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Archive for the ‘Bone Disease and Musculoskeletal Disease’ Category

Targeted delivery of therapeutics to bone and connective tissues: current status and challenges- Part II

Posted in Biological Networks, Gene Regulation and Evolution, Biomarkers & Medical Diagnostics, Bone Disease and Musculoskeletal Disease, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Disease Biology, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, Nanotechnology for Drug Delivery, Technology Transfer: Biotech and Pharmaceutical, tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , on September 30, 2012| 8 Comments »

Curator/Reporter: Aviral Vatsa PhD MBBS

This post is in the second part of the reviews that focuses on the current status of drug delivery to bone and the issues facing this field. The first part can be accessed here

Annual treatment costs for musculoskeletal diseases in the US are roughly 7.7% (~ $849 billion) of total gross domestic product. Such disorders are the main cause of physical disability in US. Almost half of all chronic conditions in people can be attributed to bone and joint disorders. In addition there is increasing ageing population and associated increases in osteoporosis and other diseases, rising incidences of degenerative intervertebral disk diseases and numbers of revision orthopedic arthroplasty surgeries, and increases in spinal fusions. All these factors contribute towards the increasing requirement of bone regeneration and reconstruction methods and products. Delivery of therapeutic grade products to bone has various challenges. Parenteral administration limits the efficient delivery of drugs to the required site of injury and local delivery methods are often expensive and invasive. The theme issue of Advance Drug Delivery reviews focuses on the current status of drug delivery to bone and the issues facing this field. Here is the second part of these reviews and research articles.

1. Targeting polymer therapeutics to bone [1]

Abstract

An aging population in the developing world has led to an increase in musculoskeletal diseases such as osteoporosis and bone metastases. Left untreated many bone diseases cause debilitating pain and in the case of cancer, death. Many potential drugs are effective in treating diseases but result in side effects preventing their efficacy in the clinic. Bone, however, provides a unique environment of inorganic solids, which can be exploited in order to effectively target drugs to diseased tissue. By integration of bone targeting moieties to drug-carrying water-soluble polymers, the payload to diseased area can be increased while side effects decreased. The realization of clinically relevant bone targeted polymer therapeutics depends on (1) understanding bone targeting moiety interactions, (2) development of controlled drug delivery systems, as well as (3) understanding drug interactions. The latter makes it possible to develop bone targeted synergistic drug delivery systems.


2. Development of macromolecular prodrug for rheumatoid arthritis [2]

Abstract

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease that is considered to be one of the major public health problems worldwide. The development of therapies that target tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and co-stimulatory pathways that regulate the immune system have revolutionized the care of patients with RA. Despite these advances, many patients continue to experience symptomatic and functional impairment. To address this issue, more recent therapies that have been developed are designed to target intracellular signaling pathways involved in immunoregulation. Though this approach has been encouraging, there have been major challenges with respect to off-target organ side effects and systemic toxicities related to the widespread distribution of these signaling pathways in multiple cell types and tissues. These limitations have led to an increasing interest in the development of strategies for the macromolecularization of anti-rheumatic drugs, which could target them to the inflamed joints. This approach enhances the efficacy of the therapeutic agent with respect to synovial inflammation, while markedly reducing non-target organ adverse side effects. In this manuscript, we provide a comprehensive overview of the rational design and optimization of macromolecular prodrugs for treatment of RA. The superior and the sustained efficacy of the prodrug may be partially attributed to their Extravasation through Leaky Vasculature and subsequent Inflammatory cell-mediated Sequestration (ELVIS) in the arthritic joints. This biologic process provides a plausible mechanism, by which macromolecular prodrugs preferentially target arthritic joints and illustrates the potential benefits of applying this therapeutic strategy to the treatment of other inflammatory diseases.

 

3. Peptide-based delivery to bone [3]

Abstract

Peptides are attractive as novel therapeutic reagents, since they are flexible in adopting and mimicking the local structural features of proteins. Versatile capabilities to perform organic synthetic manipulations are another unique feature of peptides compared to protein-based medicines, such as antibodies. On the other hand, a disadvantage of using a peptide for a therapeutic purpose is its low stability and/or high level of aggregation. During the past two decades, numerous peptides were developed for the treatment of bone diseases, and some peptides have already been used for local applications to repair bone defects in the clinic. However, very few peptides have the ability to form bone themselves. We herein summarize the effects of the therapeutic peptides on bone loss and/or local bone defects, including the results from basic studies. We also herein describe some possible methods for overcoming the obstacles associated with using therapeutic peptide candidates.


4. Growth factor delivery: How surface interactions modulate release in vitro and in vivo [4]

Abstract

Biomaterial scaffolds have been extensively used to deliver growth factors to induce new bone formation. The pharmacokinetics of growth factor delivery has been a critical regulator of their clinical success. This review will focus on the surface interactions that control the non-covalent incorporation of growth factors into scaffolds and the mechanisms that control growth factor release from clinically relevant biomaterials. We will focus on the delivery of recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2 from materials currently used in the clinical practice, but also suggest how general mechanisms that control growth factor incorporation and release delineated with this growth factor could extend to other systems. A better understanding of the changing mechanisms that control growth factor release during the different stages of preclinical development could instruct the development of future scaffolds for currently untreatable injuries and diseases.


5. Biomaterial delivery of morphogens to mimic the natural healing cascade in bone[5]

Abstract

Complications in treatment of large bone defects using bone grafting still remain. Our understanding of the endogenous bone regeneration cascade has inspired the exploration of a wide variety of growth factors (GFs) in an effort to mimic the natural signaling that controls bone healing. Biomaterial-based delivery of single exogenous GFs has shown therapeutic efficacy, and this likely relates to its ability to recruit and promote replication of cells involved in tissue development and the healing process. However, as the natural bone healing cascade involves the action of multiple factors, each acting in a specific spatiotemporal pattern, strategies aiming to mimic the critical aspects of this process will likely benefit from the usage of multiple therapeutic agents. This article reviews the current status of approaches to deliver single GFs, as well as ongoing efforts to develop sophisticated delivery platforms to deliver multiple lineage-directing morphogens (multiple GFs) during bone healing.

6. Studies of bone morphogenetic protein-based surgical repair[6]

Abstract

Over the past several decades, recombinant human bone morphogenetic proteins (rhBMPs) have been the most extensively studied and widely used osteoinductive agents for clinical bone repair. Since rhBMP-2 and rhBMP-7 were cleared by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for certain clinical uses, millions of patients worldwide have been treated with rhBMPs for various musculoskeletal disorders. Current clinical applications include treatment of long bone fracture non-unions, spinal surgeries, and oral maxillofacial surgeries. Considering the growing number of recent publications related to clincal research of rhBMPs, there exists enormous promise for these proteins to be used in bone regenerative medicine. The authors take this opportunity to review the rhBMP literature paying specific attention to the current applications of rhBMPs in bone repair and spine surgery. The prospective future of rhBMPs delivered in combination with tissue engineered scaffolds is also reviewed.


7. Strategies for controlled delivery of growth factors and cells for bone regeneration[7]

Abstract

The controlled delivery of growth factors and cells within biomaterial carriers can enhance and accelerate functional bone formation. The carrier system can be designed with pre-programmed release kinetics to deliver bioactive molecules in a localized, spatiotemporal manner most similar to the natural wound healing process. The carrier can also act as an extracellular matrix-mimicking substrate for promoting osteoprogenitor cellular infiltration and proliferation for integrative tissue repair. This review discusses the role of various regenerative factors involved in bone healing and their appropriate combinations with different delivery systems for augmenting bone regeneration. The general requirements of protein, cell and gene therapy are described, with elaboration on how the selection of materials, configurations and processing affects growth factor and cell delivery and regenerative efficacy in both in vitro and in vivo applications for bone tissue engineering.

8. Bone repair cells for craniofacial regeneration[8]

Abstract

Reconstruction of complex craniofacial deformities is a clinical challenge in situations of injury, congenital defects or disease. The use of cell-based therapies represents one of the most advanced methods for enhancing the regenerative response for craniofacial wound healing. Both somatic and stem cells have been adopted in the treatment of complex osseous defects and advances have been made in finding the most adequate scaffold for the delivery of cell therapies in human regenerative medicine. As an example of such approaches for clinical application for craniofacial regeneration, Ixmyelocel-T or bone repair cells are a source of bone marrow derived stem and progenitor cells. They are produced through the use of single pass perfusion bioreactors for CD90+ mesenchymal stem cells and CD14+ monocyte/macrophage progenitor cells. The application of ixmyelocel-T has shown potential in the regeneration of muscular, vascular, nervous and osseous tissue. The purpose of this manuscript is to highlight cell therapies used to repair bony and soft tissue defects in the oral and craniofacial complex. The field at this point remains at an early stage, however this review will provide insights into the progress being made using cell therapies for eventual development into clinical practice.


9. Gene therapy approaches to regenerating bone[9]

Abstract

Bone formation and regeneration therapies continue to require optimization and improvement because many skeletal disorders remain undertreated. Clinical solutions to nonunion fractures and osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures, for example, remain suboptimal and better therapeutic approaches must be created. The widespread use of recombinant human bone morphogenetic proteins (rhBMPs) for spine fusion was recently questioned by a series of reports in a special issue of The Spine Journal, which elucidated the side effects and complications of direct rhBMP treatments. Gene therapy – both direct (in vivo) and cell-mediated (ex vivo) – has long been studied extensively to provide much needed improvements in bone regeneration. In this article, we review recent advances in gene therapy research whose aims are in vivo or ex vivo bone regeneration or formation. We examine appropriate vectors, safety issues, and rates of bone formation. The use of animal models and their relevance for translation of research results to the clinical setting are also discussed in order to provide the reader with a critical view. Finally, we elucidate the main challenges and hurdles faced by gene therapy aimed at bone regeneration as well as expected future trends in this field.

10. Gene delivery to bone[10]

Abstract

Gene delivery to bone is useful both as an experimental tool and as a potential therapeutic strategy. Among its advantages over protein delivery are the potential for directed, sustained and regulated expression of authentically processed, nascent proteins. Although no clinical trials have been initiated, there is a substantial pre-clinical literature documenting the successful transfer of genes to bone, and their intraosseous expression. Recombinant vectors derived from adenovirus, retrovirus and lentivirus, as well as non-viral vectors, have been used for this purpose. Both ex vivo and in vivo strategies, including gene-activated matrices, have been explored. Ex vivo delivery has often employed mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), partly because of their ability to differentiate into osteoblasts. MSCs also have the potential to home to bone after systemic administration, which could serve as a useful way to deliver transgenes in a disseminated fashion for the treatment of diseases affecting the whole skeleton, such as osteoporosis orosteogenesis imperfecta. Local delivery of osteogenic transgenes, particularly those encoding bone morphogenetic proteins, has shown great promise in a number of applications where it is necessary to regenerate bone. These include healing large segmental defects in long bones and the cranium, as well as spinal fusion and treating avascular necrosis.

11. RNA therapeutics targeting osteoclast-mediated excessive bone resorption[11]

Abstract

RNA interference (RNAi) is a sequence-specific post-transcriptional gene silencing technique developed with dramatically increasing utility for both scientific and therapeutic purposes. Short interfering RNA (siRNA) is currently exploited to regulate protein expression relevant to many therapeutic applications, and commonly used as a tool for elucidating disease-associated genes. Osteoporosis and their associated osteoporotic fragility fractures in both men and women are rapidly becoming a global healthcare crisis as average life expectancy increases worldwide. New therapeutics are needed for this increasing patient population. This review describes the diversity of molecular targets suitable for RNAi-based gene knock down in osteoclasts to control osteoclast-mediated excessive bone resorption. We identify strategies for developing targeted siRNA delivery and efficient gene silencing, and describe opportunities and challenges of introducing siRNA as a therapeutic approach to hard and connective tissue disorders.

Bibliography

[1] S. A. Low and J. Kopeček, “Targeting polymer therapeutics to bone,” Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, vol. 64, no. 12, pp. 1189–1204, Sep. 2012.

[2] F. Yuan, L. Quan, L. Cui, S. R. Goldring, and D. Wang, “Development of macromolecular prodrug for rheumatoid arthritis,” Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, vol. 64, no. 12, pp. 1205–1219, Sep. 2012.

[3] K. Aoki, N. Alles, N. Soysa, and K. Ohya, “Peptide-based delivery to bone,” Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, vol. 64, no. 12, pp. 1220–1238, Sep. 2012.

[4] W. J. King and P. H. Krebsbach, “Growth factor delivery: How surface interactions modulate release in vitro and in vivo,” Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, vol. 64, no. 12, pp. 1239–1256, Sep. 2012.

[5] M. Mehta, K. Schmidt-Bleek, G. N. Duda, and D. J. Mooney, “Biomaterial delivery of morphogens to mimic the natural healing cascade in bone,” Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, vol. 64, no. 12, pp. 1257–1276, Sep. 2012.

[6] K. W.-H. Lo, B. D. Ulery, K. M. Ashe, and C. T. Laurencin, “Studies of bone morphogenetic protein-based surgical repair,” Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, vol. 64, no. 12, pp. 1277–1291, Sep. 2012.

[7] T. N. Vo, F. K. Kasper, and A. G. Mikos, “Strategies for controlled delivery of growth factors and cells for bone regeneration,” Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, vol. 64, no. 12, pp. 1292–1309, Sep. 2012.

[8] G. Pagni, D. Kaigler, G. Rasperini, G. Avila-Ortiz, R. Bartel, and W. V. Giannobile, “Bone repair cells for craniofacial regeneration,” Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, vol. 64, no. 12, pp. 1310–1319, Sep. 2012.

[9] N. Kimelman Bleich, I. Kallai, J. R. Lieberman, E. M. Schwarz, G. Pelled, and D. Gazit, “Gene therapy approaches to regenerating bone,” Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, vol. 64, no. 12, pp. 1320–1330, Sep. 2012.

[10] C. H. Evans, “Gene delivery to bone,” Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, vol. 64, no. 12, pp. 1331–1340, Sep. 2012.

[11] Y. Wang and D. W. Grainger, “RNA therapeutics targeting osteoclast-mediated excessive bone resorption,” Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, vol. 64, no. 12, pp. 1341–1357, Sep. 2012.

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ENCODE: the key to unlocking the secrets of complex genetic diseases

Posted in Biological Networks, Gene Regulation and Evolution, Bone Disease and Musculoskeletal Disease, CANCER BIOLOGY & Innovations in Cancer Therapy, Disease Biology, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, Genome Biology, Genomic Testing: Methodology for Diagnosis, Personalized and Precision Medicine & Genomic Research, Uncategorized, tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , on September 26, 2012| 9 Comments »

ENCODE data reveals important information from Genome Wide Association Studies relevant to understanding complex genetic diseases

Author: Ritu Saxena, Ph.D.

 

Introduction

“The depth, quality, and diversity of the ENCODE data are unprecedented” is what was stated by John Stamatoyannopoulos, professor of genomic sciences at the University of Washington and one of the many principle investigators of ENCODE project. ENCODE (Encyclopedia of DNA elements), indeed, was an ambitious project launched as a pilot in 2003 and then expanded in 2007 for the whole genome analysis and identification of all the functional elements of the human genome. The findings were striking as they challenged the definition of “gene” and ‘the central dogma of genetics (Gene-mRNA-protein). Infact, the non-coding part that constitutes about 80% of the genome or the so-called “junk DNA” was found to contain elements crucial for gene regulation. The elements, in large part, include RNA transcripts that are not transcribed into proteins but might have a regulatory role. For detailed reading, refer to the findings published in the issue of Nature, The ENCODE Project Consortium Nature 489, 57–74 (2012) An integrated encyclopedia of DNA elements in the human genome

Key features of the data, as explained in the National Human Genome Research Institute website (National Human Genome Research Institute News feature), include comprehensive mapping of:

  • Protein-coding genes — Proteins are molecules made of amino acids linked together in a specific sequence; the amino acid sequence is encoded by the sequence of DNA subunits called nucleotides that make up genes.
  • Non-coding genes — Stretches of DNA that are read by the cell as if they were genes but do not encode proteins. These appear to help regulate the activity of the genome.
  • Chromatin structure features — Complex physical structures made from a combination of DNA and binding proteins that make up the contents of the nucleus and affects genome function.
  • Histone modifications — Histones are the proteins that make up the chromatin structures that help shape and control the genome. In addition, histone proteins can be physically modified by adding chemical groups, such as a methyl molecule, that further regulates genomic activity.
  • DNA methylation — Just like histones, methyl groups can be added to DNA itself in a process called DNA methylation. Chemically attaching methyl groups to DNA physically changes the ability of enzymes to reach the DNA and thus alters the gene expression pattern in cells. Methylation helps cells “remember what they are doing” or alter levels of gene expression, and it is a crucial part of normal development and cellular differentiation in higher organisms.
  • Transcription factor binding sites — Transcription factors are proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences, controlling the flow (or transcription) of genetic information from DNA to mRNA. Mapping the binding sites can help researchers understand how genomic activity is controlled.

How could ENCODE be helpful in the study of complex human diseases?

Complex diseases and Genome wide association studies (GWAS)

Coronary artery disease, type 2 diabetes and many forms of cancer are complex human diseases that have a significant genetic component. Unlike mendelian disorders that have defined loci, the genetic component of complex disorders lies in the form of genetic variations in the genome making an individual susceptible to these complex diseases.

Researchers have performed Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of the human genome, leading to the identification of thousands of DNA variants that could be linked with complex traits and diseases. However, identifying the variants, referred to as SNPs (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms), that actually contribute to the disease, and understanding how they exert influence on a disease has been more of a mystery.

How would ENCODE solve the puzzle?

The puzzle lies in interpreting how the SNPs found in the genome affect a person’s susceptibility to a particular trait or disease and what is the mechanism behind it. As identified in the GWAS, most variants that are associated with the phenotype of the trait or disease lie in the non-coding region of the genome. Infact, in more than 400 studies compiled in the GWAS catalog only a small minority of the trait/disease-associated SNPs occur in protein-coding regions; the large majority (89%) are in noncoding regions. These variants fall in the gene deserts that lie far from protein-coding region, similar to those where cis-regulatory modules (CRMs) are found. CRMs such as promoters and enhancers are a group of binding sites for transcription factors, and the presence of transcription factors bound to these sites is a good indicator of the potential regulatory regions.

The integrative analysis of ENCODE data has give important insights to the results of GWAS studies. Investigators have employed ENCODE data as an initial guide to discover regulatory regions in which genetic variation is affecting a complex trait. Additionally, ENCODE study when examined the SNPs from GWAS that were associated with the phenotype of the trait, found that these regions are enriched in DNase-sensitive regions i.e, lie in the function-associated DNA region of the genome as it could be bound by transcription factors affecting the regulation of gene expression. Thus, the project demonstrates that non-coding regions must be considered when interpreting GWAS results, and it provides a strong motivation for reinterpreting previous GWAS findings.

Using ENCODE Data to Interpret GWAS Results

ENCODE and predisposition to CANCER:

C-Myc, a proto-oncogene, codes for a transcripton factor, when expressed constitutively leads to uninhibited cell proliferation resulting in cancer. It has been observed that common variants within a ~1 Mb region upstream of c-Myc gene have been associated with cancers of the colon, prostate, and breast. Several SNPs have been reported in this region, that although affect the phenotype, lie in the distal cis-region of the MYC gene. Alignment of the ENCODE data in this region with the significant variants from the GWAS also reveals that key variants are found in the transcription factor occupied DNA segments mapped by this consortium. One variant rs698327, lies within a DNase hypersensitive site that is bound by several transcription factors, enhancer-associated protein p300, and contains histone modifications relative to enhancers (high H3K4me1, low H3K4me3). ENCODE data indicates that non-coding regions in the human chromosome 8q24 loci are associated with cancer and as observed in the case of c-myc gene, similar studies on cancer-related genes could help explain predisposition to cancer.

ENCODE and fetal hemoglobin expression:

Another example of the use of ENCODE data is that of gene regulation of fetal hemoglobin. Several regions were predicted via ENCODE that were involved in the regulation of fetal hemoglobin. It was found that these predicted regions are close to the SNPs in the BLC11A gene that is associated with persistent expression of fetal hemoglobin.

Future perspective

As evident from the above examples, the ENCODE data shows that genetic variants do affect regulated expression of a target gene. Recently, several research groups in the UK performed a large-scale GWAS study to determine the genetic predisposition to fracture risk. The collaborative effort, published in a recent issue of the PLoS journal, was made to identify genetic variants associated with cortical bone thickness (CBT) and bone mineral density (BMD) with data from more than 10,000 subjects. http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1002745 The study generated a wealth of data including the result – identification of SNPs in the WNT16 and its adjacent gene, FAM3C were found to be relevant to CBT and BMD. ENCODE data, in this case, could be helpful in interpreting more detailed information including determining additional SNPs, the regulatory information of the genes involved and much more. Thus, it could be concluded that ENCODE data could be immensely useful in interpreting associations between disease and DNA sequences that can vary from person to person.

Sources:

Research articles–

An integrated encyclopedia of DNA elements in the human genome

A User’s Guide to the Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (ENCODE)

What does our genome encode?

Genome-wide Epigenetic Data Facilitate Understanding of Disease Susceptibility Association Studies

Genomics: ENCODE explained

ENCODE Project Writes Eulogy For Junk DNA

WNT16 Influences Bone Mineral Density, Cortical Bone Thickness, Bone Strength, and Osteoporotic Fracture Risk

 News articles–

ENCODE project: In massive genome analysis new data suggests ‘gene’ redefinition

National Human Genome Research Institute News feature

Related posts–

Expanding the Genetic Alphabet and linking the genome to the metabolome

Junk DNA codes for valuable miRNAs: non-coding DNA controls Diabetes

ENCODE Findings as Consortium

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Junk DNA codes for valuable miRNAs: non-coding DNA controls Diabetes

Posted in Biomarkers & Medical Diagnostics, Bone Disease and Musculoskeletal Disease, Cardiovascular Pharmacogenomics, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Chemical Genetics, Computational Biology/Systems and Bioinformatics, Genome Biology, Genomic Testing: Methodology for Diagnosis, Glycobiology: Biopharmaceutical Production, Pharmacodynamics and Pharmacokinetics, Liver & Digestive Diseases Research, Medical and Population Genetics, Molecular Genetics & Pharmaceutical, Nutrigenomics, Nutrition, Personalized and Precision Medicine & Genomic Research, Systemic Inflammatory Response Related Disorders, Technology Transfer: Biotech and Pharmaceutical, Uncategorized, tagged , , , , , , , , , , on September 24, 2012| 11 Comments »

Author: Margaret Baker, PhD, Registered Patent Agent

The Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (ENCODE) Project was launched in September of 2003. In 2007 the ENCODE project was expanded to study the entire human genome, Genome-wide association studies or GWAS, and published a Nature paper entitled “An integrated encyclopedia of DNA elements in the human genome,” this month also all data are available at http://genome.ucsc.edu/ENCODE/.  Novel functional roles have been discovered for both transcribed and non-transcribed portions of DNA.  See several articles and commentary in Science 7 September 2012: Vol. 337 no. 6099 including Maurano et al. pp. 1190-1195  DOI: 10.1126/science.1222794b

For the first time, the 3-dimensional connections that cross the genome have been mapped as long-range looping interactions between functional elements and the genes controlled. These regions of the genome, formerly referred to as “junk DNA”, have the potential to be involved in disease initiation, pathophysiology, and complications. Further, epigenetic factors may be seen to play a more direct role in the expression or silencing of protein coding genes as DNase I hot spots, nucleosomal anchor points, and DNA methylation sites are added to the map.

Non-coding transcribed DNA includes a large percentage of sequences coding for RNA. In fact, RNA encoding genes number nearly equal to the protein encoding genes- 18,400 v 20,687 – and previously unknown non-coding RNA (ncRNA) have also been characterized.

Some of the known elements that were cataloged include:

  • cis elements – promoters, transcription factor binding sites;
  • gene contiguous non-coding stretches such as introns, polyA, and UTR, splice variants;
  • pseudogenes (11,224);
  • long range gene associated elements – enhancers, insulators, suppressors, and predicted promoter flanking regions;
  • ribosomal RNA genes; and
  • sequences for 7,052 small RNAs of which 85% are small nuclear(sn)RNA, small nucleolar(sno)RNA), transfer(t)RNA, and micro(mi)RNA.

What has been found is that distinct non-coding regions, including ncRNA, can be associated with distinct disease traits. miRNA are among the non-gene encoding sequences in the genome which have already been shown to play a major post-transcriptional role in expression of multiple genes..

Most miRNA genes are intergenic or oriented antisense to neighboring genes and therefore assumed to be controlled by independent promoter units. However, in some cases a microRNA gene is transcribed together with its target gene implying coupled regulation of miRNA and protein-coding gene. About one third of miRNA genes reside in polycistronic clusters. miRNA genes can occupy the introns of protein, non-protein coding genes, or nonprotein-coding transcripts. The promoters have been shown to have some similarities in their motifs to promoters of other genes transcribed by RNA polymerase II such as protein coding genes. The ENCODE project also noted that miRNA promoters were in chromatin regions of high promiscuity. There may be up to 1000 miRNA genes in the human genome. In addition, human miRNAs show RNA editing of sequences to yield products different from those encoded by their DNA.  miRNA are implicated in cellular roles as diverse as developmental timing in worms, cell death and fat metabolism in flies, haematopoiesis in mammals, and leaf development and floral patterning in plants

The final miRNA gene product is a ∼22 nt functional RNA molecule. The mature miRNA (designated miR-#) is processed from a characteristic stem–loop sequence (called a pre-mir), which in turn may be excised from a longer primary transcript (or pri-mir). It is processed by the same enzyme (DICER) that processes short hairpin RNA, forming interfering RNA, which provides and additional level of control.

MiRNA controls gene expression by binding to complementary regions of messenger transcripts in the 3’ untranslated region to repress their translation or regulate degradation. What makes the mechanism more powerful (or complicated) is the imperfect but specific binding motif associates with a large number of mRNAs in the 3’ untranslated region having the complimentary motif.  Conversely then, each mRNA can potentially associate with a number miRNA. Mature processed cytosolic miRNA can act in a manner akin to small interfering(si)RNA, and form the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) to block translation. Computational methods have been used to identify potential gene targets based on complimentarity between the miRNA and mRNA sequences.

Gerstein et al. explored the “Architecture of the human regulatory network derived from ENCODE data” Nature 489:91-100 (06 Sep 2012) focusing on the regulation of transcription factors (TF) and association between TF and miRNAs, miRNA and miRNA, protein-protein interactions, and protein phosphorylation. Not surprisingly, not all TF are the upstream factor in each network.

These new and remarkably detailed examinations of the different elements within and transcribed from the human genome perhaps do more to aid our knowledge of why we have stumbled in attempts to eradicate diseases, initially by focusing on a single gene or constellation of coding regions. The miRNA wikipedia is also being re-written on a daily basis and new disease associations made*.  As an example of a pathological state that may be linked to miRNA controlled elements, in vitro as well as in small population studies have examined miRNA species in diabetogenic conditions and patients with diabetes (Type I and Type II).

Diabetes and miRNA

In adult β-cell islets, miR-375 is low when glucose is freely available and low miR-375 induces insulin secretion. Interestingly, miR-375 is found only in brain and β-cells which share a secretion pathway.

Diabetic Complications

Organ specific miRNA have been identified in liver, skeletal muscle, kidney, vascular, and adipose tissue which are responsive to transient or sustained hyperglycemia.

miR-17-5p and miR-132 were reported to show significant differences between obese and non obese omental fat and were also abnormal in the blood of obese subjects.  Altered expression of miR-17-5p and miR-132 were found to correlate significantly with BMI, fasting blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin. (Kloting et al. PLoS ONE 4(3), e4699 (2009).

Clinical practice related to miRNA in diabetes may be possible as one group has identified eight miRNAs (miR-144, miR-146a, miR-150, miR-182, miR-192, miR-29a, miR-30d and miR-320) as potential ‘signature miRNAs’ that could distinguish prediabetic patients from those with overt T2D (Karolina DS, Armugam A, Tavintharan S et al. MicroRNA 144 impairs insulin signaling by inhibiting the expression of insulin receptor substrate 1 in Type 2 diabetes mellitus. PLoS ONE 6(8), e22839 (2011).

Due to the autoimmune component of T1D, the constellation of miRNA would be expected to be different: upregulation of miR-510 and underexpression of miR-191 and miR-342 were observed in the Tregs (regulatory T-cells) of T1D patients (Hezova R, Slaby O, Faltejskova P et al. microRNA-342, microRNA-191 and microRNA-510 are differentially expressed in T regulatory cells of Type 1 diabetic patients. Cell. Immunol. 260(2),70–74 (2010).

Taken together with the “physical” mapping of miRNA genes in the context of the 3-dimensional genome provided by the ENCODE studies and new understanding of potential concerted regulatory mechanisms, the miRNA data for tissues and specific cell types involved in disease pathology form a new approach to either detecting or possibly correcting gene (coding or non-coding) dysregulation.  miRNA mimics and anti-miRNA agents are being developed as new therapeutic modalities.

References

Bartel, DP et al. MicroRNAs: Genomics, Biogenesis, Mechanism, and Function” Cell 2004, 116:281-297.

Fernandez-Valverde, SL et al. MicroRNAs in beta-cell Biology, insulin resistance, diabetes and its complications. Diabetes July 2011 60 (7):1825-31.

Kantharidis, et al.  Diabetes Complications: The MicroRNA Perspective http://diabetes.diabetesjournals.org/content/60/7/1832.short

MEDSCAPE Review article: “miRNAs and Diabetes Mellitus: miRNAs in Diabetic Complicatons”  http://www.medscape.org/viewarticle/763729_6

*Based on initial studies in the worm C. elegans showing the temporal appearance of 21- and 22-nt RNAs during development, a family of highly conserved micro RNA sequences (miRNA) existing in invertebrates and vertebrates, were cataloged by Tuschl et al. at the Max-Planck-Institute and others (see Eddy, SR  Non-coding RNA genes and the modern RNA world Nature Reviews Genetics, 2:920-929, 2001). The sequence-specific post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms mediated by these miRNAs have been associated with certain disease states such as cancer miR-21) and more specifically, lung cancer (miR-124) or breast cancer (miR-7, miR-21) and new species and function continue to be found (see http://www.mirbase.org/ ).

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Targeted delivery of therapeutics to bone and connective tissues: current status and challenges- Part I

Posted in Biomarkers & Medical Diagnostics, Bone Disease and Musculoskeletal Disease, Disease Biology, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , on September 23, 2012| 22 Comments »

Reporter Aviral Vatsa, PhD MBBS

Annual treatment costs for musculoskeletal diseases in the US are roughly 7.7% (~ $849 billion) of total gross domestic product. Such disorders are the main cause of physical disability in US. Almost half of all chronic conditions in people can be attributed to bone and joint disorders. In addition there is increasing ageing population and associated increases in osteoporosis and other diseases, rising incidences of degenerative intervertebral disk diseases and numbers of revision orthopedic arthroplasty surgeries, and increases in spinal fusions. All these factors contribute towards the increasing requirement of bone regeneration and reconstruction methods and products. Delivery of therapeutic grade products to bone has various challenges. Parenteral administration limits the efficient delivery of drugs to the required site of injury and local delivery methods are often expensive and invasive. The theme issue of Advance Drug Delivery reviews focuses on the current status of drug delivery to bone and the issues facing this field. Here is the first part of these reviews and research articles.

1. Demineralized bone matrix in bone repair: History and use

Abstract

Demineralized bone matrix (DBM) is an osteoconductive and osteoinductive commercial biomaterial and approved medical device used in bone defects with a long track record of clinical use in diverse forms. True to its name and as an acid-extracted organic matrix from human bone sources, DBM retains much of the proteinaceous components native to bone, with small amounts of calcium-based solids, inorganic phosphates and some trace cell debris. Many of DBM’s proteinaceous components (e.g., growth factors) are known to be potent osteogenic agents. Commercially sourced as putty, paste, sheets and flexible pieces, DBM provides a degradable matrix facilitating endogenous release of these compounds to the bone wound sites where it is surgically placed to fill bone defects, inducing new bone formation and accelerating healing. Given DBM’s long clinical track record and commercial accessibility in standard forms and sources, opportunities to further develop and validate DBM as a versatile bone biomaterial in orthopedic repair and regenerative medicine contexts are attractive.

2. Biomimetic hydrogels for controlled biomolecule delivery to augment bone regeneration

Abstract

The regeneration of large bone defects caused by trauma or disease remains a significant clinical problem. Although osteoinductive growth factors such as bone morphogenetic proteins have entered clinics, transplantation of autologous bone remains the gold standard to treat bone defects. The effective treatment of bone defects by protein therapeutics in humans requires quantities that exceed the physiological doses by several orders of magnitude. This not only results in very high treatment costs but also bears considerable risks for adverse side effects. These issues have motivated the development of biomaterials technologies allowing to better control biomolecule delivery from the solid phase. Here we review recent approaches to immobilize biomolecules by affinity binding or by covalent grafting to biomaterial matrices. We focus on biomaterials concepts that are inspired by extracellular matrix (ECM) biology and in particular the dynamic interaction of growth factors with the ECM. We highlight the value of synthetic, ECM-mimicking matrices for future technologies to study bone biology and develop the next generation of ‘smart’ implants.

 

3. Calcium phosphate cements as drug delivery materials

Abstract

Calcium phosphate cements are used as synthetic bone grafts, with several advantages, such as their osteoconductivity and injectability. Moreover, their low-temperature setting reaction and intrinsic porosity allow for the incorporation of drugs and active principles in the material. It is the aim of the present work to: a) provide an overview of the different approaches taken in the application of calcium phosphate cements for drug delivery in the skeletal system, and b) identify the most significant achievements. The drugs or active principles associated to calcium phosphate cements are classified in three groups, i) low molecular weight drugs; ii) high molecular weight biomolecules; and iii) ions.

4. Silk constructs for delivery of musculoskeletal therapeutics

Abstract

Silk fibroin (SF) is a biopolymer with distinguishing features from many other bio- as well as synthetic polymers. From a biomechanical and drug delivery perspective, SF combines remarkable versatility for scaffolding (solid implants, hydrogels, threads, solutions), with advanced mechanical properties and good stabilization and controlled delivery of entrapped protein and small molecule drugs, respectively. It is this combination of mechanical and pharmaceutical features which renders SF so exciting for biomedical applications. This pattern along with the versatility of this biopolymer has been translated into progress for musculoskeletal applications. We review the use and potential of silk fibroin for systemic and localized delivery of therapeutics in diseases affecting the musculoskeletal system. We also present future directions for this biopolymer as well as the necessary research and development steps for their achievement.

5. Demineralized bone matrix as a vehicle for delivering endogenous and exogenous therapeutics in bone repair

Abstract

As a unique human bone extract approved for implant use, demineralized bone matrix (DBM) retains substantial amounts of endogenous osteoconductive and osteoinductive proteins. Commercial preparations of DBM represent a clinically accessible, familiar, widely used and degradable bone-filling device, available in composite solid, strip/piece, and semi-solid paste forms. Surgically placed and/or injected, DBM releases its constituent compounds to bone sites with some evidence for inducing new bone formation and accelerating healing. Significantly, DBM also has preclinical history as a drug carrier by direct loading and delivery of several important classes of therapeutics. Exogenous bioactive agents, including small molecule drugs, protein and peptide drugs, nucleic acid drugs and transgenes and therapeutic cells have been formulated within DBM and released to bone sites to enhance DBM’s intrinsic biological activity. Local release of these agents from DBM directly to surgical sites in bone provides improved control of dosing and targeting of both endogenous and exogenous bioactivity in the context of bone healing using a clinically familiar product. Given DBM’s long clinical track record and commercial accessibility in standard forms and sources, opportunities to formulate DBM as a versatile matrix to deliver therapeutic agents locally to bone sites in orthopedic repair and regenerative medicine contexts are attractive.

6. Nanofiber-based delivery of bioactive agents and stem cells to bone sites

Abstract

Biodegradable nanofibers are important scaffolding materials for bone regeneration. In this paper, the basic concepts and recent advances of self-assembly, electrospinning and thermally induced phase separation techniques that are widely used to generate nanofibrous scaffolds are reviewed. In addition, surface functionalization and bioactive factor delivery within these nanofibrous scaffolds to enhance bone regeneration are also discussed. Moreover, recent progresses in applying these nanofiber-based scaffolds to deliver stem cells for bone regeneration are presented. Along with the significant advances, challenges and obstacles in the field as well as the future perspective are discussed.

 
7. Intra-operatively customized implant coating strategies for local and controlled drug delivery to bone

Abstract

Bone is one of the few tissues in the human body with high endogenous healing capacity. However, failure of the healing process presents a significant clinical challenge; it is a tremendous burden for the individual and has related health and economic consequences. To overcome such healing deficits, various concepts for a local drug delivery to bone have been developed during the last decades. However, in many cases these concepts do not meet the specific requirements of either surgeons who must use these strategies or individual patients who might benefit from them. We describe currently available methods for local drug delivery and their limitations in therapy. Various solutions for drug delivery to bone focusing on clinical applications and intra-operative constraints are discussed and drug delivery by implant coating is highlighted. Finally, a new set of design and performance requirements for intra-operatively customized implant coatings for controlled drug delivery is proposed. In the future, these requirements may improve approaches for local and intra-operative treatment of patients.


8. Local delivery of small and large biomolecules in craniomaxillofacial bone

Abstract

Current state of the art reconstruction of bony defects in the craniomaxillofacial (CMF) area involves transplantation of autogenous or allogenous bone grafts. However, the inherent drawbacks of this approach strongly urge clinicians and researchers to explore alternative treatment options. Currently, a wide interest exists in local delivery of biomolecules from synthetic biomaterials for CMF bone regeneration, in which small biomolecules are rapidly emerging in recent years as an interesting adjunct for upgrading the clinical treatment of CMF bone regeneration under compromised healing conditions. This review highlights recent advances in the local delivery small and large biomolecules for the clinical treatment of CMF bone defects. Further, it provides a perspective on the efficacy of biomolecule delivery in CMF bone regeneration by reviewing presently available reports of pre-clinical studies using various animal models.

9. Immobilized antibiotics to prevent orthopaedic implant infections

Abstract

Many surgical procedures require the placement of an inert or tissue-derived implant deep within the body cavity. While the majority of these implants do not become colonized by bacteria, a small percentage develops a biofilm layer that harbors invasive microorganisms. In orthopaedic surgery, unresolved periprosthetic infections can lead to implant loosening, arthrodeses, amputations and sometimes death. The focus of this review is to describe development of an implant in which an antibiotic tethered to the metal surface is used to prevent bacterial colonization and biofilm formation. Building on well-established chemical syntheses, studies show that antibiotics can be linked to titanium through a self-assembled monolayer of siloxy amines. The stable metal–antibiotic construct resists bacterial colonization and biofilm formation while remaining amenable to osteoblastic cell adhesion and maturation. In an animal model, the antibiotic modified implant resists challenges by bacteria that are commonly present in periprosthetic infections. While the long-term efficacy and stability is still to be established, ongoing studies support the view that this novel type of bioactive surface has a real potential to mitigate or prevent the devastating consequences of orthopaedic infection.

10. Local delivery of nitric oxide: Targeted delivery of therapeutics to bone and connective tissues

Abstract

Non-invasive treatment of injuries and disorders affecting bone and connective tissue remains a significant challenge facing the medical community. A treatment route that has recently been proposed is nitric oxide (NO) therapy. Nitric oxide plays several important roles in physiology with many conditions lacking adequate levels of NO. As NO is a radical, localized delivery via NO donors is essential to promoting biological activity. Herein, we review current literature related to therapeutic NO delivery in the treatment of bone, skin and tendon repair.

Bibliography

  1. Demineralized bone matrix in bone repair: History and use
  2. Biomimetic hydrogels for controlled biomolecule delivery to augment bone regeneration
  3. Calcium phosphate cements as drug delivery materials
  4. Silk constructs for delivery of musculoskeletal therapeutics
  5. Demineralized bone matrix as a vehicle for delivering endogenous and exogenous therapeutics in bone repair
  6. Nanofiber-based delivery of bioactive agents and stem cells to bone sites
  7. Intra-operatively customized implant coating strategies for local and controlled drug delivery to bone
  8. Immobilized antibiotics to prevent orthopaedic implant infections
  9. Local delivery of nitric oxide: Targeted delivery of therapeutics to bone and connective tissues

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Genetic basis of a progressive neuromuscular condition FSHD (facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy)

Posted in Bio Instrumentation in Experimental Life Sciences Research, Biological Networks, Gene Regulation and Evolution, Biomarkers & Medical Diagnostics, Bone Disease and Musculoskeletal Disease, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Chemical Genetics, Computational Biology/Systems and Bioinformatics, Disease Biology, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, FDA Regulatory Affairs, Genome Biology, Genomic Testing: Methodology for Diagnosis, Innovations in Neurophysiology & Neuropsychology, Medical and Population Genetics, Molecular Genetics & Pharmaceutical, Personalized and Precision Medicine & Genomic Research, Pharmaceutical Analytics, Pharmaceutical R&D Investment, Regulated Clinical Trials: Design, Methods, Components and IRB related issues, Technology Transfer: Biotech and Pharmaceutical, tagged , , on September 18, 2012| Leave a Comment »

 

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, hD, RN

 

A research team from Massachusetts and Maryland used array-based transcriptome profiling to explore the genetic basis of a progressive neuromuscular condition called facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy, or FSHD. By testing bicep and deltoid muscle biopsy samples from dozens of individuals with FSHD and almost as many unaffected relatives of those subjects, the team tracked down hundreds of genes showing expression shifts in those with FSHD. Of those, 29 genes were differentially expressed in both bicep and deltoid muscle samples, the researchers report. And, they found expression levels at 15 genes could distinguish between bicep samples from those with or without the disease around 90 percent of the time in follow-up experiments. The accuracy was closer to 80 percent when classifying deltoid tissue based on expression of these genes. Those involved in the study say such a ‘molecular signature’ of FSHD could help in understanding the disease and in testing new treatments for it.

http://www.genomeweb.com//node/1126816?hq_e=el&hq_m=1349154&hq_l=4&hq_v=09187c3305

Transcriptional profiling in facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy to identify candidate biomarkers

  1. Fedik Rahimova,b,1,

  2. Oliver D. Kingb,c,1,
  3. Doris G. Leungd,e,
  4. Genila M. Bibatd,
  5. Charles P. Emerson, Jrb,c,
  6. Louis M. Kunkela,b,f,2, and
  7. Kathryn R. Wagnerd,e,g,2

+Author Affiliations


  1. aProgram in Genomics, Division of Genetics, Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115;

  2. bThe Senator Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center and

  3. cBoston Biomedical Research Institute, Watertown, MA 02472;

  4. dHugo W. Moser Research Institute at Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, MD 21205; Departments of

  5. eNeurology and

  6. gNeuroscience, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205; and

  7. fThe Manton Center for Orphan Disease Research, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115

  1. Contributed by Louis M. Kunkel, June 4, 2012 (sent for review May 24, 2012)

Abstract

Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD) is a progressive neuromuscular disorder caused by contractions of repetitive elements within the macrosatellite D4Z4 on chromosome 4q35. The pathophysiology of FSHD is unknown and, as a result, there is currently no effective treatment available for this disease. To better understand the pathophysiology of FSHD and develop mRNA-based biomarkers of affected muscles, we compared global analysis of gene expression in two distinct muscles obtained from a large number of FSHD subjects and their unaffected first-degree relatives. Gene expression in two muscle types was analyzed using GeneChip Gene 1.0 ST arrays: biceps, which typically shows an early and severe disease involvement; and deltoid, which is relatively uninvolved. For both muscle types, the expression differences were mild: using relaxed cutoffs for differential expression (fold change ≥1.2; nominal P value <0.01), we identified 191 and 110 genes differentially expressed between affected and control samples of biceps and deltoid muscle tissues, respectively, with 29 genes in common. Controlling for a false-discovery rate of <0.25 reduced the number of differentially expressed genes in biceps to 188 and in deltoid to 7. Expression levels of 15 genes altered in this study were used as a “molecular signature” in a validation study of an additional 26 subjects and predicted them as FSHD or control with 90% accuracy based on biceps and 80% accuracy based on deltoids.

Footnotes

 

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Scientists use natural agents for prostate cancer bone metastasis treatment

Posted in Bone Disease and Musculoskeletal Disease, CANCER BIOLOGY & Innovations in Cancer Therapy, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Disease Biology, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, Uncategorized, tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , on September 17, 2012| 9 Comments »

Targeting bone turnover by nature-derived agents for deriving effective treatment of PCa metastases

Reporter: Ritu Saxena, Ph.D.

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Word Cloud By Danielle Smolyar

Introduction and basis of research: Prostate Cancer (PCa) is a leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the men of United States. Metastasis development results in high mortality rate in prostate cancer patients and PCa frequently metastasizes to the bone.

Using nature-derived agents, scientists at the Wayne State University School of medicine, Detroit, Michigan targeted bone remodeling – both bone formation and bone resorption, and proposed it as an effective strategy for the treatment of PCa bone metastasis. The treatment strategy was based on the recent observations pointing towards an increase in both osteoclastic activity and osteoblastic activity in PCa bone metastases which is contrary to the earlier belief that metastases is osteoblastic. Thus, authors designed a study targeting that both osteoclasts (bone forming cells) and osteoclasts (bone resorbing cells) activity for the treatment of PCa bone metastases

Study design: Li et al utilized formulated isoflavone and 3,39-diindolylmethane (BR-DIM) for the suppression of bone remodeling in PCa bone metastases. 3,39-diindolylmethane (DIM) is a natural agent mainly found in the members of the family Cruciferae such as broccoli, and Isoflavone is mainly found in soyabean. Isoflavone genistein has been reported to have the ability to inhibit cancer cell growth both in vitro and in vivo without toxicity. BR-DIM (manufactured by BioResponse, LLC.), as stated by the authors “could downregulate the expression of AR, Akt and NF-kB, leading to the inhibition of PCa growth and the induction of apoptosis in vitro”.  Authors thus, set out to test the hypothesis that “ a mixture of isoflavone and BR-DIM could inhibit the differentiation of osteoclasts and osteoblasts mediated through regulation of cellular signaling pathways that are involved in bone remodeling and PCa bone in vivo”.

A co-culture system involving pre-osteoclastic cell line-RAW264.7 cells, pre-osteoblastic cell line hFOB1.19, and several PCa cell lines, was established to determine how the PCa cells affect differentiation of bone cells. The effect of isoflavone and BR-DIM was then tested on both osteoclast and osteoblast differentiation and PCa cells in the co-culture system.

Results: Isoflavone and BR-DIM inhibited bone remodeling through the inhibition of cell signal transduction associated with osteoclast differentiation (RANKL-mediated signaling), osteoblast differentiation (RUNX2, periostin gene), and PCa growth and signaling. Isoflavone and BR-DIM, infact, were shown to affect multiple signaling pathways that could possibly be useful in the prevention of PCa progression especially in the context of bone metastases.

The study highlights an important message that natural agents could be a source for deriving agents that could be useful in the treatment of diseases such as cancer without toxicity issues.

Sources: Research Article – Li Y, Kong D, Ahmad A, Bao B, Sarkar FH. Targeting bone remodeling by isoflavone and 3,3′-diindolylmethane in the context of prostate cancer bone metastasis. PLoS One. 2012;7(3):e33011. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=22412975

UroToday report: http://www.urotoday.com/UroToday/Prostate-Cancer/targeting-bone-remodeling-by-isoflavone-and-3-3-diindolylmethane-in-the-context-of-prostate-cancer-bone-metastasis-beyond-the-abstract-by-fazlul-h-sarkar-phd-et-al.html

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Nitric Oxide has a Ubiquitous Role in the Regulation of Glycolysis – with a Concomitant Influence on Mitochondrial Function

Posted in Biological Networks, Gene Regulation and Evolution, Bone Disease and Musculoskeletal Disease, CANCER BIOLOGY & Innovations in Cancer Therapy, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Disease Biology, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, HTN, Human Immune System in Health and in Disease, Infectious Disease & New Antibiotic Targets, Innovations in Neurophysiology & Neuropsychology, Medical Devices R&D Investment, Metabolomics, Nitric Oxide in Health and Disease, Nutrigenomics, Pharmaceutical Industry Competitive Intelligence, Pharmacotherapy of Cardiovascular Disease, Systemic Inflammatory Response Related Disorders, Technology Transfer: Biotech and Pharmaceutical, tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , on September 16, 2012| 27 Comments »

Nitric Oxide has a Ubiquitous Role in the Regulation of Glycolysis – with a Concomitant Influence on Mitochondrial Function

 

Reporter, Editor, and Topic Co-Leader: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FACP, Clinical Pathologist and Biochemist

 

 

Apoptosis signaling pathways

Apoptosis signaling pathways (Photo credit: AJC1)

This discussion is a followup on a series of articles elucidating the importance of NO, eNOS, iNOS, cardiovascular and vascular endothelium effects, and therapeutic targets.

This mechanism of action and signaling actions have been introduced so that we identify endocrine, paracrine, and such effects in the normal, stressed, and dysfunctional state. The size and breadth of this vital adaptive process is now further explored.

The title is short, befitting a subtitle.  The full topic may be considered “Nitric Oxide has a ubiquitous role in the regulation of glycolysis -with a concomitant influence on mitochondrial function that is active in endothelium, platelets, vascular smooth muscle and neural cells and the balance has a role in chronic inflammation, asthma, hypertension, sepsis and cancer”.

Vascular endothelium

Vascular endothelium (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Related articles

 

 

Nitric Oxide Synthase

Nitric Oxide Synthase (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

 

 

Nitric Oxide has a ubiquitous role in the regulation of glycolysis with a concomitant influence on mitochondrial function that is active in endothelium, platelets, vascular smooth muscle and neural cells and the balance has a role in chronic inflammation, asthma, hypertension, sepsis and cancer.

Uncoupling of aerobic glycolysis
Potential cytotoxic mediators of endothelial cell (EC) apoptosis include increased formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROSRNS) during the atherosclerotic process. Nitric oxide (NO) has a biphasic action on oxidative cell killing with low concentrations protecting against cell death, whereas higher concentrations are cytotoxic. High levels of NO can be produced by inducible nitric-oxide synthase in response to cytokine stimulation, primarily from macrophages, and elevated levels of NO is injurious to endothelium.Ccytochrome c release and caspase activation are involved in NO induced apoptosis. ROS also induces mitochondrial DNA damage in ECs, and this damage is accompanied by a decrease in mitochondrial RNA (mtRNA) transcripts, mitochondrial protein synthesis, and cellular ATP levels. Mitochondria have been recognized to play a pivotal role in the signaling cascade of apoptosis leading to atherosclerosis-induced damage in endothelial cells.
The processes involved in the signaling pathways leading to apoptosis are complex but have some degree of convergence between cell types including those in the vasculature. Release of cytochrome c from mitochondria is a proapoptotic signal, which activates several downstream signaling events including formation of the apoptosome and activation of caspases. Ubiquinol cytochrome c reductase (complex III) is a site for ROS formation, and cytochrome c oxidase (complex IV) is a target for the interaction of NO in mitochondria.
The impact of the inhibition of mitochondrial protein synthesis is particularly important in NO-dependent cytotoxicity, and depends also on other factors such as glycolysis. These authors examined whether the inhibition of mitochondrial protein synthesis by chloramphenicol increases the susceptibility of endothelial cells to undergo NO-dependent apoptosis in glucose-free media. Bovine aortic endothelial cells were treated with chloramphenicol, which resulted in a decreased ratio of mitochondrial complex IV to cytochrome c and increased oxidant production in the cell. Inhibition of mitochondrial protein synthesis was associated with a greater susceptibility of the cells to apoptosis induced by NO in glucose-free medium.
Inhibition of mitochondrial protein synthesis results in increased endothelial cell susceptibility to nitric oxide-induced apoptosis. A Ramachandran, DR Moellering, E Ceaser, S Shiva, J Xu, and V Darley-Usmar. PNAS May 14, 2002: 99(10): 6643–6648 http://www.pnas.orgcgidoi10.1073pnas.102019899

Nitric oxide (NO) is a ubiquitous signaling molecule whose physiological roles mediated through the activation of the soluble guanylate cyclase are now clearly recognized. At physiological concentrations, NO also inhibits the mitochondrial enzyme cytochrome c oxidase (complex IV) in competition with oxygen, and recently we have suggested that the interplay between the two gases allows this enzyme to act as an oxygen sensor in cells. In addition, NO plays a variety of patho-physiological roles, some of which also may be the consequence of its action at a mitochondrial level. We have characterized the sequence of events that follow inhibition of complex IV by continuous exposure to NO.
The mitochondrion is a key organelle in the control of cell death. Nitric oxide (NO) inhibits complex IV in the respiratory chain and is reported to possess both proapoptotic and antiapoptotic actions. We investigated the effects of continuous inhibition of respiration by NO on mitochondrial energy status and cell viability. Serum-deprived human T cell leukemia (Jurkat) cells were exposed to NO at a concentration that caused continuous and complete (;85%) inhibition of respiration. Serum deprivation caused progressive loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (Dcm) and apoptotic cell death. In the presence of NO, Dcm was maintained compared to controls, and cells were protected from apoptosis. Similar results were obtained by using staurosporin as the apoptotic stimulus. As exposure of serum-deprived cells to NO progressed (>5 h), however, Dcm fell, correlating with the appearance of early apoptotic features and a decrease in cell viability. Glucose deprivation or iodoacetate treatment of cells in the presence of NO resulted in a collapse of Dcm, demonstrating involvement of glycolytic ATP in its maintenance. Under these conditions cell viability also was decreased. Treatment with oligomycin and or bongkrekic acid indicated that the maintenance of Dcm during exposure to NO is caused by reversal of the ATP synthase and other electrogenic pumps. Thus, blockade of complex IV by NO initiates a protective action in the mitochondrion to maintain Dcm; this results in prevention of apoptosis. It is likely that during cellular stress involving increased generation of NO this compound will trigger a similar sequence of events, depending on its concentration and duration of release. (mitochondrial membrane potential ; apoptosis ; necrosis)

The effect of nitric oxide on cell respiration: A key to understanding its role in cell survival or death. B Beltra, A Mathur, MR Duchen, JD. Erusalimsky, and S Moncada. PNAS Dec 19, 2000; 97(26):4602–14607.

Another study by this group shows that inhibition of respiration by exogenous nitric oxide (NO) in Jurkat cells leads to mitochondrial membrane hyperpolarization dependent on the utilization of glycolytic ATP by the F1Fo-ATPase and other transporters acting in reverse mode. This process also occurs in astrocytes, which are highly glycolytic cells, but not in neurons , which do not invoke glycolysis to maintain ATP concentrations. In addition, this hyperpolarization correlates with protection against apoptotic cell death. Others found an early phase of mitochondrial hyperpolarization after treatment of a variety of cells with different pro-apoptotic stimuli, which precedes the generation of free. At present, no satisfactory explanation has been proposed to explain the mechanism of hyperpolarization, the reasons why free radicals are released from the mitochondrion, or the connection of these phenomena with apoptosis.
The authors surmise that a pro-apoptotic stimulus, anti-Fas Ab, leads to release of endogenous NO from Jurkat cells in sufficient amounts to inhibit cell respiration and cause a hyperpolarization dependent on the reversal of the F1Fo-ATPase. Moreover, the reduction of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, after inhibition of cytochrome oxidase by NO, leads to generation of superoxide anion (O2). They suggest the process is a cellular defense response that may be overcome by pro-apoptotic mechanisms that occur in parallel.

Inhibition of mitochondrial respiration by endogenous nitric oxide: A critical step in Fas signaling. B Beltran, M Quintero, E Garcıa-Zaragoza, E O’Connor, JV. Esplugues, and Salvador Moncada. PNAS June 25, 2002 99(13): 8892–8897. http://www.pnas.orgcgidoi10.1073pnas.092259799

Nitric oxide has been shown to render cells resistant to oxidative stress. Mechanisms proposed for the ability of nitric oxide to protect cells against oxidative stress include reactions of nitric oxide and the induction of adaptive responses that require protein synthesis. Nitric oxide forms iron complexes preventing the formation of strong oxidants. In addition, reactions of nitric oxide with lipid and or organic radicals protect against membrane peroxidation and peroxidative chemistry-induced cell injury. Exposure to low, nonlethal doses of nitric oxide induces adaptive responses that render cells resistant to lethal concentrations of nitric oxide and or peroxides, such as, the induction of hemoxygenase-1 (HO-1) and Mn superoxide dismutase. The up-regulation of HO-1 was accompanied by an increase in ferritin to account for the release of iron from HO-1, indicating a role of both iron heme and nonheme iron for peroxide-mediated cellular injury. Further, nitric oxide, by regulating critical mitochondrial functions such as respiration, membrane potential, and release of cytochrome c, is able to trigger defense mechanisms against cell death induced by pro-apoptotic stimuli.
This study investigates the potential contribution of nitric oxide’s ability to protect cells from oxidative stress, low steady state levels of nitric oxide generated by endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and the mechanisms of protection against H2O2. Spontaneously transformed human ECV304 cells, which normally do not express eNOS, were stably transfected with a green fluorescent-tagged eNOS cDNA. The eNOS-transfected cells were found to be resistant to injury and delayed death following a 2-h exposure to H2O2 (50–150 mM). Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis abolished the protective effect against H2O2 exposure. The ability of nitric oxide to protect cells depended on the presence of respiring mitochondria. ECV3041 eNOS cells with diminished mitochondria respiration are injured to the same extent as non-transfected ECV304 cells, and recovery of mitochondrial respiration restores the ability of nitric oxide to protect against H2O2-induced death. Nitric oxide had a profound effect in cell metabolism, because ECV3041eNOS cells had lower steady state levels of ATP and higher utilization of glucose via the glycolytic pathway than ECV304 cells. However, the protective effect of nitric oxide against H2O2 exposure is not reproduced in ECV304 cells after treatment with azide and oligomycin suggesting that the dynamic regulation of respiration by nitric oxide represent a critical and unrecognized primary line of defense against oxidative stress.

Dynamic regulation of metabolism and respiration by endogenously produced nitric oxide protects against oxidative stress. E Paxinou, M Weisse, Q Chen, JM Souza, et al. PNAS Sept 25, 2001; 98( 20): 11575–11580. http://www.pnas.orgycgiydoiy10.1073ypnas.201293198.

Nitric oxide (NO) mediates a variety of biological effects including relaxation of blood vessels, cytotoxicity of activated macrophages, and formation of cGMP by activation of glutamate receptors of neurons. NO has also been implicated for such pathophysiological conditions as destruction of tumor cells by macrophages, rheumatoid arthritis, and focal brain ischemia. Some of these effects of NO are associated with hypoxic conditions. O2 radicals and ions that result from reactivity of NO are presumed to be involved in NO cytotoxicity. These investigators report that adaptive cellular response controlled by the transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) in hypoxia is suppressed by NO. Induction of erythropoietin and glycolytic aldolase A mRNAs in hypoxically cultured Hep3B cells, a human hepatoma cell line, was completely and partially inhibited, respectively, by the addition of sodium nitroprusside (SNP), which spontaneously releases NO. A reporter plasmid carrying four hypoxia-response element sequences connected to the luciferase structural gene was constructed and transfected into Hep3B cells. Inducibly expressed luciferase activity in hypoxia was inhibited by the addition of SNP and two other structurally different NO donors, S-nitroso-Lglutathione and 3-morpholinosydnonimine, giving IC50 values of 7.8, 211, and 490 mM, respectively. Inhibition by SNP was also observed in Neuro 2A and HeLa cells, indicating that the inhibition was not cell-type-specific. The vascular endothelial growth factor promoter activity that is controlled by HIF-1 was also inhibited by SNP (IC50 5 6.6 mM). Induction generated by the addition of cobalt ion (this treatment mimics hypoxia) was also inhibited by SNP (IC50 5 2.5 mM). Increased luciferase activity expressed by cotransfection of effector plasmids for HIF-1a or HIF-1a-like factor in hypoxia was also inhibited by the NO donor. We also showed that the inhibition was performed by blocking an activation step of HIF-1a to a DNA-binding form.
Inhibition of hypoxia-inducible factor 1 activity by nitric oxide donors in hypoxia. K Sogawa, K Numayama-Tsuruta, M Ema, M Abe, et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (Biochemistry) June 1998; 95:7368–7373. 1998. The National Academy of Sciences 0027-8424.98.957368-6. http:yywww.pnas.org.

The role of nitrogen metabolism in the survival of prolonged periods of waterlogging was investigated in highly flood-tolerant, nodulated Lotus japonicus plants. Alanine production revealed to be a critical hypoxic pathway. Alanine is the only amino acid whose biosynthesis is not inhibited by nitrogen deficiency resulting from RNA interference silencing of nodular leghemoglobin. The metabolic changes that were induced following waterlogging can be best explained by the activation of alanine metabolism in combination with the modular operation of a split tricarboxylic acid pathway. The sum result of this metabolic scenario is the accumulation of alanine and succinate and the production of extra ATP under hypoxia. The importance of alanine metabolism is discussed with respect to its ability to regulate the level of pyruvate, and this and all other changes are discussed in the context of current models concerning the regulation of plant metabolism.
Glycolysis and the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Are Linked by Alanine Aminotransferase during Hypoxia Induced by Waterlogging of Lotus japonicus[W][OA]. M Rocha, F Licausi, WL Arau´ jo, A Nunes-Nesi, et al. Plant Physiology Mar 2010; 152: 1501–1513. http://www.plantphysiol.org 2010 Amer Soc Plant Biologists

DNA damage occurs in ischemia, excitotoxicity, inflammation, and other disorders that affect the central nervous system (CNS). Extensive DNA damage triggers cell death and in the mature CNS, this occurs primarily through activation of the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) cell death pathway. PARP-1 is an abundant nuclear enzyme that, when activated by DNA damage, consumes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)+ to form poly(ADP-ribose) on acceptor proteins. The PARP-1 activation leads to cell death. We used mouse astrocyte cultures to explore the bioenergetic effects of NAD+ depletion by PARP-1 and the role of NAD+ depletion in this cell death program. PARP-1 activation led to a rapid but incomplete depletion of astrocyte NAD+, a near-complete block in glycolysis, and eventual cell death. Repletion of intracellular NAD restored glycolytic function and prevented cell death. The addition of non-glucose substrates to the medium, pyruvate, glutamate, or glutamine, also prevented astrocyte death after PARP-1 activation.
These findings suggest a sequence of events in which NAD+ depletion is a key event linking DNA damage to metabolic impairment and cell deathm. A similar scenario has been proposed by Zong et al. (2004), based on the finding that cell types that depend on aerobic glycolysis for ATP production exhibit a particularly high sensitivity to DNA damage and PARP-1 activation. In mature brain, glucose is normally the dominant metabolic substrate due to relatively slow transport of other metabolites across the blood– brain barrier. Oncein brain, glucose may be metabolized directly by neurons and glia or may be metabolized to lactate in glia and thelactate subsequently shuttled to neurons for oxidative metabolism (Dringen et al., 1993; Pellerin and Magistretti,1994; Wender et al., 2000; Dienel and Cruz, 2004). In either case, a block in glycolytic flux produced by NAD depletion will block energy metabolism in both neurons and glia in brain. Interestingly, the lactate shuttle hypothesis raises the possibility that activation of PARP-1 selectively in astroglia might also block energy metabolism in neurons.

These studies suggest PARP-1 activation leads to rapid depletion of the cytosolic but not the mitochondrial NAD+ pool. Depletion of the cytosolic NAD+ pool renders the cells unable to utilize glucose as a metabolic substrate. Under conditions where glucose is the only available metabolic substrate, this leads to cell death. This cell death pathway is particularly germane to brain because glucose is normally the only metabolic substrate that is transported rapidly across the blood–brain barrier. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Key words: mitochondria; permeability transition; poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase; ischemia; peroxynitrite
NAD+as a metabolic link between DNA damage and cell death. DNA damage induced by alkylating agents, oxidative stress, or other agents causes PARP-1 activation. PARP-1 activation leads to depletion in cytosolic NAD with, initially, a relative preservation of mitochondrial NAD and mitochondrial function. The depletion in cytosolic NAD+ blocks glycolysis, and in cells in which glucose is the primary energy substrate, this in turn leads to a block in substrate flux to mitochondria. The resulting mitochondrial dysfunction leads to mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) and subsequent downstream events culminating in cell death.
NAD+ as a Metabolic Link Between DNA Damage and Cell Death. W Ying, CC Alano, P Garnier, and RA Swanson. Journal of Neuroscience Research 2005;79:216–223
Key words: glycolysis, mitochondrial energy production, nitric oxide
Abbreviations: NO, nitric oxide; SNAP, S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicyllamine; SNP, sodium nitroprusside.
The results indicate that: 1) in porcine platelets NO is able to diminish mitochondrial energy production through the inhibition of cytochrome oxidase, 2) the inhibitory effect of NO on platelet secretion (but not aggregation) can be attributed to the reduction of mitochondrial energy production.
Nitric oxide (NO) has been increasingly recognized as an important intra- and intercellular messenger molecule with a physiological role in vascular relaxation, platelet physiology, neurotransmission and immune responses (Moncada et al., 1991; Radomski et al., 1996; Szabó, 1996; Riedel et al., 1999; Titheradge 1999). In vitro NO is a strong inhibitor of platelet adhesion and aggregation (Radomski et al., 1996; Riedel et al., 1999;nSogo et al., 2000). In the blood stream, platelets remain in contact with NO that is permanently released from the endothelial cells and from activated macrophages (Moncada et al., 1991; Riedel et al., 1999; Titheradge 1999). It has been suggested that the activated platelet itself is able to produce NO (Lantoine et al., 1995; Zhou et al., 1995; Radomski et al., 1996). The mechanism responsible for the inhibitory effect of NO on platelet responses is not entirely clear. It is believed that the main intracellular target for NO in platelets is soluble cytosolic guanylate cyclase (Waldman & Walter 1989; Schmidt et al., 1993; Wang et al., 1998). NO activates the enzyme (Schmidt et al., 1993). Thus, elevated intracellular cGMP level inhibits platelet activation. There are suggestions, however, that elevated cGMP may not be the only intracellular factor directly involved in the inhibition of platelet activation (Gordge et al., 1998; Sogo et al., 2000; Beghetti et al., 2003).
Platelets are fairly active metabolically and have a total ATP turnover rate of about 3–8 times that of resting mammalian muscle (Akkerman, 1978; Akkerman et al., 1978; Holmsen, 1981; Niu et al., 1996). Platelets contain mitochondria which enable these cells to produce energy both in the oxidative and anaerobic way (Holmsen, 1981). Under aerobic conditions, ATP is produced by aerobic glycolysis using glucose or glycogen which can account for 30–50% of total ATP production, and by oxidative metabolism using glucose and glycogen (6–11%), amino-acids (7%) or free fatty acids (20–40%) (Holmsen 1981; Guppy et al., 1990; Niu et al., 1996).
The inhibition of mitochondrial respiration by removing oxygen or by respiratory chain blockers (antimycin A, cyanide, rotenone) results in the stimulation of glycolytic flux (Guppy et al., 1990). This phenomenon is known as Pasteur effect and indicates that in platelets glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration are tightly functionally connected (Akkerman, 1978; Holmsen, 1981; Guppy et al., 1995; Niu et al., 1996). It has been reported that the activation of human platelets by high concentration of thrombin is accompanied by an acceleration of lactate production and an increase in oxygen consumption (Akkerman & Holmsen, 1981; Niu et al., 1996).
The results presented here suggest that also porcine blood platelets stimulated by collagen produce more lactate. This indicates that both glycolytic and oxidativeATP production supports platelet responses. This also indicates that blocking of energy production in platelets may decrease their responses. It is well established that platelet responses have different metabolic energy (ATP) requirements increasing in the order: aggregation< dense and alfa granule secretion < acid hydrolase secretion (Holmsen et al., 1982; Verhoeven et al., 1984; Morimoto & Ogihara, 1996).
The present results indicate that exogenously added NO (in the form of NO donors)stimulates glycolysis in intact porcine platelets. Since in platelets glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration are tightly functionally connected, this can be interpreted to mean that the stimulatory effectof NO on glycolysis in intact platelets may be produced by non-functional mitochondria.This can be really the case since NO donors are able to inhibit both mitochondrial respiration and platelet cytochrome oxidase. Interestingly, the concentrations of NO donors inhibiting mitochondrial respiration and cytochrome oxidase were similar to those stimulating glycolysis in intact platelets.
Studies performed on intact J774 cells have shown that mitochondrial complex I is inhibited only after a prolonged (6–18 h) exposure to NO and that this inhibition appears to result from S-nitrosylation of critical thiols in the enzyme complex (Clementi et al., 1998). Further studies are needed to establish whether long term exposure of platelets to NO affects Mitochondrial complexes I and II.
Comparison of the concentrations of SNP and SNAP affecting cytochrome oxidase activityand mitochondrial respiration with those reducing the platelet responses indicates that NO cannot significantly reduce platelet aggregation through the inhibition of oxidative energy production. By contrast, the concentrations of the NO donors inhibiting platelet secretion, mitochondrial respiration and cytochrome oxidase were similar. This and the fact that the platelet release reaction strongly depends on the oxidative energy production may suggest that in porcine platelets NO can affect platelet secretion through the inhibition of mitochondrial energy production at the step of cytochrome oxidase.

Taking into account that platelets may contain NO synthase and are able to produce significant amounts of NO (Berkels et al., 1997)it seems possible that nitric oxide can function in these cells as a physiological regulator of mitochondrial energy production.
Nitric oxide and platelet energy metabolism. M Tomasiak, H Stelmach, T Rusak and J Wysocka. Acta Biochimica Polonica 2004; 51(3):789–803

These authors previously investigated the bioenergetic consequences of activating J774.A1 macrophages (MФ) with interferon (IFN)γ and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and found that there is a nitric oxide (NO)-dependent mitochondrial impairment and stabilization of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-1α, which synergize to activate glycolysis and generate large
quantities of ATP. We now demonstrate, using TMRM fluorescence and time-lapse confocal microscopy, that these cells maintain a high mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) despite the complete inhibition of respiration. The maintenance of high ΔΨm is due to the utilization of a significant proportion of glycolytically generated ATP as a defence mechanism against cell death. This is achieved by the reverse functioning of FoF1-ATP synthase and adenine nucleotide translocase (ANT). Treatment of activated MФ with inhibitors of either of these enzymes, but not with inhibitors of the respiratory chain complexes I to IV, led to a collapse in ΔΨm and to an immediate increase in intracellular [ATP], due to the prevention of ATP hydrolysis by the FoF1-ATP synthase. This collapse in ΔΨm was followed by translocation of Bax from cytosol to the mitochondria, release of cytochrome c into the cytosol, activation of caspase 3 and 9 and subsequent apoptotic cell death. Our results indicate that during inflammatory activation “glycolytically competent cells” such as MФ utilize significant amounts of the glycolytically-generated ATP to maintain ΔΨm and thereby prevent apoptosis.

Activated macrophages utilize glycolytic ATP to maintain mitochondrial membranepotential and prevent apoptotic cell death. A Garedew, SO Henderson, S Moncada. Cell Death and Differentiation. 2010. DOI : 10.1038/cdd.2010.27
The effects of the sodium nitroprusside (SNP), a nitric oxide (NO) donor clinically used in the treatment of hypertensive emergencies on the energy production of rat reticulocytes were investigated. Rat reticulocyte-rich red blood cell suspensions were aerobically incubated without (control) or in the presence of different concentrations of SNP (0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0 mM). SNP decreased total and coupled, but increased uncoupled oxygen consumption. This was accompanied by the stimulation of glycolysis, as measured by increased glucose consumption and lactate accumulation. Levels of all glycolytic intermediates indicate stimulation of hexokinase-phosphofructo kinase (HK-PFK), glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPD) and pyruvate kinase (PK) activities in the presence of SNP. Due to the decrease of coupled oxygen consumption in the presence of SNP, ATP production via oxidative phosphorylation was significantly diminished. Simultaneous increase of glycolytic ATP production was not enough to provide constant ATP production. In addition, SNP significantly decreased ATP level, which was accompanied with increased ADP and AMP levels. However, the level of total adenine nucleotides was significantly lower, which was the consequence of increased catabolism of adenine nucleotides (increased hypoxanthine level). ATP/ADP ratio and adenylate energy charge level were significantly decreased. In conclusion, SNP induced inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation, stimulation of glycolysis, but depletion of total energy production in rat reticulocytes. These alterations were accompanied with instability of energy status.

Effects of Exogenous Donor of Nitric Oxide – Sodium Nitroprusside on Energy Production of Rat Reticulocytes. SD MALETIĆ, L M DRAGIĆEVIĆ-DJOKOVIĆ, BI OGNJANOVIĆ, RV ŽIKIĆ, AŠ ŠTAJN, MB SPASIĆ.
Physiol. Res. 2004;53: 439-447.

Key points to take from this:
1. The role of NO in regulating cellular death is in many organs and central to this function is the stabilization of mitochondria through sufficient levels of NO. High levels of eNO leads to mitochondrial dysfunction that increases the dependence of ATP generated from glycolysis.
2. This is accompanied by inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation and stimulation of glycolysis, which brings the discussion to a different domain – cancer growth and Warburgh Effect.
3. This is accompanied by PPAR activation, cytoplasmic NAD+ depletion, and inhibition of glycolysis (critical in cells dependent on aerobic glycolysis), depletion of total energy production, and apoptosis.
4. Maintenance of high glycolytic generation of ATP is essential for cellular defense, but the oxygen consumption is uncoupled.
5. NO donors inhibiting mitochondrial respiration and cytochrome oxidase are similar to those stimulating glycolysis

More    (pharmaceuticalintelligence.com)

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Nanostructural polymer-based treatment to ease bone pain

Posted in Bone Disease and Musculoskeletal Disease, tagged , , , , , , , on September 4, 2012| 1 Comment »

Reported by: Dr. Venkat S Karra. Ph.D.

A multidisciplinary research team led by Carnegie Mellon University is developing new nanostructural polymer-based treatments to eliminate pathological bone formation in soft tissue, a common occurrence following orthopedic surgeries and amputations.

Heterotopic ossification

“Our tactic is to develop a solution that will control the pathological growth of bone in muscle and tendons (called heterotopic ossification) that frequently occurs following bone trauma and orthopedic surgery,” said Jeffrey O. Hollinger, professor of biomedical engineering and biological sciences, and head of CMU’s Bone Tissue Engineering Center.

“When bone is severely injured and amputation of a limb is necessary, or as a consequence of major orthopedic procedures, unwanted new bone formation occurs in the soft tissues surrounding the operated bone and appears as pieces of gravel-like bone. Consequently, there is pain and discomfort at an amputation stump where a prosthesis is secured. We are developing a therapy that will eliminate heterotopic ossification,” he added.

Data suggests heterotopic ossification occurs in more than 60 percent of military personnel who incur bone injury resulting in limb amputation. Therefore, the CMU labs of J.C. Warner University Professor of Natural Sciences and Chemistry Professor Krzysztof Matyjaszewski are using a three-year, $2.93 million grant from the Department of Defense to work with researchers at the United States Military Academy at West Point, the University of Michigan and the Naval Medical Center in Portsmouth, Va., to produce a therapeutic solution to eliminate heterotopic ossification.

Hollinger, the principal investigator for the grant, said the patient-centric focus of the team’s research includes a nanostructural polymer composite developed by Matyjaszewski to deliver unique RNA identified in the Hollinger lab, into cells at the bone trauma site to prevent heterotopic ossification in the soft tissue.

“The problem of heterotopic ossification is more widespread than the military population,” Hollinger said. More than 90 percent of hip replacement operations in the civilian U.S. population also show signs of heterotopic ossification. Because the problem is so complex, CMU researchers report that it will take a team of clinicians and researchers to develop solutions.

“We see this collaborative research as a win for both military and civilian populations. And we see this particular research project as a great way to help us change our research paradigm at West Point,” said J. Kenneth Wickiser, director of the Center for Molecular Science in the Department of Chemistry & Life Science at the United States Military Academy. “Our cadets are gaining invaluable hands-on research experience as summer interns at CMU’s biomedical engineering labs. And we are becoming more competitive in our abilities at West Point to tackle more innovative research initiatives,” Wickiser said.

Ashley Phillips, a sophomore West Point cadet, praised the CMU internship program for its concise and rigorous approach to problem solving. “I want to be a doctor and this CMU research experience gives me an excellent platform for growth and a medium for sharing my work with other cadets,” said Phillips of Mukwonago, Wis.

CMU researchers report there is a patent pending on the therapy and a clinical trial schedule will be developed once the preventative platform is fully lab tested.

Source:

rdmag

Carnegie Mellon University

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Getting Better: Documentary Videos on Medical Progress — in Surgery, Leukemia, and HIV/AIDS.

Posted in Bio Instrumentation in Experimental Life Sciences Research, Biological Networks, Gene Regulation and Evolution, Biomarkers & Medical Diagnostics, Bone Disease and Musculoskeletal Disease, CANCER BIOLOGY & Innovations in Cancer Therapy, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Chemical Genetics, Disease Biology, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, Human Immune System in Health and in Disease, Liver & Digestive Diseases Research, Metabolomics, tagged , , , , , on August 23, 2012| 2 Comments »

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

 

NEJM 200th Anniversary Documentary

Getting Better is a 45-minute documentary video that tells three remarkable stories of medical progress — in surgery, leukemia, and HIV/AIDS. Atul Gawande, Vincent DeVita, Tony Fauci, Paul Farmer, and other prominent experts explore research, clinical practice, and patient care, and how health care has continued to get better over the past 200 years. View the film in its entirety, or in segments, now on the 200th anniversary website

http://nejm200.nejm.org/explore/medical-documentary-video/?query=TOC

WATCH THREE VIDEOS – 45 minutes

?query=TOC

The Comments by the Public are an integral part of the video watching experience

From Rough to Refined: The Rise of Surgery (Part 1 of 3)

Targeting Cancer: The Story of Leukemia (Part 2 of 3)

The Plague of Our Time: HIV/AIDS Epidemic (Part 3 of 3)

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Nitric Oxide Signalling Pathways

Posted in Biological Networks, Gene Regulation and Evolution, Bone Disease and Musculoskeletal Disease, Cardiovascular Pharmacogenomics, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Chemical Genetics, Disease Biology, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, Metabolomics, Nitric Oxide in Health and Disease, Origins of Cardiovascular Disease, tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , on August 22, 2012| 21 Comments »

Curator/ Author: Aviral Vatsa, PhD, MBBS

In continuation with the previous posts that dealt with short history and chemistry of nitric oxide (NO), here I will try to highlight the pathways involved in NO chemical signalling.

NO is a very small molecule, with a short half life (<5 sec). It diffuses rapidly to its surroundings and is metabolised to nitrites and nitrates. It can travel short distances, a few micrometers, before it is oxidised. Although it was previously believed that NO can only exert its effect for a very short time as other nitrogen oxides were believed to be biologically inert. Recent data suggests that other NO containing compounds such as S- or N-nitrosoproteins and iron-nitrosyl complexes can be reduced back to produce NO. These NO containing compounds can serve as storage and can reach distant tissues via blood circulation, remote from their place of origin. Hence NO can have both paracrine and ‘endocrine’ effects.

Intracellularly the oxidants present in the cytosol determine the amount of bioacitivity that NO performs. NO can travel roughly 100 microns from NOS enzymes where it is produced. NOS enzymes on the other hand are localised to specific sub-cellular areas, which have relevant proteins in the vicinity as targets for signalling.

NO signalling occurs primarily via three mechanisms (according to Martínez-Ruiz et al):

  1. Classical: This occurs via soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC). Once NO is produced by NOS it diffuses to sGC intracellularly or even in other cells. SGC is highly sensitive for NO, even nanomolar amounts of NO activates sGC, thus making it a potent target for NO in signalling pathways. sGC in turn increases the conversion of GTP to cGMP. cGMP further mediates the regulation of contractile proteins and gene expression pathways via cGMP-activated protein kinases (PKGs). cGMPs cause confirmational changes in PKGs. Signalling by cGMP is terminated by the action of phosphodiestrases (PDEs). PDEs have become major therapeutic targets in the upcoming exciting research projects.
  2. Less classical: Within the mitochondria NO can compete with O2 and inhibit cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) enzyme. This is a reversible inhibition that depends on O2and NO concentrations and can occur at physiological levels of NO. Various studies have demonstrated that endogenously generated NO can inhibit respiration or that NOS inhibitors can increase respiration at cellular, tissue or whole animal level. Although the exact mechanism of CcO inhibition of NO is still debated, NO-CcO interaction is considered important signalling step in a variety of functions such as inhibition of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, apoptosis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Interestingly, at higher concentration (~1nM) NO can cause irreversible inhibition of cellular oxidation by reversible and/or irreversible damage to the mitochondrial iron–sulfur centers,In addition to the above mentioned pathways, NO (along with AMP, ROS and O2), can also activate AMP- activated protein kinase (AMPK), an enzyme that plays a central role in regulating intracellular energy metabolism. NO can also regulate hypoxia inducible factor (HIF), an O2-dependent transcription factor that plays a key role in cell adaptation to hypoxia .
  3. Non- classical: S-nitrosylation or S-nitrosation is the covalent insertion of NO into thiol groups such as of cysteine residues of proteins. It is precise, reversible, and spatiotemporally restricted post translational modification. This chemical activity is dependent upon the reactivity between nitrosylating agent (a small molecule) and the target (protein residue). It might appear that this generic interaction results in non-specific, wide spread chemical activity with various proteins. However, three factors might determine the regulation of specificity of s-nitrosylation for signalling purposes:
  • Subcellular compartmentalisation: high concentrations of nitrosylating agents are required in the vicinity of target residues, thus making it a specific activity.
  • Site specificity: certain cysteine residues are more reactive in specific protein microenvironments than others, thus favouring their modification. As a result under physiological conditions only a specific number of cysteine residues would be modified, but under higher NO levels even the slow reacting ones would be modified. Increased impetus in research in this area to determine protein specificity to s-nitrosylation provides huge potential in discovering new therapeutic targets.
  • Denitrosylation: different rates of denitrosylation result in s-nitrosylation specificity.

Other modifications in non classical NO mechanisms include S-glutathionylation and tyrosine nitration

Peroxynitrite: It is one of the important reactive nitrogen species that has immense biological relevance. NO reacts with superoxide to form peroxynitrite. Production of peroxynitrite depletes the bioactivty of NO in physiological systems. Peroxynitrite can diffuse through membranes and react with cellular components such as mitochondrial proteins, DNA, lipids, thiols, and amino acid residues. Peroxynitrite can modify proteins such as haemoglobin, myoglobin and cytochrome c. it can alter calcium homeostasis and promote mitochondrial signalling of cell death. However, NO itself in low concentrations have protective action on mitochondrial signalling of cell death.

More details about various aspects of NO signalling can be obtained from the following references.

The post is based on the following Sources:

  1. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S089158491100236Xhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2011.04.010
  2. http://content.karger.com/produktedb/produkte.asp?doi=338150Cardiology 2012;122:55-68 (DOI: 10.1159/000338150)
  3. http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleid=1137266 J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;47(3):580-581. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2005.11.016
  4. http://goo.gl/y6oY3

 

In addition, other aspects of NO involvement in biological systems in humans are covered in the following posts on this site:

  1. Nitric Oxide and Platelet Aggregation
  2. Inhaled NO in Pulmonary Artery Hypertension and Right Sided Heart Failure
  3. Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) and the Role of agent alternatives in endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase (eNOS) Activation and Nitric Oxide Production
  4. Nitric Oxide in bone metabolism

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