken is a bonafide and novel work on the synthesis of 1,2 pyrazoline derivatives. We have made an attempt in reviewing the literature on 1,2 pyrazoline derivatives for their medicinal uses with the help of chemical abstract, journals and internet surfing. For the synthesis of 1,2 pyrazoline derivatives scheme were established. Around eight derivatives were synthesized. The synthesized compounds were tested for their purity, preliminary tests, physical constants and TLC. The structure of the final compound were confirmed by IR, H-NMR spectra and GCMS. The compounds synthesized were found to be non-toxic and could be synthesized in good yields.
5. Synthetic Biology
Artists and biologists team up to ush boundaries of synthetic biology
Kenrick Vezina | May 1, 2014 | Genetic Literacy Project
Synthetic biologists are often accused of “playing God,” of tampering with his Creation. Well, if you’re going to Create then you might as well do so with the help of some creative individuals? That’s just what the biologists in the pages of the new book Synthetic Aesthetics, from MIT Press, aims to do. Its arrival is well-timed, with the
first synthetic yeast chromosome having been created last month amid a flurry of scientific milestones in biotechnology.
Alun Anderson has reviewed the new book for New Scientist. Unlike the typically defensive posture found in biotech broadly, he writes, the spirit captured by this book is “freewheeling” and collaborative, with 20 authors ranging from the arts and sciences putting their minds together to generate original ideas. Anderson notes that parts of the book “may irritate conventional scientists – some of the ideas were dreamed up while ‘performing a dance based on the myth of the Golem’, for example. But it certainly explains the key ideas of the field and leads you to many lateral conversations about what it may become.” The book is itself an offshoot of a larger project, which you can check out at its official page. It describes itself as an “experimental, international research project between synthetic biology, art, design and social science” It has roots at the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, and Stanford University, California. And the main project team is comprised of bioengineers Drew Endy (Stanford) and Alistair Elfick (Edinburgh), social scientists Jane Calvert (Edinburgh) and Pablo Schyfter (Edinburgh), and designer/artist Alexandra Daisy Ginsberg.
In the book Synthetic Aesthetics, Ginsberg provides a thought-provoking counterpoint to the engineering definition of “design”. Anderson explains in his review: An engineer might think of designing a bridge to a particular specification; a synthetic biologist of designing a microorganism with a new commercial application, pumping out green gasoline for example; but a real designer, a fashion designer, for example, is doing something else. As artist Daisy Ginsberg puts it, design “is about possibility”, the unimagined things that life could be.
Synthetic biology, she writes, has been addressing “humanity’s needs” – limitless fuel, for example – rather than “our needs as individual, diverse and complex humans”. This is refreshing: worries about the separation between the top-down design of the future and those who must live with the results are quite rare in science. These words ring true, given the intensely “problem oriented” approach to most synthetic biology research. This approach extends to the coverage of this research in the media, where even a research achievement with sweeping potential like the synthetic yeast chromosome ends up broken down into pragmatic chunks. (Yeast could mass-produce medicines! Help process fuels!) Alistair Elfick, one of the leads on the Synthetics Aesthetics project, has written a fascinating opinion piece at The Conversation to accompany the release of his book. In it, he puts forth the idea it’s time for synthetic biologists to stop thinking “like scientists,” lest they hamstring themselves.
Kenrick Vezina is Gene-ius Editor for the Genetic Literacy Project and a freelance science writer, educator, and naturalist based in the Greater Boston area. Sources:
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