Mechanism of Thrombosis with AstraZeneca and J & J Vaccines: Expert Opinion by Kate Chander Chiang & Ajay Gupta, MD

April 14, 2021 by 2012pharmaceutical

 

 

Mechanism of thrombosis with AstraZeneca and J & J vaccines: Expert Opinion by Kate Chander Chiang & Ajay Gupta, MD

UPDATED on 4/15/2021

Atul Gawande@Atul_Gawande·15h

Why wait for more info? A new case of cerebral sinus venus thrombosis was reported in a 25 year old man who became critically ill from a cerebral hemorrhage. And for women age 20-50, CSVT occurred in 1 in 13,000, or 4-15X higher than background.

UPDATED on 4/14/2021

How UK doctor linked rare blood-clotting to AstraZeneca Covid jab

https://www.theguardian.com/society/2021/apr/13/how-uk-doctor-marie-scully-blood-clotting-link-astrazeneca-covid-jab-university-college-london-hospital

From: “Gupta, Ajay” <ajayg1@hs.uci.edu>

Date: Wednesday, April 14, 2021 at 10:33 AM

To: “Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN” <AvivaLev-Ari@alum.berkeley.edu>

Cc: Kate Chiang <kcscience777@gmail.com>

Subject: Mechanism of thrombosis with AstraZeneca and J & J vaccines

https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/joint-cdc-and-fda-statement-johnson-johnson-covid-19-vaccine

We have put together the following mechanism for thrombosis including central vein sinus thrombosis as a complication of both J&J and the AstraZeneca vaccines. This unifying mechanism explains the predilection of cerebral veins and higher risk in younger women. Please share your thoughts on the proposed mechanism.

We have submitted the attached manuscript to SSRN.  Sharing this promptly considering the public health significance.

Thanks

Figure 1. AstraZeneca or Janssen COVID-19 vaccine induced thromboinflammation and cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST)-Proposed Mechanisms: Adenovirus carrier delivers SARS-CoV-2 DNA encoding the Spike (S) protein to the lung megakaryocytes via the coxsackie-adenovirus receptor (CAR). Spike protein induces COX-2 expression in megakaryocytes leading to megakaryocyte activation, biogenesis of activated platelets that express COX-2 and generate thromboxane A₂ (TxA₂). Cerebral vein sinus endothelial cells express podoplanin, a natural ligand for CLEC2 receptors on platelets. Platelets traversing through the cerebral vein sinuses would be further activated by TxA₂ dependent podoplanin-CLEC2 signaling, leading to release of extracellular vesicles, thereby promoting CLEC5A and TLR2 mediated neutrophil activation, thromboinflammation, CVST, and thromboembolism in other vascular beds. Young age and female gender are associated with increased TxA₂ generation and platelet activation respectively, and hence increased risk of thromboembolic complications following vaccination.

Best regards,

Ajay

Ajay Gupta, M.B.,B.S., M.D.

Clinical Professor,

Division of Nephrology, Hypertension and Kidney Transplantation

University of California Irvine  

President & CSO, KARE Biosciences (www.karebio.com)

E-mail:     ajayg1@hs.uci.edu

Cell:         1 (562) 412-6259

Office:     1 (562) 419-7029

PERSPECTIVE 

Title: SARS-CoV-2 vaccination induced thrombosis: Is chemoprophylaxis with antiplatelet agents warranted? 

Guest Authors: 

Kate Chander Chiang1 

Ajay Gupta, MBBS, MD1,2 

Affiliations 

(1) KARE Biosciences, Orange, CA 92869 

(2) Department of Medicine, University of California Irvine (UCI) School of Medicine, Orange, CA 92868 

*Corresponding author: 

Ajay Gupta, MBBS, MD 

Clinical Professor of Medicine, 

Division of Nephrology, Hypertension and Kidney Transplantation 

University of California Irvine (UCI) School of Medicine, 

Orange, CA 92868 

Tel: +1 (562) 412-6259 

E-mail: ajayg1@hs.uci.edu 

Word Count 

Abstract: 359 

Main Body: 1,648 

Funding: No funding was required. 

Conflict of Interest: AG and KCC have filed a patent for use of Ramatroban as an anti-thrombotic and immune modulator in SARS-CoV-2 infection. The patents have been licensed to KARE Biosciences. KCC is an employee of KARE Biosciences. 

Author Contributions: AG and KCC conceptualized, created the framework, wrote and reviewed the manuscript. 

Abbreviations: TxA2, thromboxane A2; DIC, disseminated intravascular coagulopathy; COX, cyclooxygenase; TTP, thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura; CVST, cerebral venous sinus thrombosis; CLEC, C-type lectin-like receptor; TLR, toll-like receptor; CAR, coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor; COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 2 

ABSTRACT 

The COVID-19 vaccines, Vaxzevria® (AstraZeneca) and the Janssen vaccine (Johnson & Johnson) are highly effective but associated with rare thrombotic complications. These vaccines are comprised of recombinant, replication incompetent, chimpanzee adenoviral vectors encoding the Spike (S) glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2. The adenovirus vector infects epithelial cells expressing the coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor (CAR). The S glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 is expressed locally stimulating neutralizing antibody and cellular immune responses, which protect against COVID-19. The immune responses are highly effective in preventing symptomatic disease in adults irrespective of age, gender or ethnicity. However, both vaccines have been associated with thromboembolic events including cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST). Megakaryocytes also express CAR, leading us to postulate adenovirus vector uptake and expression of spike glycoprotein by megakaryocytes. Spike glycoprotein induces expression of cyclooxygenase -2 (COX-2), leading to generation of thromboxane A2 (TxA2). TxA2 promotes megakaryocyte activation, biogenesis of activated platelets and thereby increased thrombogenicity. Cerebral vein sinus endothelial cells express podoplanin, a natural ligand for CLEC2 receptors on platelets. Platelets traversing through the cerebral vein sinuses would be further activated by TxA2 dependent podoplanin-CLEC2 signaling, leading to CVST. The mechanisms proposed are consistent with the following clinical observations. First, a massive increase in TxA2 generation promotes platelet activation and thromboinflammation in COVID-19 patients. Second, TxA2 generation and platelet activation is increased in healthy women compared to men, and in younger mice compared to older mice; and, younger age and female gender appear to be associated with increased risk of thromboembolism as a complication of adenoviral vector based COVID-19 vaccine. The roll out of both AstraZeneca and Janssen vaccines has been halted for adults under 30-60 years of age in many countries. We propose that antiplatelet agents targeting TxA2 receptor signaling should be considered for chemoprophylaxis when administering the adenovirus based COVID-19 vaccines to adults under 30-60 years of age. In many Asian and African countries, only adenovirus-based COVID-19 vaccines are available at present. A short course of an antiplatelet agent such as aspirin could allow millions to avail of the benefits of the AstraZeneca and Janssen COVID-19 vaccines which could be otherwise either denied to them or put them at undue risk of thromboembolic complications. 

Keywords: SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19, Vaxzevria, COVISHIELD, Janssen COVID-19 vaccine, Johnson & Johnson vaccine, AstraZeneca vaccine, AZD1222, thrombosis, cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, thromboembolism, aspirin, antiplatelet agents, thromboxane, COX-2, disseminated intravascular coagulation, thrombocytopenia, thrombotic thrombocytopenia, CLEC2, megakaryocyte 3 

COVID-19 disease is caused by a novel positive-strand RNA coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), which belongs to the Coronaviridae family, along with the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) coronaviruses.1 The genome of these viruses encodes several non-structural and structural proteins, including spike (S), envelope (E), membrane (M), and nucleocapsid (N) proteins.2 The majority of the vaccines for COVID-19 that employ administration of viral antigens or viral gene sequences aim to induce neutralizing antibodies against the viral spike protein (S), preventing uptake through the ACE2 receptor, and thereby blocking infection.3 

The Janssen COVID-19 vaccine (Johnson & Johnson) is comprised of a recombinant, replication- incompetent Ad26 vector, encoding a stabilized variant of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike (S) protein. The ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine (AZD1222, Vaxzevria®) was developed at Oxford University and consists of a replication-deficient chimpanzee adenoviral vector ChAdOx1, encoding the S protein.4 In US Phase III trials, Vaxzevria has been demonstrated to have 79% efficacy at preventing symptomatic COVID-19, and 100% efficacy against severe or critical disease and hospitalization, with comparable efficacy across ethnicity, gender and age.5 However, Vaxzevria has been associated with thrombotic and embolic events including disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) and cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST), occurring within 14 days after vaccination, mostly in people under 55 years of age, the majority of whom have been women.6 Data from Europe suggests that the event rate for thromboembolic events may be about 10 per million vaccinated. Antibodies to platelet factor 4/heparin complexes have been recently reported in a few patients.7 However, the significance of this finding remains to be established. As of April 12, 2021, about 6.8 million doses of the Janssen vaccine have been administered in the U.S.8 CDC and FDA are reviewing data involving six reported U.S. cases of CVST in combination with thrombocytopenia.8 All six cases occurred among women between the ages of 18 and 48, and symptoms occurred 6 to 13 days after vaccination.8 

SARS-CoV-2 is known to cause thromboinflammation leading to thrombotic microangiopathy, pulmonary thrombosis, pedal acro-ischemia (“COVID-toes”), arterial clots, strokes, cardiomyopathy, coronary and systemic vasculitis, deep venous thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, and microvascular thrombosis in renal, cardiac and brain vasculature.9-14 Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST) has also been reported in COVID-19 patients.15 Amongst 34,331 hospitalized COVID-19 patients, CVST was diagnosed in 28.16 In a multicenter, multinational, cross sectional, retrospective study of 8 patients diagnosed with CVST and COVID-19, seven were women.17 In another series of 41 patients with COVID-19 and CVST, the average age was about 50 years (SD, 16.5 years).17 The pathobiology of thrombotic events associated with the AstraZeneca vaccine should be viewed in the context of mechanisms underlying thromboinflammation that complicates SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 disease. 

A. Role of COX-2 and thromboxane A2 in thromboinflammation complicating adenovirus based COVID-19 vaccine encoding the Spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 

Thromboinflammation in COVID-19 seems to be primarily caused by endothelial, platelet and neutrophil activation, platelet-neutrophil aggregates and release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs).13,18 Platelet activation in COVID-19 is fueled by a lipid storm characterized by massive increases in thromboxane A2 (TxA2) levels in the blood and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid.19,20 Cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes catalyze the first step in the biosynthesis of TxA2 from arachidonic acid, and COX-2 expression is induced by the spike (S) protein of coronaviruses.21 We postulate that an aberrant increase in TxA2 generation induced by the spike protein expression from the AstraZeneca vaccine leads to thromboinflammation, thromboembolism and CVST. 4 

The support for the above proposed mechanism comes from the following observations. First, when mice of different age groups were infected with SARS-CoV virus, the generation of TxA2 was markedly increased in younger mice compared to middle aged mice.22 Furthermore, in children with asymptomatic or mildly symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection, microvascular thrombosis and thrombotic microangiopathy occur early in infection.20 These observations are consistent with the higher risk for thrombosis in adults under 60 years of age, compared with the older age group.6,7 Second, platelets from female mice are much more reactive than from male mice.23 Furthermore, TxA2 generation, TxA2-platelet interaction and activation is increased in women compared to men.24,25 These observations are consistent with disproportionately increased risk of thrombosis in women following AstraZeneca and Janssen COVID-19 vaccines. 

The adenoviral vector ChAdOx1, containing nCoV-19 spike protein gene, infects host cells through the coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor (CAR).26 CAR-dependent cell entry of the viral vector allows insertion of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein gene and expression of Spike protein by host cells (Figure 1). CAR is primarily expressed on epithelial tight junctions.27 CAR expression has also been reported in platelets,28 and since platelets are anucleate cells CAR expression by megakaryocytes can be inferred. Therefore, AstraZeneca and Janssen vaccines would be expected to induce expression of Spike protein in megakaryocytes and platelets (Figure 1). 

Spike protein of coronaviruses in known to induce COX-2 gene expression.21,29 COX-2 expression is induced during normal human megakaryopoiesis and characterizes newly formed platelets.30 While in healthy controls <10% of circulating platelets express COX-2, in patients with high platelet generation, up to 60% of platelets express COX-2.30 Generation of TxA2 by platelets is markedly suppressed by COX-2 inhibition in patients with increased megakaryopoiesis versus healthy subjects.30 Therefore, we postulate that expression of Spike protein induces COX-2 expression and generation of thromboxane A2 by megakaryocytes. TxA2 promotes biogenesis of activated platelets expressing COX-2. Platelet TxA2 generation leads to platelet activation and aggregation, and thereby thromboinflammation (Figure 1). 

Extravascular spaces of the lungs comprise populations of mature and immature megakaryocytes that originate from the bone marrow, such that lungs are a major site of platelet biogenesis, accounting for approximately 50% of total platelet production or about 10 million platelets per hour.31 More than 1 million extravascular megakaryocytes have been observed in each lung of transplant mice.31 Following intramuscular injection of the AstraZeneca and Janssen vaccines, the adenovirus vector will traverse the veins and lymphatics to be delivered to the pulmonary circulation thereby exposing lung megakaryocytes in the first pass. Interestingly, under thrombocytopenic conditions, haematopoietic progenitors migrate out of the lung to repopulate the bone marrow and completely reconstitute blood platelet counts.31 

B. Predilection of cerebral venous sinuses for thrombosis following vaccination 

Recent studies have demonstrated that arterial, venous and sinusoidal endothelial cells in the brain uniquely express markers of the lymphatic endothelium including podoplanin.32 Podoplanin serves as a ligand for CLEC2 receptors on platelets.33 Thromboxane A2 dependent CLEC2 signaling leads to platelet activation (Figure 1), while a TxA2 receptor antagonist nearly abolish CLEC2 signaling and platelet activation.33 TxA2 dependent CLEC2 signaling promotes release of exosomes and microvesicles from platelets, leading to activation of CLEC5A and TLR2 receptors respectively on neutrophils, neutrophil activation and release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) (Figure 1).34 Neutrophil activation, more than platelet activation, is associated with thrombotic complications in COVID-19.13,18,35 As proposed above, the expression of podoplanin, a unique molecular signature of cerebral endothelial cells, may be responsible for the predilection of brain vascular bed to thromboinflammation and CVST as a complication of COVID-19 vaccines. 5 

C. Chemoprophylaxis with antiplatelet agents 

In animal models of endotoxin mediated endothelial injury and thromboinflammation, antagonism of TxA2 signaling prevents ARDS, reduces myocardial damage and increases survival.36-38 

Considering the key role played by platelets in thromboinflammation, we propose consideration of antiplatelet agents, either aspirin or TxA2 receptor antagonists, as chemoprophylactic agents when the AstraZeneca vaccine is administered to adults between 18 and 60 years of age.39 High bleeding risk because of another medical condition or medication would be contraindications to use of antiplatelet agents.39 Medical conditions that increase bleeding risk include previous gastrointestinal bleeding, peptic ulcer disease, blood clotting problems, and kidney disease.39 Medications that increase bleeding risk include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, steroids, and other anticoagulants or anti-platelet agents.39 Aspirin appears to be safe in COVID-19. In a retrospective observational study in hospitalized patients with COVID-19, low-dose aspirin was found to be effective in reducing morbidity and mortality; and was not associated with any safety issues including major bleeding.40 Therefore, aspirin is likely to be safe as an adjunct to COVID-19 vaccines even in the event of a subsequent infection with SARS-CoV-2 virus. 

Can aspirin influence the host immune response to the COVID-19 vaccines? This issue merits further investigation. When healthy adults > 65 years of age were given influenza vaccine and randomized to receive 300 mg aspirin or placebo on days 1, 2, 3, 5 and 7, the aspirin group showed 4-fold or greater rise in influenza specific antibodies.41 The risk-benefit analysis, based on above information, suggests that a one to three week course of low-dose aspirin merits consideration in order to prevent the thromboembolic events associated with the AstraZeneca vaccine. 

SUMMARY 

Thromboembolic disease including disseminated intravascular coagulation and cerebral venous sinus thrombosis have been reported in association with AstraZeneca and Janssen COVID-19 vaccines. Many countries have halted use of these vaccines either entirely or for adults under 30 to 60 years of age. European and North American countries generally have access to mRNA vaccines. However, in Asian and African countries the choices are limited to adenovirus based COVID-19 vaccines. The governments in such countries are forging ahead with vaccinating all adults, including those under 60 years of age, with Vaxzevria, Covishield (the version of Vaxzevria manufactured by the Serum Institute of India) or the Janssen vaccines. This has led to grave concern and anxiety amongst the citizens and medical professionals. Considering the profound global public health implications of limiting the use of these vaccines, it is critical to understand the pathobiology of vaccination induced thrombotic events in order to guide strategies aimed at prevention. In this regard, studies are urgently needed to examine lipid mediators and thromboxane A2 – platelet axis following vaccination with these vaccines, compared with mRNA vaccines. The risk-benefit analysis based on information presented here suggests that chemoprophylaxis using a short course of low-dose aspirin in adults under 60 years of age may be justified in conjunction with adenovirus based COVID-19 vaccines in order to prevent thromboembolic events and enhance safety. 6 

Figure 1. AstraZeneca or Janssen COVID-19 vaccine induced thromboinflammation and cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST)-Proposed Mechanisms: Adenovirus carrier delivers SARS-CoV-2 DNA encoding the Spike (S) protein to the lung megakaryocytes via the coxsackie-adenovirus receptor (CAR). Spike protein induces COX-2 expression in megakaryocytes leading to megakaryocyte activation, biogenesis of activated platelets that express COX-2 and generate thromboxane A2 (TxA2). Cerebral vein sinus endothelial cells express podoplanin, a natural ligand for CLEC2 receptors on platelets. Platelets traversing through the cerebral vein sinuses would be further activated by TxA2 dependent podoplanin-CLEC2 signaling, leading to release of extracellular vesicles, thereby promoting CLEC5A and TLR2 mediated neutrophil activation, thromboinflammation, CVST, and thromboembolism in other vascular beds. Young age and female gender are associated with increased TxA2 generation and platelet activation respectively, and hence increased risk of thromboembolic complications following vaccination. 

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18. Petito E, Falcinelli E, Paliani U, et al. Association of Neutrophil Activation, More Than Platelet Activation, With Thrombotic Complications in Coronavirus Disease 2019. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2020. 8 

19. Archambault A-S, Zaid Y, Rakotoarivelo V, et al. Lipid storm within the lungs of severe COVID-19 patients: Extensive levels of cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase-derived inflammatory metabolites. medRxiv. 2020:2020.2012.2004.20242115. 

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34. Sung P-S, Huang T-F, Hsieh S-L. Extracellular vesicles from CLEC2-activated platelets enhance dengue virus-induced lethality via CLEC5A/TLR2. Nature Communications. 2019;10(1). 

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SOURCE

From: “Gupta, Ajay” <ajayg1@hs.uci.edu>

Date: Wednesday, April 14, 2021 at 10:33 AM

To: “Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN” <AvivaLev-Ari@alum.berkeley.edu>

This EXPERT OPINION is in response to:

From: Aviva Lev-Ari <AvivaLev-Ari@alum.berkeley.edu>
Date: Tuesday, April 13, 2021 at 9:03 AM
To: “Joel Shertok, PhD” <jshertok@yahoo.com>, “Stephen Williams, PhD” <sjwilliamspa@comcast.net>, “Prof. Marcus W Feldman” <mfeldman@stanford.edu>, “Irina Robu, PhD” <irina.stefania@gmail.com>, “Dr. Sudipta Saha” <sudiptasaha1977@gmail.com>, Aviva Lev-Ari <AvivaLev-Ari@alum.berkeley.edu>, “Dr. Larry Bernstein” <larry.bernstein@gmail.com>, “Ofer Markman, PhD” <oferm2020@gmail.com>, “Daniel Menzin (gmail)” <dmenzin@gmail.com>, Pnina Abir-Am <pnina.abiram@gmail.com>, Alan <alanalanf@gmail.com>, Justin MDMEPhD <jdpmdphd@gmail.com>, Inbar Ofer <ofer.i@northeastern.edu>, Aviva Lev-Ari <aviva.lev-ari@comcast.net>, Madison Davis <madisond2302@gmail.com>, Danielle Smolyar <dsmolyar@syr.edu>, “Adina Hazan, PhD” <adinathazan@gmail.com>, Gail Thornton <gailsthornton@yahoo.com>, Amandeep kaur <662amandeep@gmail.com>, Premalata Pati <premalata09@gmail.com>, “Ajay Gupta, MD” <charaklabs@outlook.com>, Saul Yedgar <saulye@ekmd.huji.ac.il>, Yigal Blum <yigalblum@gmail.com>, a el <AElRoeiy@gmail.com>, “Dr. Raphael Nir” <rnir@sbhsciences.com>, “George Tetz, MD, PhD” <gtetz@clstherapeutics.com>, “Dr. Martin R Schiller (CEO, Heligenics)” <heligenics@gmail.com>, “Jea Asio (Heligenics)” <JAsio@Heligenics.com>, Yakov Kogan <ykogan@tgv-biomed.com>, Haim Levkowitz <haim@cs.UML.edu>

Subject: APRIL 13. 2021 – J&J Statement – Out of an abundance of caution, the CDC and FDA have recommended a pause in the use of our vaccine. ->> Are there relations between these FINDINGS?

Johnson & Johnson Statement on COVID-19 Vaccine

NEW BRUNSWICK, N.J., April 13, 2021– The safety and well-being of the people who use our products is our number one priority. We are aware of an extremely rare disorder involving people with blood clots in combination with low platelets in a small number of individuals who have received our COVID-19 vaccine. The United States Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are reviewing data involving six reported U.S. cases out of more than 6.8 million doses administered. Out of an abundance of caution, the CDC and FDA have recommended a pause in the use of our vaccine.

In addition, we have been reviewing these cases with European health authorities. We have made the decision to proactively delay the rollout of our vaccine in Europe.

We have been working closely with medical experts and health authorities, and we strongly support the open communication of this information to healthcare professionals and the public.

The CDC and FDA have made information available about proper recognition and management due to the unique treatment required with this type of blood clot. The health authorities advise that people who have received our COVID-19 vaccine and develop severe headache, abdominal pain, leg pain, or shortness of breath within three weeks after vaccination should contact their health care provider.

For more information on the Janssen COVID-19 vaccine, click here.

Please All send me your Expert Opinion on the relations between these FINDINGS?

Linking Thrombotic Thrombocytopenia to ChAdOx1 nCov-19 Vaccination, AstraZeneca | Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence (LPBI) Group

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Linking Thrombotic Thrombocytopenia to ChAdOx1 nCov-19 Vaccination, AstraZeneca

Is SARS-COV2 Hijacking the Complement and Coagulation Systems?

Reporter: Stephen J. Williams, PhD

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SAR-Cov-2 is probably a vasculotropic RNA virus affecting the blood vessels: Endothelial cell infection and endotheliitis in COVID-19

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 

SAR-Cov-2 is probably a vasculotropic RNA virus affecting the blood vessels: Endothelial cell infection and endotheliitis in COVID-19

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Posted in Biomarkers: Inflammation, Coronavirus Gene Expression, COVID-19, COVID-19 effects on Human Heart, Immune-Mediation (independent immunopathology: lung and reticuloendothelial system), Mechanism of Thrombosis with AZ & J&J COVID-19 Vaccines, Mechanisms of infection by SARS-CoV-2, Population Health Management, Genetics & Pharmaceutical, SAR-Cov-2 a vasculotropic (blood vessels) RNA Virus, SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV-2 Viral Variants, SARS-COV2 Hijacking the Complement and Coagulation Systems, Treatment Protocols for COVID-19, Vaccinology, Virus Infective Acute Respiratory Syndrome: SARS-CoV | Leave a Comment »

Cryo-EM disclosed how the D614G mutation changes SARS-CoV-2 spike protein structure.

April 10, 2021 by Dr. Pati

Cryo-EM disclosed how the D614G mutation changes SARS-CoV-2 spike protein structure.

Reporter: Dr. Premalata Pati, Ph.D., Postdoc

SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, has had a major impact on human health globally; infecting a massive quantity of people around 136,046,262 (John Hopkins University); causing severe disease and associated long-term health sequelae; resulting in death and excess mortality, especially among older and prone populations; altering routine healthcare services; disruptions to travel, trade, education, and many other societal functions; and more broadly having a negative impact on peoples physical and mental health.

It’s need of the hour to answer the questions like what allows the variants of SARS-CoV-2 first detected in the UK, South Africa, and Brazil to spread so quickly? How can current COVID-19 vaccines better protect against them?

Scientists from the Harvard Medical School and the Boston Children’s Hospital help answer these urgent questions. The team reports its findings in the journal “Science” a paper entitled “Structural impact on SARS-CoV-2 spike protein by D614G substitution”. The mutation rate of the SARS-CoV-2 virus has rapidly evolved over the past few months, especially at the Spike (S) protein region of the virus, where the maximum number of mutations have been observed by the virologists.

Bing Chen, HMS professor of pediatrics at Boston Children’s, and colleagues analyzed the changes in the structure of the spike proteins with the genetic change by D614G mutation by all three variants. Hence they assessed the structure of the coronavirus spike protein down to the atomic level and revealed the reason for the quick spreading of these variants.

Fig. 1. Cryo-EM structures of the full-length SARS-CoV-2 S protein carrying G614.

(A) Three structures of the G614 S trimer, representing a closed, three RBD-down conformation, an RBD-intermediate conformation and a one RBD-up conformation, were modeled based on corresponding cryo-EM density maps at 3.1-3.5Å resolution. Three protomers (a, b, c) are colored in red, blue and green, respectively. RBD locations are indicated. (B) Top views of superposition of three structures of the G614 S in (A) in ribbon representation with the structure of the prefusion trimer of the D614 S (PDB ID: 6XR8), shown in yellow. NTD and RBD of each protomer are indicated. Side views of the superposition are shown in fig. S8.

IMAGE SOURCE: Bing Chen, Ph.D., Boston Children’s Hospital, https://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2021/03/16/science.abf2303

The work

The mutant spikes were imaged by Cryo-Electron microscopy (cryo-EM), which has resolution down to the atomic level. They found that the D614G mutation (substitution of in a single amino acid “letter” in the genetic code for the spike protein) makes the spike more stable as compared with the original SARS-CoV-2 virus. As a result, more functional spikes are available to bind to our cells’ ACE2 receptors, making the virus more contagious.

IMAGE SOURCE:  Zhang J, et al., Science

Say the original virus has 100 spikes,” Chen explained. “Because of the shape instability, you may have just 50 percent of them functional. In the G614 variants, you may have 90 percent that is functional. So even though they don’t bind as well, the chances are greater and you will have an infection

Forthcoming directions by Bing Chen and Team

The findings suggest the current approved COVID-19 vaccines and any vaccines in the works should include the genetic code for this mutation. Chen has quoted:

Since most of the vaccines so far—including the Moderna, Pfizer–BioNTech, Johnson & Johnson, and AstraZeneca vaccines are based on the original spike protein, adding the D614G mutation could make the vaccines better able to elicit protective neutralizing antibodies against the viral variants

Chen proposes that redesigned vaccines incorporate the code for this mutant spike protein. He believes the more stable spike shape should make any vaccine based on the spike more likely to elicit protective antibodies. Chen also has his sights set on therapeutics. He and his colleagues are further applying structural biology to better understand how SARS-CoV-2 binds to the ACE2 receptor. That could point the way to drugs that would block the virus from gaining entry to our cells.

In January, the team showed that a structurally engineered “decoy” ACE2 protein binds to SARS-CoV-2 200 times more strongly than the body’s own ACE2. The decoy potently inhibited the virus in cell culture, suggesting it could be an anti-COVID-19 treatment. Chen is now working to advance this research into animal models.

Main Source:

Abstract

Substitution for aspartic acid by glycine at position 614 in the spike (S) protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 appears to facilitate rapid viral spread. The G614 strain and its recent variants are now the dominant circulating forms. We report here cryo-EM structures of a full-length G614 S trimer, which adopts three distinct prefusion conformations differing primarily by the position of one receptor-binding domain. A loop disordered in the D614 S trimer wedges between domains within a protomer in the G614 spike. This added interaction appears to prevent premature dissociation of the G614 trimer, effectively increasing the number of functional spikes and enhancing infectivity, and to modulate structural rearrangements for membrane fusion. These findings extend our understanding of viral entry and suggest an improved immunogen for vaccine development.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2021/03/16/science.abf2303?rss=1

Other Related Articles published in this Open Access Online Scientific Journal include the following:

COVID-19-vaccine rollout risks and challenges

Reporter : Irina Robu, PhD

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2021/02/17/covid-19-vaccine-rollout-risks-and-challenges/

COVID-19 Sequel: Neurological Impact of Social isolation been linked to poorer physical and mental health

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2021/03/30/covid-19-sequel-neurological-impact-of-social-isolation-been-linked-to-poorer-physical-and-mental-health/

Comparing COVID-19 Vaccine Schedule Combinations, or “Com-COV” – First-of-its-Kind Study will explore the Impact of using eight different Combinations of Doses and Dosing Intervals for Different COVID-19 Vaccines

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2021/02/08/comparing-covid-19-vaccine-schedule-combinations-or-com-cov-first-of-its-kind-study-will-explore-the-impact-of-using-eight-different-combinations-of-doses-and-dosing-intervals-for-diffe/

COVID-19 T-cell immune response map, immunoSEQ T-MAP COVID for research of T-cell response to SARS-CoV-2 infection

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2020/11/20/covid-19-t-cell-immune-response-map-immunoseq-t-map-covid-for-research-of-t-cell-response-to-sars-cov-2-infection/

Tiny biologic drug to fight COVID-19 show promise in animal models

Reporter : Irina Robu, PhD

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2020/10/11/tiny-biologic-drug-to-fight-covid-19-show-promise-in-animal-models/

Miniproteins against the COVID-19 Spike protein may be therapeutic

Reporter: Stephen J. Williams, PhD

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2020/09/30/miniproteins-against-the-covid-19-spike-protein-may-be-therapeutic/

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Posted in coronavirus, Coronavirus Gene Expression, COVID-19, COVID-19, Drug Development Process, Genetics & Innovations in Treatment, Genetics & Pharmaceutical, Genome Biology, Image Processing/Computing, Infectious Disease Immunodiagnostics, Mechanisms of infection by SARS-CoV-2, Medical Imaging Technology, Mutagenesis, Population Health Management, Proteins, SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV-2 circulating variants , SARS-CoV-2 Viral Variants, Uncategorized, Vaccinology, Variation in human protein-coding regions, virology, Virology - Vector-borne DIsease, Virtual Drug Molecule Screening targeting SAR-CoV-2 proteins | Tagged ACE2 receptor, Antibody, Boston Children's Hospital, cryo-electron microscopy, D614G mutation, genetic code, SARS-CoV-2 Entry Factors, spike protein, vaccine development | Leave a Comment »

Top Industrialization Challenges of Gene Therapy Manufacturing

March 29, 2021 by 2012pharmaceutical

Top Industrialization Challenges of Gene Therapy Manufacturing

Guest Authors:

Dr. Mark Szczypka

Global Director, Process Development Services

Pall Corporation

https://www.pall.com/

and

Clive Glover

Director, Cell & Gene Therapy

Pall Corporation

https://www.pall.com/

What Is Gene Therapy? How Does It Save and Improve the Quality of Life?

What Is Gene Therapy?

Gene therapy is a new and exciting technique, defined as the use of genetic material to cure or alleviate disease. It is considered revolutionary, yet still in its infancy, with many new therapies currently undergoing clinical trials. 

Gene therapy has the potential to transform the treatment for diseases, significantly changing how doctors manage and treat patients. 

Two Types of Gene Therapy

There are two main types of gene therapy. 

The first corrects a specific disease causing genetic mutation. These are targeted towards inherited genetic disorders such as hemophilia or Duchenne muscular dystrophy. The second gives new functions to cells allowing them to fight disease.

A good example of these therapies are chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR-T) therapies. Both Novartis’ Kymriah^♦ and Gilead’s Yescarta^♦ are examples of CAR-T therapies, that have demonstrated exceptional cancer remission rates where other forms of treatment have failed.

Cancer is the by far the largest category of disease with 65% of gene therapy clinical trials being investigated, followed by 11.1% for inherited monogenetic disease, 7% for infectious disease, and 6.9% for cardiovascular disease¹.

How Does Genetic Material Get Delivered to Host Cell(s)?

Genetic material gets delivered to a host cell via a delivery system known as a vector. Vectors deliver genetic material via one of the two methods. By directly injecting genetic material into the patient (in vivo), and where selected cells collected from the patient, undergo modification outside (ex vivo) before introducing them back into the patient.

The most commonly used type of vector is a virus. While there are other methods of delivering genetic material into a cell, viruses have now been developed that demonstrate a good balance between efficacy and safety. 

 

Commercially Successful Gene Therapies

Developing a commercially successful gene therapy is challenging. It requires balancing several different considerations. Having a clinical effective therapy is essential, but this alone is not sufficient to ensure product success. In addition to this, reimbursement, quality and regulatory considerations, and manufacturing also must be considered. 

To date, a total 11 gene therapies have received marketing approval. However, behind this there is a strong clinical pipeline with >1000 clinical trials underway, and 92 drugs in Phase 3².

Furthermore, there has been significant investment with >$50B being invested in the area in the past 3 years³.

This investment, coupled with the accelerating understanding of disease at the genetic level, holds immense potential. Academic, commercial manufacturers, and industry suppliers are actively seeking new approaches that deliver these therapies as quick as possible to a waiting population.

Author Details:

Clive Glover

Director, Cell & Gene Therapy

Pall Corporation

https://www.pall.com/

Top Industrialization Challenges of Gene Therapy Manufacturing

Manufacturing and scale-up of industrialized processes to manufacture gene therapy products are accompanied by many challenges that must be overcome to succeed in the marketplace. Commercialization of gene therapies for patient use is time consuming and requires substantial financial investment and dedicated resources.

Despite the unique range of challenges associated with gene therapy development, the quest to bring these therapies to market is worthwhile because the therapeutic potential of the treatments is revolutionary and the commercial opportunity is considerable. The process to industrialization is complex, but the benefits of successful development of robust processes are huge. The industry is rapidly expanding and is implementing novel approaches to overcome existing challenges, using innovative methods for medicinal application and developing new drugs to treat rare diseases.

Manufacturing sufficient quantities of high quality product, is an area that requires substantial developmental effort. Challenges surrounding reimbursement for treatment, and the pressures associated with shorter time to approval, both increase burden placed on manufactures to rapidly develop suitable processes that are cost-effective. Cost of goods (COGs) need to be kept below critical threshold levels to drive sufficient profit margins, even though process development timelines are aggressive and short. There are a multitude of critical decisions and considerations to overcome. 

This blog explores some of these fundamental manufacturing challenges in more detail.

Scalable Manufacturing Platform

Technologies used to manufacture gene therapy biologics are advancing at very rapid pace. Not having a platform that is suitable nor scalable is a significant challenge many manufacturers face. It is a necessity throughout clinical development stages to be able to optimize the manufacturing process. However, any change in the manufacturing process that increases product yield or enhances quality is accompanied by the risk of changing the product. It is therefore essential that close attention is paid to tracking variation throughout the development process at every stage.

A substantial amount of early stage development is still being performed using outdated, non-commercially viable platforms and transferring processes to new platforms is required. To achieve manufacturing platform advancement, the product needs to be very well characterized during development so that investigators can generate data sets which demonstrate comparability between products used in clinical studies and those generated with the final manufacturing process.

Cost of Goods

COGs associated with manufacturing any drug product impacts the overall price of the therapy and heavily influences the profit margin realized by gene therapy manufactures. High production cost is a challenge that affects profitability. This is reflected in the high costs associated with newly approved gene therapy drugs such as Yescarta♦, Kymriah♦ and Luxturna♦ which are currently priced in the 100 thousands dollar range per dose. The challenge becomes a critical concern when the product in development cannot be sold at a price high enough to achieve a commercially-viable profit margin.  If acceptable margins cannot be reached, developers may choose to terminate production making the drug unavailable to patients. However, due to the remarkable value and life changing nature of the treatments the entire industry is committed to the pursuit of cost effective methods for manufacturing. There is a significant effort that has been mounted by all players to reach this end.

Currently, the main cost contributor to the overall COGs for gene therapy products is high quality clinical grade plasmid DNA containing the therapeutic gene of interest. This reagent is required for transient transfection of cells and it is imperative that the reagent is of high quality. It is an essential component of the process to assure an acceptable safety profile. Another example of an expensive gene therapy product is Zolgensma♦. This new drug was recently approved for the treatment of spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), which is a rare disease that causes severe muscle weakness for suffers. It affects their ability to breath, speak and move. Most babies born with a common form of SMA die by the time they reach two years of age. Currently there is no cure. Zolgensma represents the only treatment option now available to cure the 10,000 – 25,000 affected individuals in the US. However, the current challenge with this therapy is that it could costs $2.1 million per patient¹.

Reimbursement

Market size is an important factor that can limit effective commercial return. If the market size is too small, profitability is limited due to the small number of doses required to treat the patient population. This decreases the profit margin realized by the drug developer and can lower motivation to commercialize the therapy. The most encouraging aspect of the gene therapy revolution is that the first round of gene therapy products has been developed for extremely rare diseases, with small patient populations indicating the commitment to treat previously untreatable diseases. Amazingly, these patients can be cured by a single drug application, however, this inherent property of the therapy can further limit commercial profitability. Patients are often not required to pay for these high-cost medicines themselves, and look to government programs and health care insurance providers to reimburse the manufacturer for treatments. Health insurance reimbursement plans for new products is challenging, particularly so for new category products like gene therapy. It is expected that the process of reimbursement will differ from country to country and it will also be guided by factors like economics, demographic data and politics. If the current cost of manufacturing stands then drugs such as Zolgensma could place a huge financial strain on health systems. In the US for example, it is surmised that treating common diseases such as hemophilia, which affects around 20,000 people in the US alone, could cause a financial crisis¹. If we look to the future of modern medicine, commercialization of gene therapies will require not only significant advancement in manufacturing processes to reduce costs but also a practical reimbursement strategy that will allow for drug developers to continue to forge into the new frontiers of medicine.

References:

1. Business Insider. http://www.businessinsider.com/gene-therapy-treats-disease-but-prices-could-strain-us-health-system-2019-2&nbsp;

♦Kymriah is a trademark of Novartis AG., Luxturna is a trademark of Spark Therapeutics, Inc., Yescarta is a trademark of Kite Pharma, Inc., Zolgensma is a trademark of AveXis Inc.

Author Details:

Dr. Mark Szczypka

Global Director, Process Development Services

Pall Corporation

https://www.pall.com/

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Posted in Gene Therapy & Gene Editing Development, Regenerative Biology and Medicine | Leave a Comment »

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