Archive for the ‘Cytoskeleton’ Category

2024 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine jointly to Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun for the discovery of microRNA and its role in post-transcriptional gene regulation

Posted in Biological Networks, Gene Regulation and Evolution, Cell Biology, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Chemical Genetics, Clinical & Translational, Clinical Genomics, Cytoskeleton, Disease Biology, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, Gene Regulation, Gene Regulation and Evolution, Genetics & Innovations in Treatment, Genetics & Pharmaceutical, Genome Biology, Genomic Expression, Interviews with Scientific Leaders, Meta-analysis of transcriptome data, mRNA Therapeutics, Nobel Prize Winners, Single Cell Genomics, Single-cell sequencing, Variation in human protein-coding regions on October 8, 2024| Leave a Comment »

2024 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine jointly to Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun for the discovery of microRNA and its role in post-transcriptional gene regulation

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Updated 10/22/2024

The revolution in our understanding of transcriptional regulation and dark regions of the genome

The genome of higher eukaryotes are comprised of multiple exonic and intronic regions, with coding and noncoding DNA respectively. Much of the DNA sequence between exonic regions of genes, the sequences encoding the amino acids of a polypeptide, was considered either promoter regions regulating an exonic sequence or ‘junk DNA’, which had merely separated exons and their regulatory elements. It was not considered that this dark DNA or junk DNA was important in regulating transcription of genes. It was felt that most gene regulation occurred in promoter regions by response element factors which bound to specific sequences within these regions.

MicroRNA (miRNA), originally discovered in Caenorhabditis elegans, is found in most eukaryotes, including humans [1–3]. It is predicted that miRNA account for 1-5% of the human genome and regulate at least 30% of protein-coding genes [4–8]. To date, 940 distinct miRNAs molecules have been identified within the human genome [9–12] (http://microrna.sanger.ac.uk accessed July 20, 2010). Although little is currently known about the specific targets and biological functions of miRNA molecules thus far, it is evident that miRNA plays a crucial role in the regulation of gene expression controlling diverse cellular and metabolic pathways.

MiRNA are small, evolutionary conserved, single-stranded, non-coding RNA molecules that bind target mRNA to prevent protein production by one of two distinct mechanisms. Mature miRNA is generated through two-step cleavage of primary miRNA (pri-miRNA), which incorporates into the effector complex RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). The miRNA functions as a guide by base-pairing with target mRNA to negatively regulate its expression. The level of complementarity between the guide and mRNA target determines which silencing mechanism will be employed; cleavage of target messenger RNA (mRNA) with subsequent degradation or translation inhibition

Fig. (1). MicroRNA maturation and function.

Figure. miRNA maturation and function. Source: Macfarlane LA, Murphy PR. MicroRNA: Biogenesis, Function and Role in Cancer. Curr Genomics. 2010 Nov;11(7):537-61. doi: 10.2174/138920210793175895.

The following is an interview in the journal Journal of Cellular Biology with Dr, Victor Ambros on his discovery of miRNA.

Source: Ambros V. Victor Ambros: the broad scope of microRNAs. Interview by Caitlin Sedwick. J Cell Biol. 2013 May 13;201(4):492-3. doi: 10.1083/jcb.2014pi. PMID: 23671307; PMCID: PMC3653358.

Once, we thought we understood all there was to know about how gene expression is regulated: A cell can tinker with the expression level of a given protein’s messenger RNA by modifying the activity, abundance, and type of transcription factors in the nucleus or with the RNA’s stability once it is made. But then came a surprising story about a short RNA in C. elegans called lin-4, which didn’t encode a protein but prevented expression of the protein encoded by another gene, lin-14, through antisense binding to lin-14 mRNA (1, 2). Today, we know that lin-4 was just the first example of a large number of small RNAs, called microRNAs, which regulate the expression of various other proteins in a similar way.

Victor Ambros, whose lab published that first story about lin-4, has been studying microRNAs (3, 4) and their regulation (5, 6) ever since, pushing forward our understanding of this powerful mechanism. We called him at his office at the University of Massachusetts Medical School to get some perspective on microRNAs and his career and to learn about some of the latest developments in his lab.

“That shared discovery is one of the most precious moments in my career.”

FROM FARM TO LAB TABLE

How did you end up doing a PhD with David Baltimore?

I was the first scientist in my family. My dad was an immigrant from Poland. He came to the States just after World War II and met my mom. They got married, moved to a farm in Vermont, and started farming. My siblings and I grew up amongst the cows and pigs and helped with the haying and cutting corn, stuff like that.

When I was about nine, I got interested in science, and after that I always wanted to be a scientist. I was an amateur astronomer; I built a telescope and started to imagine that I could actually do astronomy or physics as an occupation. But I quickly changed my mind when I reached college, in part because I realized that my math skills weren’t really up to the task of being a physicist and also because I discovered molecular biology and genetics and just fell in love with both subjects. David taught one of the advanced biology classes I took as an undergraduate at MIT, and that probably had some influence on my decision to work with him. After college, I worked as a technician in David’s lab for a year. I liked it a lot and stayed on in his lab when I entered graduate school at MIT. I was lucky because I had gotten a little bit of traction on a project and continued on that as a grad student, so I ended up finishing grad school fairly efficiently.

Had you any idea at the time what the nature of the lin-4 mutant was?

The assumption was that it was a protein product. I mean, nobody ever thought that there would be any other kind of regulator. There really wasn’t any reason to imagine that there were any other kinds of molecules necessary, other than proteins, to carry out everything that’s done in a cell—especially with regard to the regulation of gene expression. The complexity of gene regulation by proteins alone was so enormous that I never imagined—and nobody I knew imagined—that we needed to look for new kinds of regulatory molecules. The realization that lin-4 was antisense to the 3′-untranslated region of lin-14 was totally the result of communication between Gary and me. That shared discovery is one of the most precious moments in my career. But at the time I didn’t realize that this might be the first example of a general mechanism for regulating gene expression because I was prone to thinking that whatever I was studying in the worm was not generally applicable. It wasn’t until genome sequences were made available that the prevalence of this mechanism became clear.

THE RIGHT CONTEXT

You’ve moved to studying processes that modulate microRNA function…

One protein we’ve studied is called Nhl-2. It’s an example of an emerging class of proteins that can modulate, positively or negatively, the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) that inhibits mRNAs targeted by microRNAs. This class of genes may have either general effects on RISC activity or, in some cases, more specific effects. One area of interest in the lab right now is trying to understand the specific outcomes for the regulation of particular microRNAs. Do they always interact with all their targets, or is their activity on some targets promoted or inhibited at the expense of other targets? Can their interaction with certain targets be modified depending on context? We’re using genetic and genomic approaches to identify new modulatory cofactors.

Watch Video

Victor Ambros was born in 1953 in Hanover, New Hampshire, USA. He received his PhD from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA, in 1979 where he also did postdoctoral research 1979-1985. He became a Principal Investigator at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA in 1985. He was Professor at Dartmouth Medical School from 1992-2007 and he is now Silverman Professor of Natural Science at the University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA.

Gary Ruvkun was born in Berkeley, California, USA in 1952. He received his PhD from Harvard University in 1982. He was a postdoctoral fellow at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA, 1982-1985. He became a Principal Investigator at Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School in 1985, where he is now Professor of Genetics.

This year’s Nobel Prize honors two scientists for their discovery of a fundamental principle governing how gene activity is regulated.

The information stored within our chromosomes can be likened to an instruction manual for all cells in our body. Every cell contains the same chromosomes, so every cell contains exactly the same set of genes and exactly the same set of instructions. Yet, different cell types, such as muscle and nerve cells, have very distinct characteristics. How do these differences arise? The answer lies in gene regulation, which allows each cell to select only the relevant instructions. This ensures that only the correct set of genes is active in each cell type.

Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun were interested in how different cell types develop. They discovered microRNA, a new class of tiny RNA molecules that play a crucial role in gene regulation. Their groundbreaking discovery revealed a completely new principle of gene regulation that turned out to be essential for multicellular organisms, including humans. It is now known that the human genome codes for over one thousand microRNAs. Their surprising discovery revealed an entirely new dimension to gene regulation. MicroRNAs are proving to be fundamentally important for how organisms develop and function.

Ambros and Ruvkun were interested in genes that control the timing of activation of different genetic programs, ensuring that various cell types develop at the right time. They studied two mutant strains of worms, lin-4 and lin-14, that displayed defects in the timing of activation of genetic programs during development. The laureates wanted to identify the mutated genes and understand their function. Ambros had previously shown that the lin-4 gene appeared to be a negative regulator of the lin-14 gene. However, how the lin-14 activity was blocked was unknown. Ambros and Ruvkun were intrigued by these mutants and their potential relationship and set out to resolve these mysteries.

Ambros and Ruvkun performed further experiments showing that the lin-4 microRNA turns off lin-14 by binding to the complementary sequences in its mRNA, blocking the production of lin-14 protein. A new principle of gene regulation, mediated by a previously unknown type of RNA, microRNA, had been discovered! The results were published in 1993 in two articles in the journal Cell.

Ruvkun cloned let-7, a second gene encoding a microRNA. The gene is conserved in evolution, and it is now known that microRNA regulation is universal among multicellular organisms.

Andrew Z. Fire and Craig C. Mello, awarded the Nobel Prize in 2006, described RNA interference, where specific mRNA-molecules are inactivated by adding double-stranded RNA to cells.

Mutations in one of the proteins required for microRNA production result in the DICER1 syndrome, a rare but severe syndrome linked to cancer in various organs and tissues.

Reference

http://Scientific background: For the discovery of microRNA and its role in post-transcriptional gene regulation

SOURCE

https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2024/press-release/

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Lesson 7 of Cell Signaling 7 Motility: Tubulin and Tutorial Quizes for #TUBiol3373

Posted in Academic Publishing, Biological Networks, Cell Biology, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Cytoskeleton, Key Opinion Leaders in eScientific Publishing - Interviews with, Neurodegenerative Diseases, Neurological Diseases, Neuroscience, Synaptic vesicle, tagged Alzheimers Disease, microtubes, Microtubule Affinity‐Regulating Kinase on March 23, 2020| Leave a Comment »

Lesson 7 of Cell Signaling 7 Motility: Tubulin and Tutorial Quizes for #TUBiol3373

Author: Stephen J. Williams, Ph.D.

This lesson (lesson 7) will discuss the last type of cytoskeletal structure: microtubules and tubulin. In addition I want to go over the last quiz answers and also introduce some new poll quizes.

I had given the lecture 7 over Canvas and each of you can download and go over the lecture but I will highlight a few slides in the lecture.

Let’s first review:

Remember that microtubules are the largest of the three cytoskeletal structures:

actin microfilaments < intermediate filaments < microtubules

This is very important to understand as the microtubules, as shown later, shuttle organelles and cellular structures like synaptic vesicles, as well as forming the centrisome and spindle fibers of mitosis.

Now remember the quiz question from last time

Remember that actin monomers (the G actin binds ATP) while tubulin, the protein which makes up the microtubules binds GTP {although it is a little more complex than that as the following diagram shows}

See how the growth at the plus end is dependent on tubulin heterodimer GTP while when GDP is only bound to tubulin (both forms) you get a destabilization of the plus end and removal of tubulin dimers (catastrophe) if there is no source of tubulin GTP dimers (alpha tubulin GTP with beta tubulin GTP).

Also remember that like actin microfilaments you can have treadmilling (the plus end continues growing while minus end undergoes catasrophe). The VIDEO below describes these processes:

Certain SNPs and mutants of tubulin are found and can result in drastic phenotypic changes in microtubule stability and structure. Below is an article where a mutation in tubulin can result in microtubule catastrophe or destabilization of microtubule structures.

From: A mutation uncouples the tubulin conformational and GTPase cycles, revealing allosteric control of microtubule dynamics;, E.A. Geyer et al..; elife 2015;4:e10113

Abstract

Microtubule dynamic instability depends on the GTPase activity of the polymerizing αβ-tubulin subunits, which cycle through at least three distinct conformations as they move into and out of microtubules. How this conformational cycle contributes to microtubule growing, shrinking, and switching remains unknown. Here, we report that a buried mutation in αβ-tubulin yields microtubules with dramatically reduced shrinking rate and catastrophe frequency. The mutation causes these effects by suppressing a conformational change that normally occurs in response to GTP hydrolysis in the lattice, without detectably changing the conformation of unpolymerized αβ-tubulin. Thus, the mutation weakens the coupling between the conformational and GTPase cycles of αβ-tubulin. By showing that the mutation predominantly affects post-GTPase conformational and dynamic properties of microtubules, our data reveal that the strength of the allosteric response to GDP in the lattice dictates the frequency of catastrophe and the severity of rapid shrinking.

https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.10113.001

Remember the term allosterism: change in the affinity for binding of a ligand or substrate that is caused by the binding of another ligand away from the active site (for example like 2,3 DPG effect on oxygen binding to hemoglobin

Cellular transport of organelles and vesicles: a function of microtubules

Now the above figure (figure 9 in your Powerpoint) shows the movement of organelles and vesicles in two different types of cells along microtubules.

Note the magenta arrow which goes from the nucleus toward the plus end of the microtubule (at cell membrane) is referred to as anterograde transport and is movement away from center of cell to the periphery. Retrograde transport is movement of organelles and vesicles from periphery of cell to the center of the cell.

Note that kinesin is involved in anterograde transport while dyenin is involved in retrograde transport

Also refer to the Wiki page which shows a nice cartoon of this walking down a microtubule on the right hand side of the page

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axonal_transport

Cilia; a cellular structure of microtubules (we will talk about cilia later)

for more information on structure of Cillia please see https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21698/

This is from a posting by Dr. Larry Bernstein of Yale University at https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/11/04/cilia-and-tubulin/

RESEARCHERS VIDEO AND MEASURE TUBULIN TRANSPORT IN CILIA FOR THE FIRST TIME.

http://health-innovations.org/2015/01/27/researchers-image-and-measure-tubulin-transport-in-cilia/

https://michellepetersen76.files.wordpress.com/2015/01/uga-researchers-image-and-measure-tubulin-transport-in-cilia-healthinnovations1.png

Defective cilia can lead to a host of diseases and conditions in the human body, from rare, inherited bone malformations to blindness, male infertility, kidney disease and obesity. It is known that these tiny cell organelles become deformed and cause these diseases because of a problem related to their assembly, which requires the translocation of vast quantities of the vital cell protein tubulin. What they didn’t know was how tubulin and another cell organelle known as flagella fit into the process.

Now, a new study from University of Georgia shows the mechanism behind tubulin transport and its assembly into cilia, including the first video imagery of the process. The study was published in the Journal of Cell Biology.

Cilia are found throughout the body, so defects in cilia formation affect cells that line airways, brain ventricles or the reproductive track. One of the main causes of male infertility is the cilia won’t function properly.

The team used total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to analyze moving protein particles inside the cilia of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, a green alga widely used as a model for cilia analysis.

The team exploited the natural behaviour of the organism, which is to attach by its cilia to a smooth surface, such as a microscope glass cover. This positions the cilia within the 200-nanometer reach of the total internal reflection fluorescence microscope allowing for the imaging of individual proteins as they move inside the cilia. A video explaining the process was published along with the study.

Tubulin is transported by this process called intraflagellar transport, or IFT. Though it has long been suspected in the field and there was indirect evidence to support the theory, this is the first time it has been shown directly, through live imaging, that IFT does function as a tubulin pump. The team observed that about 400,000 tubulin dimers need to be transported within 60 minutes to assemble a single cilium. Being able to see tubulin moving into cilia allowed for first insights into how this transport is regulated to make sure cilia will have the correct size.

The new findings are expected to have wide implications for a variety of diseases and conditions related to cilia defects in the body. The team state that they are on the very basic side of this research. But because more and more diseases are being connected to cilia-related conditions, including obesity and even diabetes, the number of people working on cilia has greatly expanded over the last few years.

So here are the answer to last weeks polls

Actin filaments are the SMALLEST of the cytoskeletal structures. As shown in this lecture it is tubulin that binds GTP. Actin binds ATP.
ARP2/3 or actin related proteins 2 and 3 are nucleating proteins that assist in initiating growth of branched chain micofiliment networks. Formins are associated with unbranched actin formations.
The answer is GAPs or GTPase activating proteins. Remember RAS in active state when GTP is bound and when you hydrolyze the GTP to GDP Ras is inactive state

4. Okay so I did a type here but the best answer was acetylcholinesterase (AchE) degrading acetylcholine. Acetylcholinesterase degrades the neurotransmitter acetylcholine into choline and acetate not as I accidentally put into acetylCoA. The freed choline can then be taken back up into the presynaptic neuron and then, with a new acetyl group (with Coenzyme A) will form acetylcholine.

Synthesis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine

The neuromuscular junction

Thanks to all who took the quiz. Remember it is for your benefit.

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Lesson 8 Cell Signaling and Motility: Lesson and Supplemental Information on Cell Junctions and ECM: #TUBiol3373

Posted in Biological Networks, Bone Disease and Musculoskeletal Disease, Cancer - General, Cardiovascular Research, Cell Biology, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Coagulation Therapy and Internal Bleeding, Cytoskeleton, Developmental biology, Disease Biology, Electrophysiology, Endoplasmic reticulum, tagged #TUBiol3373, adherens, basal membrane, cell junctions, collagen, connexin43 (Cx43), Extracellular matrix, fibrin, gap junctions, Integrins, αvβ5- integrin, proteoglycan, talin, tight junctions, trans-membrane gap junction protein on April 9, 2019| Leave a Comment »

Lesson 8 Cell Signaling and Motility: Lesson and Supplemental Information on Cell Junctions and ECM: #TUBiol3373

Curator: Stephen J. Williams, Ph.D.

Please click on the following link for the PowerPoint Presentation for Lecture 8 on Cell Junctions and the Extracellular Matrix: (this is same lesson from 2018 so don’t worry that file says 2018)

cell signaling 8 lesson 2018

Some other reading on this lesson on this Open Access Journal Include:

On Cell Junctions:

Translational Research on the Mechanism of Water and Electrolyte Movements into the Cell

(pay particular attention to article by Fischbarg on importance of tight junctions for proper water and electrolyte movement)

The Role of Tight Junction Proteins in Water and Electrolyte Transport

(pay attention to article of role of tight junction in kidney in the Loop of Henle and the collecting tubule)

EpCAM [7.4]

(a tight junction protein)

Signaling and Signaling Pathways

(for this lesson pay attention to the part that shows how Receptor Tyrosine Kinase activation (RTK) can lead to signaling to an integrin and also how the thrombin receptor leads to cellular signals both to GPCR (G-protein coupled receptors like the thrombin receptor, the ADP receptor; but also the signaling cascades that lead to integrin activation of integrins leading to adhesion to insoluble fibrin mesh of the newly formed clot and subsequent adhesion of platelets, forming the platelet plug during thrombosis.)

On the Extracellular Matrix

Three-Dimensional Fibroblast Matrix Improves Left Ventricular Function Post MI

Arteriogenesis and Cardiac Repair: Two Biomaterials – Injectable Thymosin beta4 and Myocardial Matrix Hydrogel

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Lesson 5 Cell Signaling And Motility: Cytoskeleton & Actin: Curations and Articles of reference as supplemental information: #TUBiol3373

Posted in Alzheimer's Disease, Biological Networks, Ca2+ triggered activation, Calcium, Calcium Signaling, Cancer - General, Curation, Cytoskeleton, Metastasis Process, Neurological Diseases, Scientific Publishing, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Tissue Microenvironment, tagged #TUBiol3373, actin, actin filaments, Alzheimer Disease, Cell Motility, cell physiology, Cytoskeleton, cytoskeleton transport, Microtubule Affinity‐Regulating Kinase, microtubules, Parkinsons disease, Synaptic vesicle on March 13, 2019| Leave a Comment »

Lesson 5 Cell Signaling And Motility: Cytoskeleton & Actin: Curations and Articles of reference as supplemental information: #TUBiol3373

Curator: Stephen J. Williams, Ph.D.

Cell motility or migration is an essential cellular process for a variety of biological events. In embryonic development, cells migrate to appropriate locations for the morphogenesis of tissues and organs. Cells need to migrate to heal the wound in repairing damaged tissue. Vascular endothelial cells (ECs) migrate to form new capillaries during angiogenesis. White blood cells migrate to the sites of inflammation to kill bacteria. Cancer cell metastasis involves their migration through the blood vessel wall to invade surrounding tissues.

Please Click on the Following Powerpoint Presentation for Lesson 4 on the Cytoskeleton, Actin, and Filaments

CLICK ON LINK BELOW

cell signaling 5 lesson

This post will be updated with further information when we get into Lesson 6 and complete our discussion on the Cytoskeleton

Please see the following articles on Actin and the Cytoskeleton in Cellular Signaling

Role of Calcium, the Actin Skeleton, and Lipid Structures in Signaling and Cell Motility

This article, constitutes a broad, but not complete review of the emerging discoveries of the critical role of calcium signaling on cell motility and, by extension, embryonic development, cancer metastasis, changes in vascular compliance at the junction between the endothelium and the underlying interstitial layer. The effect of calcium signaling on the heart in arrhtmogenesis and heart failure will be a third in this series, while the binding of calcium to troponin C in the synchronous contraction of the myocardium had been discussed by Dr. Lev-Ari in Part I.

Universal MOTIFs essential to skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac syncytial muscle, endothelium, neovascularization, atherosclerosis and hypertension, cell division, embryogenesis, and cancer metastasis. The discussion will be presented in several parts:

1. Biochemical and signaling cascades in cell motility

2. Extracellular matrix and cell-ECM adhesions

3. Actin dynamics in cell-cell adhesion

4. Effect of intracellular Ca++ action on cell motility

5. Regulation of the cytoskeleton

6. Role of thymosin in actin-sequestration

7. T-lymphocyte signaling and the actin cytoskeleton

Identification of Biomarkers that are Related to the Actin Cytoskeleton

In this article the Dr. Larry Bernstein covers two types of biomarker on the function of actin in cytoskeleton mobility in situ.

First, is an application in developing the actin or other component, for a biotarget and then, to be able to follow it as

(a) a biomarker either for diagnosis, or

(b) for the potential treatment prediction of disease free survival.

Second, is mostly in the context of MI, for which there is an abundance of work to reference, and a substantial body of knowledge about

(a) treatment and long term effects of diet, exercise, and

(b) underlying effects of therapeutic drugs.

Microtubule-Associated Protein Assembled on Polymerized Microtubules

(This article has a great 3D visualization of a microtuble structure as well as description of genetic diseases which result from mutations in tubulin and effects on intracellular trafficking of proteins.

A latticework of tiny tubes called microtubules gives your cells their shape and also acts like a railroad track that essential proteins travel on. But if there is a glitch in the connection between train and track, diseases can occur. In the November 24, 2015 issue of PNAS, Tatyana Polenova, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and her team at the University of Delaware (UD), together with John C. Williams, Ph.D., Associate Professor at the Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope in Duarte, California, reveal for the first time — atom by atom — the structure of a protein bound to a microtubule. The protein of focus, CAP-Gly, short for “cytoskeleton-associated protein-glycine-rich domains,” is a component of dynactin, which binds with the motor protein dynein to move cargoes of essential proteins along the microtubule tracks. Mutations in CAP-Gly have been linked to such neurological diseases and disorders as Perry syndrome and distal spinal bulbar muscular dystrophy.

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Mesentery: Designated As a New Organ

Posted in Cell Biology, Cytoskeleton, Developmental biology, Disease Biology, Evidence-based decision-making, Uncategorized, tagged Abdomen, disease, mesentery, organ, peritoneum, structure on January 6, 2017| Leave a Comment »

Reporter and Curator: Dr. Sudipta Saha, Ph.D.

Researchers have classified a brand-new organ inside human body. Known as the mesentery, the new organ is found in our digestive systems, and was long thought to be made up of fragmented, separate structures. But recent research has shown that it’s actually one, continuous organ. The evidence for the organ’s reclassification is now published in The Lancet Gastroenterology & Hepatology. Although we now know about the structure of this new organ, its function is still poorly understood, and studying it could be the key to better understanding and treatment of abdominal and digestive disease.

mesentery

J Calvin Coffey, a researcher from the University Hospital Limerick in Ireland, who first discovered that the mesentery was an organ. In 2012, Coffey and his colleagues showed through detailed microscopic examinations that the mesentery is actually a continuous structure. Over the past four years, they’ve gathered further evidence that the mesentery should actually be classified as its own distinct organ, and the latest paper makes it official. Mesentery is a double fold of peritoneum – the lining of the abdominal cavity – that holds our intestine to the wall of our abdomen. It was described by the Italian polymath Leanardo da Vinci in 1508, but it has been ignored throughout the centuries, until now. Although there are generally considered to be five organs in the human body, there are in fact now 79, including the mesentery. The heart, brain, liver, lungs and kidneys are the vital organs, but there are another 74 that play a role in keeping us healthy. The distinctive anatomical and functional features of mesentery have been revealed that justify designation of the mesentery as an organ. Accordingly, the mesentery should be subjected to the same investigatory focus that is applied to other organs and systems. This provides a platform from which to direct future scientific investigation of the human mesentery in health and disease.

References:

http://www.thelancet.com/journals/langas/article/PIIS2468-1253(16)30026-7/abstract

http://www.sciencealert.com/it-s-official-a-brand-new-human-organ-has-been-classified

http://www.bbc.com/news/health-38506708

http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/new-organ-mesentery-found-human-body-digestive-system-classified-abdominal-grays-anatomy-a7507396.html

https://in.news.yahoo.com/scientists-discover-human-organ-064207997.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesentery

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Signaling through the T Cell Receptor (TCR) Complex and the Co-stimulatory Receptor CD28

Posted in Autoimmune Inflammatory DIseases, Bacterial Resistance, Biological Networks, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Curation, Cytoskeleton, Disease Biology, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, Gene Regulation, Genetics & Pharmaceutical, Genomic Expression, Human Immune System in Health and in Disease, Immunology, Microvesicle, Proteins, Proteomics, Signaling, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Viral diseases, tagged Actin-Regulating Complex, cell-mediated immunity, Nuclear Envelope Lamin-A, subsynaptic vesicles, T cell actin dynamics, T cells, T-cell activation, T-cell receptor signaling, T-cell/actin dynamics, WAVE2 and cofilin, Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASp) on June 10, 2016| Leave a Comment »

Signaling through the T Cell Receptor (TCR) Complex and the Co-stimulatory Receptor CD28

Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

New connections: T cell actin dynamics

Nancy R. Gough
Sci. Signal. 19 Apr 2016; 9(424): ec95 http://dx.doi.org:/10.1126/scisignal.aaf8940

When T cells receive the appropriate signals through the T cell receptor (TCR) complex and the costimulatory receptor CD28, a complex rearrangement of the cytoskeleton occurs that enables the formation of the immunological synapse, a specialized structure that forms between the antigen-presenting cell and the T cell. In this week’s issue, Roybal et al. used sophisticated imaging of live cells and computational image analysis to visualize the dynamic rearrangements of actin and various regulatory proteins in T cells activated through the TCR in the absence or presence of CD28 signaling. The regulatory proteins WAVE2 and cofilin were efficiently recruited to the immunological synapse only when both TCR and CD28 signaled. Fried et al. used a different fluorescence imaging approach, triple-color FRET (fluorescence resonance energy transfer), to visualize not the movement of proteins with the cell, but the interactions between the actin-regulatory proteins WASp and WIP in live cells. The WASp-WIP interaction is required for T cell activation. The triple-color FRET analysis revealed how changes in the interaction between WASp and WIP resulted in WASp functioning as both an on and off switch. Although most studies’ focus of T cell cytoskeletal dynamics is on the changes that occur at the immunological synapse, as González-Granado et al. showed, the nuclear cytoskeleton is also important for the immune response. In this study, live-cell imaging and immunofluorescence analysis revealed that nuclear lamin-A contributed to the polymerization of actin and, thus, immunological synapse formation. These studies highlight the insights that can be obtained about molecular dynamics from live-cell image analysis.

K. T. Roybal, T. E. Buck, X. Ruan, B. H. Cho, D. J. Clark, R. Ambler, H. M. Tunbridge, J. Zhang, P. Verkade, C. Wülfing, R. F. Murphy, Computational spatiotemporal analysis identifies WAVE2 and cofilin as joint regulators of costimulation-mediated T cell actin dynamics. Sci. Signal.9, rs3 (2016). [Abstract]

Computational spatiotemporal analysis identifies WAVE2 and cofilin as joint regulators of costimulation-mediated T cell actin dynamics

Kole T. Roybal¹,²,*,†, et al. Sci. Signal. 19 Apr 2016; 9(424): rs3. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1126/scisignal.aad4149

Imaging T cell actin dynamics

T cells must receive signals through the T cell receptor (TCR) and the costimulatory receptor CD28 to become fully activated. Critical to this process is the reorganization of plasma membrane actin at the immunological synapse, the interface between a T cell and an antigen-presenting cell. Roybal et al.imaged actin and fluorescently tagged actin regulatory proteins in T cells activated through the TCR in the absence or presence of CD28 signaling. Computational image processing to normalize differences in cell shape enabled tracking of the fluorescent proteins. The regulatory proteins WAVE2 and cofilin were efficiently recruited to the immunological synapse only when both TCR and CD28 signaled. Constitutive activation of either protein in TCR-stimulated T cells enabled normal actin reorganization even when CD28 signaling was blocked. This combination of imaging and computational analysis could be applied to other systems to determine the spatiotemporal dynamics of signaling molecules.

Fluorescence microscopy is one of the most important tools in cell biology research because it provides spatial and temporal information to investigate regulatory systems inside cells. This technique can generate data in the form of signal intensities at thousands of positions resolved inside individual live cells. However, given extensive cell-to-cell variation, these data cannot be readily assembled into three- or four-dimensional maps of protein concentration that can be compared across different cells and conditions. We have developed a method to enable comparison of imaging data from many cells and applied it to investigate actin dynamics in T cell activation. Antigen recognition in T cells by the T cell receptor (TCR) is amplified by engagement of the costimulatory receptor CD28. We imaged actin and eight core actin regulators to generate over a thousand movies of T cells under conditions in which CD28 was either engaged or blocked in the context of a strong TCR signal. Our computational analysis showed that the primary effect of costimulation blockade was to decrease recruitment of the activator of actin nucleation WAVE2 (Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein family verprolin-homologous protein 2) and the actin-severing protein cofilin to F-actin. Reconstitution of WAVE2 and cofilin activity restored the defect in actin signaling dynamics caused by costimulation blockade. Thus, we have developed and validated an approach to quantify protein distributions in time and space for the analysis of complex regulatory systems.

RELATED CONTENT

S. Fried, B. Reicher, M. H. Pauker, S. Eliyahu, O. Matalon, E. Noy, J. Chill, M. Barda-Saad, Triple-color FRET analysis reveals conformational changes in the WIP-WASp actin-regulating complex. Sci. Signal.7, ra60 (2014). [Abstract]

Triple-Color FRET Analysis Reveals Conformational Changes in the WIP-WASp Actin-Regulating Complex

Sophia Fried¹,*, et al. Sci. Signal. 24 Jun 2014; 7(331): ra60 http://dx.doi.org:/10.1126/scisignal.2005198

Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASp) is a key regulator of the actin cytoskeletal machinery. Binding of WASp-interacting protein (WIP) to WASp modulates WASp activity and protects it from degradation. Formation of the WIP-WASp complex is crucial for the adaptive immune response. We found that WIP and WASp interacted in cells through two distinct molecular interfaces. One interaction occurred between the WASp-homology-1 (WH1) domain of WASp and the carboxyl-terminal domain of WIP that depended on the phosphorylation status of WIP, which is phosphorylated by protein kinase C θ (PKCθ) in response to T cell receptor activation. The other interaction occurred between the verprolin homology, central hydrophobic region, and acidic region (VCA) domain of WASp and the amino-terminal domain of WIP. This latter interaction required actin, because it was inhibited by latrunculin A, which sequesters actin monomers. With triple-color fluorescence resonance energy transfer (3FRET) technology, we demonstrated that the WASp activation mechanism involved dissociation of the first interaction, while leaving the second interaction intact. This conformation exposed the ubiquitylation site on WASp, leading to degradation of WASp. Together, these data suggest that the activation and degradation of WASp are delicately balanced and depend on the phosphorylation state of WIP. Our molecular analysis of the WIP-WASp interaction provides insight into the regulation of actin-dependent processes.

J. M. González-Granado, C. Silvestre-Roig, V. Rocha-Perugini, L. Trigueros-Motos, D. Cibrián, G. Morlino, M. Blanco-Berrocal, F. G. Osorio, J. M. P. Freije, C. López-Otín, F. Sánchez-Madrid, V. Andrés, Nuclear envelope Lamin-a couples actin dynamics with immunological synapse architecture and T cell activation.Sci. Signal.7, ra37 (2014). [Abstract]

Nuclear Envelope Lamin-A Couples Actin Dynamics with Immunological Synapse Architecture and T Cell Activation

José M. González-Granado¹, et al. Sci. Signal. 22 Apr 2014; 7(322): ra37 http://dx.doi.org:/10.1126/scisignal.2004872

In many cell types, nuclear A-type lamins regulate multiple cellular functions, including higher-order genome organization, DNA replication and repair, gene transcription, and signal transduction; however, their role in specialized immune cells remains largely unexplored. We showed that the abundance of A-type lamins was almost negligible in resting naïve T lymphocytes, but was increased upon activation of the T cell receptor (TCR). The increase in lamin-A was an early event that accelerated formation of the immunological synapse between T cells and antigen-presenting cells. Polymerization of F-actin in T cells is a critical step for immunological synapse formation, and lamin-A interacted with the linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complex to promote F-actin polymerization. We also showed that lamin-A expression accelerated TCR clustering and led to enhanced downstream signaling, including extracellular signal–regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) signaling, as well as increased target gene expression. Pharmacological inhibition of the ERK pathway reduced lamin-A–dependent T cell activation. Moreover, mice lacking lamin-A in immune cells exhibited impaired T cell responses in vivo. These findings underscore the importance of A-type lamins for TCR activation and identify lamin-A as a previously unappreciated regulator of the immune response.

A Mechanism of Cancer Metastasis

Posted in Cancer - General, CANCER BIOLOGY & Innovations in Cancer Therapy, Cancer Genomics, Cell Biology, Cytoskeleton, Disease Biology, Metabolism, Metastasis Process, tagged cell & molecular biology and cancer, Golgi compartment of the cell, literature, metastasis, nanotubes, oncology, PI4P-binding protein, PITPNC1, promotes metastasis, RAB1B, vesicular secretion on May 1, 2016| Leave a Comment »

A Mechanism of Cancer Metastasis

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

LPBI

Screen Shot 2021-07-19 at 6.11.06 PM

Word Cloud By Danielle Smolyar

A Protein that Spreads Cancer

Nils Halberg at the University of Bergen has identified a protein that makes it possible for cancer cells to spread

http://www.technologynetworks.com/Proteomics/news.aspx?ID=190563

The cells inside a tumour differ a lot. While some remains “good” and do not cause trouble, others become aggressive and starts to spread to other organ sites. It is very hard to predict which cells become aggressive or not.

Nevertheless, by isolating these aggressive cancer cells in in vivotests on animals, Nils Halberg at the Department of Biomedicinet the University of Bergen (UiB) and the researchers Dr. Sohail Tavazoie and Dr. Caitlin Sengelaub at The Rockefeller University have discovered a certain protein (PITPNC1) that characterise aggressive cancer cells.

“We discovered that the aggressive cancer cells that are spreading in colon, breast, and skin cancer contained a much higher portion of the protein PITPNC1, than the non-aggressive cancer cells,” says researcher Nils Halberg of the CELLNET Group at the Department of Biomedicine at UiB.

“This means we can predict which of the cancer cells are getting aggressive and spread, at a much earlier stage than today.”

How cells penetrate tissue

The researcher also discovered that this protein, that characterizes the aggressive cancer cells, has got a very specific function in the process of spreading cancer.

The cancer cells spread from one place in the body to another, through the blood vessel. To get into the blood vessels, the cell needs to penetrate tissue, both when it leaves the tumour and when it is attaching to a new organ.

“The protein PITPNC1 regulates a process whereby the cancer cells are secreting molecules, which cut through a network of proteins outside the cells, like scissors. The cancer cell is then able to penetrate the tissue and set up a colonies at new organ sites,” Halberg explains.

Custom-made therapy

A tumour that is not spreading, is usually not dangerous for the patient if it is removed. The hard part in cancer therapy is when the tumour starts to spread. Guided by the new discoveries, supported by the Bergen Research Foundation´s (BFS) Recruitment Programme, Halberg hopes to contribute to a better treatment of cancer patients.

“If we get to the point where we can offer a custom-made therapy that targets the function of this protein, we might be able to stop it spreading,” says Nils Halberg.

RDGBB; RDGBB1; MRDGBbeta; RDGB-BETA; M-RDGB-beta

This gene encodes a member of the phosphatidylinositol transfer protein family. The encoded cytoplasmic protein plays a role in multiple processes including cell signaling and lipid metabolism by facilitating the transfer of phosphatidylinositol between membrane compartments. Alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding multiple isoforms have been observed for this gene, and a pseudogene of this gene is located on the long arm of chromosome 1. [provided by RefSeq, May 2012]

Phosphatidylinositol Transfer Protein, Cytoplasmic 1 (PITPNC1) Binds and Transfers Phosphatidic Acid*

Kathryn Garner‡ , Alan N. Hunt§ , Grielof Koster§ , Pentti Somerharju¶ , Emily Groves‡1, Michelle Li‡ , Padinjat Raghu , Roman Holic‡ , and Shamshad Cockcroft‡2
JBC Papers in Press, July 21, 2012, http://dx.doi.org:/10.1074/jbc.M112.375840

Background: Phosphatidylinositol transfer protein, cytoplasmic 1 (PITPNC1) (alternative name, RdgB) promotes metastatic colonization and angiogenesis in humans.

Results: We demonstrate that RdgB is a phosphatidic acid (PA)- and phosphatidylinositol-binding protein and binds PA derived from the phospholipase D pathway.

Conclusion: RdgB is the first lipid-binding protein identified that can bind and transfer PA.

Significance: PA bound to RdgB is a likely effector downstream of phospholipase D

PITPNC1 Recruits RAB1B to the Golgi Network to Drive Malignant Secretion

Nils Halberg³^,⁴^,, Caitlin A. Sengelaub³, Kristina Navrazhina, Henrik Molina, Kunihiro Uryu, Sohail F. Tavazoie
Cancer Cell 14 Mar 2016; Volume 29, Issue 3:339–353 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ccell.2016.02.013

Highlights

•PITPNC1 promotes metastasis by melanoma, breast cancer, and colon cancer cells
•PITPNC1 recruits RAB1B to the Golgi compartment of the cell
•Golgi localization of RAB1B enhances vesicular secretion via GOLPH3 recruitment

Summary

Enhanced secretion of tumorigenic effector proteins is a feature of malignant cells. The molecular mechanisms underlying this feature are poorly defined. We identify PITPNC1 as a gene amplified in a large fraction of human breast cancer and overexpressed in metastatic breast, melanoma, and colon cancers. Biochemical, molecular, and cell-biological studies reveal that PITPNC1 promotes malignant secretion by binding Golgi-resident PI4P and localizing RAB1B to the Golgi. RAB1B localization to the Golgi allows for the recruitment of GOLPH3, which facilitates Golgi extension and enhanced vesicular release. PITPNC1-mediated vesicular release drives metastasis by increasing the secretion of pro-invasive and pro-angiogenic mediators HTRA1, MMP1, FAM3C, PDGFA, and ADAM10. We establish PITPNC1 as a PI4P-binding protein that enhances vesicular secretion capacity in malignancy.

Cancerous Conduits

Metastatic cancer cells use nanotubes to manipulate blood vessels.

By Amanda B. Keener | April 1, 2016

http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/45579/title/Cancerous-Conduits

http://www.the-scientist.com/images/April2016/shortlit2.jpg

MAKING CONTACT: Breast cancer cells (white arrows) in culture deliver microRNAs to endothelial cells through filamentous nanotubes (yellow arrow).
LABORATORY OF SHILADITYA SENGUPTA

EDITOR’S CHOICE IN CELL & MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

The paper
Y. Conner et al., “Physical nanoscale conduit-mediated communication between tumour cells and the endothelium modulates endothelial phenotype,” Nat Commun, 6:8671, 2015.

Branching Out
Harvard bioengineer Shiladitya Sengupta and his team were establishing a culture system to model the matrix and blood vessel networks that surround tumors when they found that human breast cancer cells spread out along blood vessel endothelial cells rather than form spheroid tumors as expected. Taking a closer look using scanning electron microscopy, they spied nanoscale filaments consisting of membrane and cytoskeletal components linking the two cell types.

Manipulative Metastases
These cancer cell–spawned nanotubes, the team discovered, could transfer a dye from cancer cells to endothelial cells both in culture and in a mouse model of breast cancer metastasis to the lungs.The cells also transferred microRNAs known to regulate endothelial cell adhesion and disassociation of tight junctions, which Sengupta speculates may help cancer cells slip in and out of blood vessels. This study is the first to suggest a role for nanotubes in metastasis.

Breaking the Chain
Sengupta’s team then used low doses of cytoskeleton-disrupting drugs to block nanotube formation. Emil Lou, an oncologist at the University of Minnesota who studies nanotubes in cancer and was not involved in the study, says this approach is a “good start,” though such drugs would not be used in human patients because they are not specific to nanotubes.

In the Details
Lou says the study emphasizes the importance of understanding interactions between tumors and their surrounding tissues on a molecular level. Going forward, Sengupta plans to study how the tubes are formed in melanoma as well as breast and ovarian cancers to try to identify other drug targets.

Physical nanoscale conduit-mediated communication between tumour cells and the endothelium modulates endothelial phenotype

Yamicia Connor, Sarah Tekleab, Shyama Nandakumar, Cherelle Walls,….., Bruce Zetter, Elazer R. Edelman & Shiladitya Sengupta
Nature Communications6,Article number:8671 doi:10.1038/ncomms9671

Metastasis is a major cause of mortality and remains a hurdle in the search for a cure for cancer. Not much is known about metastatic cancer cells and endothelial cross-talk, which occurs at multiple stages during metastasis. Here we report a dynamic regulation of the endothelium by cancer cells through the formation of nanoscale intercellular membrane bridges, which act as physical conduits for transfer of microRNAs. The communication between the tumour cell and the endothelium upregulates markers associated with pathological endothelium, which is reversed by pharmacological inhibition of these nanoscale conduits. These results lead us to define the notion of ‘metastatic hijack’: cancer cell-induced transformation of healthy endothelium into pathological endothelium via horizontal communication through the nanoscale conduits. Pharmacological perturbation of these nanoscale membrane bridges decreases metastatic foci in vivo. Targeting these nanoscale membrane bridges may potentially emerge as a new therapeutic opportunity in the management of metastatic cancer.

Metastasis is the culmination of a cascade of events, including invasion and intravasation of tumour cells, survival in circulation, extravasation and metastatic colonization⁴. Multiple studies have reported a dynamic interaction between the metastatic tumour cell and the target organ, mediated by cytokines^{4, 12} or by exosomes that can prime metastasis by creating a pre-metastatic niche¹³. Interestingly, the interactions between cancer cells and endothelium in the context of metastasis, which occurs during intravasation, circulation and extravasation, remains less studied. Cancer cell-secreted soluble factors can induce retraction of endothelial cells and the subsequent attachment and transmigration of tumour cells through the endothelial monolayers^{14, 15}. Recently, studies indicate a more intricate communication between cancer cells and the endothelium. For example, a miRNA regulon was found to mediate endothelial recruitment and metastasis by cancer cells¹⁶. Similarly, exosome-mediated transfer of cancer-secreted miR-105 was recently reported to disrupt the endothelial barrier and promote metastasis¹⁷. We rationalized that a better understanding of cancer–endothelial intercellular communication, primarily during extravasation, could lead to novel strategies for inhibiting metastasis¹⁸.

Recently, nanoscale membrane bridges, such as tunnelling nanotubes (TNTs) and filopodias, have emerged as a novel mechanism of intercellular communication¹⁹. For example, specialized signalling filopodia or cytonemes were recently shown to transport morphogens during development²⁰. Similarly, TNTs, which unlike filopodia have no contact with the substratum²¹, were shown to facilitate HIV-1 transmission between T cells, enable the spread of calcium-mediated signal between cells and transfer p-glycoproteins conferring multi-drug resistance between cancer cells^{22, 23, 24, 25}. TNTs were also recently implicated in trafficking of mitochondria from endothelial to cancer cells and transfer miRNA between osteosarcoma cells and stromal murine osteoblast cells, and between smooth muscle cells and the endothelium^{26, 27, 28}. However, whether similar intercellular nanostructure-mediated communication can be harnessed by cancer cells to modulate the endothelium is not known.

Here we report that metastatic cancer cells preferentially form nanoscale intercellular membrane bridges with endothelial cells. These nanoscale bridges act as physical conduits through which the cancer cells can horizontally transfer miRNA to the endothelium. We observe that the recipient endothelial cells present an miRNA profile that is distinct from non-recipient endothelial cells isolated from the same microenvironment. Furthermore, the co-cultures of cancer and endothelial cells upregulate markers associated with pathological endothelium, which is inhibited by pharmacological disruption of the nanoscale conduits. Additionally, the pharmacological inhibitors of these nanoscale conduits can decrease metastatic foci in vivo, which suggests that these nanoscale conduits may potentially emerge as new targets in the management of metastatic cancer.

Figure 1: Nanoscale structures physically connect metastatic cells and the endothelium

Nanoscale structures physically connect metastatic cells and the endothelium.

http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2015/151216/ncomms9671/images_article/ncomms9671-f1.jpg

(a) Representative image of MDA-MB-231 cancer cells exhibiting an invasive phenotype in the presence of preformed endothelial tubes in co-culture. (b) Representative image of a mammosphere typically formed by MDA-MB-231 cells when cultured on 3D tumour matrix in the absence of endothelial cells. MDA-MB-231 cells were loaded with CFSE. Actin was labelled with rhodamine phalloidin and nuclei were counterstained with DAPI. (c) A representative SEM of epithelial (EPI) MDA-MB-231 cells aligning on HUVEC (ENDO) tubules in the co-culture. Lower panel shows higher magnification. (d) SEM image reveals nanoscale membrane bridges connecting (nCs) metastatic breast cancer (EPI) cells and endothelial vessels (arrows). (e) A representative transmission electron micrograph shows intercellular connectivity through the nanoscale membrane bridge between MDA-MB-231 and an endothelial cell. (f) A cartoon represents the types of homotypic and heterotypic intercellular nanoscale connections that an epithelial cell may form in the presence of endothelial tubules. Highly metastatic (MDA-MB-468, MDA-MB-231 or MDA-MB-435) or low metastatic (MCF7 and SkBr3) cancer cells were co-cultured with the endothelial tubes. Normal HMECs were used as control. Graphs show percentage of total population of epithelial cells that exhibit either homotyptic (Epi–Epi) or heterotypic (Epi–Endo) nanoscale connections and (g) average number of nanoscale connections formed per cell. Quantification analysis was done on >300 cells of each cell type. Data shown are mean±s.e.m. (n=6 replicates per study, with 2–3 independent experiments). **P<0.01, ***P<0.001 (analysis of variance followed by Bonferroni’s post-hoctest).

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The nanoscale bridges are composed of cytoskeletal elements

Figure 3: Structure and function of the heterotypic intercellular nanoscale membrane bridges.

a) Representative images show the heterotypic nanoscale membrane bridges are composed of both F-actin and α/β-tubulin cytoskeletal components. Co-cultures were stained with α/β-tubulin antibody (green) and phalloidin (purple) to label actin, and counterstained with DAPI (nuclear)+WGA (plasma membrane) (blue). Endothelial cells were labelled with DiL-Ac-LDL (red). (b) Mathematical modelling of the structure of the nanoscale connections. The physical properties of actin filaments necessitate microtubules for projections of certain length scales. The maximum projection length for a given minimum diameter at the buckling limit is plotted for actin-only nanoscale structures (purple line). This curve is overlaid with the experimental length and diameter measurements (red dots) from the observed thin projections measured in these studies. Projections containing only actin or projections containing both actin and tubulin can exist to the right of the curve (purple line). However, actin-only projections cannot exist to the left of the curve (green region). (c) The effect of incorporating tubulin in these projections. The maximum length is plotted against the minimum diameter for varying fractions of tubulin incorporated in the nanoscale projection. Addition of microtubules to the projections increases the overall flexural rigidity, shifting the curves left of the actin-only limit (purple line), thus allowing for longer and thinner nanoscale connections. However, owing to the larger radius of microtubules (4 × radius of actin filaments), there is an optimal fraction of tubulin (green line) that can be incorporated into the projection before the effect is reversed. (d) The optimal fraction of microtubules is about 6.6% (red dashed line) to maximize nanostructure flexural strength, while minimizing thickness. (e) Representative confocal image shows the presence of myosin V motor proteins within the intercellular nanostructure (inset shows higher magnification). Scale bar 10 μm.

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Nanoscale bridges act as conduits for communication

Figure 4: The nanoscale membrane bridges act as conduits for intercellular communication between cancer and endothelial cells.

(a) Confocal image of nanoscale membrane bridge-mediated transfer of cytoplasmic contents. CFSE (green)-loaded MDA-MB-231 cells were co-cultured with the Dil-Ac-LDL (red)-labelled HUVECs. Transfer of the CFSE dye was observed after 24-h co-culture. CFSE dye can be seen within HUVEC cells (yellow arrow). Tumour cells can form a nanobridge with a distal endothelial cell (EC1) than an endothelial cell (EC2) in close proximity. (b,c) Cartoon shows the experimental design, where dual cultures control for vesicle-mediated intercellular transfer. FACS plot show gating for sorting endothelial cells from the co-cultures using dual staining for DiI-Ac-LDL and PECAM-1, and then quantification for CFSE transfer in the isolated endothelial cells. (d) Graph shows quantification of FACS analysis, highlighting increased transfer of CFSE to endothelial cells in the co-culture. (N>100,000 events, n=36 replicates, 3 replicates per study). (e) Graph shows the temporal kinetics of nanoscale connection-mediated intercellular transfer of CFSE from MDA-MB-231 cells to the endothelium (n=2 studies, 3 replicates per study). (f) Effect of small molecule inhibitors of cytoskeletal components on membrane nanobridges. (g) Graphs show treatment with vehicle (control) or a low-dose combination of docetaxel and cytochalasin do not affect the exosome shedding (n=2 independent studies). (h,i) Graphs show the effect of pharmacological inhibitors on the formation of heterotypic and homotypic nanoscale bridges (arrows). (n=2 studies, 6 replicates per study). (j) Graph shows the effect of pharmacological inhibitors on intercellular transfer of CFSE to endothelial cells from cancer cells (n=10 studies, 3 replicates per study). Data shown are mean±s.e.m. (*P<0.05,**P<0.01, ****P<0.001, analysis of variance followed by Bonferroni’s post-hoc test).

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Effect of pharmacological inhibition of nanoscale bridges

Nanobridges transfer miRNA from cancer cells to endothelium

Figure 5: The nanoscale membrane bridges act as conduits for intercellular transfer of miRNA between cancer and endothelial cells.

Representative confocal images show the transfer of Cy3-labelled miRNA from MDA-MB-231 cells (EPI) to endothelial cells (ENDO) at (a) 24 h and (b) 36 h of co-culture. Alexa Fluor 488-Ac-LDL (green)-labelled endothelial cells were co-cultured with Cy3-labelled miRNA-transfected MDA-MB-231. Co-cultures were counterstained with phalloidin (purple) and DAPI+WGA (blue). A 3D visualization shows the localization of miRNA within the nanoscale connections (white arrows), which act as conduits for horizontal transfer of miRNAs to endothelial cells. (c) Schema shows quantification of Cy3-labelled control miRNA and Cy3-labelled miR132 transfer between cancer cell and endothelium using flow cytometry. Endothelial cell populations were isolated from the co-cultures and percentage of miRNA+ve cells was determined. Dual cultures in Boyden chambers were included as controls. (d) Graph shows the effect of pharmacological disruption of nanoscale conduits on miRNA transfer. (e) Schema shows experimental design for reverse transcriptase–PCR-based detection of transferred miR-132 in endothelial cells under different experimental conditions. MDA-MB-231 cells transfected with miR-132 and α-miR-132 were co-cultured with endothelial tubes. FACS-isolated endothelial cell populations were analysed for the expression of miR-132. (f) Graph shows miR-132+ve cell populations (solid red) show 5 × increase compared with miR-132−ve populations (solid blue) (P<0.0001), whereas anti-miR-132+ve cells (striped red) show 26 × decrease in miR-132 expression (P<0.0001) compared with α-miR-132−ve cells (striped blue). Direct transfection of miR-132 (black) and α-miR-132 (light blue) in endothelial cells is used as positive and negative controls, respectively. Upregulation of miR-132 from baseline was observed in dual culture (solid green), which could be inhibited with anti-miR-132 (striped green). MiR-132 levels are increased compared with dual only in those cells that are positive for intercellular transfer. Fold change was determined compared with endothelial cell transfection with control miRNA (grey). (g) FACS analysis shows nanoscale bridges-mediated transfer of miRNAs leads to changes in p120RasGAP and pAkt (S473) expression downstream of the miR-132 pathway in endothelial cell populations isolated from co-cultures. (h) Graphs show p120RasGAP expression is decreased in the miR-132+ve cell populations and increased in the α-miR-132+ve cell populations, while further downstream miR-132 positively regulates pAkt expression. Data shown are mean±s.e.m. (N=2–5 independent studies, with 3 replicates per study,*P<0.05, **P<0.01, ***P<0.001, ****P<0.0001, analysis of variance followed by Bonferroni’s post-hoctest).

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Nanobridge-mediated transfer alters endogenous miRNA profile

Figure 6: Cancer cell–endothelial intercellular transfer alters the endogenous miRNA profile and phenotype of recipient endothelial cells.

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The complexity of regulatory tumour parenchyma–endothelial communication is increasingly being unravelled^{7, 50}. The altered phenotypic behaviour of the metastatic cancer cells in the presence of endothelial cells observed in this study, instead of forming classical mammospheres, is consistent with the emerging paradigm of modulatory tumour parenchyma–stroma communication and the creation of a pre-metastatic niche. Indeed, a recent study proposed the concept of the formation of a pre-metastatic niche mediated via metastatic cell-secreted exosomes, leading to vascular leakiness at the pre-metastatic sites¹³. Here we demonstrate that cancer cells form nanoscale membrane bridges, which can act as conduits for horizontal transfer of miRNA from the cancer cells to the endothelium, switching the latter to a pathological phenotype. Our findings reveal that the ability to form the nanoscale conduits with endothelial cells correlates with the metastatic potential of the cancer cell, and that the pharmacological perturbation of these nanoscale connections can lead to a reduction in the metastatic burden in experimental metastasis models. Together, our studies shed new insights into the tumour parenchyma–endothelial communication, adding depth to the emerging paradigm of the ability of a cancer cell to ‘hijack’ a physiological stromal cell for self-gain¹³.

Indeed, exosomes have emerged as an extensively studied mechanism of horizontal intercellular transfer of information⁵¹. However, a key distinction exists between the exosome-mediated versus the nanoscale membrane bridge-mediated intercellular communication. Although the former is stochastic, that is, it is unlikely the cancer cell has control over which cell will be targeted by a secreted exosome, the communication via nanoscale membrane bridges is deterministic, that is, the cancer cell can connect to a specific endothelial cell, which could be further away than the most proximal endothelial cell.

Although the aim of this study was to study the nanoscale membrane bridges as a mode of horizontal transfer of miRNAs from the metastatic cancer cells to the endothelium, and not to characterize a specific miRNA that are implicated in metastasis, many of the miRNAs, which were differentially regulated in the recipient endothelial cells, have previously been shown to regulate metastasis (Supplementary Discussion).

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Insight into Blood Brain Barrier

Posted in Cell Biology, Clinical & Translational, Curation, Cytoskeleton, Lipids, Neuroscience, Pharmaceutical Analytics, Pharmacologic toxicities, Proteins, Proteomics, tagged blood brain barrier, brain metabolism, docosahexaenoic acid, drug transport, lysophospholipid, membrane protein, membrane transporter, microcephaly, polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), x-ray crystallography on April 22, 2016| Leave a Comment »

Insight into Blood Brain Barrier

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

LPBI

Gateway to The Brain

Fri, 04/22/2016 http://www.dddmag.com/news/2016/04/gateway-brain

This image shows the structural model of critical transporter, Mfsd2a. Source: Duke-NUS Medical School. http://www.dddmag.com/sites/dddmag.com/files/rd1604_brain.jpg

Scientists from Duke-NUS Medical School (Duke-NUS) have derived a structural model of a transporter at the blood-brain barrier called Mfsd2a. This is the first molecular model of this critical transporter, and could prove important for the development of therapeutic agents that need to be delivered to the brain — across the blood-brain barrier. In future, this could help treat neurological disorders such as glioblastoma.

Currently, there are limitations to drug delivery to the brain as it is tightly protected by the blood-brain barrier. The blood-brain barrier is a protective barrier that separates the circulating blood from the central nervous system which can prevent the entry of certain toxins and drugs to the brain. This restricts the treatment of many brain diseases. However, as a transporter at the blood-brain barrier, Mfsd2a is a potential conduit for drug delivery directly to the brain, thus bypassing the barrier.

In this study, recently published in the Journal of Biological Chemistry, first author Duke-NUS MD/PhD student Debra Quek and senior author Professor David Silver used molecular modeling and biochemical analyses of altered Mfsd2a transporters to derive a structural model of human Mfsd2a. Importantly, the work identifies new binding features of the transporter, providing insight into the transport mechanism of Mfsd2a.

“Our study provides the first glimpse into what Mfsd2a looks like and how it might transport essential lipids across the blood-brain barrier,” said Ms Quek. “It also facilitates a structure-guided search and design of scaffolds for drug delivery to the brain via Mfsd2a, or of drugs that can be directly transported by Mfsd2a.”

Currently this information is being used by Duke-NUS researchers to design novel therapeutic agents for direct drug delivery across the blood brain barrier for the treatment of neurological diseases. This initiative by the Centre for Technology and Development (CTeD) at Duke-NUS, is one of many collaborative research efforts aimed at translating Duke-NUS’ research findings into tangible commercial and therapeutic applications for patients.

Ms Quek plans to further validate her findings by purifying the Mfsd2a protein in order to further dissect how it functions as a transporter.

J Biol Chem. 2016 Mar 4. pii: jbc.M116.721035. [Epub ahead of print]

Structural insights into the transport mechanism of the human sodium-dependent lysophosphatidylcholine transporter Mfsd2a.

Quek DQ¹, Nguyen LN², Fan H³, Silver DL⁴. Author information

Major Facilitator Superfamily Domain containing 2A (Mfsd2a) was recently characterized as a sodium-dependent lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) transporter expressed at the blood-brain barrier endothelium. It is the primary route for importation of docosohexaenoic acid and other long-chain fatty acids into foetal and adult brain, and is essential for mouse and human brain growth and function. Remarkably, Mfsd2a is the first identified MFS family member that uniquely transports lipids, implying that Mfsd2a harbours unique structural features and transport mechanism. Here, we present three 3D structural models of human Mfsd2a derived by homology modelling using MelB- and LacY-based crystal structures, and refined by biochemical analysis. All models revealed 12 transmembrane helices and connecting loops, and represented the partially outward-open, outward-partially occluded, and inward-open states of the transport cycle. In addition to a conserved sodium-binding site, three unique structural features were identified: A phosphate headgroup binding site, a hydrophobic cleft to accommodate a hydrophobic hydrocarbon tail, and three sets of ionic locks that stabilize the outward-open conformation. Ligand docking studies and biochemical assays identified Lys436 as a key residue for transport. It is seen forming a salt bridge with the negative charge on the phosphate headgroup. Importantly, Mfsd2a transported structurally related acylcarnitines but not a lysolipid without a negative charge, demonstrating the necessity of a negative charged headgroup interaction with Lys436 for transport. These findings support a novel transport mechanism by which LPCs are flipped within the transporter cavity by pivoting about Lys436 leading to net transport from the outer to the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane.

Brain and eye contain membrane phospholipids that are enriched in the omega-3 fatty acid docosohexaenoic acid (DHA). It is widely accepted that DHA is important for brain and eye function and brain development (1,2), although mechanisms for DHA function in these tissues are not well defined. The mechanism by which DHA and other conditionally essential and essential fatty acids cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) has been a long-standing mystery. Recently, we identified Major Facilitator Superfamily Domain containing 2a (Mfsd2a, aka NLS1) as the primary transporter by which the brain obtains DHA. Importantly, Mfsd2a does not transport unesterified DHA, but transports DHA in the chemical form of lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) that are synthesized by the liver and circulate largely on albumin (3). This is consistent with biochemical evidence that the brain does not transport unesterified fatty acids (4) and that LPC is the preferred carrier of DHA to the brain (5,6). Mfsd2a is a sodium-dependent transporter that is part of the Major Facilitator Superfamily (MFS) of proteins. Members of this family with elucidated structures have 12 transmembrane domains composed of two evolutionarily duplicated 6 transmembrane units (7). Transporting an LPC is a unique feature of Mfsd2a, since most members of this family transport water-soluble and minimally polar substrates such as sugars (GLUT, MelB, LacY), and amino acids (TAT1). Mfsd2a transport is not limited to LPCs containing DHA, as it can transport LPCs containing a variety of fatty acyl chains, with higher specificity for LPCs with unsaturated fatty acyl chains with a minimum chain length of 14 carbons (6,8). Crystal structures have been solved for more than a dozen members of the MFS family, with more than 19 structures, including that of Melibiose permease (MelB) of S. typhimurium (9), Lactose permease (LacY) of Escherichia coli (10), glycerol-3-phosphate transporter of E. coli (11) and the mammalian glucose transporters 1, 3, and 5 (GLUT1, GLUT3, GLUT5) (12-14). A common transport mechanism has emerged from both biochemical and structural analyses of MFSs, in which they transport via a rocker-switch, alternating access mechanism (7,15). In the rocker-switch model, rigid-body relative motion of the N- and C-termini domains renders the substrate-binding site alternatively accessible from either side of the membrane.

Mfsd2a is highly expressed at the bloodbrain barrier in both mouse and human (6,16). Mfsd2a deficient mice (KO) have significantly reduced brain DHA as a result of a 90% reduction in brain uptake of LPC containing DHA as well as other LPCs. The most prominent phenotype of Mfsd2a KO mice is microcephaly, and KO mice additionally exhibit motor dysfunction, and behavioral disorders including anxiety and memory and learning deficits (6). In line with the mouse KO phenotypes, human patients with partially or completely inactivating mutations in Mfsd2a presented with severe microcephaly, intellectual disability, and motor dysfunction (8,16). Plasma LPCs are significantly elevated in both KO mice and human patients with Mfsd2a mutations, consistent with reduced uptake at the blood-brain barrier. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that LPCs are essential for normal brain development and function in mouse and humans.

The fact that Mfsd2a transports a lysolipid, a non-canonical substrate for an MFS protein, might indicate unique structure features and a novel transport mechanism. However, no structural information or mechanism of transport of Mfsd2a is known. Human Mfsd2a is composed of 530 amino acids, with two glycosylation sites at Asn217 and Asn227. Mfsd2a is evolutionarily conserved from teleost fish to humans. Although not a functional ortholog of bacterial MFS transporters, Mfsd2a shares 25% and 26% amino acid sequence identity with S. typhimurium MelB (9,17), and LacY from E. coli (10), respectively. Given the high conservation of the MFS fold, the use of homology modeling to gain insight into the structure of S. typhimurium MelB, for example, has proven to be highly accurate and largely consistent with subsequent X-ray crystal data (9,18). Here, we take advantage of two recently derived high resolution X-ray crystal structures of S. typhimurium MelB (9), and a high resolution X-ray crystal structure of LacY (10) to generate three predictive structural models of human Mfsd2a. These models reveal three unique regions critical for function – an LPC headgroup binding site, a hydrophobic cleft occupied by the LPC fatty acyl tail, and three sets of ionic locks. These structural features indicate a novel mechanism of transport for LPCs.

Mfsd2a is a sodium-dependent lysophosphatidylcholine transporter essential for human brain growth and function (40). Mfsd2a is the only known MFS member or secondary transporter that transports a lipid. In line with its unique function, the current study has identified three unique structural features based on a combination of homology structural modeling and biochemical analysis – (1) a unique headgroup binding site and (2) a hydrophobic cleft for acyl chain binding, and (4) 3 sets of ionic locks that stabilize the outward open conformation. Drawing together these findings with studies of the mechanism of transport of other MFS family members, we propose the following alternatingaccess mechanism for LPC transport (Fig. 6). In the first steps, LPC inserts itself into the outer leaflet of the membrane and diffuses laterally into the transporter’s hydrophobic cleft. As Mfsd2a undergoes conformational changes from the outward open to the inward open conformation, the zwitterionic headgroup is inverted from the outer membrane leaflet to the inner membrane leaflet along a translocation pathway within the transporter, interacting with specific polar and charged residues lining the path. Since LPCs are hydrophobic phospholipids, it is unlikely that they will partition out of the transporter into the aqueous environment of the cytoplasm. We propose that the “flipped” LPC exits the transporter laterally into the membrane environment of the inner leaflet. This model of LPC flipping requires further biochemical proof. Of particular interest is the visualization of the interaction of the negatively charged phosphate headgroup of LPC with Lys436 that is maintained in both outward and inward open conformations. The sidechain of Lys436 is seen to be pointing in the upward direction in the outward open conformation, but pointing downward into the translocation cleft in the inward open conformation. These findings suggest that the Lys436 acts as a tether to push or pivot the headgroup down into the translocation cavity while the N- and C-termini of Mfsd2a rock and switch from outward to inward open.

Interestingly, Lys436 is orthologous to the residue Lys377 in the melibiose transporter of S. typhimurium. Based on the S. typhimurium MelB crystal structure, Lys377 has been predicted to be involved in binding melibiose, and in forming a hydrogen bond with Tyr120, likely separating the sodium binding site from the central hydrophilic cavity (9). In a recent molecular dynamic simulation of E. coli MelB, Lys377 was noted to interact differently with residues involved in the sodium binding site (Asp55, Asp59, and Asp124) in the presence or absence of a sodium ion, and thought to be critical for the spatial organization of the sodium binding site (41). Similarly, in our refined models of Mfsd2a, Lys436 is localized in close proximity to the sodium-binding site residue, Asp93, and the central translocation pathway where it has been identified by docking studies to interact with the charged headgroup of LPC. We hypothesize that Lys436 may shuttle between the two binding sites, communicating and coordinating the occupancy status of the two sites. Interestingly, there is a distinct mobility shift in Mfsd2a bands on SDS-PAGE between wild-type Mfsd2a and the L-3 mutant (R498E, R499E, R500E, K503E, K504E) (Fig. 5I) that is not seen when each of the residues are mutated individually (Fig. S1). These findings are consistent with a conformational change in the L-3 mutant. Given that the L-3 ionic lock is visualized in the outward partially occluded model, we hypothesize that the loss of the L-3 ionic lock results in Mfsd2a being trapped in an energetically more favorable inward open conformation, resulting in the loss of transport function (Fig. 5H).

Patients with the partially inactivating mutation p.(S399L) exhibited significant increases specifically in plasma LPCs having monounsaturated (18:1 – 92%, p=0.004) and polyunsaturated LPCs (18:2, 20:4, 20:3 – 254%, p=0.002; 117%, p=0.007, and 238%, p=0.002), but not in the most abundant LPCs – saturated LPCs (C16:0, C18:0) (8). This is consistent with a greater specificity of Mfsd2a for LPCs with unsaturated fatty acyl chains (6)…A possible explanation for this acyl chain specificity is related to the mobility of the acyl tail in the membrane. It is known that phospholipids with unsaturated fatty acyl chains disrupt the packing of the bilayer, resulting in greater lateral membrane fluidity (42). Therefore, one possible mechanism for LPC specificity is that LPCs with unsaturated fatty acyl chains have greater lateral mobility in the membrane, increasing the Ka for interacting with the transport cleft of Mfsd2a.

Another important structural feature of the physiological ligand, LPC, is a minimum acyl chain length of 14 carbons is required for transport by Mfsd2a. A possible explanation for this requirement is that the hydrocarbon chain must extend beyond the cleft, protruding into the hydrophobic milieu of the phospholipid bilayer core. This interaction of the fatty acyl tail with the acyl chains of the membrane bilayer may provide a hydrophobic force strong enough to pull the molecule through and out of the transporter as the LPC headgroup partitions into the inner leaflet of the membrane. A similar scenario is seen in the Sec translocon where a hydrophobic transmembrane domain of a protein partitions laterally from the Sec61p complex channel into the lipid bilayer (43,44). This proposal that the omega carbon of the fatty acyl chain sticks out of the Mfsd2a pocket is consistent with the observation that Mfsd2a can transport nitrobenzoxadiazole (NBD) or Topfluor when these moieties are attached to the omega carbon of the LPC fatty acyl tail [1].

Other known transmembrane phospholipid transporters include flippases, floppases, and scramblases. Flippases and floppases utilize ATP to drive the uphill transport of aminophospholipids from the outer to the inner leaflet, and specific substrates from the inner to the outer leaflet, respectively (45-47). Scramblases are less well understood, facilitating transport of substrates in either direction down concentration gradients upon activation. While the substrates are similar, several differences make comparisons between Mfsd2a and phospholipid transporters of limited relevance. First, the shapes of the substrates differ in shape and size – lysophospholipids are smaller and conical while phospholipids are cylindrical. Second, unlike flippases and floppases, Mfsd2a is a secondary transporter, utilizing a sodium electrochemical gradient to drive the transport of lysophospholipids from one leaflet to the other. Third, the overall structure of MFS members is different from P4- ATPases and ABC transporters. Consequently, the mechanism of action between Mfsd2a and flippases such as P4-ATPases and ABC transporters, or floppases is expected to differ.

Being expressed at the blood-brain barrier, Mfsd2a is a potential conduit for drug delivery to the brain. The blood-brain barrier is highly impermeable, protecting the brain from bloodderived molecules, pathogens, and toxins. However, its impermeability poses a challenge for pharmacological treatment of brain diseases. It has been predicted that 98% of small molecule drugs are excluded from the brain by the blood-brain barrier (48). Currently, most drugs used to treat brain diseases are lipid soluble small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 400 Da (49). A small number of drugs traverse the blood-brain barrier by carrier-mediated transport. An example of this is Levodopa, a treatment for Parkinson’s Disease, which is a precursor of the neurotransmitter dopamine. Levodopa is transported across the blood-brain barrier by the large neutral amino acid transporter, LAT1 (50). Our findings here provide a further refinement of understanding of the structure-activity relationship of LPCs to their transport, and educates the search and design of drugs that can be transported by Mfsd2a. Candidates for transport, whether as a drug itself or as a LPC scaffold, must have a zwitterionic headgroup, but not necessarily a phosphate, and a minimal threshold of hydrophobic character. As the binding pocket is several times larger than LPC, it is sterically feasible to attach a small molecule drug onto LPC or LPC-like scaffolds for delivery across the blood-brain barrier.

In summary, these studies represent a first structural model of human Mfsd2a based on homology modeling and biochemical interrogation. We expect that this model will serve as a foundation for the future development of X-ray crystal structures of the protein, which would provide further insight into the structure and function of this physiologically important transporter required for human brain growth and function.

REFERENCES

1. Salem, N., Jr., Litman, B., Kim, H. Y., and Gawrisch, K. (2001) Mechanisms of action of docosahexaenoic acid in the nervous system. Lipids 36, 945-959

2. Bazan, N. G. (2009) Neuroprotectin D1-mediated anti-inflammatory and survival signaling in stroke, retinal degenerations, and Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of lipid research 50 Suppl, S400- 405

3. Baisted, D. J., Robinson, B. S., and Vance, D. E. (1988) Albumin stimulates the release of lysophosphatidylcholine from cultured rat hepatocytes. The Biochemical journal 253, 693-701

4. Edmond, J., Higa, T. A., Korsak, R. A., Bergner, E. A., and Lee, W. N. (1998) Fatty acid transport and utilization for the developing brain. Journal of neurochemistry 70, 1227-1234

5. Lagarde, M., Bernoud, N., Brossard, N., Lemaitre-Delaunay, D., Thies, F., Croset, M., and Lecerf, J. (2001) Lysophosphatidylcholine as a preferred carrier form of docosahexaenoic acid to the brain. Journal of molecular neuroscience : MN 16, 201-204; discussion 215-221

6. Nguyen, L. N., Ma, D., Shui, G., Wong, P., Cazenave-Gassiot, A., Zhang, X., Wenk, M. R., Goh, E. L., and Silver, D. L. (2014) Mfsd2a is a transporter for the essential omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid. Nature 509, 503-506

7. Law, C. J., Maloney, P. C., and Wang, D. N. (2008) Ins and outs of major facilitator superfamily antiporters. Annual review of microbiology 62, 289-305

8. Alakbarzade, V., Hameed, A., Quek, D. Q. Y., Chioza, B. A., Baple, E. L., Cazenave-Gassiot, A., Nguyen, L. N., Wenk, M. R., Ahmad, A. Q., Sreekantan-Nair, A., Weedon, M. N., Rich, P., Patton, M. A., Warner, T. T., Silver, D. L., and Crosby, A. H. (2015) A partially inactivating mutation in the sodium-dependent lysophosphatidylcholine transporter MFSD2A causes a non-lethal microcephaly syndrome. Nat Genet 47, 814-817

9. Ethayathulla, A. S., Yousef, M. S., Amin, A., Leblanc, G., Kaback, H. R., and Guan, L. (2014) Structure-based mechanism for Na(+)/melibiose symport by MelB. Nature communications 5, 3009

10. Guan, L., Mirza, O., Verner, G., Iwata, S., and Kaback, H. R. (2007) Structural determination of wild-type lactose permease. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104, 15294-15298

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Glycobiology advances

Posted in Academic Publishing, Cell Biology, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Clinical & Translational, Curation, Cytoskeleton, Developmental biology, Discovery process, Disease Biology, Evolutionary cognition, Experimental validation, Explanatory, Glycobiology: Biopharmaceutical Production, Historical relevance, tagged glycobiology, glycomics on April 13, 2016| Leave a Comment »

Glycobiology advances

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

LPBI

The Evolution of the Glycobiology Space

The Nascent Stage of another Omics Field with Biomarker and Therapeutic Potential

Enal Razvi, Ph.D. , Gary Oosta, Ph.D

http://www.genengnews.com/insight-and-intelligence/the-evolution-of-the-glycobiology-space/77900638/

The Evolution of the Glycobiology Space

Glycobiology is an important field of study with medical applications because it is known that tumor cells alter their glycosylation pattern, which may contribute to their metastatic potential as well as potential immune evasion. [iStock/© vjanez] http://www.genengnews.com/media/images/AnalysisAndInsight/Apr12_2016_iStock_41612310_PlasmaMembraneOfACell1211657142.jpg

There is growing interest in the field of glycobiology given the fact that epitopes with physiological and pathological relevance have glyco moieties. We believe that another “omics” revolution is on the horizon—the study of the glyco modifications on the surface of cells and their potential as biomarkers and therapeutic targets in many disease classes. Not much industry tracking of this field has taken place. Thus, we sought to map this landscape by examining the entire ensemble of academic publications in this space and teasing apart the trends operative in this field from a qualitative and quantitative perspective. We believe that this methodology of en masse capture and publication and annotation provides an effective approach to evaluate this early-stage field.

Identifiation and Growth of Glycobiology Publications

http://www.genengnews.com/Media/images/AnalysisAndInsight/thumb_April12_2016_SelectBiosciences_Figure11935315421.jpg

For this article, we identified 7000 publications in the broader glycobiology space and analyzed them in detail. It is important to frame glycobiology in the context of genomics and proteomics as a means to assess the scale of the field. Figure 1 presents the relative sizes of these fields as assessed by publications in from 1975 to 2015.

Note that the relative scale of genomics versus proteomics and glycobiology/glycomics in this graph strongly suggests that glycobiology is a nascent space, and thus a driver for us to map its landscape today and as it evolves over the coming years.

Figure 2. (A) Segmentation of the glycobiology landscape. (B) Glycobiology versus glycomics publication growth.

http://www.genengnews.com/Media/images/AnalysisAndInsight/thumb_April12_2016_SelectBiosciences_Figure2ab1917013624.jpg

To examine closely the various components of the glycobiology space, we segmented the publications database, presented in Figure 2A. Note the relative sizes and growth rates (slopes) of the various segments.

Clearly, glycoconjugates currently are the majority of this space and account for the bulk of the publications. Glycobiology and glycomics are small but expanding and therefore can be characterized as “nascent market segments.” These two spaces are characterized in more detail in Figure 2B, which presents their publication growth rates.

Note the very recent increased attention directed at these spaces and hence our drive to initiate industry coverage of these spaces. Figure 2B presents the overall growth and timeline of expansion of these fields—especially glycobiology—but it provides no information about the qualitative nature of these fields.

Focus of Glycobiology Publications

http://www.genengnews.com/Media/images/AnalysisAndInsight/April12_2016_SelectBiosciences_Figure2c1827601892.jpg

Figure 2C. Word cloud based on titles of publications in the glycobiology and glycomics spaces.

To understand the focus of publications in this field, and indeed the nature of this field, we constructed a word cloud based on titles of the publications that comprise this space presented in Figure 2C.

There is a marked emphasis on terms such as oligosaccharides and an emphasis on cells (this is after all glycosylation on the surface of cells). Overall, a pictorial representation of the types and classes of modifications that comprise this field emerge in this word cloud, demonstrating the expansion of the glycobiology and to a lesser extent the glycomics spaces as well as the character of these nascent but expanding spaces.

Characterization of the Glycobiology Space in Journals

Figure 3A. Breakout of publications in the glycobiology/glycomics fields. http://www.genengnews.com/Media/images/AnalysisAndInsight/April12_2016_SelectBiosciences_Figure3a_5002432117316.jpg
Having framed the overall growth of the glycobiology field, we wanted to understand its structure and the classes of researchers as well as publications that comprise this field. To do this, we segmented the publications that constitute this field into the various journals in which glycobiology research is published. Figure 3A presents the breakout of publications by journal to illustrate the “scope” of this field.

The distribution of glycobiology publications across the various journals suggests a very concentrated marketplace that is very technically focused. The majority of the publications segregate into specialized journals on this topic, a pattern very indicative of a field in the very early stages of development—a truly nascent marketplace.

http://www.genengnews.com/Media/images/AnalysisAndInsight/thumb_April12_2016_SelectBiosciences_Figure3b1012091061.jpg

Figure 3B. Origin of publications in the glycobiology/glycomics fields.
We also sought to understand the “origin” of these publications—the breakout between academic- versus industry-derived journals. Figure 3B presents this breakout and shows that these publications are overwhelmingly (92.3%) derived from the academic sector. This is again a testimonial to the early nascent nature of this marketplace without significant engagement by the commercial sector and therefore is an important field to characterize and track from the ground up.

Select Biosciences, Inc. further analyzed the growth trajectory of the glycobiology papers in Figure 3C as a means to examine closely the publications trajectory. Although there appears to be some wobble along the way, overall the trajectory is upward, and of late it is expanding significantly.

In Summary

Figure 3C. Trajectory of the glycobiology space. http://www.genengnews.com/Media/images/AnalysisAndInsight/April12_2016_SelectBiosciences_Figure3c1236921793.jpg
Glycobiology is the study of what coats living cells—glycans, or carbohydrates, and glycoconjugates. This is an important field of study with medical applications because it is known that tumor cells alter their glycosylation pattern, which may contribute to their metastatic potential as well as potential immune evasion.

At this point, glycobiology is largely basic research and thus it pales in comparison with the field of genomics. But in 10 years, we predict the study of glycobiology and glycomics will be ubiquitous and in the mainstream.

We started our analysis of this space because we’ve been focusing on many other classes of analytes, such as microRNAs, long-coding RNAs, oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, etc., whose potential as biomarkers is becoming established. Glycobiology, on the other hand, represents an entire new space—a whole new category of modifications that could be analyzed for diagnostic potential and perhaps also for therapeutic targeting.

Today, glycobiology and glycomics are where genomics was at the start of the Human Genome Project. They respresent a nascent space and with full headroom for growth. Select Biosciences will continue to track this exciting field for research developments as well as development of biomarkers based on glyco-epitopes.

Enal Razvi, Ph.D., conducted his doctoral work on viral immunology and subsequent to receiving his Ph.D. went on to the Rockefeller University in New York to serve as Aaron Diamond Post-doctoral fellow under Professor Ralph Steinman [Nobel Prize Winner in 2011 for his discovery of dendritic cells in the early-70s with Zanvil Cohn]. Subsequently, Dr. Razvi completed his research fellowship at Harvard Medical School. For the last two decades Dr. Razvi has worked with small and large companies and consulted for more than 100 clients worldwide. He currently serves as Biotechnology Analyst and Managing Director of SelectBio U.S. He can be reached at enal@selectbio.us. Gary M. Oosta holds a Ph.D. in Biophysics from Massachusetts Institute of Technology and a B.A. in Chemistry from E. Mich. Univ. He has 25 years of industrial research experience in various technology areas including medical diagnostics, thin-layer coating, bio-effects of electromagnetic radiation, and blood coagulation. Dr. Oosta has authored 20 technical publications and is an inventor on 77 patents worldwide. In addition, he has managed research groups that were responsible for many other patented innovations. Dr. Oosta has a long-standing interest in using patents and publications as strategic technology indicators for future technology selection and new product development. To enjoy more articles like this from GEN, click here to subscribe now!

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3D Imaging of Cancer Cells

Posted in Biomarkers & Medical Diagnostics, Cancer - General, Clinical & Translational, Clinical Diagnostics, Curation, Cytoskeleton, Diagnostics and Lab Tests, Disease Biology, Image Processing/Computing, Imaging-based Cancer Patient Management, Innovations, Intellectual Property, Innovations, Commercialization, Investment in technological breakthrough, tagged 3D biological structure, 3D extracellular matrix, anatomic pathology, cytosolic biosensor signals, imaging, meSPIM scan, microenvironment, Radiology on April 12, 2016| Leave a Comment »

3D Imaging of Cancer Cells

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

LPBI

3D Imaging of Cancer Cells Could Lead to Improved Ability of Pathologists and Radiologists to Plan Cancer Treatments and Monitor Cell Interactions

Dark Daily Apr 8th 2016 Jon Stone

https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/3d-imaging-cancer-cells-could-lead-improved-ability-plan-joseph-colao

3D Imaging of Cancer Cells Could Lead to Improved Ability of Pathologists and Radiologists to Plan Cancer Treatments and Monitor Cell Interactions.

New technology from researchers at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center enables the ability to study cancer cells in their native microenvironments.

Imaging research is one step closer to giving clinicians a way to do high-resolution scans of malignant cells in order to diagnose cancer and help identify useful therapies. If this technology were to prove successful in clinical studies, it might change how anatomic pathologists and radiologists diagnose and treat cancer.

Researchers at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center developed a way to create near-isotropic, high-resolution scans of cells within their microenvironments. The process involves utilizing a combination of two-photonBessel beams and specialized filtering.

New Imaging Approach Could be Useful to Both Pathologists and Radiologists

In a recent press release, senior author Reto Fiolka, PhD, said “there is clear evidence that the environment strongly affects cellular behavior—thus, the value of cell culture experiments on glass must at least be questioned. Our microscope is one tool that may bring us a deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms that drive cancer cell behavior, since it enables high-resolution imaging in more realistic tumor.”

In a study in Developmental Cell, Erik S. Welf, PhD, et al, described the new microenvironmental selective plane illumination microscopy (meSPIM). When developing the technology, the team outlined three goals:

1. The microscope design must not prohibitively constrain microenvironmental properties.

2. Spatial and temporal resolution must match the cellular features of interest.

3. Spatial resolution must be isotropic to avoid spatial bias in quantitative measurements.

This new technology offers pathologists and medical laboratory scientists a new look at cancer cells and other diseases. The study notes that meSPIM eliminates the influence of stiff barriers, such as glass slide covers, while also allowing a level of control over both mechanical and chemical influences that was previously impossible.

Early meSPIM Research Reveals New Cell Behaviors

Early use of meSPIM in observing melanoma cells is already offering new insights into the relationship between the cell behavior of cellular- and subcellular-scale mechanisms and the microenvironment in which these cells exist. The study notes, “The ability to image fine cellular details in controllable microenvironments revealed morphodynamic features not commonly observed in the narrow range of mechanical environments usually studied in vitro.”

One such difference is the appearance of blebbing. Created by melanoma cells and lines, these small protrusions are thought to aid in cell mobility and survival. Using meSPIM, observers could follow the blebbing process in real-time. Formation of blebs on slides and within an extracellular matrix (ECM) showed significant differences in both formation and manipulation of the surrounding microenvironment.

The team is also using meSPIM to take a look at membrane-associated biosensor and cytosolic biosensor signals in 3D. They hope that investigation of proteins such as phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and protein kinase C will help to further clarify the roles these signals play in reorientation of fibroblasts.

meSPIM combined with computer vision enables imaging, visualization, and quantification of how cells alter collagen fibers over large distances within an image volume measuring 100 mm on each side. (Photo Copyright: Welf and Driscoll et al.)

The research team believes this opens new possibilities for studying diseases at a subcellular level, saying, “Cell biology is necessarily restricted to studying what we can measure. Accordingly, while the last hundred years have yielded incredible insight into cellular processes, unfortunately most of these studies have involved cells plated onto flat, stiff surfaces that are drastically different from the in vivo microenvironment …

“Here, we introduce an imaging platform that enables detailed subcellular observations without compromising microenvironmental control and thus should open a window for addressing these fundamental questions of cell biology.”

Limitations of meSPIM

One significant issue associated with the use of meSPIM is the need to process the large quantity of data into useful information. Algorithms currently allow for automatic bleb detection. However, manual marking, while time consuming, still provides increased accuracy. Researchers believe the next step in improving the quality of meSPIM scans lie in computer platforms designed to extract and process the scan data.

Until this process is automated, user bias, sample mounting, and data handling will remain risks for introducing errors into the collected data. Yet, even in its early stages, meSPIM offers new options for assessing the state of cancer cells and may eventually provide pathologists and radiologists with additional information when creating treatment plans or assessments.

Seeing cancer cells in 3-D (w/ Video)

http://phys.org/news/2016-02-cancer-cells-d-video.html

Cancer in 3-D

http://cdn.phys.org/newman/csz/news/800/2016/cancerin3d.png

Extracted surfaces of two cancer cells. (Left) A lung cancer cell colored by actin intensity near the cell surface. Actin is a structural molecule that is integral to cell movement. (Right) A melanoma cell colored by PI3-kinase activity near the cell surface. PI3K is a signaling molecule that is key to many cell processes. Credit: Welf and Driscoll et al.

Cancer cells don’t live on glass slides, yet the vast majority of images related to cancer biology come from the cells being photographed on flat, two-dimensional surfaces—images that are sometimes used to make conclusions about the behaviour of cells that normally reside in a more complex environment. But a new high-resolution microscope, presented February 22 in Developmental Cell, now makes it possible to visualize cancer cells in 3D and record how they are signaling to other parts of their environment, revealing previously unappreciated biology of how cancer cells survive and disperse within living things.

“There is clear evidence that the environment strongly affects cellular behavior—thus, the value of cell culture experiments on glass must at least be questioned,” says senior author Reto Fiolka, an optical scientist at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center. “Our microscope is one tool that may bring us a deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms that drive cancer cell behavior, since it enables high-resolution imaging in more realistic tumor environments.”

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2024 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine jointly to Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun for the discovery of microRNA and its role in post-transcriptional gene regulation

Fig. (1). MicroRNA maturation and function.

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Lesson 5 Cell Signaling And Motility: Cytoskeleton & Actin: Curations and Articles of reference as supplemental information: #TUBiol3373

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Signaling through the T Cell Receptor (TCR) Complex and the Co-stimulatory Receptor CD28

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