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BET Proteins Connect Diabetes and Cancer

Posted in Cancer - General, CANCER BIOLOGY & Innovations in Cancer Therapy, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Curation, Developmental biology, Diabetes Mellitus, Disease Biology, tagged adipocyte, BET bromodomains, Beta cell, Cancer - General, Diabetes Mellitus, islet cells of pancreas, Obesity on March 31, 2016| Leave a Comment »

BET Proteins Connect Diabetes and Cancer

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

LPBI

New Proteins Discovered That Link Obesity-Driven Diabetes to Cancer

http://www.dddmag.com/news/2016/03/new-proteins-discovered-link-obesity-driven-diabetes-cancer

Killer T cells surround a cancer cell. Credit: NIH

For the first time, researchers have determined how bromodomain (BRD) proteins work in type 2 diabetes, which may lead to a better understanding of the link between adult-onset diabetes and certain cancers.

The findings, which appear in PLOS ONE, show that reducing levels in pancreatic beta cells of individual BRDs, called BET proteins, previously shown to play a role in cancer, may also help patients who are obese and diabetic.

The research was led by Gerald V. Denis, PhD, associate professor of pharmacology and medicine at Boston University School of Medicine, who was the first to show that BET protein functions are important in cancer development.

Adult-onset diabetes has been known for decades to increase the risk for specific cancers. The three main members of the BET protein family, BRD2, BRD3 and BRD4, are closely related to each other and often cooperate. However at times, they work independently and sometimes against each other.

According to the researchers new small molecule BET inhibitors have been developed that block all three BET proteins in cancer cells, but they interfere with too many functions.

“The BET proteins provide a new pathway to connect adult-onset diabetes with cancer, so properly targeting BET proteins may be helpful for both,” explained Denis, who is the corresponding author of the study.

He believes this discovery shows the need for deeper analysis of individual BET proteins in all human cell types, starting with boosting insulin and improving metabolism in the pancreas of adults who are obese.

“Without better targeted drugs, some ongoing cancer clinical trials for BET inhibitors are premature. These new results offer useful insight into drug treatments that have failed so far to appreciate the complexities in the BET family.”

Epigenetic modulation of type-1 diabetes via a dual effect on pancreatic macrophages and β cells

Wenxian Fu,^1,^†Julia Farache,¹Susan M Clardy,²Kimie Hattori,¹Palwinder Mander, et al.

eLife. 2014; 3: e04631. doi: 10.7554/eLife.04631

Epigenetic modifiers are an emerging class of anti-tumor drugs, potent in multiple cancer contexts. Their effect on spontaneously developing autoimmune diseases has been little explored. We report that a short treatment with I-BET151, a small-molecule inhibitor of a family of bromodomain-containing transcriptional regulators, irreversibly suppressed development of type-1 diabetes in NOD mice. The inhibitor could prevent or clear insulitis, but had minimal influence on the transcriptomes of infiltrating and circulating T cells. Rather, it induced pancreatic macrophages to adopt an anti-inflammatory phenotype, impacting the NF-κB pathway in particular. I-BET151 also elicited regeneration of islet β-cells, inducing proliferation and expression of genes encoding transcription factors key to β-cell differentiation/function. The effect on β cells did not require T cell infiltration of the islets. Thus, treatment with I-BET151 achieves a ‘combination therapy’ currently advocated by many diabetes investigators, operating by a novel mechanism that coincidentally dampens islet inflammation and enhances β-cell regeneration.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.04631.001

eLife digest

The DNA inside a cell is often tightly wrapped around proteins to form a compact structure called chromatin. Chemical groups added to the chromatin can encourage nearby genes to either be switched on or off; and several enzymes and other proteins help to read, add, or remove these marks from the chromatin. If these chromatin modifications (or the related enzymes and proteins) are disturbed it can lead to diseases like cancer. It has also been suggested that similar changes may influence autoimmune diseases, in which the immune system attacks the body’s own tissues.

Drugs that target the proteins that read, add, or remove these chromatin modifications are currently being developed to treat cancer. For example, drugs that inhibit one family of these proteins called BET have helped to treat tumors in mice that have cancers of the blood or lymph nodes. However, because these drugs target pathways involved in the immune system they may also be useful for treating autoimmune diseases.

Now Fu et al. have tested whether a BET inhibitor might be a useful treatment for type-1 diabetes. In patients with type-1 diabetes, the cells in the pancreas that produce the insulin hormone are killed off by the immune system. Without adequate levels of insulin, individuals with type-1 diabetes may experience dangerous highs and lows in their blood sugar levels and must take insulin and sometimes other medications.

Using mice that spontaneously develop type-1 diabetes when still relatively young, Fu et al. tested what would happen if the mice received a BET inhibitor for just 2 weeks early on in life. Treated mice were protected from developing type-1 diabetes for the rest of their lives. Specifically, the treatment protected the insulin-producing cells and allowed them to continue producing insulin. The drug reduced inflammation in the pancreas and increased the expression of genes that promote the regeneration of insulin-producing cells.

Diabetes researchers have been searching for drug combinations that protect the insulin-producing cells and boost their regeneration. As such, Fu et al. suggest that these findings justify further studies to see if BET inhibitors may help to treat or prevent type-1 diabetes in humans.

Introduction

Acetylation of lysine residues on histones and non-histone proteins is an important epigenetic modification of chromatin (Kouzarides, 2000). Multiple ‘writers’, ‘erasers’, and ‘readers’ of this modification have been identified: histone acetyltransferases (HATs) that introduce acetyl groups, histone deacetylases (HDACs) that remove them, and bromodomain (BRD)-containing proteins that specifically recognize them. Chromatin acetylation impacts multiple fundamental cellular processes, and its dysregulation has been linked to a variety of disease states, notably various cancers (Dawson and Kouzarides, 2012). Not surprisingly, then, drugs that modulate the activities of HATs or HDACs or, most recently, that block acetyl-lysine:BRD interactions are under active development in the oncology field.

BRDs, conserved from yeast to humans, are domains of approximately 110 amino-acids that recognize acetylation marks on histones (primarily H3 and H4) and certain non-histone proteins (e.g., the transcription factor, NF-κB), and serve as scaffolds for the assembly of multi-protein complexes that regulate transcription (Dawson et al., 2011; Prinjha et al., 2012). The BET subfamily of BRD-containing proteins (BRDs 2, 3, 4 and T) is distinguished as having tandem bromodomains followed by an ‘extra-terminal’ domain. One of its members, Brd4, is critical for both ‘bookmarking’ transcribed loci post-mitotically (Zhao et al., 2011) and surmounting RNA polymerase pausing downstream of transcription initiation (Jang et al., 2005; Hargreaves et al., 2009; Anand et al., 2013; Patel et al., 2013).

Recently, small-molecule inhibitors of BET proteins, for example, JQ1 and I-BET, were found to be effective inhibitors of multiple types of mouse tumors, including a NUT midline carcinoma, leukemias, lymphomas and multiple myeloma (Filippakopoulos et al., 2010; Dawson et al., 2011; Delmore et al., 2011; Zuber et al., 2011). A major, but not the unique, focus of inhibition was the Myc pathway (Delmore et al., 2011; Mertz et al., 2011; Zuber et al., 2011; Lockwood et al., 2012). In addition, BET-protein inhibitors could prevent or reverse endotoxic shock induced by systemic injection of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (Nicodeme et al., 2010; Seal et al., 2012; Belkina et al., 2013). The primary cellular focus of action was macrophages, and genes induced by the transcription factor NF-κB were key molecular targets (Nicodeme et al., 2010; Belkina et al., 2013).

Given several recent successes at transposing drugs developed for cancer therapy to the context of autoimmunity, it was logical to explore the effect of BET-protein inhibitors on autoimmune disease. We wondered how they might impact type-1 diabetes (T1D), hallmarked by specific destruction of the insulin-producing β cells of the pancreatic islets (Bluestone et al., 2010). NOD mice, the ‘gold standard’ T1D model (Anderson and Bluestone, 2005), spontaneously and universally develop insulitis at 4–6 weeks of age, while overt diabetes manifests in a subset of individuals beginning from 12–15 weeks, depending on the particular colony. NOD diabetes is primarily a T-cell-mediated disease, but other immune cells—such as B cells, natural killer cells, macrophages (MFs) and dendritic cells (DCs)—also play significant roles. We demonstrate that a punctual, 2-week, treatment of early- or late-stage prediabetic NOD mice with I-BET151 affords long-term protection from diabetes. Mechanistic dissection of this effect revealed important drug influences on both MFs and β cells, in particular on the NF-κB pathway. On the basis of these findings, we argue that epigenetic modifiers are an exciting, emerging option for therapeutic intervention in autoimmune diabetes.

I-BET151 protects NOD mice from development of diabetes

T1D progresses through identifiable phases, which are differentially sensitive to therapeutic intervention (Bluestone et al., 2010). Therefore, we treated NOD mice with the BET-protein inhibitor, I-BET151 (GSK1210151A [Dawson et al., 2011;Seal et al., 2012]) according to three different protocols: from 3–5 weeks of age (incipient insulitis), from 12–14 weeks of age (established insulitis), or for 2 weeks beginning within a day after diagnosis of hyperglycemia (diabetes). Blood-glucose levels of insulitic mice were monitored until 30 weeks of age, after which animals in our colony generally do not progress to diabetes.

I-BET151 prevented diabetes development, no matter whether the treated cohort had incipient (Figure 1A) or established (Figure 1B) insulitis. However, the long-term protection afforded by a 2-week treatment of pre-diabetic mice was only rarely observed with recent-onset diabetic animals. Just after diagnosis, individuals were given a subcutaneous insulin implant, which lowers blood-glucose levels to the normal range within 2 days, where they remain for only about 7 days in the absence of further insulin supplementation (Figure 1C, upper and right panels). Normoglycemia was significantly prolonged in mice treated for 2 weeks with I-BET151; but, upon drug removal, hyperglycemia rapidly ensued in most animals (Figure 1C, lower and right panels). The lack of disease reversal under these conditions suggests that β-cell destruction had proceeded to the point that dampening the autoinflammatory attack was not enough to stem hyperglycemia. However, there was prolonged protection from diabetes in a few cases, suggesting that it might prove worthwhile to explore additional treatment designs in future studies.

Figure 1.

I-BET151 inhibits diabetes and insulitis in NOD mice.

…..

BET protein inhibition has a minimal effect on T cells in NOD mice

Given that NOD diabetes is heavily dependent on CD4⁺ T cells (Anderson and Bluestone, 2005), and that a few recent reports have highlighted an influence of BET-protein inhibitors on the differentiation of T helper (Th) subsets in induced models of autoimmunity (Bandukwala et al., 2012; Mele et al., 2013), we explored the effect of I-BET151 treatment on the transcriptome of CD4⁺ T cells isolated from relevant sites; that is, the infiltrated pancreas, draining pancreatic lymph nodes (PLNs), and control inguinal lymph nodes (ILNs). Microarray analysis of gene expression revealed surprisingly little impact of the 2-week treatment protocol on any of these populations, similar to what was observed when comparing randomly shuffled datasets (Figure 2A). It is possible that the above protocol missed important effects on T cells because those remaining after prolonged drug treatment were skewed for ‘survivors’. Therefore, we also examined the transcriptomes of pancreas-infiltrating CD4⁺ T cells at just 12, 24 or 48 hr after a single administration of I-BET151. Again, minimal, background-level, differences were observed in the gene-expression profiles of drug- and vehicle-treated mice (Figure 2B).

Figure 2.

Little impact of BET-protein inhibition on CD4⁺T cells in NOD mice.

I-BET151 induces a regulatory phenotype in the pancreatic macrophage population

Figure 3.

I-BET151 treatment promotes an MF-like, anti-inflammatory transcriptional program in pancreatic CD45⁺ cells.

Figure 4.

The NF-κB signaling pathway is a major focus of I-BET151’s influence on NOD leukocytes.

BET-protein inhibition promotes regeneration of NOD β cells

Figure 6.

BET-protein inhibition promotes regeneration of islet β cells

The studies presented here showed that treatment of NOD mice with the epigenetic modifier, I-BET151, for a mere 2 weeks prevented the development of NOD diabetes life-long. I-BET151 was able to inhibit impending insulitis as well as clear existing islet infiltration. The drug had a dual mechanism of action: it induced the pancreatic MF population to adopt an anti-inflammatory phenotype, primarily via the NF-κB pathway, and promoted β-cell proliferation (and perhaps differentiation). These findings raise a number of intriguing questions, three of which we address here.

First, why do the mechanisms uncovered in our study appear to be so different from those proposed in the only two previous reports on the effect of BET-protein inhibitors on autoimmune disease? Bandukwala et al. found that I-BET762 (a small-molecule inhibitor similar to I-BET151) altered the differentiation of Th subsets in vitro, perturbing the typical profiles of cytokine production, and reducing the neuropathology provoked by transfer of in-vitro-differentiated Th1, but not Th17, cells reactive to a peptide of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (Bandukwala et al., 2012). Unfortunately, with such transfer models, it is difficult to know how well the in vitro processes reflect in vivo events, and to distinguish subsidiary effects on cell survival and homing. Mele et al. reported that JQ1 primarily inhibited the differentiation of and cytokine production by Th17 cells, and strongly repressed collagen-induced arthritis and experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (Mele et al., 2013). However, with adjuvant-induced disease models such as these, it is difficult to discriminate influences of the drug on the unfolding of autoimmune pathology vs on whatever the adjuvant is doing. Thus, the very different dual mechanism we propose for I-BET151’s impact on spontaneously developing T1D in NOD mice may reflect several factors, including (but not limited to): pathogenetic differences in induced vs spontaneous autoimmune disease models; our broader analyses of immune target cell populations; and true mechanistic differences between T1D and the other diseases. As concerns the latter, it has been argued that T1D is primarily a Th1-driven disease, with little, or even a negative regulatory, influence by Th17 cells (discussed in [Kriegel et al., 2011]).

Second, how does I-BET151’s effect, focused on MFs and β cells, lead to life-long protection from T1D? MFs seem to play a schizophrenic role in the NOD disease. They were shown long ago to be an early participant in islet infiltration (Jansen et al., 1994), and to play a critical effector role in diabetes pathogenesis, attributed primarily to the production of inflammatory cytokines and other mediators, such as iNOS (Hutchings et al., 1990; Jun et al., 1999a, 1999b; Calderon et al., 2006). More recently, there has been a growing appreciation of their regulatory role in keeping diabetes in check. For example, the frequency of a small subset of pancreatic MFs expressing the complement receptor for immunoglobulin (a.k.a. CRIg) at 6–10 weeks of age determined whether or not NOD diabetes would develop months later (Fu et al., 2012b), and transfer of in-vitro-differentiated M2, but not M1, MFs protected NOD mice from disease development (Parsa et al., 2012).

One normally thinks of immunological tolerance as being the purview of T and B cells, but MFs seem to be playing the driving role in I-BET151’s long-term immunologic impact on T1D. Chronic inflammation (as is the insulitis associated with T1D) typically entails three classes of participant: myeloid cells, in particular, tissue-resident MFs; lymphoid cells, including effector and regulatory T and B cells; and tissue-target cells, that is, islet β cells in the T1D context. The ‘flavor’ and severity of inflammation is determined by three-way interactions amongst these cellular players. One implication of this cross-talk is that a perturbation that targets primarily one of the three compartments has the potential to rebalance the dynamic process of inflammation, resetting homeostasis to a new level either beneficial or detrimental to the individual. BET-protein inhibition skewed the phenotype of pancreatic MFs towards an anti-inflammatory phenotype, whether this be at the population level through differential influx, efflux or death, or at the level of individual cells owing to changes in transcriptional programs. The ‘re-educated’ macrophages appeared to be more potent at inhibiting T cell proliferation. In addition, it is possible that MFs play some role in the I-BET151 influences on β-cell regeneration. The findings on Rag1-deficient mice ruled out the need for adaptive immune cells in the islet infiltrate for I-BET151’s induction of β-cell proliferation, but MFs are not thought to be compromised in this strain. Relatedly, the lack of a consistent I-BET151 effect on cultured mouse and human islets might result from a dearth of MFs under our isolation and incubation conditions (e.g., [Li et al., 2009]). Several recent publications have highlighted a role for MFs, particularly M2 cells, in promoting regeneration of β cells in diverse experimental settings (Brissova et al., 2014; Xiao et al., 2014), a function foretold by the reduced β-cell mass in MF-deficient Csf1^op/op mice reported a decade ago (Banaei-Bouchareb et al., 2004).

Whether reflecting a cell-intrinsic or -extrinsic impact of the drug, several pro-regenerative pathways appear to be enhanced in β-cells from I-BET151-treated mice. Increased β-cell proliferation could result from up-regulation of the genes encoding Neurod1 (Kojima et al., 2003), GLP-1R (De Leon et al., 2003), or various of the Reg family members (Unno et al., 2002; Liu et al., 2008), the latter perhaps a consequence of higher IL-22R expression (Hill et al., 2013) (see Figure 6B and Supplementary file 4). Protection of β-cells from apoptosis is likely to be an important outcome of inhibiting the NF-κB pathway (Takahashi et al., 2010), but could also issue from enhanced expression of other known pro-survival factors, such as Cntfr (Rezende et al., 2007) and Tox3 (Dittmer et al., 2011) (see Figures 4 and 6B). Lastly, β-cell differentiation and function should be fostered by up-regulation of genes encoding transcription factors such as Neurod1, Pdx1, Pax6, Nkx6-1 and Nkx2-2. The significant delay in re-onset of diabetes in I-BET151-treated diabetic mice suggests functionally relevant improvement in β-cell function. In brief, the striking effect of I-BET151 on T1D development in NOD mice seems to reflect the fortunate concurrence of a complex, though inter-related, set of diabetes-protective processes.

Lastly, why does a drug that inhibits BET proteins, which include general transcription factors such as Brd4, have such circumscribed effects? A 2-week I-BET151 treatment might be expected to provoke numerous side-effects, but this regimen seemed in general to be well tolerated in our studies. This conundrum has been raised in several contexts of BET-inhibitor treatment, and was recently discussed at length (Shi and Vakoc, 2014). The explanation probably relates to two features of BET-protein, in particular Brd4, biology. First: Brd4 is an important element of so-called ‘super-enhancers’, defined as unusually long transcriptional enhancers that host an exceptionally high density of TFs—both cell-type-specific and general factors, including RNA polymerase-II, Mediator, p300 and Brd4 (Hnisz et al., 2013). They are thought to serve as chromatin depots, collecting TFs and coordinating their delivery to transcriptional start-sites via intra-chromosome looping or inter-chromosome interactions. Super-enhancers are preferentially associated with loci that define and control the biology of particular cell-types, notably developmentally regulated and inducible genes; intriguingly, disease-associated, including T1D-associated, nucleotide polymorphisms are especially enriched in the super-enhancers of disease-relevant cell-types (Hnisz et al., 2013;Parker et al., 2013). Genes associated with super-enhancers show unusually high sensitivity to BET-protein inhibitors (Chapuy et al., 2013; Loven et al., 2013;Whyte et al., 2013). Second: although the bromodomain of Brd4 binds to acetyl-lysine residues on histone-4, and I-BET151 was modeled to inhibit this interaction, it is now known to bind to a few non-histone chromosomal proteins as well, notably NF-κB, a liaison also blocked by BET-protein inhibitors (Huang et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2012; Zou et al., 2014). Abrogating specific interactions such as these, differing according to the cellular context, might be the dominant impact of BET inhibitors, a scenario that would be consistent with the similar effects we observed with I-BET151 and BAY 11–7082 treatment. Either or both of these explanations could account for the circumscribed effect of I-BET151 on NOD diabetes. Additionally, specificity might be imparted by different BET-family members or isoforms—notably both Brd2 and Brd4 are players in MF inflammatory responses (Belkina et al., 2013). According to either of these explanations, higher doses might unleash a broader array of effects.

Islet inflammation: A unifying target for diabetes treatment?

Yumi Imai,¹Anca D. Dobrian,²Margaret A. Morris,^1,³ and Jerry L. Nadler¹

Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2013 Jul; 24(7): 351–360. doi: 10.1016/j.tem.2013.01.007

In the last decade, islet inflammation has emerged as a contributor to the loss of functional β cell mass in both type 1 (T1D) and type 2 diabetes (T2D). Evidence supports that over-nutrition and insulin resistance result in the production of proinflammatory mediators by β cells. In addition to compromising β cell function and survival, cytokines may recruit macrophages into islets, thus augmenting inflammation. Limited, but intriguing, data implies a role of adaptive immune response in islet dysfunction in T2D. Clinical trials validated anti-inflammatory therapies in T2D, while immune therapy for T1D remains challenging. Further research is required to improve our understanding of islet inflammatory pathways, and to identify more effective therapeutic targets for T1D and T2D.

Islet inflammation: an emerging and unifying target for diabetes treatment

The current epidemic of T2D is closely associated with increases in obesity [1]. Excessive energy balance results in insulin resistance that is compensated for by increasing insulin secretion. However, insufficient compensation results in T2D, which is characterized by the reduction in islet mass and function. In recent years, overwhelming evidence defines insulin resistance as a state of chronic inflammation involving both innate and adaptive immune responses [1]. Although the presence of islet inflammation is acknowledged for autoimmune destruction of β cells in T1D, new data implicates overlapping pathogenesis between T1D and T2D. Epidemiologic studies suggest that obesity modifies the risk of T1D development [2, 3]. Importantly, small but seminal human studies have also provided evidences that anti-inflammatory therapy can improve glycemia and β cell function in T2D [4, 5]. Here, we focus on recent discoveries (past five years) to discuss the contribution of inflammatory pathways to islet dysfunction in T2D, and to provide updates on the pathogenesis of T1D.

What triggers inflammation in islets under insulin resistance?

Ample evidence from rodent and human studies indicates that in obesity, adipose tissue (AT) inflammation is a major source of pro-inflammatory mediators, and a primary response to excessive caloric intake. AT contributes to inflammation in obesity by means of increased mass, modified adipocyte phenotype, and increased infiltration of immune cells, which affects islet function through humoral and neuronal pathways [1, 6, 7]. In addition, it is noteworthy that pancreatic islets are under similar stress as adipocytes in T2D. The chronic inflammatory state of T2D is reflected in the elevation of circulatory cytokines that potentially affect islets as well as adipocytes [6, 8]. Both islets and adipocytes are exposed to excess glucose and lipids, especially free fatty acids (FFA). Over-nutrition forces adipose tissue to remodel and accommodate enlarged adipocytes, which results in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, hypoxia, and mechanical stresses [9–11]. Under insulin resistance, insulin production increases to meet the high demand, resulting in the expansion of islet mass [12]. Recent findings revealed that obesity is associated with the activation of inflammatory pathway in the hypothalamus, which may alter functions of AT and islets through neuronal regulation [13]. Considering the multiple stressors potentially shared by AT and islets, it is plausible that islets exist also in a chronic inflammatory state, in T2D.

Adipose tissue dysfunction in obesity: a contributor to β cell inflammation in T2D?

The relationship between the pancreatic islet and AT was thought to be unidirectional, by placing insulin secretion as the major determinant of adipocyte glucose uptake and triglyceride storage. However, several recent studies suggest that insulin resistance in AT significantly contributes to β cell failure, through altered secretion of humoral factors from adipocytes and signals from the adipocyte sensory nerve (Figure. 1) [6, 7]. Of particular interest are adipocytokines that are uniquely produced by adipocytes, such as leptin, adiponectin, omentin, resistin, and visfatin, which may contribute to β cell dysfunction during insulin resistance (Box 1). Circulating cytokines may also connect AT inflammation to β cell dysfunction. Overnight exposure of mouse islets to tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα), Interleukin beta (IL-1β), plus Interferon-gamma (IFNγ), at levels comparable to those seen in human obesity, disrupts the regulation of intracellular calcium [8]. Although glucose stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) was maintained in this study, circulating cytokines might contribute to islet dysfunction after a prolonged period of exposure and when combined with other stresses [8]. TNFα, a cytokine implicated in insulin resistance, reportedly increased islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP, amylin) expression in β cells with no concurrent expression of proinsulin. This may lead to amyloid production and β cell death [14]. Recent findings showed that the enzyme dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPPIV) is secreted by human adipocytes, and therefore may reduce the half-life of DPPIV substrate glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) with important implications on the insulinotropic effects of this gut peptide on the β cells [15]. Although it is not clear if obesity is associated with increased levels of DPPIV, inhibition of the latter by sitagliptin in a rodent model of obesity and insulin resistance reduced inflammatory cytokine production both in islets and in AT, and improved glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) in islets in vitro [16]. Collectively, dysfunctional AT in obesity produces cytokines and peptides that affect islet health and potentially contribute to islet inflammation in T2D.

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Diabetes Mellitus: new insight into genetic role

Posted in Curation, Developmental biology, Diabetes Mellitus, Disease Biology, Genetics & Pharmaceutical, Genome Biology, tagged Diabetes Mellitus, pancreatic beta cell on March 24, 2016| Leave a Comment »

Diabetes Mellitus: new insight into genetic role

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

LPBI

New Study May Lead to Improved Type 2 Diabetes Treatment

http://www.dddmag.com/news/2016/03/new-study-may-lead-improved-type-2-diabetes-treatment

Genetic cause found for loss of beta cells during diabetes development.

Worldwide, 400 million people live with diabetes, with rapid increases projected. Patients with diabetes mostly fall into one of two categories, type 1 diabetics, triggered by autoimmunity at a young age, and type 2 diabetics, caused by metabolic dysfunction of the liver. Despite being labeled a “lifestyle disease”, diabetes has a strong genetic basis. New research under the direction of Adrian Liston (VIB/KU Leuven) has discovered that a common genetic defect in beta cells may underlie both forms of diabetes. This research was published in the international scientific journal Nature Genetics.

Adrian Liston (VIB/University of Leuven): “Our research finds that genetics is critical for the survival of beta cells in the pancreas – the cells that make insulin. Thanks to our genetic make-up, some of us have beta cells that are tough and robust, while others have beta cells that are fragile and can’t handle stress. It is these people who develop diabetes, either type 1 or type 2, while others with tougher beta cells will remain healthy even in if they suffer from autoimmunity or metabolic dysfunction of the liver.”

Different pathways to diabetes development

Diabetes is a hidden killer. One out of every 11 adults is suffering from the disease, yet half of them have not even been diagnosed. Diabetes is caused by the inability of the body to lower blood glucose, a process normally driven by insulin. In patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D), this is caused by the immune system killing off the beta cells that produce insulin. In patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D), a metabolic dysfunction prevents insulin from working on the liver. In both cases, left untreated, the extra glucose in the blood can cause blindness, cardiovascular disease, diabetic nephropathy, diabetic neuropathy and death.

In this study, an international team of researchers investigated how genetic variation controls the development of diabetes. While most previous work has focused on the effect of genetics in altering the immune system (in T1D) and metabolic dysfunction of the liver (in T2D), this research found that genetics also affected the beta cells that produce insulin. Mice with fragile beta cells that were poor at repairing DNA damage would rapidly develop diabetes when those beta cells were challenged by cellular stress. Other mice, with robust beta cells that were good at repairing DNA damage, were able to stay non-diabetic for life, even when those islets were placed under severe cellular stress. The same pathways for beta cell survival and DNA damage repair were also found to be altered in diabetic patient samples, indicating that a genetic predisposition for fragile beta cells may underlie who develops diabetes.

Adrian Liston (VIB/University of Leuven): “While genetics are really the most important factor for developing diabetes, our food environment can also play a deciding role. Even mice with genetically superior beta cells ended up as diabetic when we increased the fat in their diet.”

A new model for testing type 2 diabetes treatments

Current treatments for T2D rely on improving the metabolic response of the liver to insulin. These antidiabetic drugs, in conjunction with lifestyle interventions, can control the early stages of T2D by allowing insulin to function on the liver again. However during the late stages of T2D, the death of beta cells means that there is no longer any insulin being produced in the pancreas. At this stage, antidiabetic drugs and lifestyle interventions have poor efficacy, and medical complications arise.

Dr Lydia Makaroff (International Diabetes Federation, not an author of the current study): “The health cost for diabetes currently exceeds US$600 billion, 12 percent of the global health budget, and will only increase as diabetes becomes more common. Much of this health care burden is caused by late-stage type 2 diabetes, where we do not have effective treatments, so we desperately need new research into novel therapeutic approaches. This discovery dramatically improves our understanding of type 2 diabetes, which will enable the design of better strategies and medications for diabetes in the future”.

Adrian Liston (VIB/University of Leuven): “The big problem in developing drugs for late-stage T2D is that, until now, there has not been an animal model for the beta cell death stage. Previously, animal models were all based on the early stage of metabolic dysfunction in the liver, which has allowed the development of good drugs for treating early-stage T2D. This new mouse model will allow us, for the first time, to test new antidiabetic drugs that focus on preserving beta cells. There are many promising drugs under development at life sciences companies that have just been waiting for a usable animal model. Who knows, there may even be useful compounds hidden away in alternative or traditional medicines that could be found through a good testing program. If a drug is found that stops late-stage diabetes, it would really be a major medical breakthrough!”

New Method Measures Type 2 Diabetes Risk in Blood

http://www.dddmag.com/news/2016/04/new-method-measures-type-2-diabetes-risk-blood

Researchers at Lund University in Sweden have found a new type of biomarker that can predict the risk of type 2 diabetes, by detecting epigenetic changes in specific genes through a simple blood test. The results are published today in Nature Communications.

“This could motivate a person at risk to change their lifestyle”, said Karl Bacos, researcher in epigenetics at Lund University.

Predicting the onset of diabetes is already possible by measuring the blood glucose level average, HbA1C, over time. However, the predictive potential of this method is modest and new methods are needed.

The discoveries made by the research group at Lund University have now made it possible to measure the presence of so-called DNA methylations in four specific genes, and thereby predict who is at risk of developing type 2 diabetes, long before the disease occurs. Methylations are chemical changes that control gene activity, that is, whether they are active or not.

“The hope is that this will be developed into a better way to predict the disease”, said Karl Bacos, first author of the study.

The researchers started by studying insulin-producing beta cells from deceased persons. They found that the DNA methylations in the four genes in question increased, depending on the donor’s age. This in turn affected the activity of the genes.

When these changes were copied in cultured beta cells, they proved to have a positive effect on insulin secretion.

“We could then see the same DNA methylation changes in the blood which was really cool”, said Karl Bacos.

The blood samples from the participants of two separate research projects – one Danish and one Finnish – were then studied and compared with blood samples taken from the same participants ten years later. The Finnish participants, who had exhibited higher levels of DNA methylation in their first sample, had a lower risk of type 2 diabetes ten years later. In the Danish participants, higher DNA methylation in their first sample was associated with higher insulin secretion ten years later. All of the Danish participants were healthy on both occasions, whereas approximately one-third of the Finnish participants had developed type 2 diabetes.

“Increased insulin secretion actually protects against type 2 diabetes. It could be the body’s way of protecting itself when other tissue becomes resistant to insulin, which often happens as we get older”, said professor and research project manager Charlotte Ling.

The studies were based on a relatively small number of participants, and a selection of genes. The researchers therefore now want to continue with finding markers with a stronger predictive potential by implementing so-called epigenetic whole-genome sequencing when analysing a person’s entire genetic make-up and all the DNA methylations that come with it, in a larger population group.

The research group has previously shown that age, diet and exercise affect the so-called epigenetic risk of type 2 diabetes.

“You cannot change your genes and the risks that they entail, but epigenetics means that you can affect the DNA methylations, and thereby gene activity, through lifestyle choices”, said Charlotte Ling.

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Metformin and vitamin B12 deficiency?

Posted in Clinical & Translational, Clinical Diagnostics, Curation, Diabetes Mellitus, Endocrine Diseases, Folate and B12, Hematology, Hematopoiesis, tagged Drug therapy, metformin, Nutrition Disorders, Outcomes research, type 2 diabetes on March 14, 2016| Leave a Comment »

Metformin and vitamin B12 deficiency?

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

LPBI

Years of taking popular diabetes drug tied to risk of B12 deficiency

BY KATHRYN DOYLE http://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-metformin-b12-deficiency-idUSKCN0WC211

(Reuters Health) – – People taking metformin, a common type 2 diabetes medication, for several years may be at heightened risk of vitamin B12 deficiency and anemia, according to a new analysis of long-term data.

Metformin helps to control the amount of sugar, or glucose, in the blood by reducing how much glucose is absorbed from food and produced by the liver, and by increasing the body’s response to the hormone insulin, according to the National Institutes of Health.

“Metformin is the most commonly used drug to treat type 2 diabetes, so many millions of people are taking it, usually for a prolonged period (many years),” said senior study author Dr. Jill P Crandall of Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York City, by email.

“Smaller numbers of people take metformin for prevention of diabetes or treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome,” Crandall told Reuters Health.

The researchers used data from the Diabetes Prevention Program and the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study, which followed participants at high risk for type 2 diabetes for more than 10 years.

The study began with more than 3,000 people age 25 years and older with high blood sugar. The participants were randomly assigned to receive either 850 milligrams of metformin twice daily, placebo medication or an intensive lifestyle program than did not include medication. For the new analysis only those taking placebo or metformin were considered, and about 50 participants were excluded after having weight-loss surgery, which would affect their diabetes outcomes.

During follow-up, the participants provided blood samples at the five- and 13-year points.

Using these blood samples, the researchers found that at year five, average B12 levels were lower in the metformin group than the placebo group, and B12 deficiency was more common, affecting 4 percent of those on metformin compared to 2 percent of those not taking the drug.

Borderline low B12 levels affected almost 20 percent of those on metformin and 10 percent of those taking placebo.

Average vitamin B12 levels were higher by year 13 than in year five, but B12 deficiency was also more common in both the metformin and placebo groups, as reported in the Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism.

Vitamin B12 deficiency may lead to nerve damage which can be severe and may be irreversible, Crandall said.

“Severe and prolonged B12 deficiency has also been linked to impaired cognition and dementia,” she said. “It can also cause anemia (low red blood cell count) – fortunately, this condition is reversible with treatment.”

More people in the metformin group were also anemic at year five than in the placebo group.

There are more than three million cases of vitamin B12 deficiency each year in the U.S., which can be caused by diet or certain medical conditions. Symptoms include fatigue, and numbness or tingling.

Humans do not make vitamin B12 and need to consume it from animal sources or supplements. Vegetarians may get enough from eating eggs and dairy products, but vegans need to rely on supplements or fortified grains.

Doctors who prescribe metformin to patients long-term for type 2 diabetes, gestational diabetes, polycystic ovarian syndrome or other indications should consider routine measurement of vitamin B12 levels, the authors conclude.

“The FDA and organizations such as the American Diabetes Association do not have any formal recommendations for B12 monitoring for people taking metformin,” Crandall said. “That said, our study (and others) suggests that a small but significant number of people may develop deficiency.”

“People who are taking metformin should ask their doctor about measuring their B12 level,” she said.

Restoring healthy B12 levels is easy to accomplish with pills or monthly injections, she added.

“The risk of B12 deficiency should not be considered a reason to avoid taking metformin,” Crandall said.

SOURCE: bit.ly/1SWRxed Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, online February 22, 2016.

Long-term Metformin Use and Vitamin B12 Deficiency in the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study

Vanita R ArodaMD^¹, Sharon L EdelsteinScM^², Ronald B GoldbergMD^³, William C KnowlerMD, DrPH^⁴, …., Marinella G TemprosaPhD^², Neil H WhiteMD^⁹, Jill P CrandallMD^¹⁰, and Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group

http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2015-3754#sthash.ievZyXLD.dpuf The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2016 Feb 22; jc20153754

Context:

Vitamin B12 deficiency may occur with metformin treatment, but few studies have assessed risk with long-term use.

Objective:

To assess risk of B12 deficiency with metformin use in the DPP/DPPOS

Design:

Secondary analysis from DPP/DPPOS. Participants were assigned to placebo (n=1082, PLA) or metformin (n=1073, MET) for 3.2 years; MET received open-label metformin for an additional 9 years.

Setting:

27 study centers in the US

Patients:

DPP eligibility: elevated fasting glucose, impaired glucose tolerance, and overweight/obesity. Analytic population: participants with available stored samples. B12 levels were assessed at 5 (n=857, n=858) and 13 years [n=756, n=764] in PLA and MET, respectively.

Interventions:

Metformin 850 mg twice daily versus placebo (DPP); open-label metformin in MET (DPPOS)

Main Outcome Measures:

B12 deficiency, anemia, peripheral neuropathy

Results:

Low B12 (≤203 pg/ml) occurred more often in MET than PLA at 5 years (4.3% vs 2.3%, p=0.02) but not at 13 years (7.4% vs. 5.4%, p=0.12). Combined low and borderline-low B12 (≤298 pg/ml) was more common in MET at 5 (19.1% vs 9.5%, p<0.01) and 13 years (20.3% vs 15.6%, p=0.02). Years of metformin use was associated with increased risk of B12 deficiency (OR B12 deficiency/year metformin use, 1.13, 95% CI 1.06–1.20). Anemia prevalence was higher in MET, but did not differ by B12 status. Neuropathy prevalence was higher in MET with low B12 levels.

Conclusions:

Long-term use of metformin in DPPOS was associated with biochemical B12 deficiency and anemia. Routine testing of vitamin B12 levels in metformin-treated patients should be considered.

Metformin linked to vitamin B₁₂ deficiency

David Holmes Nature Reviews Endocrinology(2016) http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nrendo.2016.39

Secondary analysis of data from the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study (DPPOS), one of the largest and longest studies of metformin treatment in patients at high risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus, shows that long-term use of metformin is associated with vitamin B₁₂deficiency.

Aroda, V. R. et al. Long-term metformin use and vitamin B₁₂ deficiency in the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2015-3754 (2016)

Long-term Follow-up of Diabetes Prevention Program Shows Continued Reduction in Diabetes Development

http://www.diabetes.org/newsroom/press-releases/2014/long-term-follow-up-of-diabetes-prevention-program-shows-reduction-in-diabetes-development.html

San Francisco, California
June 16, 2014

Treatments used to decrease the development of type 2 diabetes continue to be effective an average of 15 years later, according to the latest findings of the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study, a landmark study funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

The results, presented at the American Diabetes Association’s 74th Scientific Sessions®, come more than a decade after the Diabetes Prevention Program, or DPP, reported its original findings. In 2001, after an average of three years of study, the DPP announced that the study’s two interventions, a lifestyle program designed to reduce weight and increase activity levels and the diabetes medicinemetformin, decreased the development of type 2 diabetes in a diverse group of people, all of whom were at high risk for the disease, by 58 and 31 percent, respectively, compared with a group taking placebo.

The Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study, or DPPOS, was conducted as an extension of the DPP to determine the longer-term effects of the two interventions, including further reduction in diabetes development and whether delaying diabetes would reduce the development of the diabetes complications that can lead to blindness, kidney failure, amputations and heart disease. Funded largely by the NIH’s National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), the new findings show that the lifestyle intervention and metformin treatment have beneficial effects, even years later, but did not reduce microvascular complications.

Delaying Type 2 Diabetes

Participants in the study who were originally assigned to the lifestyle intervention and metformin during DPP continued to have lower rates of type 2 diabetes development than those assigned to placebo, with 27 percent and 17 percent reductions, respectively, after 15 years.

“What we’re finding is that we can prevent or delay the onset of type 2 diabetes, a chronic disease, through lifestyle intervention or with metformin, over a very long period of time,” said David M. Nathan, MD, Chairman of the DPP/DPPOS and Professor of Medicine at Harvard Medical School. “After the initial randomized treatment phase in DPP, all participants were offered lifestyle intervention and the rates of diabetes development fell in the metformin and former placebo groups, leading to a reduction in the treatment group differences over time. However, the lifestyle intervention and metformin are still quite effective at delaying, if not preventing, type 2 diabetes,” Dr. Nathan said. Currently, an estimated 79 million American adults are at high-risk for developing type 2 diabetes.

Microvascular Complications
The DPPOS investigators followed participants for an additional 12 years after the end of the DPP to determine both the extent of diabetes prevention over time and whether the study treatments would also decrease the small vessel -or microvascular- complications, such as eye, nerve and kidney disease. These long-term results did not demonstrate significant differences among the lifestyle intervention, metformin or placebo groups on the microvascular complications, reported Kieren Mather, MD, Professor of Medicine at Indiana University School of Medicine and a study investigator.

“However, regardless of type of initial treatment, participants who didn’t develop diabetes had a 28 percent lower occurrence of the microvascular complications than those participants who did develop diabetes. These findings show that intervening in the prediabetes phase is important in reducing early stage complications,” Dr. Mather noted. The absence of differences in microvascular complications among the intervention groups may be explained by the small differences in average glucose levels among the groups at this stage of follow-up.

Risk for Cardiovascular Disease

The DPP population was relatively young and healthy at the beginning of the study, and few participants had experienced any severe cardiovascular events, such as heart attack or stroke, 15 years later. The relatively small number of events meant that the DPPOS researchers could not test the effects of interventions on cardiovascular disease. However, the research team did examine whether the study interventions, or a delay in the onset of type 2 diabetes, improved cardiovascular risk factors.

“We found that cardiovascular risk factors, such as hypertension, are generally improved by the lifestyle intervention and somewhat less by metformin,” said Ronald Goldberg, MD, Professor of Medicine at the University of Miami and one of the DPPOS investigators. “We know that people with type 2 diabetes are at much higher risk for heart disease and stroke than those who do not have diabetes, so a delay in risk factor development or improvement in risk factors may prove to be beneficial.”

Long-term Results with Metformin

The DPP/DPPOS is the largest and longest duration study to examine the effects of metformin, an inexpensive, well-known and generally safe diabetes medicine, in people who have not been diagnosed with diabetes. For DPPOS participants, metformin treatment was associated with a modest degree of long-term weight loss. “Other than a small increase in vitamin B-12 deficiency, which is a recognized consequence of metformin therapy, it has been extremely safe and well-tolerated over the 15 years of our study,” said Jill Crandall, MD, Professor of Medicine at Albert Einstein College of Medicine and a DPPOS investigator. “Further study will help show whether metformin has beneficial effects on heart disease and cancer, which are both increased in people with type 2 diabetes.”

Looking to the Future

In addition to the current findings, the DPPOS includes a uniquely valuable population that can help researchers understand the clinical course of type 2 diabetes. Since the participants did not have diabetes at the beginning of the DPP, for those who have developed diabetes, the data show precisely when they developed the disease, which is rare in previous studies. “The DPP and DPPOS have given us an incredible wealth of information by following a very diverse group of people with regard to race and age as they have progressed from prediabetes to diabetes,” said Judith Fradkin, MD, Director of the NIDDK Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases. “The study provides us with an opportunity to make crucial discoveries about the clinical course of type 2 diabetes.”

Dr. Fradkin noted that the study population held promise for further analyses because researchers would now be able to examine how developing diabetes at different periods of life may cause the disease to progress differently. “We can look at whether diabetes behaves differently if you develop it before the age of 50 or after the age of 60,” she said. “Thanks to the large and diverse population of DPPOS that has remained very loyal to the study, we will be able to see how and when complications first develop and understand how to intervene most effectively.”

She added that NIDDK had invited the researchers to submit an application for a grant to follow the study population for an additional 10 years.

The Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study was funded under NIH grant U01DK048489 by the NIDDK; National Institute on Aging; National Cancer Institute; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; National Eye Institute; National Center on Minority Health and Health Disparities; and the Office of the NIH Director; Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development; Office of Research on Women’s Health; and Office of Dietary Supplements, all part of the NIH, as well as the Indian Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and American Diabetes Association. Funding in the form of supplies was provided by Merck Sante, Merck KGaA and LifeScan.

The American Diabetes Association is leading the fight to Stop Diabetes® and its deadly consequences and fighting for those affected by diabetes. The Association funds research to prevent, cure and manage diabetes; delivers services to hundreds of communities; provides objective and credible information; and gives voice to those denied their rights because of diabetes. Founded in 1940, our mission is to prevent and cure diabetes and to improve the lives of all people affected by diabetes. For more information please call the American Diabetes Association at 1-800-DIABETES (1-800-342-2383) or visit http://www.diabetes.org. Information from both these sources is available in English and Spanish.

Association of Biochemical B₁₂Deficiency With Metformin Therapy and Vitamin B₁₂Supplements

The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999–2006

Lael Reinstatler, Yan Ping Qi, Rebecca S. Williamson, Joshua V. Garn, and Godfrey P. Oakley Jr.
Diabetes Care February 2012 vol. 35 no. 2 327-333 http://dx.doi.org:/10.2337/dc11-1582

OBJECTIVE To describe the prevalence of biochemical B₁₂deficiency in adults with type 2 diabetes taking metformin compared with those not taking metformin and those without diabetes, and explore whether this relationship is modified by vitamin B₁₂supplements.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Analysis of data on U.S. adults ≥50 years of age with (n = 1,621) or without type 2 diabetes (n = 6,867) from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 1999–2006. Type 2 diabetes was defined as clinical diagnosis after age 30 without initiation of insulin therapy within 1 year. Those with diabetes were classified according to their current metformin use. Biochemical B₁₂ deficiency was defined as serum B₁₂concentrations ≤148 pmol/L and borderline deficiency was defined as >148 to ≤221 pmol/L.

RESULTS Biochemical B₁₂ deficiency was present in 5.8% of those with diabetes using metformin compared with 2.4% of those not using metformin (P = 0.0026) and 3.3% of those without diabetes (P = 0.0002). Among those with diabetes, metformin use was associated with biochemical B₁₂ deficiency (adjusted odds ratio 2.92; 95% CI 1.26–6.78). Consumption of any supplement containing B₁₂ was not associated with a reduction in the prevalence of biochemical B₁₂deficiency among those with diabetes, whereas consumption of any supplement containing B₁₂ was associated with a two-thirds reduction among those without diabetes.

CONCLUSIONS Metformin therapy is associated with a higher prevalence of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency. The amount of B₁₂recommended by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) (2.4 μg/day) and the amount available in general multivitamins (6 μg) may not be enough to correct this deficiency among those with diabetes.

It is well known that the risks of both type 2 diabetes and B₁₂deficiency increase with age (1,2). Recent national data estimate a 21.2% prevalence of diagnosed diabetes among adults ≥65 years of age and a 6 and 20% prevalence of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency (serum B₁₂<148 pmol/L) and borderline deficiency (serum B₁₂ ≥148–221 pmol/L) among adults ≥60 years of age (3,4).

The diabetes drug metformin has been reported to cause a decrease in serum B₁₂ concentrations. In the first efficacy trial, DeFronzo and Goodman (5) demonstrated that although metformin offers superior control of glycosylated hemoglobin levels and fasting plasma glucose levels compared with glyburide, serum B₁₂ concentrations were lowered by 22% compared with placebo, and 29% compared with glyburide therapy after 29 weeks of treatment. A recent, randomized control trial designed to examine the temporal relationship between metformin and serum B₁₂ found a 19% reduction in serum B₁₂ levels compared with placebo after 4 years (6). Several other randomized control trials and cross-sectional surveys reported reductions in B₁₂ranging from 9 to 52% (7–16). Although classical B₁₂ deficiency presents with clinical symptoms such as anemia, peripheral neuropathy, depression, and cognitive impairment, these symptoms are usually absent in those with biochemical B₁₂ deficiency (17).

Several researchers have made recommendations to screen those with type 2 diabetes on metformin for serum B₁₂ levels (6,7,14–16,18–21). However, no formal recommendations have been provided by the medical community or the U.S. Prevention Services Task Force. High-dose B₁₂ injection therapy has been successfully used to correct the metformin-induced decline in serum B₁₂ (15,21,22). The use of B₁₂supplements among those with type 2 diabetes on metformin in a nationally representative sample and their potentially protective effect against biochemical B₁₂ deficiency has not been reported. It is therefore the aim of the current study to use the nationally representative National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) population to determine the prevalence of biochemical B₁₂deficiency among those with type 2 diabetes ≥50 years of age taking metformin compared with those with type 2 diabetes not taking metformin and those without diabetes, and to explore how these relationships are modified by B₁₂ supplement consumption.

Design overview

NHANES is a nationally representative sample of the noninstitutionalized U.S. population with targeted oversampling of U.S. adults ≥60 years of age, African Americans, and Hispanics. Details of these surveys have been described elsewhere (23). All participants gave written informed consent, and the survey protocol was approved by a human subjects review board.

Setting and participants

Our study included adults ≥50 years of age from NHANES 1999–2006. Participants with positive HIV antibody test results, high creatinine levels (>1.7 mg/dL for men and >1.5 mg/dL for women), and prescription B₁₂ injections were excluded from the analysis. Participants who reported having prediabetes or borderline diabetes (n = 226) were removed because they could not be definitively grouped as having or not having type 2 diabetes. We also excluded pregnant women, those with type 1 diabetes, and those without diabetes taking metformin. Based on clinical aspects described by the American Diabetes Association and previous work in NHANES, those who were diagnosed before the age of 30 and began insulin therapy within 1 year of diagnosis were classified as having type 1 diabetes (24,25). Type 2 diabetes status in adults was dichotomized as yes/no. Participants who reported receiving a physician’s diagnosis after age 30 (excluding gestational diabetes) and did not initiate insulin therapy within 1 year of diagnosis were classified as having type 2 diabetes.

Outcomes and follow-up

The primary outcome was biochemical B₁₂ deficiency determined by serum B₁₂ concentrations. Serum B₁₂ levels were quantified using the Quantaphase II folate/vitamin B₁₂ radioassay kit from Bio-Rad Laboratories (Hercules, CA). We defined biochemical B₁₂ deficiency as serum levels ≤148 pmol/L, borderline deficiency as serum B₁₂ >148 to ≤221 pmol/L, and normal as >221 pmol/L (26).

The main exposure of interest was metformin use. Using data collected in the prescription medicine questionnaire, those with type 2 diabetes were classified as currently using metformin therapy (alone or in combination therapy) versus those not currently using metformin. Length of metformin therapy was used to assess the relationship between duration of metformin therapy and biochemical B₁₂ deficiency. In the final analysis, two control groups were used to allow the comparison of those with type 2 diabetes taking metformin with those with type 2 diabetes not taking metformin and those without diabetes.

To determine whether the association between metformin and biochemical B₁₂ deficiency is modified by supplemental B₁₂ intake, data from the dietary supplement questionnaire were used. Information regarding the dose and frequency was used to calculate average daily supplemental B₁₂ intake. We categorized supplemental B₁₂ intake as 0 μg (no B₁₂ containing supplement), >0–6 μg, >6–25 μg, and >25 μg. The lower intake group, >0–6 μg, includes 6 μg, the amount of vitamin B₁₂ typically found in over-the-counter multivitamins, and 2.4 μg, the daily amount the IOM recommends for all adults ≥50 years of age to consume through supplements or fortified food (1). The next group, >6–25 μg, includes 25 μg, the amount available in many multivitamins marketed toward senior adults. The highest group contains the amount found in high-dose B-vitamin supplements.

In the final analysis, there were 575 U.S. adults ≥50 years of age with type 2 diabetes using metformin, 1,046 with type 2 diabetes not using metformin, and 6,867 without diabetes. The demographic and biological characteristics of the groups are shown in Table 1. Among metformin users, mean age was 63.4 ± 0.5 years, 50.3% were male, 66.7% were non-Hispanic white, and 40.7% used a supplement containing B₁₂. The median duration of metformin use was 5 years. Compared with those with type 2 diabetes not taking metformin, metformin users were younger (P < 0.0001), reported a lower prevalence of insulin use (P < 0.001), and had a shorter duration of diabetes (P = 0.0207). Compared with those without diabetes, metformin users had a higher proportion of nonwhite racial groups (P< 0.0001), a higher proportion of obesity (P < 0.0001), a lower prevalence of macrocytosis (P = 0.0017), a lower prevalence of supplemental folic acid use (P = 0.0069), a lower prevalence of supplemental vitamin B₁₂ use (P = 0.0180), and a lower prevalence of calcium supplement use (P = 0.0002). There was a twofold difference in the prevalence of anemia among those with type 2 diabetes versus those without, and no difference between the groups with diabetes.

Association of Biochemical B₁₂Deficiency With Metformin Therapy and Vitamin B₁₂Supplements

Demographic and biological characteristics of U.S. adults ≥50 years of age: NHANES 1999–2006

The geometric mean serum B₁₂ concentration among those with type 2 diabetes taking metformin was 317.5 pmol/L. This was significantly lower than the geometric mean concentration in those with type 2 diabetes not taking metformin (386.7 pmol/L; P = 0.0116) and those without diabetes (350.8 pmol/L; P = 0.0011). As seen in Fig. 1, the weighted prevalence of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency adjusted for age, race, and sex was 5.8% for those with type 2 diabetes taking metformin, 2.2% for those with type 2 diabetes not taking metformin (P = 0.0002), and 3.3% for those without diabetes (P = 0.0026). Among the three aforementioned groups, borderline deficiency was present in 16.2, 5.5, and 8.8%, respectively (P < 0.0001). Applying the Fleiss formula for calculating attributable risk from cross-sectional data (27), among all of the cases of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency, 3.5% of the cases were attributable to metformin use; and among those with diabetes, 41% of the deficient cases were attributable to metformin use. When the prevalence of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency among those with diabetes taking metformin was analyzed by duration of metformin therapy, there was no notable increase in the prevalence of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency as the duration of metformin use increased. The prevalence of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency was 4.1% among those taking metformin <1 year, 6.3% among those taking metformin ≥1–3 years, 4.1% among those taking metformin >3–10 years, and 8.1% among those taking metformin >10 years (P = 0.3219 for <1 year vs. >10 years). Similarly, there was no clear increase in the prevalence of borderline deficiency as the duration of metformin use increased (15.9% among those taking metformin >10 years vs. 11.4% among those taking metformin <1 year; P = 0.4365).

Weighted prevalence of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency and borderline deficiency adjusted for age, race, and sex in U.S. adults ≥50 years of age: NHANES 1999–2006. Black bars are those with type 2 diabetes on metformin, gray bars are those with type 2 diabetes not on metformin, and the white bars are those without diabetes. *P = 0.0002 vs. type 2 diabetes on metformin. †P < 0.0001 vs. type 2 diabetes on metformin. ‡P = 0.0026 vs. type 2 diabetes on metformin.

Table 2 presents a stratified analysis of the weighted prevalence of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency and borderline deficiency by B₁₂supplement use. For those without diabetes, B₁₂ supplement use was associated with an ∼66.7% lower prevalence of both biochemical B₁₂deficiency (4.8 vs. 1.6%; P < 0.0001) and borderline deficiency (16.6 vs. 5.5%; P < 0.0001). A decrease in the prevalence of biochemical B₁₂deficiency was seen at all levels of supplemental B₁₂ intake compared with nonusers of supplements. Among those with type 2 diabetes taking metformin, supplement use was not associated with a decrease in the prevalence of either biochemical B₁₂ deficiency (5.6 vs. 5.3%; P= 0.9137) or borderline deficiency (15.5 vs. 8.8%; P = 0.0826). Among the metformin users who also used supplements, those who consumed >0–6 μg of B₁₂ had a prevalence of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency of 14.1%. However, consumption of a supplement containing >6 μg of B₁₂ was associated with a prevalence of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency of 1.8% (P = 0.0273 for linear trend). Similar trends were seen in the association of supplemental B₁₂ intake and the prevalence of borderline deficiency. For those with type 2 diabetes not taking metformin, supplement use was also not associated with a decrease in the prevalence of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency (2.1 vs. 2.0%; P = 0.9568) but was associated with a 54% reduction in the prevalence of borderline deficiency (7.8 vs. 3.4%; P = 0.0057 for linear trend).

Comparison of average daily B₁₂ supplement intake by weighted prevalence of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency (serum B₁₂ ≤148 pmol/L) and borderline deficiency (serum B₁₂ >148 to ≤221 pmol/L) among U.S. adults ≥50 years of age: NHANES 1999–2006.

Table 3 demonstrates the association of various risk factors with biochemical B₁₂ deficiency. Metformin therapy was associated with biochemical B₁₂ deficiency (odds ratio [OR] 2.89; 95% CI 1.33–6.28) and borderline deficiency (OR 2.32; 95% CI 1.31–4.12) in a crude model (results not shown). After adjusting for age, BMI, and insulin and supplement use, metformin maintained a significant association with biochemical B₁₂ deficiency (OR 2.92; 95% CI 1.28–6.66) and borderline deficiency (OR 2.16; 95% CI 1.22–3.85). Similar to Table 2, B₁₂ supplements were protective against borderline (OR 0.43; 95% CI 0.23–0.81), but not biochemical, B₁₂ deficiency (OR 0.76; 95% CI 0.34–1.70) among those with type 2 diabetes. Among those without diabetes, B₁₂ supplement use was ∼70% protective against biochemical B₁₂ deficiency (OR 0.26; 95% CI 0.17–0.38) and borderline deficiency (OR 0.27; 95% CI 0.21–0.35).

Polytomous logistic regression for potential risk factors of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency and borderline deficiency among U.S. adults ≥50 years of age: NHANES 1999–2006, OR (95% CI)

The IOM has highlighted the detection and diagnosis of B₁₂ deficiency as a high-priority topic for research (1). Our results suggest several findings that add to the complexity and importance of B₁₂ research and its relation to diabetes, and offer new insight into the benefits of B₁₂ supplements. Our data confirm the relationship between metformin and reduced serum B₁₂ levels beyond the background prevalence of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency. Our data demonstrate that an intake of >0–6 μg of B₁₂, which includes the dose most commonly found in over-the-counter multivitamins, was associated with a two-thirds reduction of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency and borderline deficiency among adults without diabetes. This relationship has been previously reported with NHANES and Framingham population data (4,29). In contrast, we did not find that >0–6 μg of B₁₂ was associated with a decrease in the prevalence of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency or borderline deficiency among adults with type 2 diabetes taking metformin. This observation suggests that metformin reduces serum B₁₂ by a mechanism that is additive to or different from the mechanism in older adults. It is also possible that metformin may exacerbate the deficiency among older adults with low serum B₁₂. Our sample size was too small to determine which amount >6 μg was associated with maximum protection, but we did find a dose-response trend.

We were surprised to find that those with type 2 diabetes not using metformin had the lowest prevalence of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency. It is possible that these individuals may seek medical care more frequently than the general population and therefore are being treated for their biochemical B₁₂ deficiency. Or perhaps, because this population had a longer duration of diabetes and a higher proportion of insulin users compared with metformin users, they have been switched from metformin to other diabetic treatments due to low serum B₁₂ concentrations or uncontrolled glucose levels and these new treatments may increase serum B₁₂ concentrations. Despite the observed effects of metformin on serum B₁₂ levels, it remains unclear whether or not this reduction is a public health concern. With lifetime risks of diabetes estimated to be one in three and with metformin being a first-line intervention, it is important to increase our understanding of the effects of oral vitamin B₁₂ on metformin-associated biochemical deficiency (20,21).

The strengths of this study include its nationally representative, population-based sample, its detailed information on supplement usage, and its relevant biochemical markers. This is the first study to use a nationally representative sample to examine the association between serum B₁₂ concentration, diabetes status, and metformin use as well as examine how this relationship may be modified by vitamin B₁₂ supplementation. The data available regarding supplement usage provided specific information regarding dose and frequency. This aspect of NHANES allowed us to observe the dose-response relationship in Table 2 and to compare it within our three study groups.

This study is also subject to limitations. First, NHANES is a cross-sectional survey and it cannot assess time as a factor, and therefore the results are associations and not causal relationships. A second limitation arises in our definition of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency. There is no general consensus on how to define normal versus low serum B₁₂levels. Some researchers include the functional biomarker methylmalonic acid (MMA) in the definition, but this has yet to be agreed upon (30–34). Recently, an NHANES roundtable discussion suggested that definitions of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency should incorporate one biomarker (serum B₁₂ or holotranscobalamin) and one functional biomarker (MMA or total homocysteine) to address problems with sensitivity and specificity of the individual biomarkers. However, they also cited a need for more research on how the biomarkers are related in the general population to prevent misclassification (34). MMA was only measured for six of our survey years; one-third of participants in our final analysis were missing serum MMA levels. Moreover, it has recently been reported that MMA values are significantly greater among the elderly with diabetes as compared with the elderly without diabetes even when controlling for serum B₁₂ concentrations and age, suggesting that having diabetes may independently increase the levels of MMA (35). This unique property of MMA in elderly adults with diabetes makes it unsuitable as part of a definition of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency in our specific population groups. Our study may also be subject to misclassification bias. NHANES does not differentiate between diabetes types 1 and 2 in the surveys; our definition may not capture adults with type 2 diabetes exclusively. Additionally, we used responses to the question “Have you received a physician’s diagnosis of diabetes” to categorize participants as having or not having diabetes. Therefore, we failed to capture undiagnosed diabetes. Finally, we could only assess current metformin use. We cannot determine if nonmetformin users have ever used metformin or if they were not using it at the time of the survey.

Our data demonstrate several important conclusions. First, there is a clear association between metformin and biochemical B₁₂ deficiency among adults with type 2 diabetes. This analysis shows that 6 μg of B₁₂ offered in most multivitamins is associated with two-thirds reduction in biochemical B₁₂ deficiency in the general population, and that this same dose is not associated with protection against biochemical B₁₂ deficiency among those with type 2 diabetes taking metformin. Our results have public health and clinical implications by suggesting that neither 2.4 μg, the current IOM recommendation for daily B₁₂ intake, nor 6 μg, the amount found in most multivitamins, is sufficient for those with type 2 diabetes taking metformin.

This analysis suggests a need for further research. One research design would be to identify those with biochemical B₁₂ deficiency and randomize them to receive various doses of supplemental B₁₂chronically and then evaluate any improvement in serum B₁₂concentrations and/or clinical outcomes. Another design would use existing cohorts to determine clinical outcomes associated with biochemical B₁₂ deficiency and how they are affected by B₁₂supplements at various doses. Given that a significant proportion of the population ≥50 years of age have biochemical B₁₂ deficiency and that those with diabetes taking metformin have an even higher proportion of biochemical B₁₂ deficiency, we suggest that support for further research is a reasonable priority.

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Discussion:

One research design would be to identify those with biochemical B₁₂ deficiency and randomize them to receive various doses of supplemental B₁₂chronically and then evaluate any improvement in serum B₁₂concentrations and/or clinical outcomes. Another design would use existing cohorts to determine clinical outcomes associated with biochemical B₁₂ deficiency and how they are affected by B₁₂supplements at various doses.

This is of considerable interest. As far as I can see, there is insufficient data presented to discern all of the variables entangled. In a study of 8000 hemograms several years ago, it was of some interest that there were a large percentage of patients who were over age 75 years having a MCV of 94 – 100, not considered indicative of macrocytic anemia. It would have been interesting to explore that set of the data further.

UPDATED 3/17/2020

2019 May 7;11(5). pii: E1020. doi: 10.3390/nu11051020.

Monitoring Vitamin B₁₂ in Women Treated with Metformin for Primary Prevention of Breast Cancer and Age-Related Chronic Diseases.

Mastroianni A¹, Ciniselli CM², Panella R³, Macciotta A⁴, Cavalleri A⁵, Venturelli E⁶, Taverna F⁷, Mazzocchi A⁸, Bruno E⁹, Muti P¹⁰, Berrino F¹¹, Verderio P¹², Morelli D¹³, Pasanisi P¹⁴.

Author information

Abstract

Metformin (MET) is currently being used in several trials for cancer prevention or treatment in non-diabetics. However, long-term MET use in diabetics is associated with lower serum levels of total vitamin B₁₂. In a pilot randomized controlled trial of the Mediterranean diet (MedDiet) and MET, whose participants were characterized by different components of metabolic syndrome, we tested the effect of MET on serum levels of B₁₂, holo transcobalamin II (holo-TC-II), and methylmalonic acid (MMA). The study was conducted on 165 women receiving MET or placebo for three years. Results of the study indicate a significant overall reduction in both serum total B₁₂ and holo-TC-II levels according with MET-treatment. In particular, in the MET group 26 of 81 patients and 10 of the 84 placebo-treated subjects had B₁₂ below the normal threshold (<221 pmol/L) at the end of the study. Considering jointly all B₁₂, Holo-TC-II, and MMA, 13 of the 165 subjects (10 MET and 3 placebo-treated) had at least two deficits in the biochemical parameters at the end of the study, without reporting clinical signs. Although our results do not affect whether women remain in the trial, B₁₂ monitoring for MET-treated individuals should be implemented.

ntroduction

Metformin (MET) is the first-line treatment for type-2 diabetes and has been used for decades to treat this chronic condition [1]. Given its favorable effects on glycemic control, weight patterns, insulin requirements, and cardiovascular outcomes, MET has been recently proposed in addition to lifestyle interventions to reduce metabolic syndrome (MS) and age-related chronic diseases [2]. Observational studies have also suggested that diabetic patients treated with MET had a significantly lower risk of developing cancer or lower cancer mortality than those untreated or treated with other drugs [3,4]. For this reason, a number of clinical trials are in progress in different solid cancers.

One of the limitations in implementing long-term use of MET to prevent chronic conditions in healthy subjects relates to its potential lowering effect on vitamin B₁₂ (B₁₂). The aim of the present study was to assess the effect of three years of MET treatment in a randomized, controlled trial considering both B₁₂ levels and biomarkers of its metabolism and biological effectiveness.

Cobalamin, also known as B₁₂, is a water-soluble, cobalt-containing vitamin. All forms of B₁₂ are converted intracellularly into adenosyl-Cbl and methylcobalamin—the biologically active forms at the cellular level [5]. Vitamin B₁₂ is a vital cofactor of two enzymes: methionine synthase and L-methyl-malonyl-coenzyme. A mutase in intracellular enzymatic reactions related to DNA synthesis, as well as in amino and fatty acid metabolism. Vitamin B₁₂, under the catalysis of the enzyme l-methyl-malonyl-CoA mutase, synthesizes succinyl-CoA from methylmalonyl-CoA in the mitochondria. Deficiency of B₁₂, thus results in elevated methylmalonic acid (MMA) levels.

Dietary B₁₂ is normally bound to proteins. Food-bound B₁₂ is released in the stomach under the effect of gastric acid and pepsin. The free vitamin is then bound to an R-binder, a glycoprotein in gastric fluid and saliva that protects B₁₂ from the highly acidic stomach environment. Pancreatic proteases degrade R-binder in the duodenum and liberate B₁₂; finally, the free vitamin is then bound by the intrinsic factor (IF)—a glycosylated protein secreted by gastric parietal cells—forming an IF-B₁₂ complex [6]. The IF resists proteolysis and serves as a carrier for B₁₂ to the terminal ileum where the IF-B₁₂ complex undergoes receptor (cubilin)-mediated endocytosis [7]. The vitamin then appears in circulation bound to holo-transcobalamin-I (holo-TC-I), holo-transcobalamin-II (holo-TC-II), and holo-transcobalamin-III (holo-TC-III). It is estimated that 20–30% of the total circulating B₁₂ is bound to holo-TC-II and only this form is available to the cells [7]. Holo-TC-I binds 70–80% of circulating B₁₂, preventing the loss of the free unneeded portion [6]. Vitamin B₁₂ is stored mainly in the liver and kidneys.

Many mechanisms have been proposed to explain how MET interferes with the absorption of B₁₂: diminished absorption due to changes in bacterial flora, interference with intestinal absorption of the IF–B₁₂ complex (and)/or alterations in IF levels. The most widely accepted current mechanism suggests that MET antagonizes the calcium cation and interferes with the calcium-dependent IF–B₁₂ complex binding to the ileal cubilin receptor [8,9]. The recognition and treatment of B₁₂ deficiency is important because it is a cause of bone marrow failure, macrocytic anemia, and irreversible neuropathy [10].

In general, previous studies on diabetics have observed a reduction in serum levels of B₁₂ after both short- and long-term MET treatment [1]. A recent review on observational studies showed significantly lower levels of B₁₂ and an increased risk of borderline or frank B₁₂ deficiency in patients on MET than not on MET [1]. The meta-analysis of four trials (only one double-blind) found a significant overall mean B₁₂ reducing effect of MET after six weeks to three months of use [1]. A secondary analysis (13 years after randomization) of the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study, which randomized over 3000 persons at high risk for type 2 diabetes to MET or placebo, showed a 13% increase in the risk of B₁₂ deficiency per year of total MET use [3]. In this study, B₁₂ levels were measured from samples obtained in years 1 and 9. Stored serum samples from other time points, including baseline, were not available, and potentially informative red blood cell indices that might have demonstrated the macrocytic anemia, typical of B₁₂ deficiency, were not recorded [3]. The HOME (Hyperinsulinaemia: the Outcome of its Metabolic Effects) study, a large randomized controlled trial investigating the long-term effects of MET versus placebo in patients with type 2 diabetes treated with insulin, showed that the addition of MET improved glycemic control, reduced insulin requirements, prevented weight gain but lowered serum B₁₂ over time, and raised serum homocysteine, suggesting tissue B₁₂ deficiency [4]. A recent analysis of 277 diabetics from the same trial showed that serum levels of MMA, the specific biomarker for tissue B₁₂ deficiency [5], were significantly higher in people treated with MET than those receiving placebo after four years (on average) [4].

The risk of MET-associated B₁₂ deficiency may be higher in older individuals and those with poor dietary habits. Prospective studies have found negative associations between obesity and B₁₂ in numerous ethnicities [11,12]. An energy-dense but micronutrient-insufficient diet consumed by individuals who are overweight or obese might explain this [12]. Furthermore, obesity is associated with low-grade inflammation and these physiological changes have been shown to be associated, in several studies, with elevated C-reactive protein and homocysteine and with low concentrations of B₁₂ and other vitamins [13,14].

As part of a pilot randomized controlled trial of the Mediterranean diet (MedDiet) and MET for primary prevention of breast cancer and other chronic age-related diseases in healthy women with tracts of MS [15] we tested the effect of MET on serum levels of B₁₂, holo-TC-II, and MMA.

Micronutrients, Macronutrients and Dietary Patterns: Nutrition and Fertility

Live 2:30-4:30 PM Mediterranean Diet and Lifestyle: A Symposium on Diet and Human Health: October 19, 2018

Live 12:00 – 1:00 P.M Mediterranean Diet and Lifestyle: A Symposium on Diet and Human Health : October 19, 2018

Announcement 11AM- 5PM: Live Conference Coverage from Mediterranean Diet and Lifestyle: A Symposium on Diet and Human Health @S.H.R.O. and Temple University October 19, 2018

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Adipocyte Derived Stroma Cells: Their Usage in Regenerative Medicine and Reprogramming into Pancreatic Beta-Like Cells

Posted in 3D Printing for Medical Application, Diabetes Mellitus, Regenerative Biology and Medicine, tagged artificial pancreas, pancreatic beta cell, Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, type 2 diabetes on March 3, 2016| Leave a Comment »

Adipocyte Derived Stroma Cells: Their Usage in Regenerative Medicine and Reprogramming into Pancreatic Beta-Like Cells

Curator: Evelina Cohn, Ph.D.

The following presentation can be dowloaded in PowerPoint form by clicking on the link below:

adipocytes (1)

In Summary:

There are different results related to betatrophin and its characteristic to induce insulin and/or expand the pancreas beta cells. All the experiments so far were performed in mice. Some of the authors like Elisabeth Kugelberg from Harvard University agrees that betatrophin can induce insulin and expansion of secreting beta cells in mice (E. Kugelberg , 2014). Levitsky et al., 2014, come to the conclusion that betatrophin stimulate growth of beta cells in mice, while Gusarova et al., 2014, said that Betatrophin doesn’t control cell expansion in mice ( Gusarova et al., 2014) All three results are based on experiments on mice.

To make sure what are the characteristics of betatrophin in human pancreatic beta cells I suggest to try to determine the concentration and effect on those concentrations on immortal beta cells from human, CM cell line (insulinoma-obtained from ascitic fluid of cancer patients ) ( they are not producing any insulin under the glucose stimulation, therefore they may be a good for our model if they respond to betatrophin) TRM-1 (foetal Human SV40 T antigen)-Express small amount of insulin, not responsive to glucose stimulation) and finally Blox5 ( foetal Human SV40 T –antigen) which Exhibit glucose responsive. and Low insulin content. Blox5 may be the second good cell line to experiment, because they are responsive to glucose and they may be responsive to betatrophin as well.

If we found that those cell lines are inducing insulin then we may try primary beta cells. There is an article of 2013 (Ilie and Ilie, 2013) in which there is a possibility of regeneration of beta cells in vivo by neogenesis from adult pancreas. We can use their model to see if betatrophin indeed induce insulin in those cells. ( see the article attached)

On the other hand there are possibilities of growing beta cells directly onto pancreatic duct as it shows below:

From: https://infodiabet.wordpress.com/2010/08/31/new-sources-of-pancreatic-beta-cells/

Therefore, I suggest of producing pancreatic duct by using 3D printing and grow the cells by neogenesis

directly on the pancreatic duct.

References:

Gusarova V, Alexa CA, Na E, Stevis PE, Xin Y, Bonner-Weir S,

Cohen JC, Hobbs HH, Murphy AJ, Yancopoulos GD, Gromada J (2014), ANGPTL8/Betatrophin Does Not Control Pancreatic Beta Cell Expansion. Cell 159: 691-696.

Kugelberg E. (2013) Diabetes: Betatrophin—inducing β-cell expansion to treat diabetes mellitus? Nature Reviews Endocrinology 9: 379

Levitsky LL, Ardestani G, Rhoads DB (2014). Role of growth factors in control of pancreatic beta cell mass: focus on betatrophin. Curr Opin Pediatr. August 26 (4):475-9

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Christopher J. Lynch, MD, PhD, the New Office of Nutrition Research, Director

Posted in Apoptosis, Autophagy, Bio Instrumentation in Experimental Life Sciences Research, Biological Networks, Gene Regulation and Evolution, Biomarkers & Medical Diagnostics, Cardiomyopathy, Cardiovascular Research, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Clinical & Translational, Clinical Diagnostics, Clinical Genomics, Curation, Cytokines, Diabetes Mellitus, Disease Biology, Drug Toxicity, Endocrine Diseases, Enzyme Induction, Epigenetics and Cardiovascular Risks, Gastroenterology, Heart Failure (HF), Myocardial metabolism, Myocardial ischemia, myocardial perfusion, Myocardial adenine nucleotide metabolism, Pre-Clinical Animal Model Development, tagged C.J. Lynch, Diabetes Mellitus, NIDDK, NIH on March 2, 2016| Leave a Comment »

Christopher J. Lynch, MD, PhD, the New Office of Nutrition Research, Director

Curator: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Christopher J. Lynch to direct Office of Nutrition Research

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)

http://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/christopher-j-lynch-direct-office-nutrition-research

Christopher J. Lynch, Ph.D., has been named the new director of the Office of Nutrition Research (ONR) and chief of the Nutrition Research Branch within the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). Lynch officially assumed his new roles on Feb. 21, 2016. NIDDK is part of the National Institutes of Health.

Lynch will facilitate nutrition research within NIDDK and — through ONR — across NIH, in part by forming and leading a trans-NIH strategic working group. He will also continue and extend ongoing efforts at NIDDK to collaborate widely to advance nutrition research.

“Dr. Lynch is a leader in the nutrition community and his expertise will be vital to guiding the NIH strategic plan for nutrition research,” said NIH Director Francis S. Collins, M.D., Ph.D. “As NIH works to expand nutrition knowledge, Dr. Lynch’s understanding of the field will help identify information gaps and create a framework to support future discoveries to ultimately improve human health.”

NIH supports a broad range of nutrition research, including studies on the effects of nutrient and dietary intake on human growth and disease, genetic influences on human nutrition and metabolism and other scientific areas. ONR was established in August 2015 to help NIH develop a strategic plan to expand mission-specific nutrition research.

“Every day, we learn more about the links between diet and life-threatening diseases such as type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and stroke, and how our gut microbiome may determine food preferences,” Lynch said. “These are exciting times for nutrition research and I’m delighted to help advance NIH-funded nutrition research.”

Lynch joins NIH after 27 years at Pennsylvania State University’s College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, most recently serving as professor and vice chair of the Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology. His research focuses on how what we eat and drink influences processes leading to obesity and type 2 diabetes. He has also investigated the relationship between antipsychotic therapy and obesity and type 2 diabetes and how gastric bypass surgery changes metabolism. Lynch also led efforts to increase nutrition education in the medical school curriculum.

“Nutrition research is a key to increasing our understanding of the causes of many diseases studied by NIDDK, including diabetes, obesity, inflammatory bowel disease, and others,” said NIDDK Director Griffin P. Rodgers, M.D. “With Dr. Lynch’s guidance, we hope to strengthen our research in nutrition, encourage innovative research through novel partnerships and help the public to better understand how nutrition influences their health.”

The NIDDK, a component of the NIH, conducts and supports research on diabetes and other endocrine and metabolic diseases; digestive diseases, nutrition and obesity; and kidney, urologic and hematologic diseases. Spanning the full spectrum of medicine and afflicting people of all ages and ethnic groups, these diseases encompass some of the most common, severe and disabling conditions affecting Americans. For more information about the NIDDK and its programs, visit www.niddk.nih.gov.

About the National Institutes of Health (NIH): NIH, the nation’s medical research agency, includes 27 Institutes and Centers and is a component of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NIH is the primary federal agency conducting and supporting basic, clinical, and translational medical research, and is investigating the causes, treatments, and cures for both common and rare diseases. For more information about NIH and its programs, visit www.nih.gov

NARRATIVE:
Our laboratory is dedicated to developing cures for metabolic diseases like Obesity, Diabetes and MSUD. We have several projects:
Project 1: How Antipsychotic Drugs Exert Obesity and Metabolic Disease Side effects
Project 2: Impact of Branched Chain Amino Acid (BCAA) signaling and metabolism in obesity and diabetes.
Project 3: Adipose tissue transplant as a treatment for Maple Syrup Urine Disease.
Project 4: How Gastric Bypass Surgery Provides A Rapid Cure For Diabetes And Other Obesity Co-Morbidities Like Hypertension
Project 5: Novel Mechanism Of Action Of Cannabinoid Receptor 1 Blockers For Improvement Of Diabetes

Timeline

Klingerman CM, Stipanovic ME, Hajnal A, Lynch CJ. Acute Metabolic Effects of Olanzapine Depend on Dose and Injection Site. Dose Response. 2015 Oct-Dec; 13(4):1559325815618915.

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Lynch CJ, Kimball SR, Xu Y, Salzberg AC, Kawasawa YI. Global deletion of BCATm increases expression of skeletal muscle genes associated with protein turnover. Physiol Genomics. 2015 Nov; 47(11):569-80.

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Lynch CJ, Xu Y, Hajnal A, Salzberg AC, Kawasawa YI. RNA sequencing reveals a slow to fast muscle fiber type transition after olanzapine infusion in rats. PLoS One. 2015; 10(4):e0123966.

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Shin AC, Fasshauer M, Filatova N, Grundell LA, Zielinski E, Zhou JY, Scherer T, Lindtner C, White PJ, Lapworth AL, Ilkayeva O, Knippschild U, Wolf AM, Scheja L, Grove KL, Smith RD, Qian WJ, Lynch CJ, Newgard CB, Buettner C. Brain Insulin Lowers Circulating BCAA Levels by Inducing Hepatic BCAA Catabolism. Cell Metab. 2014 Nov 4; 20(5):898-909.

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Lynch CJ, Adams SH. Branched-chain amino acids in metabolic signalling and insulin resistance. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2014 Dec; 10(12):723-36.

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Olson KC, Chen G, Xu Y, Hajnal A, Lynch CJ. Alloisoleucine differentiates the branched-chain aminoacidemia of Zucker and dietary obese rats. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2014 May; 22(5):1212-5.

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Zimmerman HA, Olson KC, Chen G, Lynch CJ. Adipose transplant for inborn errors of branched chain amino acid metabolism in mice. Mol Genet Metab. 2013 Aug; 109(4):345-53.

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Olson KC, Chen G, Lynch CJ. Quantification of branched-chain keto acids in tissue by ultra fast liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Anal Biochem. 2013 Aug 15; 439(2):116-22.

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She P, Olson KC, Kadota Y, Inukai A, Shimomura Y, Hoppel CL, Adams SH, Kawamata Y, Matsumoto H, Sakai R, Lang CH, Lynch CJ. Leucine and protein metabolism in obese Zucker rats. PLoS One. 2013; 8(3):e59443.

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Lackey DE, Lynch CJ, Olson KC, Mostaedi R, Ali M, Smith WH, Karpe F, Humphreys S, Bedinger DH, Dunn TN, Thomas AP, Oort PJ, Kieffer DA, Amin R, Bettaieb A, Haj FG, Permana P, Anthony TG, Adams SH. Regulation of adipose branched-chain amino acid catabolism enzyme expression and cross-adipose amino acid flux in human obesity. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2013 Jun 1; 304(11):E1175-87.

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Klingerman CM, Stipanovic ME, Bader M, Lynch CJ. Second-generation antipsychotics cause a rapid switch to fat oxidation that is required for survival in C57BL/6J mice. Schizophr Bull. 2014 Mar; 40(2):327-40.

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Carr TD, DiGiovanni J, Lynch CJ, Shantz LM. Inhibition of mTOR suppresses UVB-induced keratinocyte proliferation and survival. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2012 Dec; 5(12):1394-404.

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Lynch CJ, Zhou Q, Shyng SL, Heal DJ, Cheetham SC, Dickinson K, Gregory P, Firnges M, Nordheim U, Goshorn S, Reiche D, Turski L, Antel J. Some cannabinoid receptor ligands and their distomers are direct-acting openers of SUR1 K(ATP) channels. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2012 Mar 1; 302(5):E540-51.

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Albaugh VL, Singareddy R, Mauger D, Lynch CJ. A double blind, placebo-controlled, randomized crossover study of the acute metabolic effects of olanzapine in healthy volunteers. PLoS One. 2011; 6(8):e22662.

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She P, Zhang Z, Marchionini D, Diaz WC, Jetton TJ, Kimball SR, Vary TC, Lang CH, Lynch CJ. Molecular characterization of skeletal muscle atrophy in the R6/2 mouse model of Huntington’s disease. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2011 Jul; 301(1):E49-61.

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Fogle RL, Hollenbeak CS, Stanley BA, Vary TC, Kimball SR, Lynch CJ. Functional proteomic analysis reveals sex-dependent differences in structural and energy-producing myocardial proteins in rat model of alcoholic cardiomyopathy. Physiol Genomics. 2011 Apr 12; 43(7):346-56.

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Zhou Y, Jetton TL, Goshorn S, Lynch CJ, She P. Transamination is required for {alpha}-ketoisocaproate but not leucine to stimulate insulin secretion. J Biol Chem. 2010 Oct 29; 285(44):33718-26.

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Agostino NM, Chinchilli VM, Lynch CJ, Koszyk-Szewczyk A, Gingrich R, Sivik J, Drabick JJ. Effect of the tyrosine kinase inhibitors (sunitinib, sorafenib, dasatinib, and imatinib) on blood glucose levels in diabetic and nondiabetic patients in general clinical practice. J Oncol Pharm Pract. 2011 Sep; 17(3):197-202.

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Li J, Romestaing C, Han X, Li Y, Hao X, Wu Y, Sun C, Liu X, Jefferson LS, Xiong J, Lanoue KF, Chang Z, Lynch CJ, Wang H, Shi Y. Cardiolipin remodeling by ALCAT1 links oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction to obesity. Cell Metab. 2010 Aug 4; 12(2):154-65.

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Culnan DM, Albaugh V, Sun M, Lynch CJ, Lang CH, Cooney RN. Ileal interposition improves glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in the obese Zucker rat. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2010 Sep; 299(3):G751-60.

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Hajnal A, Kovacs P, Ahmed T, Meirelles K, Lynch CJ, Cooney RN. Gastric bypass surgery alters behavioral and neural taste functions for sweet taste in obese rats. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2010 Oct; 299(4):G967-79.

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Lang CH, Lynch CJ, Vary TC. BCATm deficiency ameliorates endotoxin-induced decrease in muscle protein synthesis and improves survival in septic mice. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2010 Sep; 299(3):R935-44.

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Albaugh VL, Vary TC, Ilkayeva O, Wenner BR, Maresca KP, Joyal JL, Breazeale S, Elich TD, Lang CH, Lynch CJ. Atypical antipsychotics rapidly and inappropriately switch peripheral fuel utilization to lipids, impairing metabolic flexibility in rodents. Schizophr Bull. 2012 Jan; 38(1):153-66.

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Fogle RL, Lynch CJ, Palopoli M, Deiter G, Stanley BA, Vary TC. Impact of chronic alcohol ingestion on cardiac muscle protein expression. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2010 Jul; 34(7):1226-34.

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Lang CH, Frost RA, Bronson SK, Lynch CJ, Vary TC. Skeletal muscle protein balance in mTOR heterozygous mice in response to inflammation and leucine. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2010 Jun; 298(6):E1283-94.

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Albaugh VL, Judson JG, She P, Lang CH, Maresca KP, Joyal JL, Lynch CJ. Olanzapine promotes fat accumulation in male rats by decreasing physical activity, repartitioning energy and increasing adipose tissue lipogenesis while impairing lipolysis. Mol Psychiatry. 2011 May; 16(5):569-81.

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Lang CH, Lynch CJ, Vary TC. Alcohol-induced IGF-I resistance is ameliorated in mice deficient for mitochondrial branched-chain aminotransferase. J Nutr. 2010 May; 140(5):932-8.

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She P, Zhou Y, Zhang Z, Griffin K, Gowda K, Lynch CJ. Disruption of BCAA metabolism in mice impairs exercise metabolism and endurance. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2010 Apr; 108(4):941-9.

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Herman MA, She P, Peroni OD, Lynch CJ, Kahn BB. Adipose tissue branched chain amino acid (BCAA) metabolism modulates circulating BCAA levels. J Biol Chem. 2010 Apr 9; 285(15):11348-56.

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Li P, Knabe DA, Kim SW, Lynch CJ, Hutson SM, Wu G. Lactating porcine mammary tissue catabolizes branched-chain amino acids for glutamine and aspartate synthesis. J Nutr. 2009 Aug; 139(8):1502-9.

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Lu G, Sun H, She P, Youn JY, Warburton S, Ping P, Vondriska TM, Cai H, Lynch CJ, Wang Y. Protein phosphatase 2Cm is a critical regulator of branched-chain amino acid catabolism in mice and cultured cells. J Clin Invest. 2009 Jun; 119(6):1678-87.

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Nairizi A, She P, Vary TC, Lynch CJ. Leucine supplementation of drinking water does not alter susceptibility to diet-induced obesity in mice. J Nutr. 2009 Apr; 139(4):715-9.

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Meirelles K, Ahmed T, Culnan DM, Lynch CJ, Lang CH, Cooney RN. Mechanisms of glucose homeostasis after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery in the obese, insulin-resistant Zucker rat. Ann Surg. 2009 Feb; 249(2):277-85.

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Culnan DM, Cooney RN, Stanley B, Lynch CJ. Apolipoprotein A-IV, a putative satiety/antiatherogenic factor, rises after gastric bypass. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2009 Jan; 17(1):46-52.

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She P, Van Horn C, Reid T, Hutson SM, Cooney RN, Lynch CJ. Obesity-related elevations in plasma leucine are associated with alterations in enzymes involved in branched-chain amino acid metabolism. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2007 Dec; 293(6):E1552-63.

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She P, Reid TM, Bronson SK, Vary TC, Hajnal A, Lynch CJ, Hutson SM. Disruption of BCATm in mice leads to increased energy expenditure associated with the activation of a futile protein turnover cycle. Cell Metab. 2007 Sep; 6(3):181-94.

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Vary TC, Lynch CJ. Nutrient signaling components controlling protein synthesis in striated muscle. J Nutr. 2007 Aug; 137(8):1835-43.

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Vary TC, Deiter G, Lynch CJ. Rapamycin limits formation of active eukaryotic initiation factor 4F complex following meal feeding in rat hearts. J Nutr. 2007 Aug; 137(8):1857-62.

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Vary TC, Anthony JC, Jefferson LS, Kimball SR, Lynch CJ. Rapamycin blunts nutrient stimulation of eIF4G, but not PKCepsilon phosphorylation, in skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2007 Jul; 293(1):E188-96.

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Vary TC, Lynch CJ. Meal feeding stimulates phosphorylation of multiple effector proteins regulating protein synthetic processes in rat hearts. J Nutr. 2006 Sep; 136(9):2284-90.

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Lynch CJ, Gern B, Lloyd C, Hutson SM, Eicher R, Vary TC. Leucine in food mediates some of the postprandial rise in plasma leptin concentrations. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2006 Sep; 291(3):E621-30.

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Albaugh VL, Henry CR, Bello NT, Hajnal A, Lynch SL, Halle B, Lynch CJ. Hormonal and metabolic effects of olanzapine and clozapine related to body weight in rodents. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006 Jan; 14(1):36-51.

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Vary TC, Lynch CJ. Meal feeding enhances formation of eIF4F in skeletal muscle: role of increased eIF4E availability and eIF4G phosphorylation. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2006 Apr; 290(4):E631-42.

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Vary TC, Goodman S, Kilpatrick LE, Lynch CJ. Nutrient regulation of PKCepsilon is mediated by leucine, not insulin, in skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2005 Oct; 289(4):E684-94.

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Vary TC, Lynch CJ. Biochemical approaches for nutritional support of skeletal muscle protein metabolism during sepsis. Nutr Res Rev. 2004 Jun; 17(1):77-88.

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Lynch CJ, Halle B, Fujii H, Vary TC, Wallin R, Damuni Z, Hutson SM. Potential role of leucine metabolism in the leucine-signaling pathway involving mTOR. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2003 Oct; 285(4):E854-63.

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Lynch CJ, Hutson SM, Patson BJ, Vaval A, Vary TC. Tissue-specific effects of chronic dietary leucine and norleucine supplementation on protein synthesis in rats. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2002 Oct; 283(4):E824-35.

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Lynch CJ, Patson BJ, Anthony J, Vaval A, Jefferson LS, Vary TC. Leucine is a direct-acting nutrient signal that regulates protein synthesis in adipose tissue. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2002 Sep; 283(3):E503-13.

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Vary TC, Lynch CJ, Lang CH. Effects of chronic alcohol consumption on regulation of myocardial protein synthesis. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2001 Sep; 281(3):H1242-51.

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Lynch CJ, Patson BJ, Goodman SA, Trapolsi D, Kimball SR. Zinc stimulates the activity of the insulin- and nutrient-regulated protein kinase mTOR. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2001 Jul; 281(1):E25-34.

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Global deletion of BCATm increases expression of skeletal muscle genes associated with protein turnover.

Lynch CJ¹, Kimball SR², Xu Y², Salzberg AC³, Kawasawa YI⁴. Author information
Physiol Genomics. 2015 Nov;47(11):569-80. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1152/physiolgenomics.00055.2015

Consumption of a protein-containing meal by a fasted animal promotes protein accretion in skeletal muscle, in part through leucine stimulation of protein synthesis and indirectly through repression of protein degradation mediated by its metabolite, α-ketoisocaproate. Mice lacking the mitochondrial branched-chain aminotransferase (BCATm/Bcat2), which interconverts leucine and α-ketoisocaproate, exhibit elevated protein turnover. Here, the transcriptomes of gastrocnemius muscle from BCATm knockout (KO) and wild-type mice were compared by next-generation RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) to identify potential adaptations associated with their persistently altered nutrient signaling. Statistically significant changes in the abundance of 1,486/∼39,010 genes were identified. Bioinformatics analysis of the RNA-Seq data indicated that pathways involved in protein synthesis [eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF)-2, mammalian target of rapamycin, eIF4, and p70S6K pathways including 40S and 60S ribosomal proteins], protein breakdown (e.g., ubiquitin mediated), and muscle degeneration (apoptosis, atrophy, myopathy, and cell death) were upregulated. Also in agreement with our previous observations, the abundance of mRNAs associated with reduced body size, glycemia, plasma insulin, and lipid signaling pathways was altered in BCATm KO mice. Consistently, genes encoding anaerobic and/or oxidative metabolism of carbohydrate, fatty acids, and branched chain amino acids were modestly but systematically reduced. Although there was no indication that muscle fiber type was different between KO and wild-type mice, a difference in the abundance of mRNAs associated with a muscular dystrophy phenotype was observed, consistent with the published exercise intolerance of these mice. The results suggest transcriptional adaptations occur in BCATm KO mice that along with altered nutrient signaling may contribute to their previously reported protein turnover, metabolic and exercise phenotypes.

RNA sequencing reveals a slow to fast muscle fiber type transition after olanzapine infusion in rats.

Lynch CJ¹, Xu Y¹, Hajnal A², Salzberg AC³, Kawasawa YI⁴. Author information
PLoS One. 2015 Apr 20;10(4):e0123966. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1371/journal.pone.0123966. eCollection 2015.

Second generation antipsychotics (SGAs), like olanzapine, exhibit acute metabolic side effects leading to metabolic inflexibility, hyperglycemia, adiposity and diabetes. Understanding how SGAs affect the skeletal muscle transcriptome could elucidate approaches for mitigating these side effects. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were infused intravenously with vehicle or olanzapine for 24h using a dose leading to a mild hyperglycemia. RNA-Seq was performed on gastrocnemius muscle, followed by alignment of the data with the Rat Genome Assembly 5.0. Olanzapine altered expression of 1347 out of 26407 genes. Genes encoding skeletal muscle fiber-type specific sarcomeric, ion channel, glycolytic, O2- and Ca2+-handling, TCA cycle, vascularization and lipid oxidation proteins and pathways, along with NADH shuttles and LDH isoforms were affected. Bioinformatics analyses indicate that olanzapine decreased the expression of slower and more oxidative fiber type genes (e.g., type 1), while up regulating those for the most glycolytic and least metabolically flexible, fast twitch fiber type, IIb. Protein turnover genes, necessary to bring about transition, were also up regulated. Potential upstream regulators were also identified. Olanzapine appears to be rapidly affecting the muscle transcriptome to bring about a change to a fast-glycolytic fiber type. Such fiber types are more susceptible than slow muscle to atrophy, and such transitions are observed in chronic metabolic diseases. Thus these effects could contribute to the altered body composition and metabolic disease olanzapine causes. A potential interventional strategy is implicated because aerobic exercise, in contrast to resistance exercise, can oppose such slow to fast fiber transitions.

Brain insulin lowers circulating BCAA levels by inducing hepatic BCAA catabolism.

Shin AC¹, Fasshauer M¹, Filatova N¹, Grundell LA¹, Zielinski E¹, Zhou JY², Scherer T¹, Lindtner C¹, White PJ³, Lapworth AL³,Ilkayeva O³, Knippschild U⁴, Wolf AM⁴, Scheja L⁵, Grove KL⁶, Smith RD², Qian WJ², Lynch CJ⁷, Newgard CB³, Buettner C⁸. Author information
Cell Metab. 2014 Nov 4;20(5):898-909. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.cmet.2014.09.003 Epub 2014 Oct 9

Circulating branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) levels are elevated in obesity/diabetes and are a sensitive predictor for type 2 diabetes. Here we show in rats that insulin dose-dependently lowers plasma BCAA levels through induction of hepatic protein expression and activity of branched-chain α-keto acid dehydrogenase (BCKDH), the rate-limiting enzyme in the BCAA degradation pathway. Selective induction of hypothalamic insulin signaling in rats and genetic modulation of brain insulin receptors in mice demonstrate that brain insulin signaling is a major regulator of BCAA metabolism by inducing hepatic BCKDH. Short-term overfeeding impairs the ability of brain insulin to lower BCAAs in rats. High-fat feeding in nonhuman primates and obesity and/or diabetes in humans is associated with reduced BCKDH protein in liver. These findings support the concept that decreased hepatic BCKDH is a major cause of increased plasma BCAAs and that hypothalamic insulin resistance may account for impaired BCAA metabolism in obesity and diabetes.

Branched-chain amino acids in metabolic signalling and insulin resistance.

Lynch CJ¹, Adams SH². Author information
Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2014 Dec; 10(12):723-36. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1038/nrendo.2014.171

Branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) are important nutrient signals that have direct and indirect effects. Frequently, BCAAs have been reported to mediate antiobesity effects, especially in rodent models. However, circulating levels of BCAAs tend to be increased in individuals with obesity and are associated with worse metabolic health and future insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). A hypothesized mechanism linking increased levels of BCAAs and T2DM involves leucine-mediated activation of the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), which results in uncoupling of insulin signalling at an early stage. A BCAA dysmetabolism model proposes that the accumulation of mitotoxic metabolites (and not BCAAs per se) promotes β-cell mitochondrial dysfunction, stress signalling and apoptosis associated with T2DM. Alternatively, insulin resistance might promote aminoacidaemia by increasing the protein degradation that insulin normally suppresses, and/or by eliciting an impairment of efficient BCAA oxidative metabolism in some tissues. Whether and how impaired BCAA metabolism might occur in obesity is discussed in this Review. Research on the role of individual and model-dependent differences in BCAA metabolism is needed, as several genes (BCKDHA, PPM1K, IVD and KLF15) have been designated as candidate genes for obesity and/or T2DM in humans, and distinct phenotypes of tissue-specific branched chain ketoacid dehydrogenase complex activity have been detected in animal models of obesity and T2DM.

Leucine and protein metabolism in obese Zucker rats.

She P¹, Olson KC, Kadota Y, Inukai A, Shimomura Y, Hoppel CL, Adams SH, Kawamata Y, Matsumoto H, Sakai R, Lang CH, Lynch CJ. Author information
PLoS One. 2013;8(3):e59443. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1371/journal.pone.0059443 Epub 2013 Mar 20.

Branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) are circulating nutrient signals for protein accretion, however, they increase in obesity and elevations appear to be prognostic of diabetes. To understand the mechanisms whereby obesity affects BCAAs and protein metabolism, we employed metabolomics and measured rates of [1-(14)C]-leucine metabolism, tissue-specific protein synthesis and branched-chain keto-acid (BCKA) dehydrogenase complex (BCKDC) activities. Male obese Zucker rats (11-weeks old) had increased body weight (BW, 53%), liver (107%) and fat (∼300%), but lower plantaris and gastrocnemius masses (-21-24%). Plasma BCAAs and BCKAs were elevated 45-69% and ∼100%, respectively, in obese rats. Processes facilitating these rises appeared to include increased dietary intake (23%), leucine (Leu) turnover and proteolysis [35% per g fat free mass (FFM), urinary markers of proteolysis: 3-methylhistidine (183%) and 4-hydroxyproline (766%)] and decreased BCKDC per g kidney, heart, gastrocnemius and liver (-47-66%). A process disposing of circulating BCAAs, protein synthesis, was increased 23-29% by obesity in whole-body (FFM corrected), gastrocnemius and liver. Despite the observed decreases in BCKDC activities per gm tissue, rates of whole-body Leu oxidation in obese rats were 22% and 59% higher normalized to BW and FFM, respectively. Consistently, urinary concentrations of eight BCAA catabolism-derived acylcarnitines were also elevated. The unexpected increase in BCAA oxidation may be due to a substrate effect in liver. Supporting this idea, BCKAs were elevated more in liver (193-418%) than plasma or muscle, and per g losses of hepatic BCKDC activities were completely offset by increased liver mass, in contrast to other tissues. In summary, our results indicate that plasma BCKAs may represent a more sensitive metabolic signature for obesity than BCAAs. Processes supporting elevated BCAA]BCKAs in the obese Zucker rat include increased dietary intake, Leu and protein turnover along with impaired BCKDC activity. Elevated BCAAs/BCKAs may contribute to observed elevations in protein synthesis and BCAA oxidation.

Regulation of adipose branched-chain amino acid catabolism enzyme expression and cross-adipose amino acid flux in human obesity.

Lackey DE¹, Lynch CJ, Olson KC, Mostaedi R, Ali M, Smith WH, Karpe F, Humphreys S, Bedinger DH, Dunn TN, Thomas AP, Oort PJ, Kieffer DA, Amin R, Bettaieb A, Haj FG, Permana P, Anthony TG, Adams SH.
Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2013 Jun 1; 304(11):E1175-87. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1152/ajpendo.00630.2012

Elevated blood branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) are often associated with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes, which might result from a reduced cellular utilization and/or incomplete BCAA oxidation. White adipose tissue (WAT) has become appreciated as a potential player in whole body BCAA metabolism. We tested if expression of the mitochondrial BCAA oxidation checkpoint, branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase (BCKD) complex, is reduced in obese WAT and regulated by metabolic signals. WAT BCKD protein (E1α subunit) was significantly reduced by 35-50% in various obesity models (fa/fa rats, db/db mice, diet-induced obese mice), and BCKD component transcripts significantly lower in subcutaneous (SC) adipocytes from obese vs. lean Pima Indians. Treatment of 3T3-L1 adipocytes or mice with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ agonists increased WAT BCAA catabolism enzyme mRNAs, whereas the nonmetabolizable glucose analog 2-deoxy-d-glucose had the opposite effect. The results support the hypothesis that suboptimal insulin action and/or perturbed metabolic signals in WAT, as would be seen with insulin resistance/type 2 diabetes, could impair WAT BCAA utilization. However, cross-tissue flux studies comparing lean vs. insulin-sensitive or insulin-resistant obese subjects revealed an unexpected negligible uptake of BCAA from human abdominal SC WAT. This suggests that SC WAT may not be an important contributor to blood BCAA phenotypes associated with insulin resistance in the overnight-fasted state. mRNA abundances for BCAA catabolic enzymes were markedly reduced in omental (but not SC) WAT of obese persons with metabolic syndrome compared with weight-matched healthy obese subjects, raising the possibility that visceral WAT contributes to the BCAA metabolic phenotype of metabolically compromised individuals.

Some cannabinoid receptor ligands and their distomers are direct-acting openers of SUR1 K(ATP) channels.

Lynch CJ¹, Zhou Q, Shyng SL, Heal DJ, Cheetham SC, Dickinson K, Gregory P, Firnges M, Nordheim U, Goshorn S, Reiche D,Turski L, Antel J. Author information
Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2012 Mar 1;302(5):E540-51.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1152/ajpendo.00258.2011

Here, we examined the chronic effects of two cannabinoid receptor-1 (CB1) inverse agonists, rimonabant and ibipinabant, in hyperinsulinemic Zucker rats to determine their chronic effects on insulinemia. Rimonabant and ibipinabant (10 mg·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹) elicited body weight-independent improvements in insulinemia and glycemia during 10 wk of chronic treatment. To elucidate the mechanism of insulin lowering, acute in vivo and in vitro studies were then performed. Surprisingly, chronic treatment was not required for insulin lowering. In acute in vivo and in vitro studies, the CB1 inverse agonists exhibited acute K channel opener (KCO; e.g., diazoxide and NN414)-like effects on glucose tolerance and glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) with approximately fivefold better potency than diazoxide. Followup studies implied that these effects were inconsistent with a CB1-mediated mechanism. Thus effects of several CB1 agonists, inverse agonists, and distomers during GTTs or GSIS studies using perifused rat islets were unpredictable from their known CB1 activities. In vivo rimonabant and ibipinabant caused glucose intolerance in CB1 but not SUR1-KO mice. Electrophysiological studies indicated that, compared with diazoxide, 3 μM rimonabant and ibipinabant are partial agonists for K channel opening. Partial agonism was consistent with data from radioligand binding assays designed to detect SUR1 K(ATP) KCOs where rimonabant and ibipinabant allosterically regulated ³H-glibenclamide-specific binding in the presence of MgATP, as did diazoxide and NN414. Our findings indicate that some CB1 ligands may directly bind and allosterically regulate Kir6.2/SUR1 K(ATP) channels like other KCOs. This mechanism appears to be compatible with and may contribute to their acute and chronic effects on GSIS and insulinemia.

Transamination is required for {alpha}-ketoisocaproate but not leucine to stimulate insulin secretion.

Zhou Y¹, Jetton TL, Goshorn S, Lynch CJ, She P. Author information
J Biol Chem. 2010 Oct 29;285(44):33718-26. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1074/jbc.M110.136846

It remains unclear how α-ketoisocaproate (KIC) and leucine are metabolized to stimulate insulin secretion. Mitochondrial BCATm (branched-chain aminotransferase) catalyzes reversible transamination of leucine and α-ketoglutarate to KIC and glutamate, the first step of leucine catabolism. We investigated the biochemical mechanisms of KIC and leucine-stimulated insulin secretion (KICSIS and LSIS, respectively) using BCATm(-/-) mice. In static incubation, BCATm disruption abolished insulin secretion by KIC, D,L-α-keto-β-methylvalerate, and α-ketocaproate without altering stimulation by glucose, leucine, or α-ketoglutarate. Similarly, during pancreas perfusions in BCATm(-/-) mice, glucose and arginine stimulated insulin release, whereas KICSIS was largely abolished. During islet perifusions, KIC and 2 mM glutamine caused robust dose-dependent insulin secretion in BCATm(+/+) not BCATm(-/-) islets, whereas LSIS was unaffected. Consistently, in contrast to BCATm(+/+) islets, the increases of the ATP concentration and NADPH/NADP(+) ratio in response to KIC were largely blunted in BCATm(-/-) islets. Compared with nontreated islets, the combination of KIC/glutamine (10/2 mM) did not influence α-ketoglutarate concentrations but caused 120 and 33% increases in malate in BCATm(+/+) and BCATm(-/-) islets, respectively. Although leucine oxidation and KIC transamination were blocked in BCATm(-/-) islets, KIC oxidation was unaltered. These data indicate that KICSIS requires transamination of KIC and glutamate to leucine and α-ketoglutarate, respectively. LSIS does not require leucine catabolism and may be through leucine activation of glutamate dehydrogenase. Thus, KICSIS and LSIS occur by enhancing the metabolism of glutamine/glutamate to α-ketoglutarate, which, in turn, is metabolized to produce the intracellular signals such as ATP and NADPH for insulin secretion.

Effect of the tyrosine kinase inhibitors (sunitinib, sorafenib, dasatinib, and imatinib) on blood glucose levels in diabetic and nondiabetic patients in general clinical practice.

Agostino NM¹, Chinchilli VM, Lynch CJ, Koszyk-Szewczyk A, Gingrich R, Sivik J, Drabick JJ.
J Oncol Pharm Pract. 2011 Sep; 17(3):197-202. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1177/1078155210378913

Tyrosine kinase is a key enzyme activity utilized in many intracellular messaging pathways. Understanding the role of particular tyrosine kinases in malignancies has allowed for the design of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), which can target these enzymes and interfere with downstream signaling. TKIs have proven to be successful in the treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia, renal cell carcinoma and gastrointestinal stromal tumor, and other malignancies. Scattered reports have suggested that these agents appear to affect blood glucose (BG). We retrospectively studied the BG concentrations in diabetic (17) and nondiabetic (61) patients treated with dasatinib (8), imatinib (39), sorafenib (23), and sunitinib (30) in our clinical practice. Mean declines of BG were dasatinib (53 mg/dL), imatinib (9 mg/dL), sorafenib (12 mg/dL), and sunitinib (14 mg/dL). All these declines in BG were statistically significant. Of note, 47% (8/17) of the patients with diabetes were able to discontinue their medications, including insulin in some patients. Only one diabetic patient developed symptomatic hypoglycemia while on sunitinib. The mechanism for the hypoglycemic effect of these drugs is unclear, but of the four agents tested, c-kit and PDGFRβ are the common target kinases. Clinicians should keep the potential hypoglycemic effects of these agents in mind; modification of hypoglycemic agents may be required in diabetic patients. These results also suggest that inhibition of a tyrosine kinase, be it c-kit, PDGFRβ or some other undefined target, may improve diabetes mellitus BG control and it deserves further study as a potential novel therapeutic option.

Cardiolipin remodeling by ALCAT1 links oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction to obesity.

Li J¹, Romestaing C, Han X, Li Y, Hao X, Wu Y, Sun C, Liu X, Jefferson LS, Xiong J, Lanoue KF, Chang Z, Lynch CJ, Wang H, Shi Y. Author information
Cell Metab. 2010 Aug 4;12(2):154-65. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.cmet.2010.07.003

Oxidative stress causes mitochondrial dysfunction and metabolic complications through unknown mechanisms. Cardiolipin (CL) is a key mitochondrial phospholipid required for oxidative phosphorylation. Oxidative damage to CL from pathological remodeling is implicated in the etiology of mitochondrial dysfunction commonly associated with diabetes, obesity, and other metabolic diseases. Here, we show that ALCAT1, a lyso-CL acyltransferase upregulated by oxidative stress and diet-induced obesity (DIO), catalyzes the synthesis of CL species that are highly sensitive to oxidative damage, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction, ROS production, and insulin resistance. These metabolic disorders were reminiscent of those observed in type 2 diabetes and were reversed by rosiglitazone treatment. Consequently, ALCAT1 deficiency prevented the onset of DIO and significantly improved mitochondrial complex I activity, lipid oxidation, and insulin signaling in ALCAT1(-/-) mice. Collectively, these findings identify a key role of ALCAT1 in regulating CL remodeling, mitochondrial dysfunction, and susceptibility to DIO.

BCATm deficiency ameliorates endotoxin-induced decrease in muscle protein synthesis and improves survival in septic mice.

Lang CH¹, Lynch CJ, Vary TC. Author information
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2010 Sep; 299(3):R935-44.
http://dx.doi.org:/10.1152/ajpregu.00297.2010

Endotoxin (LPS) and sepsis decrease mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) activity in skeletal muscle, thereby reducing protein synthesis. Our study tests the hypothesis that inhibition of branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) catabolism, which elevates circulating BCAA and stimulates mTOR, will blunt the LPS-induced decrease in muscle protein synthesis. Wild-type (WT) and mitochondrial branched-chain aminotransferase (BCATm) knockout mice were studied 4 h after Escherichia coli LPS or saline. Basal skeletal muscle protein synthesis was increased in knockout mice compared with WT, and this change was associated with increased eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF)-4E binding protein-1 (4E-BP1) phosphorylation, eIF4E.eIF4G binding, 4E-BP1.raptor binding, and eIF3.raptor binding without a change in the mTOR.raptor complex in muscle. LPS decreased muscle protein synthesis in WT mice, a change associated with decreased 4E-BP1 phosphorylation as well as decreased formation of eIF4E.eIF4G, 4E-BP1.raptor, and eIF3.raptor complexes. In BCATm knockout mice given LPS, muscle protein synthesis only decreased to values found in vehicle-treated WT control mice, and this ameliorated LPS effect was associated with a coordinate increase in 4E-BP1.raptor, eIF3.raptor, and 4E-BP1 phosphorylation. Additionally, the LPS-induced increase in muscle cytokines was blunted in BCATm knockout mice, compared with WT animals. In a separate study, 7-day survival and muscle mass were increased in BCATm knockout vs. WT mice after polymicrobial peritonitis. These data suggest that elevating blood BCAA is sufficient to ameliorate the catabolic effect of LPS on skeletal muscle protein synthesis via alterations in protein-protein interactions within mTOR complex-1, and this may provide a survival advantage in response to bacterial infection.

Alcohol-induced IGF-I resistance is ameliorated in mice deficient for mitochondrial branched-chain aminotransferase.

Lang CH¹, Lynch CJ, Vary TC. Author information
J Nutr. 2010 May;140(5):932-8. http://dx.doi.org:/10.3945/jn.109.120501

Acute alcohol intoxication decreases skeletal muscle protein synthesis by impairing mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). In 2 studies, we determined whether inhibition of branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) catabolism ameliorates the inhibitory effect of alcohol on muscle protein synthesis by raising the plasma BCAA concentrations and/or by improving the anabolic response to insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I. In the first study, 4 groups of mice were used: wild-type (WT) and mitochondrial branched-chain aminotransferase (BCATm) knockout (KO) mice orally administered saline or alcohol (5 g/kg, 1 h). Protein synthesis was greater in KO mice compared with WT controls and was associated with greater phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF)-4E binding protein-1 (4EBP1), eIF4E-eIF4G binding, and 4EBP1-regulatory associated protein of mTOR (raptor) binding, but not mTOR-raptor binding. Alcohol decreased protein synthesis in WT mice, a change associated with less 4EBP1 phosphorylation, eIF4E-eIF4G binding, and raptor-4EBP1 binding, but greater mTOR-raptor complex formation. Comparable alcohol effects on protein synthesis and signal transduction were detected in BCATm KO mice. The second study used the same 4 groups, but all mice were injected with IGF-I (25 microg/mouse, 30 min). Alcohol impaired the ability of IGF-I to increase muscle protein synthesis, 4EBP1 and 70-kilodalton ribosomal protein S6 kinase-1 phosphorylation, eIF4E-eIF4G binding, and 4EBP1-raptor binding in WT mice. However, in alcohol-treated BCATm KO mice, this IGF-I resistance was not manifested. These data suggest that whereas the sustained elevation in plasma BCAA is not sufficient to ameliorate the catabolic effect of acute alcohol intoxication on muscle protein synthesis, it does improve the anabolic effect of IGF-I.

Impact of chronic alcohol ingestion on cardiac muscle protein expression.

Fogle RL¹, Lynch CJ, Palopoli M, Deiter G, Stanley BA, Vary TC. Author information
Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2010 Jul;34(7):1226-34. http://dx.doi.org:/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2010.01200.x

BACKGROUND:

Chronic alcohol abuse contributes not only to an increased risk of health-related complications, but also to a premature mortality in adults. Myocardial dysfunction, including the development of a syndrome referred to as alcoholic cardiomyopathy, appears to be a major contributing factor. One mechanism to account for the pathogenesis of alcoholic cardiomyopathy involves alterations in protein expression secondary to an inhibition of protein synthesis. However, the full extent to which myocardial proteins are affected by chronic alcohol consumption remains unresolved.

METHODS:

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of chronic alcohol consumption on the expression of cardiac proteins. Male rats were maintained for 16 weeks on a 40% ethanol-containing diet in which alcohol was provided both in drinking water and agar blocks. Control animals were pair-fed to consume the same caloric intake. Heart homogenates from control- and ethanol-fed rats were labeled with the cleavable isotope coded affinity tags (ICAT). Following the reaction with the ICAT reagent, we applied one-dimensional gel electrophoresis with in-gel trypsin digestion of proteins and subsequent MALDI-TOF-TOF mass spectrometric techniques for identification of peptides. Differences in the expression of cardiac proteins from control- and ethanol-fed rats were determined by mass spectrometry approaches.

RESULTS:

Initial proteomic analysis identified and quantified hundreds of cardiac proteins. Major decreases in the expression of specific myocardial proteins were observed. Proteins were grouped depending on their contribution to multiple activities of cardiac function and metabolism, including mitochondrial-, glycolytic-, myofibrillar-, membrane-associated, and plasma proteins. Another group contained identified proteins that could not be properly categorized under the aforementioned classification system.

CONCLUSIONS:

Based on the changes in proteins, we speculate modulation of cardiac muscle protein expression represents a fundamental alteration induced by chronic alcohol consumption, consistent with changes in myocardial wall thickness measured under the same conditions.

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Treatments for macular degenaration

Posted in Auditory and vision, Clinical & Translational, Diabetes Mellitus, Disease Biology, Neurological Diseases, Pharmaceutical Analytics, Pharmaceutical Drug Discovery, Population Health Management, Regulated Clinical Trials: Design, Methods, Components and IRB related issues, tagged diabetic retinopathy, macular edema, VEGF on February 29, 2016| Leave a Comment »

Treatments for macular degenaration

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

LPBI

Eylea outperforms Avastin for diabetic macular edema with moderate or worse vision loss

NIH-funded clinical trial shows Eylea, Avastin, and Lucentis perform similarly when vision loss is mild.

http://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/eylea-outperforms-avastin-diabetic-macular-edema-moderate-or-worse-vision-loss

image of a patient having an eye exam

A two-year clinical trial that compared three drugs for diabetic macular edema (DME) found that gains in vision were greater for participants receiving the drug Eylea (aflibercept) than for those receiving Avastin (bevacizumab), but only among participants starting treatment with 20/50 or worse vision. Gains after two years were about the same for Eylea and Lucentis (ranibizumab), contrary to year-one results from the study, which showed Eylea with a clear advantage. The three drugs yielded similar gains in vision for patients with 20/32 or 20/40 vision at the start of treatment. The clinical trial was conducted by the Diabetic Retinopathy Clinical Research Network (DRCR.net), which is funded by the National Eye Institute, part of the National Institutes of Health.

“This rigorous trial confirms that Eylea, Avastin, and Lucentis are all effective treatments for diabetic macular edema,” said NEI Director Paul A. Sieving, M.D., Ph.D. “Eye care providers and patients can have confidence in all three drugs.”

Eylea, Avastin, and Lucentis are all widely used to treat DME, a consequence of diabetes that can cause blurring of central vision due to the leakage of fluid from abnormal blood vessels in the retina. The macula is the area of the retina used when looking straight ahead. The drugs are injected into the eye and work by inhibiting vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), a substance that can promote abnormal blood vessel growth and leakage. Although the drugs have a similar mode of action, they differ significantly in cost. Based on Medicare allowable charges, the per-injection costs of each drug at the doses used in this study were about $1850 for Eylea, about $60 for Avastin, and about $1200 for Lucentis.

DRCR.net investigators enrolled 660 people with DME at 89 clinical trial sites across the United States. When the study began, participants on average were 61 years old with 17 years of type 1 or type 2 diabetes. Only people with a visual acuity of 20/32 or worse were eligible to participate (to see clearly, a person with 20/32 vision would have to be 20 feet away from an object that a person with normal vision could see clearly at 32 feet). At enrollment, about half the participants had 20/32 to 20/40 vision. The other half had 20/50 or worse vision. In many states, a corrected visual acuity of 20/40 or better in at least one eye is required for a driver’s license that allows both day- and nighttime driving.

Each participant was assigned randomly to receive Eylea (2.0 milligrams/0.05 milliliter), Avastin (1.25 mg/0.05 mL), or Lucentis (0.3 mg/0.05 mL). Participants were evaluated monthly during the first year and every 4-16 weeks during the second year. Most participants received monthly injections during the first six months. Thereafter, participants received additional injections of assigned study drug until DME resolved or stabilized with no further vision improvement. Subsequently, injections were resumed if DME worsened. Additionally, laser treatment was given if DME persisted without continual improvement after six months of injections. Laser treatment alone was the standard treatment for DME until widespread adoption of anti-VEGF drugs a few years ago.

Among participants with 20/40 or better vision at the trial’s start, all three drugs improved vision similarly on an eye chart. On average, participants’ vision improved from 20/40 vision to 20/25.

Among participants with 20/50 or worse vision at the trial’s start, visual acuity on average improved substantially in all three groups. At two years, Eylea participants were able to read about 3.5 additional lines on an eye chart; Lucentis participants were able to read about three additional lines, and Avastin participants improved about 2.5 lines, compared with visual acuity before treatment. Eylea outperformed Avastin at the one- and two-year time points. While Eylea outperformed Lucentis at the one-year time point, by the two-year time point gains in visual acuity were statistically no different. At the end of the trial, average visual acuity was 20/32 to 20/40 among participants in all three groups.

“The results of the DRCR Network’s comparison of Eylea, Avastin, and Lucentis will help doctors and their patients with diabetic macular edema choose the most appropriate therapy,” said John A. Wells, M.D., the lead author of the study and a retinal specialist at the Palmetto Retina Center, Columbia, South Carolina. “The study suggests there is little advantage of choosing Eylea or Lucentis over Avastin when a patient’s loss of visual acuity from macular edema is mild, meaning a visual acuity of 20/40 or better. However, patients with 20/50 or worse vision loss may benefit from Eylea, which over the course of the two-year study outperformed Lucentis and Avastin.”

The number of injections participants needed was about the same for all three treatment groups. Eylea, Avastin, and Lucentis participants on average required nine injections in the first year of the study and five in the second year.

The need for laser treatment varied among the three treatment groups. By two years, 41 percent of participants in the Eylea group received laser treatment to treat their macular edema, compared with 64 percent of participants in the Avastin group and 52 percent in the Lucentis group.

The risk of heart attack, stroke, or death from a cardiovascular condition or an unknown cause by end of the trial was higher among participants in the Lucentis group. Twelve percent of Lucentis participants had at least one event, compared with five percent of participants in the Eylea group and eight percent of participants in the Avastin group. This difference in cardiovascular rates has not been seen across all other studies, and therefore may be due to chance. Continued assessment of these serious cardiovascular events and their association with these drugs is important in future studies. Cardiovascular events such as heart attack and stroke are common complications of diabetes. The occurrence of eye complications, such as eye infections and inflammation, was similar for all three drugs.

Results of the study were published online today in Ophthalmology, the journal of the American Academy of Ophthalmology. Eylea and Lucentis were provided by drug manufacturers Regeneron and Genentech, respectively. Additional research funding for this study was provided by the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, also a part of NIH.

“This important study would not have happened without funding from the National Institutes of Health and the cooperation of two competing companies,” said Adam R. Glassman, M.S., principal investigator of the DRCR.Net Coordinating Center at the Jaeb Center for Health Research.

The DRCR.net is dedicated to facilitating multicenter clinical research of diabetic eye disease. The Network formed in 2002 and comprises more than 350 physicians practicing at more than 140 clinical sites across the country. For more information, visit the DRCR.net website at http://drcrnet.jaeb.org/(link is external).

The study was funded by grants EY14231, EY14229, and EY18817.

The study is registered as NCT01627249 at ClinicalTrials.gov.

Macular edema can arise during any stage of diabetic retinopathy and is the most common cause of diabetes-related vision loss. About 7.7 million Americans have diabetic retinopathy. Of these, about 750,000 have DME. The NEI provides information about diabetic eye disease athttp://www.nei.nih.gov/health/diabetic. View an NEI video about how diabetic retinopathy can be detected through a comprehensive dilated eye exam at http://youtu.be/sQ-0RkPu35o(link is external).

NEI leads the federal government’s research on the visual system and eye diseases. NEI supports basic and clinical science programs that result in the development of sight-saving treatments. For more information, visit http://www.nei.nih.gov.

Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) and Its Role in Non-Endothelial Cells: Autocrine Signalling by VEGF

Angela M. Duffy, David J. Bouchier-Hayes, and Judith H. Harmey. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK6482/

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a potent angiogenic factor and was first described as an essential growth factor for vascular endothelial cells. VEGF is up-regulated in many tumors and its contribution to tumor angiogenesis is well defined. In addition to endothelial cells, VEGF and VEGF receptors are expressed on numerous non-endothelial cells including tumor cells. This review examines the relevance of VEGF signalling in non-endothelial cells and explores the probable mechanisms involved.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), also known as vascular permeability factor (VPF), was originally described as an endothelial cell-specific mitogen.¹ VEGF is produced by many cell types including tumor cells,²^,³ macrophages,⁴ platelets,⁵ keratinocytes,⁶ and renal mesangial cells.⁷ The activities of VEGF are not limited to the vascular system; VEGF plays a role in normal physiological functions such as bone formation,⁸ hematopoiesis,⁹wound healing,¹⁰ and development.¹¹

Anti-VEGF strategies to treat cancers were designed to target the pro-angiogenic function of VEGF and thereby inhibit neovascularization. However, anti-VEGF therapies may have a dual effect since evidence is accumulating to support the existence of both paracrine and autocrine VEGF loops within tumors. It has been suggested that direct stimulation of tumor cells by VEGF may protect the cells from apoptosis and increase their resistance to conventional chemotherapy and radiotherapy.¹² Chemotherapy and radiotherapy have been shown to increase VEGF within tumors,¹³ and this increased VEGF may in fact protect tumor cells from these interventions. Anti-VEGF therapies are therefore likely to target both the pro-angiogenic activity of VEGF and the anti-apoptotic/pro-survival functions of VEGF.

VEGF and the Central Nervous System (CNS)

In the central nervous system (CNS) both positive (pro-migratory) and negative (anti-migratory) regulatory factors are essential for axonal guidance.¹⁷ Following prolonged exposure, Sema3A, a member of the semaphorin family, acts as an inhibitor of neuronal migration and induces neuronal cell death¹⁸ through the neuropilin-1 receptor (NP-1).¹⁹However, in addition to Sema3A binding, NP-1 also acts as an additional receptor for VEGF₁₆₅ isoform.²⁰ The relationship between Sema3A and VEGF was explored in Dev cells,²¹ undifferentiated cells derived from a cerebellar medullablastoma that behave as pluripotential neural progenitor cells.²² NP-1 mRNA expression was detected in Dev cells by RT-PCR and in situ hybridization. Western blotting and immunohistochemical analysis confirmed that NP-1 was expressed on the cell surface. VEGF₁₆₅ or anti-NP-1 antibody blocked the effect of Sema3A on these cells, suggesting that VEGF₁₆₅ binds competitively to NP-1 to block Sema3A signalling.

Dev cells also expressed VEGFR-1 and blockade of VEGFR-1 reduced the inhibition of neuronal cell migration by Sema3A.²¹ It appears that both NP-1 and VEGFR-1 are required for Sema3A activity in these neuronal cells. NP-1 binds with high affinity to VEGFR-1.²⁴NP-1 has a very short intracellular domain and appears to require a coreceptor to transduce a signal²⁰ thus, VEGFR-1 may serve as a coreceptor for NP-1 in the modulation of Sema3A signalling. Both VEGF₁₂₁ and VEGF₁₆₅ inhibited Sema3A-induced apoptosis, and at higher concentrations reduced apoptosis below basal levels indicating an additional neuroprotective effect.

VEGF is induced in many CNS pathologies where it may have a neuroprotective role. VEGF has a neurotrophic effect and enhances survival of Schwann cells,²⁵ and protects hippocampal neurons from ischemic injury.²⁶ Impaired VEGF induction in the spinal cord results in motor neuron degeneration.²⁷ In addition, when cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) were exposed to 5% hypoxia for 9 hours VEGF, VEGFR-1 and VEGFR-2 expression increased, and a neutralizing antibody to VEGF, DC 101, inhibited hypoxic preconditioning.²⁸ Thus, VEGF autocrine or paracrine mechanisms appear to play a role in CGN cell survival following hypoxic preconditioning. In CGNs Akt (also known as Protein Kinase B/ PKB) was phosphorylated in response to VEGF and other studies have shown that VEGF stimulation in neurons is linked to PI3-K (Phosphatidylinositol 3′-kinase) and Akt activation and neuronal protection.²⁹

VEGFA http://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/P15692

Growth factor active in angiogenesis, vasculogenesis and endothelial cell growth. Induces endothelial cell proliferation, promotes cell migration, inhibits apoptosis and induces permeabilization of blood vessels. Binds to the FLT1/VEGFR1 and KDR/VEGFR2 receptors, heparan sulfate and heparin. NRP1/Neuropilin-1 binds isoforms VEGF-165 and VEGF-145. IsoformVEGF165B binds to KDR but does not activate downstream signaling pathways, does not activate angiogenesis and inhibits tumor growth.

GO:1902336 positive regulation of retinal ganglion cell axon guidance

ID	GO:1902336
Name	positive regulation of retinal ganglion cell axon guidance
Ontology	Biological Process
Definition	Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of retinal ganglion cell axon guidance. PMID:21658587
GONUTS	GO:1902336 Wiki Page
Acknowledgements	This term was created by the GO Consortium

Synonym

up-regulation of retinal ganglion pathfinding

cell axon pathfinding

up regulation of retinal ganglion cell axon pathfinding

activation of retinal ganglion cell axon pathfinding

activation of retinal ganglion cell axon guidance

upregulation of retinal ganglion cell axon pathfinding

up regulation of retinal ganglion cell axon guidance

up-regulation of retinal ganglion cell axon guidance

upregulation of retinal ganglion cell axon guidance

positive regulation of retinal ganglion cell axon pathfinding

What Is Age-Related Macular Degeneration? http://www.webmd.com/eye-health/macular-degeneration/age-related-macular-degeneration-overview
Macular degeneration is the leading cause of severe vision loss in people over age 60. It occurs when the small central portion of the retina, known as the macula, deteriorates. The retina is the light-sensing nerve tissue at the back of the eye. Because the disease develops as a person ages, it is often referred to as age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Although macular degeneration is almost never a totally blinding condition, it can be a source of significant visual disability.

There are two main types of age-related macular degeneration:

Dry form. The “dry” form of macular degeneration is characterized by the presence of yellow deposits, called drusen, in the macula. A few small drusen may not cause changes in vision; however, as they grow in size and increase in number, they may lead to a dimming or distortion of vision that people find most noticeable when they read. In more advanced stages of dry macular degeneration, there is also a thinning of the light-sensitive layer of cells in the macula leading to atrophy, or tissue death. In the atrophic form of dry macular degeneration, patients may have blind spots in the center of their vision. In the advanced stages, patients lose central vision.
Wet form. The “wet” form of macular degeneration is characterized by the growth of abnormal blood vessels from the choroid underneath the macula. This is called choroidal neovascularization. These blood vessels leak blood and fluid into the retina, causing distortion of vision that makes straight lines look wavy, as well as blind spots and loss of central vision. These abnormal blood vessels and their bleeding eventually form a scar, leading to permanent loss of central vision.
Most patients with macular degeneration have the dry form of the disease and can lose some form of central vision. However, the dry form of macular degeneration can lead to the wet form. Although only about 10% of people with macular degeneration develop the wet form, they make up the majority of those who experience serious vision loss from the disease.

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Inflammatory Disorders: Articles published @ pharmaceuticalintelligence.com

Posted in Alzheimer's Disease, Autoimmune Inflammatory DIseases, Autophagy, Bacterial Resistance, Cancer and Current Therapeutics, Crohn's disease, Cytokines, Diabetes Mellitus, Disease Biology, Disease Biology, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, Enzymes and isoenzymes, Etiology, Gastroenterology, Hematology, Human Immune System in Health and in Disease, Inflammasome, Lung and pulmonology, Lymphoma, Metabolism, Metabolomics, Microbiology, Micronutrients, Nephrology, Neurodegenerative Diseases, Neurological Diseases, Nitric Oxide in Health and Disease, Nutrition, Obesity, Protein-energy malnutrition, Proteolysis, Proteomics, Ulcerative Colitis, Viral diseases, Virology, tagged autoimmunity, systemic inflammatory response, T cells on February 28, 2016| Leave a Comment »

Inflammatory Disorders: Articles published @ pharmaceuticalintelligence.com

Curators: Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

This is a compilation of articles on Inflammatory Disorders that were published

@ pharmaceuticalintelligence.com, since 4/2012 to date

There are published works that have not been included. However, there is a substantial amount of material in the following categories:

Proteomics, metabolomics and diabetes

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/11/16/reducing-obesity-related-inflammation/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/10/25/the-relationship-of-stress-hypermetabolism-to-essential-protein-needs/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/10/24/the-relationship-of-s-amino-acids-to-marasmic-and-kwashiorkor-pem/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/10/24/the-significant-burden-of-childhood-malnutrition-and-stunting/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/04/14/protein-binding-protein-protein-interactions-therapeutic-implications-7-3/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/03/07/transthyretin-and-the-stressful-condition/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/02/13/neural-activity-regulating-endocrine-response/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/01/31/proteomics/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/01/17/proteins-an-evolutionary-record-of-diversity-and-adaptation/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/11/01/summary-of-signaling-and-signaling-pathways/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/10/31/complex-models-of-signaling-therapeutic-implications/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/10/24/diabetes-mellitus/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/10/16/metabolomics-summary-and-perspective/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/10/14/metabolic-reactions-need-just-enough/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/11/03/introduction-to-protein-synthesis-and-degradation/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2015/09/25/proceedings-of-the-nyas/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/10/31/complex-models-of-signaling-therapeutic-implications/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2014/03/21/what-is-the-key-method-to-harness-inflammation-to-close-the-doors-for-many-complex-diseases/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/05/irf-1-deficiency-skews-the-differentiation-of-dendritic-cells/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/26/new-insights-on-no-donors/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/20/the-potential-for-nitric-oxide-donors-in-renal-function-disorders/

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Severe hypoglycemia tied to cardiac arrhythmia, mortality in diabetes patients

Posted in Atrial Fibrilation (a-Fib), Cardiac Pacing and Arrhythmias, Diabetes Mellitus on February 21, 2016| Leave a Comment »

Severe hypoglycemia tied to cardiac arrhythmia, mortality in diabetes patients

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Severe hypoglycemia is tied to cardiac arrhythmia and mortality in diabetes patients

Sourced through Scoop.it from: www.belmarrahealth.com

See on Scoop.it – Cardiovascular Disease: PHARMACO-THERAPY

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Cell Applications Introduces Cellular Disease Model for Type 2 Diabetes

Posted in Diabetes Mellitus on February 5, 2016| Leave a Comment »

Cell Applications Introduces Cellular Disease Model for Type 2 Diabetes

Reporter: Evelina B. Cohn, PhD

Press release on December 11, 2015

Cell Application Inc. Company announces on December 11, 2015 the design of human cellular disease model for Type 2 Diabetes. The product grouping consists of human aortic endothelial cells, aortic smooth muscle cells, preadipocytes and skeletal muscle isolated from patient donors affected with the disease.. In addition to high blood sugar 1 in 10 affected individuals encounter complications including high blood pressure, cholesterol, heart attack, stroke, blindness, kidney disease, pregnancy problems, amputation and in severe cases death. This model provides new primary cell based options for life sciences and pharmaceutical drug discovery. The company indicates that additional disease models can be generated on a custom service bases.

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SOURCE

https://www.cellapplications.com/new-diabetes-cell-models#sthash.EcPyBxPO.dpuf

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Breakthrough Research on Encapsulated pancreatic cells offer possible new diabetes treatment.

Posted in Cell Biology, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Chemical Genetics, Diabetes Mellitus, Disease Biology, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, Regenerative Biology and Medicine, tagged Diabetes, encapsulated pancreatic cells, Insulin on January 29, 2016| Leave a Comment »

Breakthrough Research on Encapsulated pancreatic cells offer possible new diabetes treatment.

Reporter: Eveline B. Cohn, PhD

No more insulin injections?

Encapsulated pancreatic cells offer possible new diabetes treatment.

Anne Trafton | MIT News Office
January 25, 2016

SOURCE

http://news.mit.edu/2016/pancreatic-cells-diabetes-treatment-insulin-injections-0125?elq=6d9b90a822f04183bd0b059d36eb2b7a&elqCampaignId=9&elqaid=14548&elqat=1&elqTrackId=d91b7d01a9d14b199e41b4deb2c10ac6

It is known that in patients with Type 1 diabetes the immune system attacks the pancreas, and the monitoring of blood sugar becomes really difficult. Lately the research showed a possibility of replacing the pancreatic islets cells with healthy cells to take over glucose monitoring and insulin release. However the immune system attacked the transplanted cells, patients being obliged to take immunosuppressant drugs for the rest of their life.
Now , a new advance in this type of research by Boston Children’s Hospital designed a material that was used to encapsulate human islet before transplanted them. In animal testing it was showed that the encapsulated human cells could cure diabetes for up to six months without provoking an immune response.
This approach “has the potential to provide diabetics with a new pancreas that is protected from the immune system, which allow them to control their blood sugar without taking drugs. That’s the dream” says Daniel Anderson, The Samuel A Goldblith Associate Professor in MIT’s Department of Chemical Engineering, A member of MIT’s Koch Institute for integrative Cancer research and Institute for Medical Engineering and Science (IMES), and a research fellow in the department of Anesthesiology at Boston Children’s Hospital
The JDRF director Julia Greenstein, Anderson, Langer and colleagues explored a chemical derivative originally isolated from brown algae to encapsulate the cells without harming them, allowing sugar and proteins to go through, thus permitted to test the glucose level after transplantation of the encapsulated cells. The research was published in Nature Medicine and Nature Biotechnology. Researchers from Harvard University, University of Illinois at Chicago and Joslin Diabetes Center and University of Massachusetts Medical school also contributed to this research.
Previous research has shown that when alginate capsules are implanted in primates and humans, scar tissue builds up around the capsules, making the device ineffective. MIT/Children Hospital try to modify alginate make it less likely to provoke this kind of immune response.

A stealth material surface, shown here, has been engineered to provide an “invisibility cloak” against the body’s immune system cells. In this electron microscopy image, you can see the material's surface topography.

With The Courtesy of The Researchers

“We decided to take an approach where you cast a very wide net and see what you can catch,” says Arturo Vegas, a former MIT and Boston Children’s Hospital postdoc who is now an assistant professor at Boston University. Vegas is the first author of the Nature Biotechnology paper and co-first author of the Nature Medicine paper. “We made all these derivatives of alginate by attaching different small molecules to the polymer chain, in hopes that these small molecule modifications would somehow give it the ability to prevent recognition by the immune system.”
800 alginate derivatives were screened . Further, the known triazole thiomorpholine dioxide (TMTD) have been chosen to be tested in diabetic mice. They chose a strain of mice with a strong immune system and implanted human islet cells encapsulated in TMTD into a region of the abdominal cavity known as the intraperitoneal space.
The pancreatic islet cells used in this study were generated from human stem cells using a technique recently developed by Douglas Melton, a professor at Harvard University who is an author of the Nature Medicine paper.
Following implantation, the cells immediately began producing insulin in response to blood sugar levels and were able to keep blood sugar under control for the length of the study, 174 days.
“The really exciting part of this was being able to show, in an immune-competent mouse, that when encapsulated these cells do survive for a long period of time, at least six months,” says Omid Veiseh, a senior postdoc at the Koch Institute and Boston Children’s hospital, co-first author of the Nature Medicine paper, and an author of the Nature Biotechnology paper. “The cells can sense glucose and secrete insulin in a controlled manner, alleviating the mice’s need for injected insulin.”
The researchers also found that 1.5-millimeter diameter capsules made from their best materials (but not carrying islet cells) could be implanted into the intraperitoneal space of nonhuman primates for at least six months without scar tissue building up.
“The combined results from these two papers suggests that these capsules have real potential to protect transplanted cells in human patients,” says Robert Langer, the David H. Koch Institute Professor at MIT, a senior research associate at Boston’s Children Hospital, and co-author on both papers. “We are so pleased to see this research in cell transplantation reach these important milestones.”
Cherie Stabler, an associate professor of biomedical engineering at the University of Florida, says this approach is impressive because it tackles all aspects of the problem of islet cell delivery, including finding a source of cells, preventing an immune response, and developing a suitable delivery material.
“It’s such a complex, multipronged problem that it’s important to get people from different disciplines to address it,” says Stabler, who was not involved in the research. “This is a great first step towards a clinically relevant, cell-based therapy for Type I diabetes.”

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VIDEO SOURCE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cw3EbB8DAq8

At this point the researchers are thinking of using their new material in non human primates and eventually performing clinical trials in diabetic patients. “Our goal is to continue to work hard to translate these promising results into a therapy that can help people,” Anderson says.
“Being insulin-independent is the goal,” Vegas says. “This would be a state-of-the-art way of doing that, better than any other technology could. Cells are able to detect glucose and release insulin far better than any piece of technology we’ve been able to develop.”
In their research they found out that the new material works best with molecules containing triazole group- a ring containing two atoms of Carbon and three of N. However, they suspect that in this particular case it may interfere with the immune system’s ability to recognize the material as foreign.

The work was supported, in part, by the JDRF, the Leona M. and Harry B. Helmsley Charitable Trust, the National Institutes of Health, and the Tayebati Family Foundation.
Other authors of the papers include MIT postdoc Joshua Doloff; former MIT postdocs Minglin Ma and Kaitlin Bratlie; MIT graduate students Hok Hei Tam and Andrew Bader; Jeffrey Millman, an associate professor at Washington University School of Medicine; Mads Gürtler, a former Harvard graduate student; Matt Bochenek, a graduate student at the University of Illinois at Chicago; Dale Greiner, a professor of medicine at the University of Massachusetts Medical School; Jose Oberholzer, an associate professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago; and Gordon Weir, a professor of medicine at the Joslin Diabetes Center.

SOURCE

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Title	Professor
Institution	Penn State College of Medicine
Department	Cellular and Molecular Physiology

Archive for the ‘Diabetes Mellitus’ Category

I-BET151 protects NOD mice from development of diabetes

BET protein inhibition has a minimal effect on T cells in NOD mice

I-BET151 induces a regulatory phenotype in the pancreatic macrophage population

BET-protein inhibition promotes regeneration of NOD β cells

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Outcomes and follow-up

Monitoring Vitamin B12 in Women Treated with Metformin for Primary Prevention of Breast Cancer and Age-Related Chronic Diseases.

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ntroduction

Other articles of note on the Mediterranean Diet in this Online Open Access Scientific Journal Include

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Adipocyte Derived Stroma Cells: Their Usage in Regenerative Medicine and Reprogramming into Pancreatic Beta-Like Cells

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Christopher J. Lynch, MD, PhD, the New Office of Nutrition Research, Director

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Inflammatory Disorders: Articles published @ pharmaceuticalintelligence.com

This is a compilation of articles on Inflammatory Disorders that were published

@ pharmaceuticalintelligence.com, since 4/2012 to date

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Severe hypoglycemia tied to cardiac arrhythmia, mortality in diabetes patients

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Cell Applications Introduces Cellular Disease Model for Type 2 Diabetes

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Breakthrough Research on Encapsulated pancreatic cells offer possible new diabetes treatment.

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Monitoring Vitamin B₁₂ in Women Treated with Metformin for Primary Prevention of Breast Cancer and Age-Related Chronic Diseases.