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Stenting for Proximal LAD Lesions

Posted in Atherogenic Processes & Pathology, Cardiac & Vascular Repair Tools Subsegment, Cardiac and Cardiovascular Surgical Procedures, Ecosystems & Industrial Concentration in the Medical Device Sector, Frontiers in Cardiology and Cardiovascular Disorders, Medical Devices R&D and Inventions, Origins of Cardiovascular Disease, PCI, Stents & Tools, tagged , , , , , , , , , on August 18, 2013| Leave a Comment »

Comment by Cardiologists posted on LinkedIn’s

European Cardiovascular Medical Devices Group, a subgroup of Cardiovascular Medical Devices Group

on Stenting for Proximal LAD Lesions: In Reference to the Invasive Procedure performed on former President George W. Bush

UPDATED on 8/7/2018

Long-Term Outcomes of Stenting the Proximal LAD

Mar 22, 2017

Authors:
Roguin A, Camenzind E, Kerner A, et al.
Citation:
Long-Term Outcomes of Stenting the Proximal Left Anterior Descending Artery in the PROTECT Trial. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2017;10:548-556.
Summary By:
Debabrata Mukherjee, MD, FACC

Study Questions:

What are the outcomes of patients undergoing drug-eluting stent (DES) implantation according to lesion location within or outside the proximal left anterior descending (LAD) artery?

Methods:

Among the 8,709 patients enrolled in PROTECT (Patient Related Outcomes With Endeavor Versus Cypher Stenting Trial), a multicenter percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) trial, the investigators compared the outcomes of 2,534 patients (29.1%; 3,871 lesions [31.5%]) with stents implanted in the proximal LAD with 6,172 patients (70.9%; 8,419 lesions [68.5%]) with stents implanted outside the proximal LAD. For each event, a multivariate model was constructed that examined the effect of several individual baseline clinical and angiographic characteristics, including proximal LAD target lesion, on outcomes (i.e., MACE [major adverse cardiac events], target vessel failure [TVF], and myocardial infarction [MI]).

Results:

At 4-year follow-up, death rates were the same (5.8% vs. 5.8%; p > 0.999), but more MIs occurred in the proximal LAD group (6.2% vs. 4.9%; p = 0.015). The rates of clinically driven TVF (14.8% vs. 13.5%; p = 0.109), MACE (15.0% vs. 13.7%; hazard ratio, 1.1; 95% CI, 0.97-1.31; p = 0.139), and stent thrombosis (2.1% vs. 2.0%; p = 0.800) were similar. DES type had no interaction with MACE or TVF. In multivariate analysis, the proximal LAD was a predictor for MI (p = 0.038), but not for TVF (p = 0.149) or MACE (p = 0.069).

Conclusions:

The authors concluded that proximal LAD location was associated with higher rates of MI during the long-term follow-up, but there were no differences in stent thrombosis, death, TVF, or overall MACE.

Perspective:

This post hoc analysis of a prospective, multicenter study reports no difference in the rates of death, MACE, or TVF at 4 years according to intervention at a proximal LAD or nonproximal LAD lesion. The occurrence of the predefined primary endpoint of stent thrombosis was also not dependent on whether a proximal LAD or nonproximal LAD site was treated. However, of note, stenting of proximal LAD lesions was associated with significantly higher rates of MI compared with stenting of nonproximal LAD lesions. Overall, these findings appear to suggest that proximal LAD lesions may not have additional risk in the contemporary DES era, but the higher risk of MI needs to be studied further. Future studies should compare longer-term clinical outcomes between proximal LAD PCI with DES and minimally invasive left internal mammary artery to LAD.

SOURCE

https://www.acc.org/latest-in-cardiology/journal-scans/2017/03/22/15/11/long-term-outcomes-of-stenting-the-proximal-lad

 

Stenting for Proximal LAD Lesions

Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Michael Reinhardt • First, the media really should not be calling this “stent surgery” its a stent procedure just ask any post-CABG patient… Anyway it really is not possible to determine whether or not is was “unnecessary” without all the relevant patient data; which coronary vessel(s) involved, percent stenosis, etc. Actually I find it interesting that they apparently decided to stent the former president on the basis of a CT Angiogram which is not the standard of care for coronary imaging. I have to assume they performed an additional testing like a CT perfusion analysis and saw a clinically relevant defect and this support the decision to stent. Regarding the post-stent drugs cloplidigrel is not a benign drug but benefits far outweigh the downside of a sub-acute thrombosis which might result in a more serious future event = acute MI.

Rafael Beyar • This was absolutely an indicated procedure and almost all rational physician will treat a young patient with proximal LAD lesions with either a stent or bypass surgery

Dov V Shimon MD • No doubt! Proximal (‘close to origin’) LAD lesions are the leading “Widow makers”. Reestablishing of flow in the artery is saving from cardiac damage and death. Drug eluting stent have 2nd and 3rd generations with very low and acceptable reclosure rates and almost no abrupt closure (thrombosis). True, CTA is a screening test, but it astablishes the need for diagnostic and therapeutic angiogram. We, heart surgeons can provide long-term patency to the LAD using LIMA arterial bypass. The current advantage of stent is the incovenience and pain of surgery. Any responsible physician would opt the procedure even for himself, his relatives , his patients and for definitely for GW Bush.

http://www.linkedin.com/groupItem?view=&gid=3358310&type=member&item=265974376&commentID=157366758&goback=%2Egmr_3358310&report%2Esuccess=8ULbKyXO6NDvmoK7o030UNOYGZKrvdhBhypZ_w8EpQrrQI-BBjkmxwkEOwBjLE28YyDIxcyEO7_TA_giuRN#commentID_157366758

Coronary anatomy and anomalies

On the left an overview of the coronary arteries in the anterior projection.

Coronary anatomy and anomalies

RCA, LAD and Cx in the anterior projection

On the left an overview of the coronary arteries in the lateral projection.

  • Left Main or left coronary artery (LCA)
    • Left anterior descending (LAD)
      • diagonal branches (D1, D2)
      • septal branches
    • Circumflex (Cx)
      • Marginal branches (M1,M2)
  • Right coronary artery
    • Acute marginal branch (AM)
    • AV node branch
    • Posterior descending artery (PDA)

Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2004 Apr;25(4):567-71.

Isolated high-grade lesion of the proximal LAD: a stent or off-pump LIMA?

Source

Thoraxcentre, Groningen University Hospital, Groningen, The Netherlands.

Abstract

OBJECTIVES:

The objective of this study was to compare the long-term outcome of patients with an isolated high-grade stenosis of the left anterior descending (LAD) coronary artery randomized to percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty with stenting (PCI, stenting) or to off-pump coronary artery bypass grafting (surgery).

METHODS:

Patients with an isolated high-grade stenosis (American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association classification type B2/C) of the proximal LAD were randomly assigned to stenting (n=51) or to surgery (n=51) and were followed for 3-5 years (mean 4 years). Primary composite endpoint was freedom from major adverse cardiac and cerebrovascular events (MACCEs), including cardiac death, myocardial infarction, stroke and repeat target vessel revascularization. Secondary endpoints were angina pectoris status and need for anti-anginal medication at follow-up. Analysis was by intention to treat.

RESULTS:

MACCEs occurred in 27.5% after stenting and 9.8% after surgery (P=0.02; absolute risk reduction 17.7%). Freedom from angina pectoris was 67% after stenting and 85% after surgery (P=0.036). Need for anti-anginal medication was significantly lower after surgery compared to stenting (P=0.002).

CONCLUSION:

Patients with an isolated high-grade lesion of the proximal LAD have a significantly better 4-year clinical outcome after off-pump coronary bypass grafting than after PCI.

Daily Dose

08/12/2013 | 5:48 PM

Was George Bush’s stent surgery really unnecessary?

By Deborah Kotz / Globe Staff

VIEW VIDEO

Ever since President George W. Bush had stent surgery last Tuesday to open a blocked artery, leading physicians who weren’t involved in his care have wondered publically why he had this “unnecessary” procedure. Large clinical trials have demonstrated that stent placement doesn’t extend lives or prevent a future heart attack or stroke in those with stable heart disease.

What’s more, Bush could wind up with complications like a reblockage where the stent was placed or excessive bruising or internal bleeding from the blood thinners that he must take likely for the next year.

Dr Richard Besser, the chief medical correspondent for ABC News, questioned why Bush had an exercise stress test as part of his routine physical exam given that he had no symptoms like chest pain or shortness of breath. The stress test indicated signs of an artery blockage.

“In people who are not having symptoms, the American Heart Association says you should not do a stress test,” Besser said, “since the value of opening that artery is to relieve the symptoms.”

Cleveland Clinic cardiologist Dr. Steve Nissen agreed in his interview with USA Today. Bush, he said, likely “got the classical thing that happens to VIP patients, when they get so-called executive physicals and they get a lot of tests that aren’t indicated. This is American medicine at its worst.”

Two physicians wrote in an Washington Post op-ed column titled “President Bush’s unnecessary surgery” that they worry that the media coverage of Bush’s stent will lead “patients to pressure their own doctors for unwarranted and excessive care.”

But none of these doctors actually treated Bush or examined his medical records, so I’m a little surprised they’re making such firm calls.

Bush, an avid biker who recently completed a 100-kilometer ride, probably shouldn’t have had the exercise stress test if he wasn’t having any heart symptoms. “Routine stress testing used to be done 20 years ago, but isn’t recommended any longer since it doesn’t have any benefit,” said Brigham and Women’s cardiologist Dr. Christopher Cannon.

But Bush’s spokesman insisted the stent was necessary after followup heart imaging via a CT angiogram “confirmed a blockage that required opening.”

Cannon said Bush’s doctors may have seen signs that blood flow wasn’t getting to a significant part of the heart muscle, a condition known as ischemia. Researchers have found that those with moderate to severe ischemia appear to experience a reduction in fatal heart attacks when they have a stent placement along with medical therapy, rather than just taking medications alone. (Larger studies, though, are needed to confirm this finding.)

“If a blockage occurs at the very start of the artery and it’s extensive—95 percent blocked—then chances are it will cause significant ischemia,” Cannon said. While severe ischemia usually causes light-headedness or dizziness during exercise, Bush may have had more moderate ischemia that didn’t cause such symptoms.

It’s impossible to know for certain, he added, without seeing his medical records firsthand.

http://www.boston.com/lifestyle/health/blogs/daily-dose/2013/08/12/was-george-bush-stent-surgery-really-unnecessary/DzklhNCGVlgriNxgpKZtuO/blog.html

President Bush’s unnecessary heart surgery

  • By Vinay Prasad and Adam Cifu, Published: August 9

Vinay Prasad is chief fellow of medical oncology at the National Cancer Institute and the National Institutes of Health. Adam Cifu is a professor of medicine at the University of Chicago.

Former president George W. Bush, widely regarded as a model of physical fitness, received a coronary artery stent on Tuesday. Few facts are known about the case, but what is known suggests the procedure was unnecessary.

Before he underwent his annual physical, Mr. Bush reportedly had no symptoms. Quite the opposite: His exercise tolerance was astonishing for his age, 67. He rode more than 30 miles in the heat on a bike ride for veterans injured in the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.

If Mr. Bush had visited a general internist practicing sound, evidence-based care, he would not have had cardiac testing. Instead, the doctor would have had conducted age-appropriate cancer screening. For the former president, this would include only colon cancer screening. It no longer would include even prostate-specific antigen testing for cancer. The doctor would have screened for cholesterol, checked for hypertension and made sure the patient was up to date on age-appropriate vaccinations, including those for pneumococcal pneumonia and shingles. Presumably Mr. Bush got these things, and he got the cardiac test as well.What value does a stress test add for an otherwise healthy 67-year-old?No study has shown that this examination improves outcomes. The trials that have been done for so-called routine stress testing examined higher-risk patients. They found that performing stress tests on people at high risk of cardiovascular disease may detect blockages but does not improve symptoms or survival. Routine stress testing does, however, increase the use of procedures such as coronary stenting.Unfortunately, Mr. Bush, like many VIPs, may be paying the price of these in-depth investigations. His stress test revealed an abnormality, prompting another test: a CT angiogram. This study showed a blockage, which was stented open during an invasive procedure. It is worth noting that at least two large randomized trials show that stenting these sorts of lesions does not improve survival. Because Mr. Bush had no symptoms, it is impossible that he felt better after these procedures.

Instead, George W. Bush will have to take two blood thinners, aspirin and Plavix, for at least a month and probably a year. (The amount of time a blood thinner is needed depends on the type of stent placed). While he takes these medications, he will have a higher risk of bleeding complications with no real benefit.

Although this may seem like an issue important only to the former president, consider the following: Although the price of excessive screening of so-called VIPs is usually paid for privately, follow-up tests, only “necessary” because of the initial unnecessary screening test, are usually paid for by Medicare, further stressing our health-care system. The media coverage of interventions like Mr. Bush’s also leads patients to pressure their own doctors for unwarranted and excessive care.

http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/president-bushs-unnecessary-heart-surgery/2013/08/09/c91c439c-0041-11e3-9a3e-916de805f65d_story.html

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Advanced Topics in Sepsis and the Cardiovascular System at its End Stage

Posted in Abdominal Aorta, Aortic Valve: TAVR, TAVI vs Open Heart Surgery, CABG, Cardiac and Cardiovascular Surgical Procedures, Carotid Artery, Infectious Disease & New Antibiotic Targets, Mechanical Assist Devices: LVAD, RVAD, BiVAD, Artificial Heart, Mitral Valve: Repair and Replacement, PCI, Peripheral Arterial Disease & Peripheral Vascular Surgery, Renal Denervation, Systemic Inflammatory Response Related Disorders, Thoracic Aorta, tagged , , , on August 18, 2013| 15 Comments »

Advanced Topics in Sepsis and the Cardiovascular System at its End Stage

Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/18/advanced-topics-in-Sepsis-and-the-Cardiovascular-System-at-its-End-Stage/

This article was written in continuation to and it is addressing additional scientific matters to the content presented on this subject in the third Section titled

III. Incidence of Sepsis (circulation infection with serious consequences)

of the 7/23/2013 article on:

Cardiovascular Complications: Death from Reoperative Sternotomy after prior CABG, MVR, AVR, or Radiation; Complications of PCI; Sepsis from Cardiovascular Interventions

Justin D Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Cardiovascular Complications: Death from Reoperative Sternotomy after prior CABG, MVR, AVR, or Radiation; Complications of PCI; Sepsis from Cardiovascular Interventions

The Cardiac Dysfunction Attributable to Sepsis, Hemodynamic Collapse, and the Search for Therapeutic Options

Sepsis and the Heart – Cardiovascular Involvement in General Medical Conditions
M.W. Merx, MD; C. Weber, MD
University Hospital (C.W.), RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany.
Circulation.2007; 116: 793-802doi: 10.1161/​CIRCULATIONAHA.106.678359
http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/116/7/793.full

Sepsis is generally viewed as a disease aggravated by an inappropriate immune response encountered in the afflicted individual. As an important organ system frequently compromised by sepsis and always affected by septic shock, the cardiovascular system and its dysfunction during sepsis have been studied in clinical and basic research for more than 5 decades. Although a number of mediators and pathways have been shown to be associated with myocardial depression in sepsis, the precise cause remains unclear to date. There is currently no evidence supporting global ischemia as an underlying cause of myocardial dysfunction in sepsis.  A circulating myocardial depressant factor in septic shock has long been proposed, and potential candidates for a myocardial depressant factor include cytokines, prostanoids, and nitric oxide, among others.  Endothelial activation and induction of the coagulatory system also contribute to the pathophysiology in sepsis.

Prompt and adequate antibiotic therapy accompanied by surgical removal of the infectious focus, if indicated and feasible, is the mainstay and also the only strictly causal line of therapy. In the presence of severe sepsis and septic shock, supportive treatment in addition to causal therapy is mandatory.  We delineate some characteristics of septic myocardial dysfunction, to assess the most commonly cited and reported underlying mechanisms of cardiac dysfunction in sepsis, and to briefly outline current therapeutic strategies and possible future approaches.

Sepsis, defined by consensus conference as “the systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) that occurs during infection,” is generally viewed as a disease aggravated by the inappropriate immune response encountered in the affected individual.  Morbidity and mortality are high, resulting in sepsis and septic shock being the 10th most common cause of death in the United States.  The total national hospital cost invoked by severe sepsis in the United States was estimated at approximately $16.7 billion with 215 000 associated deaths annually. A study from Britain documented a 46% in-hospital mortality rate for patients presenting with severe sepsis on admission to the intensive care unit.

Current Criteria for Establishment of the Diagnosis of SIRS, Sepsis, and Septic Shock

The cardiovascular system is an important organ system frequently affected by sepsis and always affected by septic shock.  Waisbren was the first to describe cardiovascular .dysfunction due to sepsis in 1951.  He recognized a hyperdynamic state with full bounding pulses, flushing, fever, oliguria, and hypotension.  He also described a second, smaller patient group who presented clammy, pale, and hypotensive with low volume pulses and who appeared more severely ill. The latter group might well have been volume underresuscitated, and indeed, timely and adequate volume therapy has been demonstrated to be one of the most effective supportive measures in sepsis therapy.

Under conditions of adequate volume resuscitation, the profoundly reduced systemic vascular resistance typically encountered in sepsis leads to a concomitant elevation in cardiac index that obscures the myocardial dysfunction that also occurs. As early as the mid-1980s, significant reductions in both stroke volume and ejection fraction in septic patients were observed with normal total cardiac output. The presence of cardiovascular dysfunction in sepsis is associated with a significantly increased mortality rate of 70% to 90% compared with 20% in septic patients without cardiovascular impairment.

Characteristics of Myocardial Dysfunction in Sepsis

Using portable radionuclide cineangiography, Calvin et al. were the first to demonstrate myocardial dysfunction in adequately volume-resuscitated septic patients who had decreased ejection fraction and increased end-diastolic volume index. Adding pulmonary artery catheters to serial radionuclide cineangiography, Parker and colleagues extended these observations with the 2 major findings that

(1) survivors of septic shock were characterized by increased end-diastolic volume index and decreased ejection fraction, whereas nonsurvivors typically maintained normal cardiac volumes, and

(2) these acute changes in end-diastolic volume index and ejection fraction, although sustained for several days, were reversible.

More recently, echocardiographic studies have demonstrated impaired left ventricular systolic and diastolic function in septic patients. These human studies, in conjunction with experimental studies have clearly established decreased contractility and impaired myocardial compliance as major factors that cause myocardial dysfunction in sepsis. Similar functional alterations, as discussed above, have been observed for the right ventricle.

Myocardial dysfunction in sepsis has also been analyzed with respect to its prognostic value. Parker et al. reviewing septic patients on initial presentation and at 24 hours to determine prognostic indicators, found a heart rate of <106 bpm to be the only cardiac parameter on presentation that predicted a favorable outcome.  At 24 hours after presentation, a systemic vascular resistance index > 1529 dyne · s−1 · cm−5 · m−2, a heart rate < 95 bpm or a reduction in heart rate >18 bpm, and a cardiac index > 0.5 L · min−1 · m−2 suggested survival.  In a prospective study, Rhodes et al. demonstrated the feasibility of a dobutamine stress test for outcome stratification, with nonsurvivors being characterized by an attenuated inotropic response.

The well-established biomarkers in myocardial ischemia and heart failure, cardiac troponin I and T, as well as B-type natriuretic peptide, have also been evaluated with regard to sepsis-associated myocardial dysfunction. B-type natriuretic peptide studies have delivered conflicting results in septic patients, confounded by pre-existing heart failure early in the course. Several small studies have reported a relationship between elevated cardiac troponin T and I and left ventricular dysfunction in sepsis, as assessed by echocardiographic ejection fraction or pulmonary artery catheter–derived left ventricular stroke work index.  Cardiac troponin levels also correlated with the duration of hypotension and the intensity of vasopressor therapy. In addition, increased sepsis severity, measured by global scores such as the Simplified Acute Physiology Score II (SAPS II) or the Acute Physiology And Chronic Health Evaluation II score (APACHE II), was associated with increased cardiac troponin levels, as was poor short-term prognosis.

Despite the heterogeneity of study populations and type of troponin studied, the mentioned studies were unequivocal in concluding that elevated troponin levels in septic patients reflect higher disease severity, myocardial dysfunction, and worse prognosis. In a recent meta-analysis of 23 observational studies, Lim et al. found cardiac troponin levels to be increased in a large percentage of critically ill patients. Furthermore, in a subset of studies that permitted adjusted analysis and comprised 1706 patients, this troponin elevation was associated with an increased risk of death (odds ratio, 2.5; 95% CI, 1.9 to 3.4, P<0.001). Thus, it appears reasonable to recommend inclusion of cardiac troponins in the monitoring of patients with severe sepsis and septic shock to facilitate prognostic stratification and to increase alertness to the presence of cardiac dysfunction in individual patients.

Mechanisms Underlying Myocardial Dysfunction in Sepsis

Cardiac depression during sepsis is probably multifactorial. Nevertheless, it is important to identify individual contributing factors and mechanisms to generate worthwhile therapeutic targets. As a consequence, a vast array of mechanisms, pathways, and disruptions in cellular homeostasis have been examined in septic myocardium.

An early theory of myocardial depression in sepsis based on the hypothesis of global myocardial ischemia has no support. Septic patients have been shown to have high coronary blood flow and diminished coronary artery–coronary sinus oxygen difference.  Coronary sinus blood studies in patients with septic shock have demonstrated complex metabolic alterations in septic myocardium, including increased lactate extraction, decreased free fatty acid extraction, and decreased glucose uptake.  Several magnetic resonance studies in animal models of sepsis have demonstrated the presence of normal high-energy phosphate levels in the myocardium.  CAD-aggravating factors encountered in sepsis encompass generalized inflammation and the activated coagulatory system. The endothelium plays a prominent role in sepsis, but little is known of the impact of preexisting, CAD-associated endothelial dysfunction in this context. In a postmortem study of 21 fatal cases of septic shock, previously undiagnosed myocardial ischemia at least contributed to death in 7 of the 21 cases (all 21 patients were males, with a mean age of 60.4 years

Myocardial Depressant Substance

Parrillo et al. first proposed  a circulating myocardial depressant factor in septic shock  more than 50 years ago. They quantitatively linked the clinical degree of septic myocardial dysfunction with the effect that serum, taken from respective patients, had on rat cardiac myocytes, with clinical severity correlating well with the decrease in extent and velocity of myocyte shortening. These effects were not seen when serum from convalescent patients whose cardiac function had returned to normal was applied or when serum was obtained from other critically ill, nonseptic patients. These findings were extended when ultrafiltrates from patients with severe sepsis and simultaneously reduced left ventricular stroke work index (< 30 g · m−1 · m−2) displayed cardiotoxic effects and contained significantly increased concentrations of interleukin (IL)-1, IL-8, and C3a. Recently, Mink et al. demonstrated that lysozyme c, a bacteriolytic agent believed to originate mainly from disintegrating neutrophilic granulocytes and monocytes, mediates cardiodepressive effects during Escherichia coli sepsis and, importantly, that competitive inhibition of lysozyme c can prevent myocardial depression in the respective experimental sepsis model. Additional potential candidates for myocardial depressant substance include other cytokines, prostanoids, and nitric oxide (NO).

Cytokines

Infusion of lipopolysaccharide (LPS, an obligatory component of Gram-negative bacterial cell walls) into both animals and humans partially mimics the hemodynamic effects of septic shock. Only a minority of patients with septic shock have detectable LPS levels, and the prolonged time course of septic myocardial dysfunction make the role of LPS inconsistent with LPS representing the sole myocardial depressant substance. Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) is an important early mediator of endotoxin-induced shock. TNF-α is mainly derived from activated macrophages. Studies using monoclonal antibodies directed against TNF-α or soluble TNF-α receptors failed to improve survival in septic patients. IL-1 is synthesized by monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils in response to TNF-α and plays a crucial role in the systemic immune response. IL-1 depresses cardiac contractility by stimulating NO synthase (NOS). Transcription of IL-1 is followed by delayed transcription of IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1-ra), which functions as an endogenous inhibitor of IL-1. Recombinant IL-1-ra was evaluated in phase III clinical trials, which showed a tendency toward improved survival and increased survival time in a retrospective analysis of the patient subgroup with the most severe sepsis; but this initially promising therapy failed to deliver a survival benefit. IL-6, another proinflammatory cytokine, has also been implicated in the pathogenesis of sepsis and is considered a more consistent predictor of sepsis than TNF-α because of its prolonged elevation in the circulation. Although cytokines may very well play a key role in the early decrease in contractility, they cannot explain the prolonged duration of myocardial dysfunction in sepsis, unless they result in the induction or release of additional factors that in turn alter myocardial function, such as prostanoids or NO.

Prostanoids

Prostanoids are produced by the cyclooxygenase enzyme from arachidonic acid (an omega-6 derivative). The expression of cyclooxygenase enzyme-2 is induced, among other stimuli, by LPS and cytokines (cyclooxygenase enzyme-1 is expressed constitutively). Elevated levels of prostanoids such as thromboxane and prostacyclin that alter coronary autoregulation, coronary endothelial function, and intracoronary leukocyte activation, have been demonstrated in septic patients. Early animal studies with cyclooxygenase inhibitors such as indomethacin yielded very promising results. Along with other positive results, these led to an important clinical study involving 455 septic patients who were randomized to receive intravenous ibuprofen or placebo, but that study did not demonstrate improved survival for the treatment arm. Similarly, a smaller study on the effects of lornoxicam failed to provide evidence for a survival benefit through cyclooxygenase inhibition in sepsis.

Endothelin-1

Endothelin-1 upregulation has been demonstrated within 6 hours of LPS-induced septic shock. Cardiac overexpression of ET-1 triggers an increase in inflammatory cytokines (among others, TNF-α, IL-1, and IL-6), interstitial inflammatory infiltration, and an inflammatory cardiomyopathy that results in heart failure and death. The involvement of ET-1 in septic myocardial dysfunction is supported by the observation that tezosentan, a dual endothelin-A and endothelin-B receptor antagonist, improved cardiac index, stroke volume index, and left ventricular stroke work index in endotoxemic shock. However, higher doses of tezosentan exhibited cardiotoxic effects and led to increased mortality. Although ET-1 has been demonstrated to be of pathophysiological importance in a wide array of cardiac diseases through autocrine, endocrine, or paracrine effects, its biosynthesis, receptor-mediated signaling, and functional consequences in septic myocardial dysfunction warrant further investigation to assess the therapeutic potential of ET-1 receptor antagonists.

Free Radicals and Antioxidants: an Overview

The presence of free radicals in biological materials was discovered about 50 years ago. Today, there is a large body of evidence indicating that patients in hospital intensive care units (ICUs) are exposed to excessive free radicals from drugs and other substances that alter cellular reduction -oxidation (redox) balance, and disrupt normal biological functions. However, low levels of free radicals are also vital for many cell signaling events and are essential for proper cell function.

Normal cellular metabolism involves the production of ROS, and in humans, superoxide (O2 -) is the most commonly produced free radical. Phagocytic cells such as macrophages and neutrophils are prominent sources of O2 -. During an inflammatory response, these cells generate free radicals that attack invading pathogens such as bacteria and, because of this, the production of O2- by activated phagocytic cells in response to inflammation is one of the most studied free radical producing systems.

Excess free radicals can result from a variety of conditions such as tissue damage and hypoxia (limiting oxygen levels), overexposure to environmental factors (tobacco smoke, ultraviolet radiation, and pollutants), a lack of antioxidants, or destruction of free radical scavengers. When the production of damaging free radicals exceeds the capacity of the body’s antioxidant defenses to detoxify them, a condition known as oxidative stress occurs.

The hydroxyl radical (.OH) is the most reactive of the free radical molecules. OH- damages cell membranes and lipoproteins by a process termed lipid peroxidation. In fact, lipid peroxidation can be defined as the process whereby free radicals “steal” electrons from the lipids in our cell membranes, resulting in cell damage and increased production of ROS.

Catalase and glutathione peroxidase both work to detoxify O2-reactive radicals by catalyzing the formation of H2O2 derived from O2 -. The liver, kidney, and red blood cells possess high levels of catalase, which helps to detoxify chemicals in the body. The water-soluble tripeptide-thiol glutathione also plays an important role in a variety of detoxification processes. Glutathione is found in millimolar concentrations in the cell cytosol and other aqueous phases, and readily interacts with free radicals, especially the hydroxyl radical, by donating a hydrogen atom.

Adhesion Molecules

Surface-expression upregulation of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 has been demonstrated in murine coronary endothelium and cardiomyocytes after LPS and TNF-α stimulation. After cecal ligation and double puncture, myocardial intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression increases in rats. Vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 blockade with antibodies has been shown to prevent myocardial dysfunction and decrease myocardial neutrophil accumulation, whereas both knockout and antibody blockade of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 ameliorate myocardial dysfunction in endotoxemia without affecting neutrophil accumulation. But neutrophil depletion does not protect against septic cardiomyopathy, which suggests that the cardiotoxic potential of neutrophils infiltrating the myocardium is of lesser importance in this context.

Cells and signaling pathways

It is believed that sepsis and therefore septic shock are due to the inappropriate increase in the innate immune response via circulating and tissue inflammatory cells, such as monocytes/macrophages and neutrophils. These cells normally exist in a nonactivated state but are rapidly activated in response to bacteria. Sepsis induces a dysfunction in immune cells that contributes to the development of injuries by producing mediators such as cytokines and ROS.

LPS of Gram-negative organisms induces macrophages to secrete cytokines, which in turn activate T, and B cells to upregulate the adaptive immune responses. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is the LPS receptor and its stimulation induces nuclear factor kB (NF-kB) activation. The activation of NF-kB involves phosphorylation and degradation of IkB, an inhibitor of NF-kB. The NF-kB/IkB system exerts transcriptional regulation on proinflammatory genes encoded for various adhesion molecules and cytokines. Activation of NF-kB leads to the induction of NF-kB binding elements in their promoter regions and also leads to the induction of NF-kB dependent effector genes, which produce modifications in blood flow, and aggregation of neutrophils, and platelets. This results in damaged endothelium and also coagulation abnormalities often seen in patients with sepsis and septic shock. Therefore, NF-kB is reported to be an O2 sensor in LPS-induced endotoxemia.

The sources of ROS during sepsis are:

  • the mitochondrial respiratory chain.
  • the metabolic cascade of arachidonic acid.
  • the protease-mediated enzyme xanthine oxidase.
  • granulocytes and other phagocytes activated by complement, bacteria, endotoxin, lysosomal enzymes, etc.
  • Other oxidases mainly NADPH oxidase.

Activated immune cells produce O2 – as a cytotoxic agent as part of the respiratory burst via the action of membrane-bound NADPH oxidase on O2.

The increase of ROS after LPS challenge has been demonstrated in different models of septic shock in peritoneal macrophages and lymphocytes. This disturbance in the balance between pro-oxidants (ROS) and antioxidants in favor of the former is characteristic of oxidative stress in immune cells in response to endotoxin. In this context,

a typical behavior of these cells under an oxidative stress situation implies changes in different immune functions such as an increase in adherence and phagocytosis and a decrease in chemotaxis.  Neutrophils play a crucial role in the primary immune defense against infectious agents,which includes phagocytosis and the production of ROS. In addition, endogenous antioxidant defenses exist in a number of locations, namely intracellularly, on the cell membrane and extracellularly. The immune system is highly reliant on accurate cell-cell communication for optimal function, and any damage to the signaling systems involved will result in an impaired immune responsiveness.

Oxidative stress and modulation on GSH/GSSG (GSSG=oxidized GSH) levels also up-regulate gene expression of several other antioxidant proteins, such as manganese SOD, glutathione peroxidase, thioredoxin (Trx) and metallothionein.

Nitric Oxide

The current understanding of sepsis is a cascade of events that involves the microcirculation unevenly because of a differential effect on the large and contiguous intestinal epithelium, secondary effects on cardiopulmonary blood flows and cardiac output. This leads to a substantial body of work on therapeutic targets, either aimed at total inhibition or selective inhibition of NO synthase, and the special role of iNOS.

NO is synthesized from L-arginine by different isoenzymes of (NOS), and is implicated in a wide range of disease processes, exerting both detrimental and beneficial effects at the cellular and vascular levels. To date, three main isoforms of NOS are known:

  • neuronal NOS (NOS-1 or nNOS),
  • inducible NOS (NOS-2 or iNOS), and
  • endothelial NOS (NOS-3 or eNOS).

NO has been shown to play a key role in the pathogenesis of septic shock

Hyperproduction of NO induces

  • excessive vasodilation,
  • changes in vascular permeability, and
  • inhibition of noradrenergic nerve transmission,
  • all characteristics of human septic shock.

The recogniton of NO production by activated macrophages as part of the inflammatory process was an important milestone for assesing both the biological production of NO and the phenomenon of induction of NOS activity. The observation has been extended to neutrophils, lymphocytes, and other cell types. The role of NO in the pathophysiology of endotoxic shock was advanced by Thiemermann and Vane, who observed that administration of the specific NOS inhibitor N-methyl-L-arginine (L-NMMA) decreased the severe hypotension produced by administration of LPS. Other groups simultaneously reported similar results indicating that endotoxin increases NO production and prompted the idea that pharmacological inhibition of NOS may be useful in the treatment of inflammation and septic shock. However, clinical trials using L-NMMA failed to show a beneficial effect in septic shock patient. The major limitation for the use of NOS inhibitors in clinical studies is the development of pulmonary hypertension as a side effect of NOS blockade, which can be alleviated by the use of inhaled NO.

However, several compounds which modulate NO synthesis have been patented in recent years, such as various inflammatory mediators that have been implicated in the induction and activation of iNOS, particularly IFNg, TNFa, IL-1b, and platelet-activating factor (PAF) alone or synergistically. In addition to the activation of iNOS, cytokines and endotoxin may increase NO release by increasing arginine availability through the opening of the specific y+ channels and the expression of the cationic amino acid transporter (CAT), or by increasing tetrahydrobiopterin levels, a key cofactor in NO synthesis. Several experimental studies have demonstrated a decrease in NOS activity resulting in an impairment in endothelial-dependent relaxation during endotoxemia and experimental sepsis, possibly as the result of a cytokine-or hypoxia-induced shortened half-life of NOS mRNA, or of altered calcium mobilization.

Advanced Topics in Sepsis and the Cardiovascular System –  Augmentation for the third Section titled:

III. Incidence of Sepsis (circulation infection with serious consequences)

of the 7/23/2013 article on: Cardiovascular Complications: Death from Reoperative Sternotomy after prior CABG, MVR, AVR, or Radiation; Complications of PCI; Sepsis from Cardiovascular Interventions

NO exerts in vitro toxic effects including nuclear damage, protein and membrane phospholipid alterations, and the inhibition of mitochondrial respiration in several cell types. Mitochondrial impairment could also be considered as an adaptive phenomenon, decreasing cellular metabolism when the energy supply is limited. The toxicity of NO itself may be enhanced by the formation of ONOO- from the reaction of NO with O-2. Therefore, the multiple organ failure syndrome (MOFS) that often accompanies severe sepsis may be related to the cellular effects of excess NO or ONOO-.

Involvement of Nitrogen Species

NO reacts rapidly with ferrous iron, and at physiological concentrations, NO also binds to soluble guanylate cyclase and to another hemoprotein, cytochrome c oxidase (Complex IV), the terminal enzyme of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. NO can therefore control cellular functions via the reversible inhibition of respiration. There are a number of reactive NO species, such as

N2O3 and
ONOO-
that can also alter critical cellular components.

During the first hours after injury, iNOS-mediated NO production is upregulated, producing a burst of NO that far exceeds basal levels. This overabundance of NO produces significant cellular injury via several mechanisms.

NO may directly promote overwhelming peripheral vasodilation, resulting in vascular decomposition;

NO may upregulate the transcription NF-kB initiating an inflammatory signaling pathway that, in turn, triggers numerous inflammatory cytokines.

NO also interacts with the O-2 to yield ONOO-, a highly reactive compound that exacerbates the injury produced by either O-2 alone or NO alone.

The ONOO- generation which occurs during fluid resuscitation in the injured subject produces cellular death by enhancing DNA single strand breakage, activates the nuclear enzyme polyADP ribose synthetase (PARS), leading to cellular energy depletion and cellular necrosis. The detrimental effects of ONOO- in shock and resuscitation have been attributed to oxidation of sulfhydryl groups, the nitration of tyrosine, tryptophane, and guanine, as well as inhibition of the membrane sodium-potassium adenosine triphosphatase. PARS activation depletes NAD and thus alters electron transport, ATP synthesis, and glycolysis; and leads to DNA fragmentation and cellular apoptosis.

The activation of monocytes, macrophages and endothelial cells by LPS results in the expression of iNOS, and consequently increases the transformation of L-arginine to NO, which can combine with O2- to form ONOO-, causing tissue injury during shock, inflammation and ischemia reperfusion. NO stimulates H2O2 and O-2 production by mitochondria, increasing leakage of electrons from the respiratory chain. H2O2, in turn, participates in the upregulation of iNOS expression via NFkB activation. ONOO- has been shown to stimulate H2O2 production by isolated mitochondria. On the other hand, NO can decrease ROS-produced damage that occurs at physiological levels of NO. The high reactivity of NO with radicals might be beneficial in vivo by scavenging peroxyl radicals and inhibiting peroxidation. ONOO- may also be a signal transmitter and can mediate vasorelaxation, similarly to NO.

In sepsis, NO may exert direct and indirect effects on cardiac function. Sustained generation of NO occurs in systemic inflammatory reactions, such as septic shock with involvement in circulatory failure. In fact, myocardial iNOS activity has been reported in response to endotoxin and cytokines and inversely correlated with myocardial performance. Low-to-moderate doses of iNOS inhibitors restore myocardial contractility in hearts exposed to proinflammatory cytokines, whereas at higher doses, the effects are reversed. This finding may indicate that small amounts of NO produced by iNOS may be necessary to maintain contractility and can be cardio-protective in experimental sepsis.

A list of effects of NO in sepsis is as follows:

  • Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis causes myocardial ischemia in endotoxemic rats
  • Nitric oxide causes dysfunction of coronary autoregulation in endotoxemic rats
  • Prolonged inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis in severe septic shock

Effect of L-NAME, an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthesis, on cardiopulmonary function in human septic shock:  Pulmonary hypertension and reduced cardiac output during inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis in human septic shock

Effect of L-NAME, an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthesis, on plasma levels of IL-6, IL-8, TNF-a and nitrite/nitrate in human septic shock

Endothelin-1 and blood pressure after inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis in human septic shock

Distribution and metabolism of NO-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester in patients with septic shock

Pulmonary hypertension and reduced cardiac output can be major side effects of continuous NO synthase inhibition. Pulmonary vasoconstriction is undesirable because it may compromise pulmonary gas exchange and because it increases the workload on the right ventricle.

Blood pressure and systemic vascular resistance increased during infusion of the NO synthase inhibitor L-NAME, and the dosage of catecholamines was reduced. The vasoconstrictive response to L-NAME most likely was the result of blocking the NO system . In addition to the systemic effects of L-NAME, severe pulmonary vasoconstriction was observed with L-NAME.

S-Methylisothiourea sulfate (SMT) is at least 10- to 30-fold more potent as an inhibitor of inducible NOS (iNOS) in immuno-stimulated cultured macrophages (EC50, 6 ,AM) and vascular smooth muscle cells (EC50, 2 ,uM) than NG-methyl-L-arginine (MeArg) or any other NOS inhibitor yet known. The effect of SMT on iNOS activity can be reversed by excess L-arginine in a concentration-dependent manner.  SMT, a potent and selective inhibitor of iNOS, may have considerable value in the therapy of circulatory shock of various etiologies and other pathophysiological conditions associated with induction of iNOS. SMT, or other iNOS-selective inhibitors, are likely to have fewer side effects which are related to the inhibition of eNOS, such as excessive vasoconstriction and organ ischemia), increased platelet and neutrophil adhesion and accumulation, and microvascular leakage.

Administration of the iron (III) complex of diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA iron (III), prevented death in Corynebacterium parvum 1 LPS-treated mice. Using electrochemistry, the binding of NO to DTPA iron (II) is confirmed.  Treatment with DTPA iron (III) resulted in a significant decrease in mortality compared to the untreated controls. The efficacy of DTPA iron (III) increased when given to mice 2 h or more after infection. The best results were observed when DTPA iron (III) was given 5 h after infection.  The iron (III) complex of diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA iron [III]) protected mice and baboons from the lethal effects of an infusion with live LD 100 Escherichia coli. In mice, optimal results were obtained when DTPA iron (III) was administered two or more hours after infection.

PJ34, a novel, potent PARP-1 inhibitor was found to protect against LPS induced tissue damage. PARP inhibitors protected Langendorff-perfused hearts against ischemia-reperfusion induced damages by activating the PI3-kinase–Akt pathway. The importance of the PI3-kinase–Akt pathway in LPS induced inflammatory mechanisms has gained support, raising the question whether this pathway was involved in the effect of PJ34 on LPS-induced septic shock.
Activation of the PI3-kinase–Akt/protein kinase B cytoprotective pathway is likely to contribute to the protective effects of PARP inhibitors in shock and inflammation.

Asymmetrical dimethyl arginine (ADMA) is an endogenous non-selective inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase that may influence the severity of organ failure and the occurrence of shock secondary to an infectious insult. Levels may be genetically determined by a promoter polymorphism in a regulatory gene encoding dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase II (DDAH II).

ADMA levels and Sequential Organ Failure Assessment scores were directly associated on day one (p = 0.0001) and day seven (p = 0.002). The degree of acidaemia and lactaemia was directly correlated with ADMA levels at both time points (p < 0.01). On day seven, IL-6 was directly correlated with ADMA levels (p = 0.006). The variant allele with G at position -449 in the DDAH II gene was associated with increased ADMA concentrations at both time points (p < 0.05).
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/20/nitric-oxide-and-sepsis-hemodynamic-collapse-and-the-search-for-therapeutic-options/  larryhbern

Sepsis, Multi-organ Dysfunction Syndrome, and Septic Shock: A Conundrum of Signaling Pathways Cascading Out of Control   larryhbern
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/13/sepsis-multi-organ-dysfunction-syndrome-and-septic-shock-a-conundrum-of-signaling-pathways-cascading-out-of-control/

During sepsis, the inflammation triggers widespread coagulation in the bloodstream. A severe form of acute lung injury features pulmonary inflammation and increased capillary leak, is associated with a high mortality rate, and accounts for 100,000 deaths annually in the United States, especially associated with  sepsis. Neutrophils are major effector cells at the frontier of innate immune responses, and they play a critical role in host defense against invading .microorganisms. The tissue injury appears to be related to proteases and toxic reactive oxygen radicals released from activated neutrophils. Excessive procoagulant activity is of pathophysiological significance in these disease settings. This is consistent with a pneumonia or lung injury preceding sepsis. Indeed, it is not surprising that abdominal, cardiac bypass, and post cardiac revascularization may also lead to events resembling sepsis and/or cardiovascular collapse.

The activation of the coagulation cascade is one of the earliest events initiated following tissue injury. The prime function of this complex and highly regulated proteolytic system is to generate insoluble, crosslinked fibrin strands, which bind and stabilize weak platelet hemostatic plugs, formed at sites of tissue injury. The tissue factor-dependent extrinsic pathway is the predominant mechanism by which the coagulation cascade is locally activated. The cellular effects mediated via activation of proteinase-activated receptors (PARs) may be of particular importance. In this regard, studies in PAR1 knockout mice have shown that this receptor plays a major role in orchestrating the interplay between coagulation, inflammation and lung fibrosis.  The systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) is the massive inflammatory reaction resulting from systemic mediator release that may lead to multiple organ dysfunction.

For signal transduction, 01TREM-1 couples to the ITAM-containing adapter DNAX activation protein of 12 kDa (23DAP12 ). MARV and EBOV activate TREM-1 on human neutrophils, resulting in 12DAP12 phosphorylation, TREM-1 shedding, mobilization of intracellular calcium, secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, and phenotypic changes. TREM-1 is the best-characterized member of a growing family of 12DAP12-associated receptors that regulate the function of myeloid cells in innate and adaptive responses. TREM-1 (triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells), a recently discovered receptor of the immunoglobulin superfamily, activates neutrophils and monocytes/macrophages by signaling through the adapter protein 12DAP12.

Circulating and organ-specific cell populations are activated to produce proinflammatory mediators during sepsis. Neutrophils and PBMCs bear TLR2 and TLR4, as well as other receptors, such as protein —coupled receptor, that induce increased generation of cytokines and other immunoregulatory proteins, as well as enhance release of proinflammatory mediators, including reactive oxygen species.

The expression of cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-1β is increased in sepsis, and engagement of TNF-α with type I(p55) and type II(p75) TNF receptors or IL-1β with IL-1 receptors belonging to the TLR/IL-1 receptor family produces activation of kinases (including Src, p38, extracellular signal—regulated kinase, and phosphoinositide 3–kinase) and transcriptional factors (such as nuclear factor [NF]–κB) important for further up-regulation of inflammatory proteins.

Identification of patients with cellular phenotypes characterized by increased activation of NF-κB, Akt, and protein 38, as well as discrete patterns of gene activation, may permit identification of patients with sepsis who are likely to have a worse clinical outcome In support of the hypothesis, greater nuclear accumulation of NF-κB is accompanied by higher mortality and worse clinical course in patients with sepsis. Persistent activation of NF-κB was found in nonsurvivors, with surviving patients having lower nuclear concentrations of NF-κB at early time points in their septic course than did nonsurvivors as well as more rapid return of nuclear accumulation of NF-κB. A study of surgical patients without sepsis supports the hypothesis that neutrophil phenotypes defined by NF-κB activation patterns predict clinical outcome. In that clinical series of patients undergoing repair of aortic aneurysms, higher preoperative levels of NF-κB in peripheral neutrophils were associated with death and with the development of postoperative organ dysfunction.

Insulin alleviates degradation of skeletal muscle protein by inhibiting the ubiquitin-proteasome system in septic rats

Qiyi Chen, Ning Li, Weiming Zhu, Weiqin Li, Shaoqiu Tang, et al. Chen et al. Journal of Inflammation 2011, 8:13

http://www.journal-inflammation.com/content/8/1/13

Hypercatabolism is common under septic conditions. Skeletal muscle is the main target organ for hypercatabolism, and this phenomenon is a vital factor in the deterioration of recovery in septic patients. In skeletal muscle, activation of the ubiquitin-proteasome system plays an important role in hypercatabolism under septic status. Insulin is a vital anticatabolic hormone and previous evidence suggests that insulin administration inhibits various steps in the ubiquitin-proteasome system. However, whether insulin can alleviate the degradation of skeletal muscle protein by inhibiting the ubiquitin-proteasome system under septic condition is unclear. This paper confirmed that mRNA and protein levels of the ubiquitin-proteasome system were upregulated and molecular markers of skeletal muscle proteolysis (tyrosine and 3-methylhistidine) simultaneously increased in the skeletal muscle of septic rats. We concluded that the ubiquitin-proteasome system is important skeletal muscle hypercatabolism in septic rats. Infusion of insulin can reverse the detrimental metabolism of skeletal muscle by inhibiting the ubiquitin-proteasome system, and the effect is proportional to the insulin infusion dose.

The International Sepsis Forum’s frontiers in sepsis: high cardiac output should be maintained in severe sepsis

Jean-Louis Vincent
Erasme Hospital, University of Brussels, Brussels, Belgium
Critical Care 2003; 7:276-278 (DOI 10.1186/cc2349)

Despite a usually normal or high cardiac output, severe sepsis is associated with inadequate tissue oxygenation, leading to organ failure and death. Some authors have suggested that raising cardiac output and oxygen delivery to predetermined supranormal values may be associated with improved

survival. While this may be of benefit in certain patients, bringing all patients to similar, supranormal values, is simplistic. It is much preferable to titrate therapy according to the needs of each individual patient. A combination of variables should be used for this purpose, in addition to a careful clinical evaluation, including not only cardiac  output but also the mixed venous oxygen saturation and the blood lactate concentrations. The concept is to assess the adequacy of the cardiac output in patients with severe sepsis, enabling management strategies aimed at optimizing cardiac output to be tailored to the individual patient.

The State of US Health, 1990-2010:  Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors

JAMA Aug 14, 2013, Vol 310, No. 6
US Burden of Disease Collaborators

We used the systematic analysis of descriptive epidemiology of 291 diseases and injuries, 1160 sequelae of these diseases and injuries, and 67 risk factors or clusters of risk factors from 1990 to 2010 for 187 countries developed for the Global Burden of Disease 2010. Disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) were estimated as the sum of YLDs and YLLs. Deaths and DALYs related to risk factors were based on systematic reviews and meta-analyses of exposure data and relative risks for risk-outcome pairs. Healthy life expectancy (HALE) was used to summarize overall population health, accounting for both length of life and levels of ill health experienced at different ages.  From 1990 to 2010, US life expectancy at birth and HALE increased, all-cause death rates at all ages decreased, and age-specific rates of years lived with disability remained stable. However, morbidity and chronic disability now account for nearly half of the US health burden, and improvements in population health in the United States have not kept pace with advances in population health in other wealthy nations. http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1710486HYPERLINK “http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1710486&goback=.gde_3267353_member_265629812#%21″&HYPERLINK “http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1710486&goback=.gde_3267353_member_265629812#%21″goback=%2Egde_3267353_member_265629812#%21

The Evolution of an Inflammatory Response.

Stephen F Lowry
Surgical Infections 09/2009; 10(5):419-25. · 1.80 Impact Factor

An understanding of patient-specific variation and adaptability could direct individualized biologic and management interventions for severe injury and infection. Despite more detailed appreciation of the molecular mechanisms of danger and pathogen recognition and response biology, we have much to learn about the complexity of severe injury and infection. There is a great need to extend our investigation of these mechanisms to experimental and stress-modified clinical scenarios.

Frailty and Heart Disease.

Stephan von Haehling, Stefan D Anker, Wolfram Doehner, John E Morley, Bruno Vellas
Department of Cardiology, Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Berlin, Germany.
Int j cardiol (impact factor: 7.08). 08/2013; DOI:10.1016/j.ijcard.2013.07.068

Frailty is emerging as a syndrome of pre-disability that can identify persons at risk for negative outcomes. Its presence places the individual at risk for rapid deterioration when a major event such as myocardial infarction or hospitalization occurs. In patients with cardiovascular disease, frailty is about three times more prevalent than among elderly persons without.

Pro-atrial natriuretic peptide is a prognostic marker in sepsis, similar to the APACHE II score: an observational study

Nils G Morgenthaler1, Joachim Struck1, Mirjam Christ-Crain2, Andreas Bergmann1 and Beat Müller2

1Research Department, BRAHMS AG, Biotechnology Center, Hennigsdorf/Berlin, Germany

2Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital, Basel, Switzerland
Critical Care 2005, 9:R37-R45 (DOI 10.1186/cc3015)

This article is online at: http://ccforum.com/content/9/1/R37

Additional biomarkers in sepsis are needed to tackle the challenges of determining prognosis and optimizing selection of high-risk patients for application of therapy. In the present study, conducted in a cohort of medical intensive care unit patients, our aim was to compare the prognostic

value of mid-regional pro-atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) levels with those of other biomarkers and physiological scores.  Blood samples obtained in a prospective observational study conducted in 101 consecutive critically ill patients admitted to the intensive care unit were analyzed. The prognostic value of pro-ANP levels was compared with that of the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) II score and with those of various biomarkers (i.e. C-reactive protein, IL-6 and procalcitonin). Mid-regional pro-ANP was detected in EDTA plasma from all patients using a new sandwich immunoassay.  The median pro-ANP value in the survivors was 194 pmol/l (range 20–2000 pmol/l), which was significantly lower than in the nonsurvivors (median 853.0 pmol/l, range 100–2000 pmol/l; P < 0.001). On the day of admission, pro-ANP levels, but not levels of other biomarkers, were significantly higher in surviving than in nonsurviving sepsis patients (P = 0.001). In a receiver operating characteristic curve analysis for the survival of patients with sepsis, the area under the curve (AUC) for pro-ANP was 0.88, which was significantly greater than the AUCs for procalcitonin and C-reactive protein, and similar to the AUC for the APACHE II score.

Bench-to-Bedside Review: Significance and Interpretation of Elevated Troponin in Septic Patients

Raphael Favory1,2 and Remi Neviere1
1Physiology Department, School of Medicine, EA2689 University of Lille, France

2Medical Intensive Care Unit, Universitary Hospital of Lille, France

Critical Care 2006, 10:224 (doi:10.1186/cc4991)  http://ccforum.com/content/10/4/224

Because no bedside method is currently available to evaluate myocardial contractility independent of loading conditions, a biological marker that could detect myocardial dysfunction in the early stage of severe sepsis would be a helpful tool in the management of septic patients. Clinical and experimental studies have reported that plasma cardiac troponin levels are increased in

sepsis and could indicate myocardial dysfunction and poor outcome. The high prevalence of elevated levels of cardiac troponins in sepsis raises the question of what mechanism results in their release into the circulation.
(Note: This study is prior to the hs-troponins)
The presence of microvascular failure and regional wall motion abnormalities, which are frequently observed in positive-troponin patients, also suggest ventricular wall strain and cardiac cell necrosis. Altogether, the available studies

support the contention that cardiac troponin release is a valuable marker of myocardial injury in patients with septic shock.

Myocardial Protection in Sepsis

Simon Shakar and Brian D Lowes
University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
Critical Care 2008, 12:177 (doi:10.1186/cc6978)  http://ccforum.com/content/12/5/177

Sepsis with myocardial dysfunction is seen commonly. Beta-blockers have been used successfully to treat chronic heart failure based on the premise that chronically elevated adrenergic drive is detrimental to the myocardium. However, recent reports on the acute use of beta-blockers in situations with potential hemodynamic compromise have shown the risks associated with this approach.

Myocardial injury and depression are common during sepsis and are likely multi-factorial in etiology. The adrenergic nervous system is activated in sepsis and pharmacological doses of agonists are commonly utilized during goal directed therapy to support oxygen delivery and maintain perfusion pressure. There is a large body of evidence suggesting that excessive adrenergic levels can cause myocardial damage.

Recent large prospective trials would mandate caution when using beta-blockers in acute settings of hemodynamic compromise. The COMMIT trial in acute myocardial infarction showed that metoprolol’s benefit in reducing reinfarction and arrhythmia (10 per 1,000) was offset by an increase in cardiogenic shock (11 per 1,000). This was most prominent in the first day of therapy in elderly patients with tachycardia and low blood pressure, a population reminiscent

of the one discussed in the current series. The POISE trial showed that metoprolol, started 2 to 4 hours before surgery in high risk cardiac patients, led to increased rates of death and stroke. The rates of myocardial infarction were

reduced. Hypotension was very instrumental in causing the adverse events. Interestingly, sepsis and infection were also clearly more common on metoprolol.

Myocardial depression with beta-blockers could explain the need to escalate therapy with vasoactive drugs in the current series. Gore and colleagues showed that esmolol acutely reduced cardiac output by 20% in septic patients. There was also a reduction in blood pressure and oxygen delivery. Kukin

and colleagues studied low dose beta-blockers in chronic heart failure patients. They found that even 6.25 mg of metoprolol, given orally, acutely decreased cardiac output, stroke volume and stroke work index. After 3 months and uptitration to 50 mg bid, the administration of the drug continued to cause a decrease in cardiac output and stroke work index.

Bench-to-Bedside Review: Beta-Adrenergic Modulation in Sepsis

Etienne de Montmollin, Jerome Aboab, Arnaud Mansart and Djillali Annane
Service de Réanimation Polyvalente de l’hôpital Raymond Poincaré,  Garches, France
Critical Care 2009, 13:230 (doi:10.1186/cc8026  http://ccforum.com/content/13/5/230
Sepsis, despite recent therapeutic progress, still carries unacceptably high mortality rates. The adrenergic system, a key modulator of organ function and cardiovascular homeostasis, could be an interesting new therapeutic target for septic shock. beta-adrenergic regulation of the immune function in sepsis is complex and is time dependent. However, beta-2 activation as well as beta-1 blockade seems to downregulate proinflammatory response by modulating the

cytokine production profile. beta-1 blockade improves cardiovascular homeostasis in septic animals, by lowering myocardial oxygen consumption without altering organ perfusion, and perhaps by restoring normal cardiovascular variability. Beta-Blockers could also be of interest in the systemic catabolic response to sepsis, as they oppose epinephrine which is known to promote hyperglycemia, lipid and protein catabolism. Beta-1 blockade may reduce platelet aggregation and normalize the depressed fibrinolytic status induced by adrenergic stimulation. Therefore, beta-2 blockade as well as beta-2 activation improves sepsis-induced immune, cardiovascular and coagulation

dysfunctions. Beta-2 blocking, however, seems beneficial in the metabolic field. Enough evidence has been accumulated in the literature to propose beta-2 adrenergic modulation, beta-1 blockade and beta-2 activation in particular, as new promising therapeutic targets for septic dyshomeostasis, modulating favorably immune, cardiovascular, metabolic and coagulation systems.

Brain Natriuretic Peptide for Prediction of Mortality in Patients with Sepsis: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Fei Wang1†, Youping Wu1†, Lu Tang2,3†, Weimin Zhu1, Feng Chen1, et al.
Critical Care 2012, 16:R74    http://ccforum.com/content/16/3/R74

The prognostic role of brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) or N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) in septic patients remains controversial. The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to investigate the value of elevated BNP or NT-proBNP in predicting mortality in septic patients.
PubMed, Embase and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials were searched (up to February 18, 2011). Studies were included if they had prospectively collected data on all-cause mortality in adult septic patients with either plasma BNP or NT-proBNP measurement. 12 studies with a total of 1,865 patients were included.
Elevated natriuretic peptides were significantly associated with increased risk of mortality (odds ratio (OR) 8.65, 95% confidence interval (CI) 4.94 to 15.13, P < 0.00001). The association was consistent for BNP (OR 10.44, 95% CI 4.99 to 21.58, P < 0.00001) and NT-proBNP (OR 6.62, 95% CI 2.68 to 16.34, P < 0.0001). The pooled sensitivity, specificity, positive likelihood ratio, and negative

likelihood ratio were 79% (95% CI 75 to 83), 60% (95% CI 57 to 62), 2.27 (95% CI 1.83 to 2.81) and 0.32 (95% CI 0.22 to 0.46), respectively.

Genetic Variation in Vitamin D Biosynthesis is associated with Increased Risk of Heart Failure

Genetic variation in CYP27B1 is associated with congestive heart failure in patients with hypertension.
RA Wilke, RU Simpson, BN Mukesh, SV Bhupathi, et al.
Pharmacogenomics 2009; 10(11): 1789-1797. http://dx.doi.org/10.2217/pgs.09.101

Genetic variation in vitamin D-dependent signaling is associated with congestive heart failure in human subjects with hypertension. Functional polymorphisms were selected from five candidate genes:

CYP27B1, CYP24A1, VDR, REN and ACE.

Using the Marshfield Clinic Personalized Medicine Research Project,
205 subjects with hypertension and congestive heart failure,
206 subjects with hypertension alone and
206 controls (frequency matched by age and gender) were genotyped.

In the context of hypertension, a SNP in CYP27B1 was associated with congestive heart failure (odds ratio: 2.14 for subjects homozygous for the C allele; 95% CI: 1.05–4.39).

Novel Mechanism for Disease Etiology for the Cardiac Phenotype: Modulation of Nuclear and Cytoskeletal Actin Polymerization.
Lamin A/C and emerin regulate MKL1–SRF activity by modulating actin dynamics

Chin Yee Ho, Diana E. Jaalouk, Maria K. Vartiainen & Jan Lammerding
Nature (2013) doi:10.1038/nature12105  http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature121

Laminopathies, caused by mutations in the LMNA gene encoding the nuclear envelope proteins lamins A and C, represent a diverse group of diseases that include Emery–Dreifuss muscular dystrophy (EDMD), dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), limb-girdle muscular dystrophy, and Hutchison–Gilford progeria syndrome1. Most LMNA mutations affect skeletal and cardiac muscle by mechanisms that remain incompletely understood. Loss of structural function and altered interaction of mutant lamins with (tissue-specific) transcription factors have been proposed to explain the tissue-specific phenotypes.

Altered nucleo-cytoplasmic shuttling of MKL1 was caused by altered actin dynamics in Lmna−/− and Lmna N195K/N195K mutant cells. Ectopic expression of the nuclear envelope protein emerin, which is mislocalized in Lmna mutant cells and also linked to EDMD and DCM, restored MKL1 nuclear translocation and rescued actin dynamics in mutant cells.

These findings present a novel mechanism that could provide insight into the disease aetiology for the cardiac phenotype in many laminopathies, whereby lamin A/C and emerin regulate gene expression through modulation of nuclear and cytoskeletal actin polymerization.

Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics—2011 Update

A Report From the American Heart Association
American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee
Circulation. 2011;123:e18-e209.  DOI: 10.1161/CIR.0b013e3182009701


● On the basis of 2007 mortality rate data, more than 2200 Americans die of CVD each day, an average of 1 death every 39 seconds. More than 150 000 Americans killed by CVD (I00 –I99) in 2007 were  65 years of age. In 2007,

nearly 33% of deaths due to CVD occurred before the age of 75 years, which is well before the average life expectancy of 77.9 years.

● Coronary heart disease caused  1 of every 6 deaths in the United States in 2007. Coronary heart disease mortality in 2007 was 406 351. Each year, an estimated 785 000 Americans will have a new coronary attack, and  470 000 will have a recurrent attack. It is estimated that an additional 195 000 silent first myocardial infarctions occur each year. Approximately every 25 seconds, an American will have a coronary event, and approximately every minute, someone will die of one.

Prevalence and Control of Traditional Risk Factors Remains an Issue for Many Americans

● Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005–2008 indicate that 33.5% of US adults 20 years of age have hypertension (Table 7-1). This amounts to an estimated 76 400 000 US adults with hypertension. The prevalence of hypertension is nearly equal between men and women. African American adults have among the highest rates of hypertension in the world, at 44%. Among hypertensive adults, ~ 80% are aware of their condition, 71% are using antihypertensive medication, and only 48% of those aware that they have hypertension have their condition controlled.

● Despite 4 decades of progress, in 2008, among Americans ­­>18 years of age, 23.1% of men and 18.3% of women continued to be cigarette smokers. In 2009, 19.5% of students in grades 9 through 12 reported current tobacco use. The percentage of the nonsmoking population with detectable serum cotinine (indicating exposure to secondhand smoke) was 46.4% in 1999 to 2004, with declines occurring, and was highest for those 4 to 11 years of age (60.5%) and those 12 to 19 years of age (55.4%).

● An estimated 33 600 000 adults > 20 years of age have total serum cholesterol levels > 240 mg/dL, with a prevalence of 15.0% (Table 13-1).

● In 2008, an estimated 18 300 000 Americans had diagnosed diabetes mellitus, representing 8.0% of the adult population. An additional 7 100 000 had undiagnosed diabetes mellitus, and 36.8% had prediabetes, with abnormal

fasting glucose levels. African Americans, Mexican Americans, Hispanic/Latino individuals, and other ethnic minorities bear a strikingly disproportionate burden of diabetes mellitus in the United States (Table 16-1).

Commentary on Other Related Articles on this topic published on this Open Access Online Scientific Journal:

Automated Inferential Diagnosis of SIRS, sepsis, septic shock
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/01/automated-inferential-diagnosis-of-sirs-sepsis-septic-shock/  larryhbern

The role of biomarkers in the diagnosis of sepsis and patient management
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/07/28/the-role-of-biomarkers-in-the-diagnosis-of-sepsis-and-patient-management/   larryhbern

The SIRS reaction involves hormonally driven changes in liver glycogen reserves, triggering of  lipolysis, lean body proteolysis, and reprioritization of hepatic protein synthesis. The SIRS reaction unabated leads to a recurring cycle with hemodynamic collapse from septic shock, indistinguishable from cardiogenic shock, and death.
Alternative Designs for the Human Artificial Heart: Patients in Heart Failure –  Outcomes of Transplant (donor)/Implantation (artificial) and Monitoring Technologies for the Transplant/Implant Patient in the Community
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/05/alternative-designs-for-the-human-artificial-heart-the-patients-in-heart-failure-outcomes-of-transplant-donorimplantation-artificial-and-monitoring-technologies-for-the-transplantimplant-pat/

LH Bernstein, J Pearlman, A Lev-Ari

Postoperative Results
No injury (2324) Injury (231) P
PRCs 4.5 7.2 6.5 8.9 0.046
ICU stay (h) 102.3 228.6 146.3 346.9 < 0.001
Reoperation 127 5.5% 21 9.1% 0.024
sepsis 86 3.7% 16 6.9% 0.017
stroke 56 2.4% 11 4.8% 0.033
Prolonged
ventilation		 505 21.7% 97 42.0% <0.001
Pneumonia 123 5.3% 25 10.8% <0.001
ARDS 32 1.4% 8 3.5% 0.015
Postop RenalFailure 237 10.2% 51 22.1% <0.001
MODS 45 1.9% 13 5.6% <0.001
Hosp Death 151 6.5% 43 18.6 <0.001

Confined Indolamine 2, 3 dioxygenase (IDO) Controls the Hemostasis of Immune Responses for Good and Bad
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/31/confined-indolamine-2-3-dehydrogenase-controls-the-hemostasis-of-immune-responses-for-good-and-bad/ Demet Sag

The immune response mechanism is the holy grail of the human defense system for health.   IDO, indolamine 2, 3-dioxygenase, is a key gene for homeostasis of immune responses and producing an enzyme catabolizing the first rate-limiting step in tryptophan degradation metabolism. The hemostasis of immune system is complicated.  IDO belongs to globin gene family to carry oxygen and heme.

The main function and genesis of IDO comes from the immune responses during host-microbial invasion and choice between tolerance and immunogenicity. In addition IDO has a role in vascular tone as well.  In human there are three kinds of IDOs, which are IDO1, IDO2, and TDO, with distinguished mechanisms and expression profiles. , IDO mechanism includes three distinguished pathways: enzymatic acts through IFNgamma, non-enzymatic acts through TGFbeta-IFNalpha/IFNbeta and moonlighting acts through AhR/Kyn.

IDO is a key homeostatic regulator and confined in immune system mechanism for the balance between tolerance and immunity.  This gene encodes indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase (IDO) – a heme enzyme (EC=1.13.11.52) that catalyzes the first rate-limiting step in tryptophan catabolism to N-formyl-kynurenine and acts on multiple tryptophan substrates including D-tryptophan, L-tryptophan, 5-hydroxy-tryptophan, tryptamine, and serotonin (1; 2; 3; 4).

Expression of IDO is common in antigen presenting cells (APCs), monocytes (MO), macrophages (MQs), DCs, T-cells, and some B-cells. IDO presentation in APCs is related to its role in the hierarchy and level of DC expression, but includes MOs in three DC cell subsets, CD14+CD25+, CD14++CD25+ and CD14+CD25++.

There are three types of IDO, pro-IDO like, IDO1, and IDO2.  In addition, another enzyme called TDO, tryptophan 2, 3, dehydrogenase solely degrades L-Trp by a rate-limiting mechanism in liver and brain.

The IDO1 mechanism is the target for immunotherapy applications. The initial discovery of IDO in human physiology is protection of pregnancy since lack of IDO results in premature recurrent abortion.   The initial rate-limiting step of tryptophan metabolism is catalyzed by either IDO or tryptophan 2, 3-dioxygenase (TDO), but the two are regulated with different mechanisms due to a His55 in TDO and a Ser167b in IDO.

IDO binds to only immune response cells, and TDO relates to NAD biosynthesis and is expressed solely in liver and brain.  It has been shown that knowledge on NADH/NAD, Kyn/Trp or Trp/Kyn ratios as well as Th1/Th2, CD4/CD8 or Th17/Th_reg are equally important for assessing the metabolic state.

DCs are the orchestrator of the immune response  with list of functions in uptake, processing, and presentation of antigens; activation of effector cells, such as T-cells and NK-cells; and secretion of cytokines and other immune-modulating molecules to direct the immune response.

Systemic inflammation (pneumonia, sepsis, malaria) creates hypotension and IDO expression has the effect of decreased vascular tone.  Moreover, inflammation activates the endothelial coagulation activation system causing coagulopathies on patients.  This reaction is namely endothelial cell activation of IDO by IFNgamma inducing Trp to Kyn conversion. Inflammation induces IDO expression in endothelial cells producing Kyn causing decrease of trp, arterial relaxation, and hypotension.

IDO for Commitment of a Life Time: The Origins and Mechanisms of IDO, indolamine 2, 3-dioxygenase
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/04/ido-for-commitment-of-a-life-time-the-origins-and-mechanisms-of-ido-indolamine-2-3-dioxygenase/

IDO, indolamine 2, 3-dioxygenase, is a key gene for homeostasis of immune responses and producing an enzyme catabolizing the first rate-limiting step in tryptophan degradation metabolism.

The mechanism of microbial response and origination of IDO is based on duplication of microbial IDO .  During microbial responses, Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a role to differentiate and determine the microbial structures as a ligand to initiate production of cytokines and pro-inflammatory agents to activate specific T helper cells. Uniqueness of TLR comes from four major characteristics of each individual TLR by ligand specificity, signal transduction pathways, expression profiles and cellular localization . Thus, TLRs are important part of the immune response signaling mechanism to initiate and design adoptive responses from innate (naïve) immune system to defend the host.

The modification of IDO+ monocytes manage towards a specific subset of T cell activation with specific TLRs are significantly important.  The type of cell with correct TLR and stimuli improves or decreases the effectiveness of stimuli. .

3D Cardiovascular Theater – Hybrid Cath Lab/OR Suite, Hybrid Surgery, Complications Post PCI and Repeat Sternotomy/  A Lev-Ari
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/19/3d-cardiovascular-theater-hybrid-cath-labor-suite-hybrid-surgery-complications-post-pci-and-repeat-sternotomy/

Treatment options for LV failure, temporary circulatory support, IABP, impella recover.
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/17/treatment-options-for-left-ventricular-failure-temporary-circulatory-support-intra-aortic-balloon-pump-iabp-impella-recover-ldlp-5-0-and-2-5-pump-catheters-non-surgical-vs-bridge-therapy/  larryhbern

Clinical Indications for Use of Inhaled Nitric Oxide (iNO) in the Adult Patient Market: Clinical Outcomes after Use, Therapy Demand and Cost of Care/ A Lev-Ari
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/06/03/clinical-indications-for-use-of-inhaled-nitric-oxide-ino-in-the-adult-patient-market-clinical-outcomes-after-use-therapy-demand-and-cost-of-care/

Inhaled nitric oxide is a selective pulmonary vasodilator that improves ventilation–perfusion matching at low doses in patients with acute respiratory failure, potentially improving oxygenation and lowering pulmonary vascular resistance.

Treatment Goals for Inhaled Nitric Oxide

  • Improved oxygenation
  • Decreased pulmonary vascular resistance
  • Decreased pulmonary edema
  • Reduction or prevention of inflammation
  • Protection against infection

Dose-Response for Respiratory Failure in the Adult Patient – a response is defined as a 20 percent increase in oxygenation.
Dose-Response for Pulmonary Hypertension in the Adult Patient – a 30 percent decrease in pulmonary vascular resistance during the inhalation of nitric oxide (10 ppm for 10 minutes) has been used to identify an association with vascular responsiveness to agents that can be helpful in the long term.

Diagnosis of Cardiovascular Disease, Treatment and Prevention: Current & Predicted Cost of Care and the Promise of Individualized Medicine Using Clinical Decision Support Systems
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/15/diagnosis-of-cardiovascular-disease-treatment-and-prevention-current-predicted-cost-of-care-and-the-promise-of-individualized-medicine-using-clinical-decision-support-systems-2/  JPearlman, LH Bernstein, A lev-Ari

among older Americans, more are hospitalized for HF than for any other medical condition.

Prevalence estimates for HF were determined from 1999–2008 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) and US Census Bureau projected population counts for years 2012 to 2030. HF is a clinical syndrome that results from a variety of cardiac disorders.

In the Western world the top 3 causes of HF are:

  • coronary artery disease
  • valvular disease
  • hypertension

Stages C and D represent the symptomatic phases of HF, with stage C manageable and stage D failing medical management, resulting in marked symptoms at rest or with minimal activity despite optimal medical therapy.

Classic demographic risk factors for the development of HF include:

  • older age,
  • male gender,
  • ethnicity, and
  • low socioeconomic status.
  • comorbid disease states contribute to the development of HF
  • Ischemic heart disease
  • Hypertension

Diabetes mellitus, insulin resistance, and obesity are also linked to HF development,
with diabetes mellitus increasing the risk of HF by +2-fold in men and up to 5-fold in women.
Smoking remains the single largest preventable cause of disease and premature death in the United States.

Hypertension caused by Arterial Stiffening is Ineffectively Treated by Diuretics and Vasodilatation Antihypertensives
Dr Reuven Zimlichman (Tel Aviv University, Israel)
http://www.theheart.org/article/1502067.do
the definitions of hypertension, as well as the risk-factor tables used to guide treatment, are no longer appropriate for a growing number of patients. New ambulatory blood-pressure-monitoring devices also measure arterial elasticity. “Unquestionably, these will improve our ability to diagnose both the status of the arteries and the changes of the arteries with time as a result of our treatment. So if we treat the patient and we see no improvement in arterial elasticity, something is not working—either the patient is not taking the medication, or our choice of medication is not appropriate, or the dose is insufficient, etc.”

Hypertension and Vascular Compliance: 2013 Thought Frontier – An Arterial Elasticity Focus
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/11/arterial-elasticity-in-quest-for-a-drug-stabilizer-isolated-systolic-hypertension-caused-by-arterial-stiffening-ineffectively-treated-by-vasodilatation-antihypertensives/   J Pearlman & A Lev-Ari

Conceptual development of the subject is presented in the following nine parts:
1.            Physiology of Circulation and Role of Arterial Elasticity
2.            Isolated Systolic Hypertension caused by Arterial Stiffening may be inadequately treated by Diuretics or Vasodilatation Antihypertensive Medications
3.            Physiology of Circulation and Compensatory Mechanism of Arterial Elasticity
4.            Vascular Compliance – The Potential for Novel Therapies Novel Mechanism for Disease Etiology: Modulation of Nuclear and Cytoskeletal Actin Polymerization. Genetic Therapy targeting Vascular Conductivity, Regenerative Medicine for Vasculature Protection
5.            In addition to curtailing high pressures, stabilizing BP variability is a potential target for management of hypertension
6.            Mathematical Modeling: Arterial stiffening explains much of primary hypertension
7.            Classification of Blood Pressure and Hypertensive Treatment Best Practice of Care in US
8.            Genetic Risk for High Blood Pressure
9.            Is it Hypertension or Physical Inactivity: Cardiovascular Risk and Mortality – New results in 3/2013.

Elastance in a cyclic pressure system of systole-diastole (contraction-dilation) presents impedance as a pulsatile load on the heart. Chronic exposure to elevated vascular impedance leads to impairment of lusiotropy (diastolic failure, stiff heart) and inotropy (systolic failure, weak heart).

Stiff or “lead pipe” blood vessels drop pressure precipitously to dangerously low levels in response to diuretics.
Stiff walls due to fibrosis or scar tissue have limited ability to dilate

Physiology of Circulation and Compensatory Mechanism of Arterial Elasticity

Arguably, HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors,  statin therapy is a second example of a medication that helps protect vascular elasticity, both by its lipid effects and its anti-inflammatory effects.

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/28/special-considerations-in-blood-lipoproteins-viscosity-assessment-and-treatment/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/28/what-is-the-role-of-plasma-viscosity-in-hemostasis-and-vascular-disease-risk/

While among other reasons for Hypertension increasing prevalence with aging, arterial stiffening is one.

Yet, stiffer vessels are more efficient at transmitting pressure to distal targets. With aging, muscle mass diminishes markedly and the contribution to circulation from skeletal muscle tissue compressions combined with competent venous valves fades.

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/27/endothelial-dysfunction-diminished-availability-of-cepcs-increasing-cvd-risk-for-macrovascular-disease-therapeutic-potential-of-cepcs/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/19/clinical-trials-results-for-endothelin-system-pathophysiological-role-in-chronic-heart-failure-acute-coronary-syndromes-and-mi-marker-of-disease-severity-or-genetic-determination/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/13/peroxisome-proliferator-activated-receptor-ppar-gamma-receptors-activation-pparγ-transrepression-for-angiogenesis-in-cardiovascular-disease-and-pparγ-transactivation-for-treatment-of-dia/

With aging heart contractility diminishes. These issues can cause under perfusion of tissues, inadequate nutrient blood delivery (ischemia), lactic acidosis, tissue dysfunction and multi-organ failure. Hardened arteries may compensate. Thus, pharmacotherapy to increase Arterial Elasticity may be counter-indicated for patients with mild to progressive CHF.

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/05/bioengineering-of-vascular-and-tissue-models/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/20/nitric-oxide-and-sepsis-hemodynamic-collapse-and-the-search-for-therapeutic-options/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/17/chronic-heart-failure-personalized-medicine-two-gene-test-predicts-response-to-beta-blocker-bucindolol/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/28/genetics-of-conduction-disease-atrioventricular-av-conduction-disease-block-gene-mutations-transcription-excitability-and-energy-homeostasis/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/14/mitochondrial-metabolism-and-cardiac-function/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/mitochondrial-damage-and-repair-under-oxidative-stress/

The hypothesis that we should focus on cellular therapies to increase vascular compliance may decrease the circulation efficiency and result in worsening of cardiac right ventricular morphology and development of Dilated cardiomyopathy and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (muscle thickening and diastolic failure), an undesirable outcome resulting from an attempt to treat the hypertension.

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/01/ngs-cardiovascular-diagnostics-long-qt-genes-sequenced-a-potential-replacement-for-molecular-pathology/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/29/positioning-a-therapeutic-concept-for-endogenous-augmentation-of-cepcs-therapeutic-indications-for-macrovascular-disease-coronary-cerebrovascular-and-peripheral/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/28/cardiovascular-outcomes-function-of-circulating-endothelial-progenitor-cells-cepcs-exploring-pharmaco-therapy-targeted-at-endogenous-augmentation-of-cepcs/

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/02/28/the-heart-vasculature-protection-a-concept-based-pharmacological-therapy-including-thymosin/

Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Cardiac Disorders   larryhbern
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/14/mitochondrial-dysfunction-and-cardiac-disorders/

Mitochondria and Cardiovascular Disease: A Tribute to Richard Bing, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/14/chapter-5-mitochondria-and-cardiovascular-disease/

Mitochondrial Metabolism and Cardiac Function, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/14/mitochondrial-metabolism-and-cardiac-function/

Reversal of Cardiac mitochondrial dysfunction, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/14/reversal-of-cardiac-mitochondrial-dysfunction/

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Normal and Anomalous Coronary Arteries: Dual Source CT in Cardiothoracic Imaging

Posted in Abdominal Aorta, Aortic Valve: TAVR, TAVI vs Open Heart Surgery, Atherogenic Processes & Pathology, CABG, Cardiac and Cardiovascular Surgical Procedures, Frontiers in Cardiology and Cardiovascular Disorders, Medical Imaging Technology, Image Processing/Computing, MRI, CT, Nuclear Medicine, Ultra Sound, Mitral Valve: Repair and Replacement, Origins of Cardiovascular Disease, PCI, Stents & Tools, Valves & Tools, tagged , , , , , on August 18, 2013| Leave a Comment »

Normal and Anomalous Coronary Arteries: Dual Source CT in Cardiothoracic Imaging

Reporters: Justin D Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Coronary anatomy and anomalies

“Coronary” describes the crown-like position of arteries on the heart that provide its nutrient blood supply. The heart does not live off of the blood in its chambers, but rather receives its nutrient perfusion from branches of the aorta, like all other organs. The most relied on method to exam coronary artery anatomy is angiography – xray image movies obtained while the blood is opacified by injection of iodine (high atomic number to block xrays) to provide a contrast between arterial flow channel (the lumen) and the surrounding tissues. Computed tomography is providing a second-best alternative with 3D reconstructions that can be obtained less invasively (no catheters), but it often fails to see the posterior descending artery (PDA) well, and is lower in resolution (point-discrimination detail) than xray angiography (XRA). Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) comes in as a distant third place method for examining coronary anatomy (lower quality, lower reliability), but non-invasive with no ionizing radiation. A major goal of defining coronary anatomy in individual patients is to identify coronary artery disease (CAD) and to clarify best options for management – to relieve angina and to avoid adverse consequences, e.g., heart attacks (myocardial infarction), heart failure (CHF) and death. The COURAGE trial showed that for many, aggressive medical management with statins and blood pressure control may obviate need for percutaneous or surgical interventions to control angina and minimize the risk of adverse outcomes. Patients with blockage of the left main coronary artery, or two vessel blockage including proximal left anterior descending (LAD) especially with below normal ejection fraction may be better off in the long run with bypass surgery. Therefore less invasive imaging sufficient to rule out left main disease and proximal LAD disease may suffice for decision making (except that the BARI trial results have not been overturned in favoring bypass surgery for diabetics).

On the left an overview of the coronary arteries in the anterior projection.

Coronary anatomy and anomalies

  • Left Main or left coronary artery (LCA)
    • Left anterior descending (LAD)
      • diagonal branches (D1, D2)
      • septal branches
    • Circumflex (Cx)
      • Marginal branches (M1,M2)
  • Right coronary artery
    • Acute marginal branch (AM)
    • AV node branch
    • Posterior descending artery (PDA)
RCA, LAD and Cx in the anterior projection

On the left an overview of the coronary arteries in the lateral projection.

  • Left Main or left coronary artery (LCA)
    • Left anterior descending (LAD)
      • diagonal branches (D1, D2)
      • septal branches
    • Circumflex (Cx)
      • Marginal branches (M1,M2)
  • Right coronary artery
    • Acute marginal branch (AM)
    • AV node branch
    • Posterior descending artery (PDA)

RCA, LAD and Cx in the right anterior oblique projection
On the left an overview of the coronary arteries in the lateral projection.

  • Left Main or left coronary artery (LCA)
    • Left anterior descending (LAD)
      • diagonal branches (D1, D2)
      • septal branches
    • Circumflex (Cx)
      • Marginal branches (M1,M2)
  • Right coronary artery
    • Acute marginal branch (AM)
    • AV node branch
    • Posterior descending artery (PDA)

RCA, LAD and Cx in the lateral projection

Left Coronary Artery (LCA)

The left coronary artery (LCA) is also known as the left main.
The LCA arises from the left coronary cusp.

The aortic valve has three leaflets, each having a cusp or cup-like configuration.
These are known as the left coronary cusp (L), the right coronary cusp (R) and the posterior non-coronary cusp (N).
Just above the aortic valves there are anatomic dilations of the ascending aorta, also known as the sinus of Valsalva. The left aortic sinus gives rise to the left coronary artery.
The right aortic sinus which lies anteriorly, gives rise to the right coronary artery.
The non-coronary sinus is postioned on the right side.

Left coronary (LC), right coronary (RC) and posterior non-coronary (NC) cusp
The LCA divides almost immediately into the circumflex artery (Cx) and left anterior descending artery (LAD).
On the left an axial CT-image.
The LCA travels between the right ventricle outflow tract anteriorly and the left atrium posteriorly and divides into LAD and Cx.

On the image on the left we see the left main artery dividing into

  • Cx with obtuse marginal branch (OM)
  • LAD with diagonal branches (DB)

On volume rendered images the left atrial appendage needs to be removed to get a good look on the LCA.
In 15% of cases a third branch arises in between the LAD and the Cx, known as the ramus intermedius or intermediate branch.
This intermediate branche behaves as a diagonal branch of the Cx.
Left Anterior Descending (LAD)
The LAD travels in the anterior interventricular groove and continues up to the apex of the heart.
The LAD supplies the anterior part of the septum with septal branches and the anterior wall of the left ventricle with diagonal branches.
The LAD supplies most of the left ventricle and also the AV-bundle.Mnemonic: Diagonal branches arise from the LAD.

CT image of the LAD in RAO projection
The diagonal branches come off the LAD and run laterally to supply the antero-lateral wall of the left ventricle.
The first diagonal branch serves as the boundary between the proximal and mid portion of the LAD (2).
There can be one or more diagonal branches: D1, D2 , etc.
Circumflex (Cx)
The Cx lies in the left AV groove between the left atrium and left ventricle and supplies the vessels of the lateral wall of the left ventricle.
These vessels are known as obtuse marginals (M1, M2…), because they supply the lateral margin of the left ventricle and branch off with an obtuse angle.
In most cases the Cx ends as an obtuse marginal branch, but 10% of patients have a left dominant circulation in which the Cx also supplies the posterior descending artery (PDA).Mnemonic: Marginal branches arise from the Cx and supply the lateral Margin of the left ventricle.

Circumflex and LAD seen in Lateral projection
Right Coronary Artery (RCA)
The right coronary artery arises from the anterior sinus of Valsalva and courses through the right atrioventricular (AV) groove between the right artium and right ventricle to the inferior part of the septum.
In 50-60% the first branch of the RCA is the small conus branch, that supplies the right ventricle outflow tract.
In 20-30% the conus branch arises directly from the aorta.
In 60% a sinus node artery arises as second branch of the RCA, that runs posteriorly to the SA-node (in 40% it originates from the Cx).
The next branches are some diagonals that run anteriorly to supply the anterior wall of the right ventricle.
The large acute marginal branch (AM) comes off with anacute angle and runs along the margin of the right ventricle above the diaphragm.
The RCA continues in the AV groove posteriorly and gives off a branch to the AV node.
In 65% of cases the posterior descending artery (PDA) is a branch of the RCA (right dominant circulation).
The PDA supplies the inferior wall of the left ventricle and inferior part of the septum.
RCA, LAD and LCx in Anterior projection
On the image on the far left we see the most common situation, in which the RCA comes off the right cusp and will provide the conus branch at a lower level (not shown).
On the image next to it, we see a conus branch, that comes off directly from the aorta.
LEFT: RCA comes off the right sinus of Valsalva
RIGHT: Conus artery comes off directly from the aorta
The large acute marginal branch (AM) supplies the lateral wall of the right ventricle.
In this case there is a right dominant circulation, because the posterior descending artery (PDA) comes off the RCA.
Coronary Anomalies

Coronary anomalies are uncommon with a prevalence of 1%.
Early detection and evaluation of coronary artery anomalies is essential because of their potential association with myocardial ischemia and sudden death (3).
With the increased use of cardiac-CT, we will see these anomalies more frequently.

Coronary anomalies can be differentiated into anomalies of the origin, the course and termination (Table).

The illustration in the left upper corner is the most common and clinically significant anomaly.
There is an anomalous origin of the LCA from the right sinus of Valsalva and the LCA courses between the aorta and pulmonary artery.
This interarterial course can lead to compression of the LCA (yellow arrows) resulting in myocardial ischemia.

The other anomalies in the figure on the left are not hemodynamically significant.

Interarterial LCA

On the left images of a patient with an anomalous origin of the LCA from the right sinus of Valsalva and coursing between the aorta and pulmonary artery.
Sudden death is frequently observed in these patients.

ALCAPA

On the left images of a patient with an anomalous origin of the LCA from the pulmonary artery, also known as ALCAPA.
ALCAPA results in the left ventricular myocardium being perfused by relatively desaturated blood under low pressure, leading to myocardial ischemia.
ALCAPA is a rare, congenital cardiac anomaly accounting for approximately 0.25-0.5% of all congenital heart diseases.
Approximately 85% of patients present with clinical symptoms of CHF within the first 1-2 months of life.

Myocardial bridging

Myocardial bridging is most commonly observed of the LAD (figure).
The depth of the vessel under the myocardium is more important that the lenght of the myocardial bridging.
There is debate, whether some of these myocardial bridges are hemodynamically significant.

Fistula

On the image on the left we see a large LAD giving rise to a large septal branch that terminates in the right ventricle (blue arrow).

Left to right shunt: septal branch of LAD teminates in right ventricle
REFERENCES
  1. Introduction to cardiothoracic imaging
    by Carl Jaffe and Patrick J. Lynch
  2. Cardiology Site
    by M. Abdulla
    This site includes instructional movies, 3-D animation, panoramic views, online quiz, interactive video-clips, interactive heart sounds & murmurs and interactive echocardiograms.
  3. Visualization of Anomalous Coronary Arteries on Dual Source Computed Tomography
    by G.J. de Jonge et al
    European Radiology, Volume 18, Number 11 / November, 2008, 2425-2432

SOURCE

Robin Smithuis and Tineke Wilems
Radiology department of the Rijnland Hospital Leiderdorp and the University Medical Centre Groningen, the Netherlands.
http://rad.desk.nl/en/48275120e2ed5 

 

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Stent Design and Thrombosis: Bifurcation Intervention, Drug Eluting Stents (DES) and Biodegrable Stents

Posted in Atherogenic Processes & Pathology, Cardiac and Cardiovascular Surgical Procedures, FDA Regulatory Affairs, Frontiers in Cardiology and Cardiovascular Disorders, Medical Devices R&D and Inventions, Medical Devices R&D Investment, Origins of Cardiovascular Disease, PCI, Peripheral Arterial Disease & Peripheral Vascular Surgery, Pharmacotherapy of Cardiovascular Disease, Regulated Clinical Trials: Design, Methods, Components and IRB related issues, Statistical Methods for Research Evaluation, Stents & Tools, Technology Transfer: Biotech and Pharmaceutical, tagged , , , , , , on August 6, 2013| 1 Comment »

Stent Design and Thrombosis:  Bifurcation Intervention, Drug Eluting Stents (DES) and Biodegrable Stents

Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

UPDATED 2/8/2014

Reva Completes Drug-Eluting Bioresorbable Stent Trial Enrollment

January 24, 2014
Reva Medical Clinical Trial ReZolve2 Bioresorbable Stent
January 24, 2014 — Reva Medical Inc. has completed enrollment in the clinical trial of the ReZolve2 drug-eluting bioresorbable scaffold. A total of 112 patients from three continents have been enrolled in the trial to provide the data needed to apply for CE marking.

The company anticipates filing a CE mark application before the end of 2014. It plans to report an update on trial data at the Paris Course on Revascularization (EuroPCR) in Paris, France, May 2014.

For more information: http://www.teamreva.com

This article has the following SIX Parts:

Part I: Bifurcation Intervention – Stent Design and Thrombosis

Part II: Biodegradable Polymer DES Reduce Stent Thrombosis Rates vs. Durable Polymer DES

Part III: Stent Flexibility versus Stent Concertina Longitudinal Deformation Effect on Outcomes

Part IV: Stent Thrombosis Through the Generations of Stent Design

Part V: Stent Thrombosis in Randomized Trials of Drug-Eluting Stents: Reappraisal of the Synthesis of Evidence!

Part VI. Duration of Dual Antiplatelet Therapy following Zotarolimus-Eluting Stents and A New Strategy for Discontinuation of Dual Antiplatelet Therapy

Conclusions by Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

 

Part I

Bifurcation Intervention – Stent Design and Thrombosis

 

The 5 Ts of Bifurcation Intervention: Type, Technique, Two Stents, T-Stenting, Trials

Ron Waksman, MD, FACC; Laurent Bonello, MD

Editorials published in JACC: Cardiovascular Interventions reflect the views of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of JACC: Cardiovascular Interventions or the American College of Cardiology.

J Am Coll Cardiol Intv. 2008;1(4):366-368. doi:10.1016/j.jcin.2008.06.006

http://interventions.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleid=1110233

Bifurcation, the division of an artery into 2 branches, is a common anatomy feature of the human coronary tree and is recognized as a common site for atherosclerotic plaque buildup due to the differences in coronary flow, turbulence, and shear stress at the site of the bifurcation. The prevalence of bifurcation stenosis in the human coronary tree is reported to be between 15% to 20% of all interventions and is considered complex and challenging for percutaneous intervention.

Numerous techniques and devices have been proposed to address the treatment of bifurcation lesions: balloon angioplasty, metallic stents, drug-eluting stents (DES), newly designed stents with dedicated access to the side branch, and full bifurcated stents. Clearly, the interest in the treatment of bifurcation stenting has increased with the availability to significantly reduce the recurrence rate, but this was associated with the increasing fear of stent thrombosis. Despite this extensive body of work and the latest innovations of 2008, there is not a “one size fits all” solution to the bifurcation puzzle, while the optimal percutaneous coronary intervention technique remains undetermined.

In this issue of JACC: Cardiovascular Interventions, Routledge et al. (1) present 2-year outcome data of 477 patients treated for bifurcation coronary disease with provisional side branch T-stenting using DES, and claim a systematic approach feasible for 90% of the patients, with acceptable efficacy and safety profiles. This editorial is written in response to this provocative study and will cover the 5 Ts of bifurcation stenting: Type of bifurcation, Techniques, Two stents versus one, T-stenting, and Trial design.

Types Of Bifurcation

Part of the complexity in treating bifurcation lesions and applying technique standardization is in regard to the numerous anatomic patterns of bifurcation stenosis and the lack of consistent, reliable methodology. Further, the variations in anatomy, angulations, and location of the disease within the bifurcation have led to the development of numerous classifications of bifurcation lesions, with differentiation between “true” bifurcation (both the main and the branch are diseased) and “false” bifurcation (either the main or the branch is disease) based on angiography. The most popular and intuitive classification is that of Medina et al. (2), which identifies at least 7 types of bifurcation involving the proximal main branch, the distal main branch, and the side branch, with different variations. If we add this to the classification of the various potential angulations between the main and the side branches, the sizes of the parent vessel and the side branch, and the different potential morphologies of the diseased segment (calcification, fibrosis, and so on), we can identify nearly endless anatomic and morphologic configurations of bifurcations types (3).

Technique

2 stents versus 1

Numerous techniques have been proposed for the treatment of bifurcation lesions. The first decision that the operator must make is whether the procedure will involve 1 or 2 stents. The most important information relates to the size of the side branch and the degree of the disease in this branch. Or do we really care about the side branch? Initially, the thought of using 2 stents for all bifurcated lesions was appealing because this approach usually resulted in an optimal angiographic success rate. Among the most popular techniques that employed the use of 2 stents are the culotte, crush, V-stenting, T-stenting, and simultaneous kissing stents (4). However, after numerous reports of high rates of late complications, including an increase in stent thrombosis and restenosis frequency, systematical use of 2 stents did not live up to expectations (5–8). These poor outcomes were observed regardless of the technique used and thus discouraged the liberal use of 2 stents. Therefore, the provisional strategy gained ground: try 1 stent first, and, if the result is not acceptable (dissection, impaired lumen, or flow of the other branch), use a second stent for the side branch. The superiority of such a provisional approach over a 2-stent technique was confirmed by the Nordic Bifurcation study (9). The results of this study had operators favoring the provisional rather than the 2-stent approach. However, many questions still remain regarding this approach: can we predict which bifurcation will require 2, rather than 1 stent? In how many patients is the provisional approach feasible? If a second stent is required, what then is the optimal technique for implantation of the second stent? Is provisional stenting still superior to the 2-stent approach with the new generation of stents available? And lastly, are the latest technique modifications, including pre- and post-kissing, clinically beneficial?

The present study demonstrated that provisional stenting is feasible in 90% of all patients, and those who received a second stent in the side branch, 28%, had similar long-term outcomes as those treated with 1 stent. The outcome of this study is similar to that of the Nordic Bifurcation study, which observed no difference in outcomes at 6 months’ follow-up between 1 and 2 stents (9). Finally, the latest Nordic Bifurcation Stent Technique study, comparing the culotte and crush techniques, reported low rates of angiographic restenosis and major adverse cardiac events for both techniques (10), with similar angiographic and clinical outcomes as the provisional approach with T-stenting reported in the Routledge et al. study (1). This leaves us with the question of whether, in 2008, provisional stenting is still superior to 2 stents when an improved technique is applied and new-generation stents are used?

T-stenting

Use of the provisional T-stenting technique is gaining interest because of its simplicity and subsequent reports of good mid-term outcomes (11–13). As illustrated in the present report by Routledge et al. (1), it is feasible in a large majority of patients and is associated with low rates of recurrent events during long-term follow-up. In the past, the technique was described to resolve dissections of a side branch (8) or as a new technique for the use of 2 stents for the treatment of bifurcation lesions (11). In the present study, the authors used provisional T-stenting as the default technique. From a technical point of view, provisional T-stenting offers several advantages compared with other bifurcation techniques: it is simple to perform in most cases, and it limits the need for a second stent, as illustrated by the low rate of stenting in the side branch in the present study. One technical aspect of the procedure remains in question: is kissing post-procedure mandatory in the provisional T-stenting approach with 1 or 2 stents? Bench testing observed that the final kissing balloon may have several interesting advantages: it opens the stent cells to the side branch, it allows the side branch ostium to be at least partially covered by stent struts, and it prevents the main branch stent from becoming deformed by side branch dilation. Further, in previous studies involving crush stenting, kissing balloon was shown to be critical in preventing restenosis (14). Nevertheless, the clinical impact of a final kissing balloon in provisional T-stenting must be established in future trials. Several limitations should be considered with T-stenting: it is not applicable for all lesions, it is dependent on the bifurcation angle and cannot be applied to angles <40°; the second stent, if needed, may not be able to fully cover the ostium, which will result in switching to a mini-crush technique, and like other techniques, there is a learning curve. Nevertheless, among today’s available options, the provisional T-stenting technique seems to be the simplest and is associated with favorable long-term outcomes.

Table 1 Comparison of Bifurcation Studies in the DES Era

Bifurcation stenting continues to challenge the interventional cardiologist. Despite the recent literature, including the present manuscript, there is a lack of consensus on an array of important issues, such as: Which branches deserve protection? Should provisional stenting be the default strategy of bifurcation stenting? Should we always pre-dilate the side branch? And if 2 stents are required, which technique would be the best? Is kissing always mandatory for both branches? Are DES more thrombogenic? And finally, how will the special dedicated bifurcated stents be integrated into current practice? With further trials and perhaps the sixth T in bifurcation stenting (Time), the answers to these important questions will be answered.

References

1 Routledge  H.C., Morice  M.-C., Lefèvre  T.; 2-year outcome of patients treated for bifurcation coronary disease with provisional side branch T-stenting using drug-eluting stents. J Am Coll Cardiol Intv. 1 2008:358-365.

2 Medina  A., Suárez de Lezo  J., Pan  M.; A new classification of coronary bifurcation lesions. Rev Esp Cardiol. 59 2006:183

3 Thomas  M., Hildick-Smith  D., Louvard  Y.; Percutaneous coronary intervention for bifurcation disease. A consensus view from the first meeting of the European bifurcation club. Euro Intervention. 2 2006:149-153.

4 Louvard  I., Lefevre  T., Morice  M.C.; Percutaneous coronary intervention for bifurcation coronary disease. Heart. 90 2004:713-722.

5 Iakovou  I., Schmidt  T., Bonizzoni  E.; Incidence, predictors, and outcome of thrombosis after successful implantation of drug-eluting stents. JAMA. 293 2005:2126-2130.

6 Finn  A.V., Kolodgie  F.D., Harnek  J.; Differential response of delayed healing and persistent inflammation at sites of overlapping sirolimus- or paclitaxel-eluting stents. Circulation. 112 2005:270-278.

7 Daemen  J., Wenaweser  P., Tsuchida  K.; Early and late coronary stent thrombosis of sirolimus-eluting and paclitaxel-eluting stents in routine clinical practice: data from a large two-institutional cohort study. Lancet. 369 2007:667-678.

8 Carrie  D., Karouny  E., Chouairi  S., Puel  J.; “T” shaped stent placement: a technique for the treatment of dissected bifurcation lesions. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn. 37 1996:311-313.

9 Steigen  T.K., Maeng  M., Wiseth  R.; Randomized study on simple versus complex stenting of coronary artery bifurcation lesions: the Nordic Bifurcation study. Circulation. 114 2006:1955-1961.

10 Gunnes P, Niemela M, Kervinen K, et al, for the Nordic-Baltic PCI Study Group. Eight months angiographic follow-up in patients randomized to crush or culotte stenting of coronary artery bifurcation lesions. The Nordic Bifurcation Stent Technique study. Paper presented at: ACC 2008 Late Breaking Trials; April 1, 2008; Chicago, IL.

11 Palvakis  G., de Man  F., Hamer  B., Doevendas  P., Stella  P.R.; Registry of new technique on coronary bifurcation lesions: the Utrech-“T” experience. Euro Intervention. 3 2007:262-268.

12 Pan  M., Suárez de Lezo  J., Medina  A.; Drug-eluting stents for the treatment of bifurcation lesions: a randomized comparison between paclitaxel and sirolimus stents. Am Heart J. 153 2007:15-17.

13 Ormiston  J.A., Webster  M.W., El Jack  S.; Drug-eluting stents for coronary bifurcations: bench testing of provisional side-branch strategies. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 67 2006:49-55.

14 Ge  L., Airoldi  F., Iakovou  I.; Clinical and angiographic outcome after implantation of drug-eluting stents in bifurcation lesions with the crush stent technique: importance of final kissing balloon post-dilation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 46 2005:613-620.

15 Hoye  A., Iakovou  I., Ge  L.; Long-term outcomes after stenting of bifurcation lesions with the “crush” technique: predictors of an adverse outcome. J Am Coll Cardiol. 47 2006:1949-1958.

16 Sharma  S.K.; Simultaneous kissing drug-eluting stent technique for percutaneous treatment of bifurcation lesions in large-size vessels. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 65 2005:10-16.

17 Moussa  I., Costa  R.A., Leon  M.B.; A prospective registry to evaluate sirolimus-eluting stents implanted at coronary bifurcation lesions using the “crush technique”. Am J Cardiol. 97 2006:1317-1321.

18 Yanagi  D., Shirai  K., Takamiya  Y.; Results of provisional stenting with a sirolimus-eluting stent for bifurcation lesion: multicenter study in Japan. J Cardiol. 51 2008:89-94.

19 Di Mario  C., Morici  N., Godino  C.; Predictors of restenosis after treatment of bifurcational lesions with paclitaxel eluting stents: a multicenter prospective registry of 150 consecutive patients. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 69 2007:416-424.

20 Tsuchida  K., Colombo  A., Lefèvre  T.; The clinical outcome of percutaneous treatment of bifurcation lesions in multivessel coronary artery disease with the sirolimus-eluting stent: insights from the Arterial Revascularization Therapies Study part II (ARTS II). Eur Heart J. 28 2007:433-442.

SOURCE

J Am Coll Cardiol Intv. 2008;1(4):366-368. doi:10.1016/j.jcin.2008.06.006

http://interventions.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleid=1110233

 

Bifurcation Stenting

David Hildick-Smith, MD

Consultant Cardiologist and Director of Cardiac Research

Brighton-Sussex University Hospital NHS Trust

Brighton, UK

Slide 1

Bifurcation stenting and its various ramifications in the modern cardiology world. The objectives of this presentation are to talk about some of the difficulties of bifurcation stenting, to summarize the recent study data, and to talk a little bit about dedicated stent systems, as well.

Dedicated Bifurcation Stent Systems – Main types:

• Side branch facilitation

• Side branch stenting incorporated

• Main branch stenting with enhanced access

• True dedicated systems

Slide 32

So we then have the issue of dedicated stent systems. Are they the answer to some of these questions? Are they going to bail us out of these difficult geometric issues of bifurcations? There are a number of dedicated stent systems in development and available at the moment, and they fall into a few different groups. There are systems which simply facilitate side branch access. There are systems which actually incorporate side branch stenting as the primary philosophy. There are those which are essentially a main branch stent with enhanced access. And then there are the truly dedicated systems.

Bifurcation Stenting: Should You Keep it Simple

You Keep it Simple

Facilitation

Increasing success of provisional T

Slide 33

If we look at the facilitation group, there are stent systems available where there’s a wire that is integral to the balloon system, and will perhaps then facilitate getting into the side branch, and may certainly facilitate making sure that you are,

Side Branch Ostial Coverage Stents:

• Scaffold side branch ostium

• Allow subsequent main vessel stenting

The side branch ostial coverage stents are intended to scaffold the side branch and retain main vessel stenting capabilities. There are a couple of stents of this nature on the market at the moment which are undergoing clinical trials to see their general applicability.

Main Vessel Enhanced Access Stents

•Pop-up/expand into side vessel

•Improve subsequent or immediate access to side branch

Slide 35

The next group is the main vessel enhanced access stents, which, either through a pop-up mechanism with mechanical scaffolding of the side branch ostium, or with a proximal stent which is self-expanding, enhance the access to the side branch, so that you have both immediate access and subsequent access. Which is one of the things that people worry about in this situation, which is, what happens if you have to come back to that side branch vessel a few months later? Will you be able to gain access to it? So these tools may have a role there.

True Dedicated Bifurcation Stent

Stenting of both branches

Slide 36

The fourth group is the true dedicated bifurcation stent. These are clearly the most useful, but of course, mechanically and from an engineering point of view, the most difficult to create and make work. They will certainly have a potential role in bifurcation stenting, but there’s a little  way to go before they could be used in a wide manner.

Slide 37

The dedicated systems, while most are quite ingenious, unfortunately most will not survive in their current format. But the true dedicated bifurcation stent will certainly have a role in the left main. And, as we come back increasingly from these bifurcations to the left main and get a mandate to be able to treat that, this is an area where there will be a significant place for dedicated bifurcation stent systems.

Conclusions

• Bifurcations remain troublesome

• Provisional T stenting is the gold standard

• Subsets of bifurcations require complex strategies

• Large side branches

• Longer ostial disease

• Current complex strategies fail us

• Crush fails more than culotte

• Dedicated devices will have a role

• Large bifurcations in main coronary tree

• Left main

Slide 38

In conclusion, bifurcation stenting is still a troublesome area. Provisional T stenting is the gold standard approach across the board, but we mustn’t forget that there may well be, and I believe there are, subsets of bifurcations which do require a complex strategy. These are the ones with large side branches and significant length of disease at the ostium of that side branch. The current complex strategies do fail from a mechanical point of view, and in that respect crush fails more than culotte. Although it’s a difficult time for dedicated devices at the moment, I think they will have a role, particularly in large bifurcations in the main coronary tree and, most particularly of all, in the left main stem.

SOURCE

http://www.theheart.org/documents/satellite_programs/intervsurgery/913801/BifurcationStenting_REVISED_FINAL.pdf

Part II

Biodegradable Polymer DES Reduce Stent Thrombosis Rates vs. Durable Polymer DES

March 27, 2012 — Biodegradable polymer drug-eluting stents (DES) provide better long-term safety and efficacy than durable polymer DES, according to findings from an analysis of three major clinical trials —

  • ISAR-TEST 3,
  • ISAR-TEST 4 and
  • LEADERS.

The data were presented at at the American College of Cardiology’s 61st Annual Scientific Session. The findings provide the first combined long-term data on the comparison between biodegradable polymer DES and durable polymer DES. Designed to improve long-term clinical outcomes while also shortening healing time, biodegradable polymer DES are a new generation of DES that have undergone little research and thus have yet to substantiate its claims. The three analyzed studies showed that after four years, use of biodegradable polymer DES resulted in

  • lower rates of target lesion revascularization,
  • definite stent thrombosis and
  • cardiac death and
  • heart attack than durable polymer DES.

“Because it is often difficult to design individual trials to test for differences in rarely occurring adverse events [like stent clotting], we pooled the data from the three largest trials to see if any differences between the two stent types could be seen,” said co-lead investigator Robert A. Byrne, M.B., B.Ch., Ph.D., a cardiologist at Deutsches Herzzentrum in Munich, Germany. “In addition, by including surveillance out to four years, this helped us better capture the differences between the two stents, as benefit was expected to first emerge with long-term follow-up.”

Among all three analyzed trials, 2,358 patients were randomly assigned to angioplasty with a biodegradable polymer DES (sirolimus-eluting = 1,501; biolimus-eluting = 857), while 1,704 patients were treated with a durable polymer SES (all sirolimus-eluting).

At the four-year follow-up point, the researchers found that the risk of target lesion revascularization (the study’s primary efficacy endpoint) was significantly lower among those patients treated with a biodegradable polymer DES than for those treated with a durable polymer DES (hazard ratio [HR] 0.82, 95 percent confidence interval [CI] 0.68-0.98, P=0.029). In addition, the risk of having a blood clot, called stent thrombosis (the study’s primary safety endpoint), was also significantly lower for those patients treated with a biodegradable polymer DES compared to those treated with a durable polymer DES (HR 0.56, 95 percent CI 0.35-0.90, P=0.015). This was driven by a lower risk of very late stent thrombosis (clots occurring more than one year after angioplasty) for the biodegradable polymer group (HR 0.22, 95 percent CI 0.08-0.61, P=0.004).

Furthermore, the incidence of heart attack late after stenting was lower for patients treated with biodegradable polymer versus durable polymer stents (HR 0.59, 95 percent CI 0.73-0.95, P=0.031).

While the arrival of DES has allowed interventionalists to provide treatment for more complex patients, concerns have arisen about the stents’ long-term safety, particularly concerning stent thrombosis. As a result, the polymer coating on the first-generation stents was targeted as an area for improvement. Specifically, the durable polymer remains in the coronary artery wall beyond the time when its useful function is served. This may cause delayed healing and a hypersensitivity reaction, leading to inflammation and stent thrombosis.

As a potential solution to these problems, new-generation stents with a bioabsorbable polymer were created. This polymer, which fully degrades and leaves a bare-metal stent in place, has been suggested to shorten healing time and cause less inflammation and subsequent stent thrombosis.

“These findings show that biodegradable polymer DES can provide better long-term safety and efficacy,” said Byrne. “This advantage, coupled with a shortened healing time compared with durable polymer DES, means that biodegradable polymer stents look to become an important tool for the interventional cardiologist in everyday practice.”

The current analysis was industry independent, supported in part by a grant from the Swiss National Science Foundation, and conducted at the ISAR Research Center in Munich, Germany, and the Clinical Trials Unit in Bern, Switzerland.

This study was simultaneously published in the European Heart Journal and was released online at the time of presentation.

The results offer a promising outlook for Boston Scientific’s Synergy DES, now in development. It uses the same platform stent as the Ion and Promus, but instead of a duable polymer it uses abluminal biodegradable polymer containing everolimus. The company presented its first-in-man study at TCT 2011 and hopes to begin its EVOLVE II U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) investigational decive exemption trial later this year.

For more information: www.acc.org

Biosensensors BioMatrix Flex was among the stents included in this study. It uses an abluminal, biodegradable polymer as a carrier for its BA9 drug.

http://www.dicardiology.com/article/biodegradable-polymer-des-reduce-stent-thrombosis-rates

First Patient Enrolled in Dissolving Drug-Polymer Coronary Stent Trial

February 21, 2011 – The first patient has been enrolled the DESSOLVE II study to support CE mark for a coronary stent that uses a bioresorbable drug polymer. The MiStent drug-eluting coronary stent system (MiStent DES), by Micell Technologies.

The trial involves treatment of patients with de novo lesions in the native coronary arteries. Stefan Verheye, M.D., Ph.D. at Middelheim Hospital, Antwerp, Belgium enrolled the first patient in the study.

The MiStent DES employs supercritical fluid technology, which applies a precisely controlled absorbable polymer – active drug (sirolimus) matrix onto a cobalt-chromium stent. The polymer dissolves and releases the drug into the surrounding tissue in a controlled manner, designed to optimize dosing of the drug throughout the affected artery. In preclinical trials, the drug completely elutes and the polymer is eliminated from the stent within 45 to 60 days in-vivo, resulting in a bare-metal stent.

DESSOLVE II is a prospective, controlled, 2:1 unbalanced randomized, multicenter study of approximately 270 patients. Patients will be enrolled at 26 clinical sites in Europe, New Zealand and Australia. Candidates for the trial are patients with documented stable or unstable angina pectoris or ischemia. The primary endpoint is superiority of MiStent DES in minimizing in-stent late lumen loss at nine months, compared to Medtronic’s Endeavor DES, as measured with angiography in treated de-novo lesions ranging in diameter from 2.5 to 3.5 mm and amenable to treatment with a maximum 23 mm long stent.

Along with secondary clinical endpoints such as major adverse cardiac events and revascularization rates, the extent of stent coverage and re-endothelialization, via optical coherence tomography (OCT), and endothelial function (vasomotor response) will be evaluated in a subgroup of patients at nine months.

“Drug-eluting stents have significantly improved and expanded our ability to treat coronary atherosclerotic lesions compared to bare-metal stents,” said William Wijns, M.D., Cardiovascular Center, Aalst, Belgium, and principal investigator of the study. “However, cardiologists are still looking for options to improve safety and outcomes. The MiStent DES may address some of these issues directly. Based on recent GLP animal data, the polymer and drug are gone from the stent within 45 to 60 days. This may reduce the risk of late-stent thrombosis related to long-term exposure to DES nonerodible polymers. Given the relatively short residence time of polymer on the stent, MiStent DES may allow for a shorter duration of dual antiplatelet therapy and be a safer choice for noncompliant patients. These performance-enhancing properties are what interventional cardiologists are looking for in a new drug-eluting stent.”

For more information: www.micell.com

http://www.dicardiology.com/article/first-patient-enrolled-dissolving-drug-polymer-coronary-stent-trial

 

Part III

Stent Flexibility versus Stent Concertina Effect

 

Stent flexibility versus concertina effect: mechanism of an unpleasant trade-off in stent design and its implications for stent selection in the cath-lab.

Foin N, Di Mario C, Francis DP, Davies JE.

Abstract

The “concertina effect”, longitudinal deformation of the proximal segments of a deployed stent when force is applied from a guide catheter or other equipment, is a recently recognised problem which seems to particularly affect more recent stent designs. Until now, flexibility and deliverability have been paramount aims in stent design. Developments have focused on optimizing these features which are commonly evaluated by clinicians and demanded by regulatory bodies. Contemporary stent designs now provide high flexibility by reducing the number of connecting links between stent segments and by allowing the connecting links to easily change their length. These design evolutions may, however, simultaneously reduce longitudinal strength and have the unintended effect of inducing some risk of longitudinal compression of the stent (the “concertina effect”) during difficult clinical cases. Progress in stent design and elimination of restenosis by drug coating has improved PCI outcome and enabled new applications. Here we discuss design trade-offs that shaped evolution and improvement in stent design, from early bare metal designs to the latest generation of drug eluting stent (DES) platforms. Longitudinal strength was not recognised as a critical parameter by clinicians or regulators until recently. Measurements, only now becoming publically available, seem to confirm vulnerability of some modern designs to longitudinal deformation. Clinicians could be more guarded in their assumption that changes in technology are beneficial in all clinical situations. Sometimes a silent trade-off may have taken place, adopting choices that are favourable for the vast majority of patients but exposing a few patients to unintended hazard.

Int J Cardiol. 2013 Apr 15;164(3):259-61. doi: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2012.09.143. Epub 2012 Oct 22.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23084111

 

Stent “Concertina:” Stent Design Does Matter

On-Hing Kwok, MBBS

From the Cardiac Catheterization & Intervention Center, Hong Kong Sanatorium & Hospital, Happy Valley, Hong Kong.

ABSTRACT: The development of modern coronary stent platforms has transformed the landscape of interventional cardiology. Contemporary coronary stents are much more deliverable than older-generation stents. However, longitudinal deformation has emerged as a “new” complication in modern coronary stent platforms. Although most reported cases of longitudinal stent deformation involve mechanical or technical mishaps, it appears that it is more frequently associated with a particular stent design: the “offset peak-to-peak” stent design. This review summarizes the latest data around stent performance. Within this context, two clinical cases where longitudinal deformation was observed in the absence of any mechanical mishaps are also presented. Collectively, this evidence suggests that stent design may be a major determinant of stent performance.

SOURCE

Journal Cardiology, Volume 25 – Issue 6 – June 2013

Key words: longitudinal deformation, stent design, stent concertina, drug-eluting stent

Over the past decades, stent design and material has undergone significant evolution. The introduction of the drug-eluting stent (DES) has also made “drug delivery” another major determinant in modern stent design.1

Coronary stent design. The majority of early coronary stents were made of stainless steel. These designs were associated with variable basic manufacture, cell geometry, and strut thickness.2 Use of alloys such as cobalt chromium and platinum chromium has enabled stents to have thinner struts, while maintaining strength and radioopacity.3 Thin-strut stents improve deliverability and conformability. However, there is limited evidence suggesting that thinner struts may result in less vessel wall damage and hence less risk of restenosis.4-6 Although thin-strut DESs have never been shown to have lower restenosis rates than thick-strut DESs, the trend of thinner strut platforms has triggered innovative designs to maintain stent radial strength. The development of longer, thinner, more flexible, and easier-to-deliver stent platforms made percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) possible even in the most tortuous anatomy and calcified vessels.7 However, longitudinal stent strength may be compromised with these modern designs.3 Stent design requires careful consideration of several performance characteristics, including crimped and expanded stent flexibility, shortening upon expansion, trackability, scaffolding, radioopacity, longitudinal strength, radial strength, and recoil.8

Stent longitudinal flexibility and deliverability prior to deployment, and vessel conformability after deployment, are widely dependent on the number, orientation, shape, thickness, and material of the crests and links.9 These parameters also determine the longitudinal strength of the stent, defined as maintenance of intact stent architecture upon exposure to compressing or elongating forces.9 Alteration of any one feature of a stent platform will undoubtedly impact other aspects of stent performance and may result in clinical complications. For instance, thinner struts improve deliverability, but reduce radio-opacity of the cobalt chromium stents. In addition, reduction of the number of fixed links between cells or alteration of their geometry may enhance flexibility and conformability, but as a consequence may compromise longitudinal strength.7

Although stent flexibility may be influenced by a variety of factors, it has been shown that stent longitudinal integrity, defined by the number of links between hoops, correlates with stent stiffness. In addition, the alignment of the links with the long axis of the stent may also be an important factor for longitudinal integrity.9

Architectural design differences are major factors affecting resistance against longitudinal compression. The peak-to-peak or peak-to-valley strut architectures of platforms result in variation between the longitudinal stiffness and strength of stents. It is highly likely that the occurrence of longitudinal deformation is dependent on a particular stent design.10

Longitudinal stent deformation. Until recently, the longitudinal strength of coronary stents has never been considered a standard parameter of stent performance. However, recent evidence identified longitudinal compression, or postdeployment stent shortening, as a newly observed complication. Longitudinal stent deformation is defined as the distortion or shortening of a stent in the longitudinal axis following successful stent deployment.3 This phenomenon describes the effect of a longitudinal compression force on the stent rings, causing them to nest or concertinate.8 

PCI procedures involve multiple and complex techniques that may increase the risk for longitudinal stent compression. These include the use of extra-support guide catheters, aggressive guide catheter manipulation (deep-seat), mother and child catheter systems, multiple balloon postdilations, bifurcation stent techniques, and adjunctive devices such as intravascular ultrasound (IVUS), distal protection devices, etc.7 In a clinical setting, longitudinal compression may occur in various situations (Table 1),8 and it may simply represent an angiographic detection of an exceptional PCI complication. Protrusion of struts into the lumen and extensive malapposition of struts due to longitudinal deformation may result in disruption of flow and increasing the risk of stent thrombosis. Moreover, longitudinal deformation of a DES may result in uneven drug delivery and increase the risk for in-stent restenosis (ISR).9

Clinical reports of longitudinal deformation. Hanratty and Walsh recently described 3 cases where longitudinal compression of a previously deployed stent resulted in stent deformation. Two cases were detected angiographically, while 1 was detected on adjunctive imaging. The complication was first reported with the Promus Element (Boston Scientific) platform. However, Hanratty and Walsh noted that this phenomenon has since been observed with all modern DES platforms. They concluded that such deformation could potentially result in a suboptimal technical result for the medium- to long-term and increase the risk for stent thrombosis and ISR if left undetected.7

References

1. Htay T, Liu MW. Drug-eluting stent: a review and update. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2005;1(4):263-276.

2. Colombo A, Stankovic G, Moses JW. Selection of coronary stents. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;40(6):1021-1033.

3. Williams PD, Mamas MM, Morgan K, et al. Longitudinal stent deformation — a retrospective analysis of frequency and mechanisms. EuroIntervention. 2012;8(2):267-274. Epub AOP 2011.

4. Pache J, Kastrati A, Mehilli J, et al. Intracoronary stenting and angiographic results: strut thickness effect on restenosis outcome (ISAR-STEREO-2) trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41(8):1283-1288.

5. Moreno R, Jimenez-Valero S, Sanchez-Recalde A. Periprocedural (30-day) risk of myocardial infarction after drug-eluting coronary stent implantation: a meta-analysis comparing cobalt-chromium and stainless steel drug-eluting coronary stents. EuroIntervention. 2011;6(8):1003-1010.

6. Kastrati A, Mehilli J, Dirschinger J, et al. Strut thickness effect on restenosis outcome (ISAR-STEREO) trial. Circulation. 2001;103(23):2816-2821.

7. Hanratty CG, Walsh SJ. Longitudinal compression: a “new” complication with model coronary stent platforms — a time to think beyond deliverability. EuroIntervention. 2011;7(7):872-877. Epub AOP 2011.

8. Prabhu S, Schikorr T, Mahmoud T, Jacobs J, Potgieter A, Simonton C. Engineering assessment of the longitudinal compression behavior of contemporary coronary stents. EuroIntervention. 2012;8(2):275-281.

9. Ormiston JA, Webber B, Webster MWI. Stent longitudinal integrity — bench insights into a clinical problem. JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 2011;4(12):1310-1317.

10. Mortier P, De Beule M. Stent design back in the picture: an engineering perspective on longitudinal stent compression. EuroIntervention. 2011;7(7):773-776.

11. Stone GW, Teirstein PS, Meredith IT, et al; PLATINUM Trial Investigators. A prospective randomised evaluation of a novel everolimus-eluting coronary stent: the PLATINUM trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;57(16):1700-1708.

12. Pitney M, Pitney K, Jepson N, et al. Major stent deformation/pseudofracture of 7 Crown Endeavor/Micro Driver stent platform: incidence and causative factors. EuroIntervention. 2011;7(2):256-262.

13. Finet G, Rioufol G. Coronary stent longitudinal deformation by compression: is this a new global stent failure, a specific failure of a particular stent design, or simply an angiographic detection of an exceptional complication. Eurointervention. 2012;8(2):177-181. Epub AOP 2011.

Disclosure: The author has completed and returned the ICMJE Form for Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interest. The author reports no conflicts of interest regarding the content herein.

Manuscript submitted September 12, 2012, provisional acceptance given October 31, 2012, final version accepted January 14, 2013.

Address for correspondence: On-Hing Kwok, MBBS, FRCP, FACC, FSCAI, Cardiology Center, 6/F Li Shu Fan Building, Hong Kong Sanatorium & Hospital, 2 Village Road, Happy Valley, Hong Kong. Email: vohkwok@hksh.com

SOURCE

J INVASIVE CARDIOL 2013;25(6):E114-E119

 

Part IV

Stent Thrombosis Through the Generations of Stent Design

A recent retrospective analysis provided further valuable information on the frequency and mechanisms of longitudinal stent deformation. The study involved 4455 interventional cases performed during a 4-year period. Stent deformation occurred in a total of 9 cases (0.2%) and affected 0.097% of stents deployed. In 6 cases, the Promus Element stent was involved, and there was 1 case each involving Endeavor (Medtronic), Biomatrix (Biosensors Interventional Technologies), and Taxus Liberté (Boston Scientific) stents. Stent deformation varied from 0% in several stent types to 0.86% in the case of Promus Element.3 It was virtually unseen in the Cypher and Xience (Abbott Vascular) platforms. Longitudinal stent deformation is probably not a “class effect,” but highly dependent on a particular stent design.

http://www.invasivecardiology.com/articles/stent-“concertina”-stent-design-does-matter

Author(s): 

Lawrence Rajan, MD and David J. Moliterno, MD

From the Gill Heart Institute and Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky.

Stent thrombosis (ST), while infrequent, remains a dreaded complication of percutaneous coronary revascularization because of the associated rates of

  • major myocardial infarction (60%-70%) and
  • early mortality (20%-25%).1

As coronary stents became more widely used in clinical practice during the late 1990s to treat acute vessel closure and to reduce restenosis, the emergence of ST redirected the efforts of the cardiology community to mitigate or eliminate this potentially catastrophic event. Advances in

  • stent design and strut thinness,
  • the advent of drug-eluting stent (DES) options, and
  • more potent antithrombotic therapy

have been substantial influences on ST.

  • DESs have been associated with higher ST rates as compared to their bare-metal counterparts, particularly when utilized among high-risk groups and high-risk lesions.

More recently, early meta-analyses of smaller studies have suggested

  • reduced ST rates with newer-generation DESs versus prior versions.2 Similarly, observations from a randomized trial suggested
  • lower ST rates with the newer-generation everolimus-eluting stent (<1%) compared to rates for the older-generation paclitaxel-eluting stent (3%).3

So while this uncommon but catastrophic complication persists in contemporary practice, its low frequency has made it difficult to study, particularly in the real-world setting.

In the current issue of the Journal of Invasive Cardiology, Dores et al have analyzed the outcome data from a large-volume, single-center prospective registry evaluating the incidence of definite ST.4 The study consisted of 3806 patients who underwent percutaneous coronary intervention between January 2003 and December 2010. In the registry, a total of 2388 patients (62.7%) were treated with first-generation DESs (sirolimus-eluting and paclitaxel-eluting stents), while 1418 patients (37.3%) were treated with second-generation DESs (everolimus-eluting and zotarolimus-eluting stents). The overall occurrence of Academic Research Consortium (ARC)-defined definite ST at 12 months was 1.2% (46 events). After correction for baseline differences between study groups and other variables deemed to influence the occurrence of ST, Dores et al concluded that the

  • use of first-generation DESs was associated with a 2.4-fold increase in the risk of definite ST. Among the cases receiving a first-generation DES,
  • the risk of ST was higher for paclitaxel-eluting versus sirolimus-eluting stents.

The observations from Dores et al are consistent with prior reports, in that the rates of definite ST are low and decreasing in recent years. As can be seen in Dores’s Figure 3 considering annual frequency of definite ST, the numerically highest years were 2003 and 2004, and over the most recent years, rates have averaged closer to 1%. Questions will remain in the field of ST, some of which will require large-scale registry data to help consider their relevance and possible answers.

The underlying challenge remains how to afford to study such low-frequency events with multifactorial and variable etiologies. Beyond the events during the interventional procedure and device utilized (ie, type of DES), many other factors that affect the rate of ST (eg, patient genotype and phenotype) are still being unraveled. Considerable research has gone into finding predictive subsets for those at increased risk for ST.5 Among identified factors are the timing and acuity of presentation. Patients presenting with an ACS are known to be more vulnerable to early ST than patients with chronic stable disease. The initial plaque rupture of ACS triggers a prothrombotic avalanche of events, from platelet activation to local thrombus formation and occlusion, spasm, and distal embolization of microcirculatory debris.6 It is interesting to note in the Dores et al. registry that patients receiving second-generation DESs more often presented with an ACS, making their observations reassuring that ST rates can be kept low with evolving care strategies.

In an analysis of the ACUITY trial, which particularly enrolled patients with ACS,7 early ST occurred with similar frequency after anticoagulation with either heparin plus glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors or bivalirudin (with or without IIb/IIIa inhibitors), and not surprisingly was predicted by diffuse atherosclerosis, suboptimal angiographic results, and inadequate pharmacotherapy. Such patients also had a higher incidence of renal insufficiency and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The ACUITY subanalysis found that the rate of ST within 30 days was 1.4%, significantly higher than the 0.3%-0.5% ST rates reported among patients with stable coronary artery disease.

Among the most critical factors in mitigating the risk of ST are adequate and consistent dual-antiplatelet therapy (DAPT). A remarkable interpatient variability in the antiplatelet response to clopidogrel has been well documented. The frequency of

  • clopidogrel hyporesponsiveness has been reported among as many as 30% of patients undergoing PCI, yet the clinical relevance of antiplatelet responsivity is modest,8 again since the factors related to ST are many.
  • Loss-of-function alleles have been identified for clopidogrel metabolism, and these have been associated with an increased risk of adverse cardiovascular events, including ST.
  • Among patients with ACS, the need for more rapid and potent pharmacological suppression of platelet reactivity in the prevention of early ST is highlighted in clinical trials testing newer antiplatelet therapies.

In a landmark trial,

  • prasugrel, a more potent, consistent, and faster-acting third-generation thienopyridine has shown a significant reduction in overall ST rates compared to clopidogrel (1.1% vs 2.4%).9 Similarly,
  • ticagrelor, an oral, reversible, direct-acting inhibitor of the ADP receptor P2Y12 that has a more rapid onset and greater potency of platelet inhibition than clopidogrel was recently studied in a large clinical trial.
  • In the Platelet Inhibition and Patient Outcomes (PLATO) study, there was a significant reduction in ST in the ticagrelor group vs the clopidogrel group, with definite ST rates of 1.3% and 1.9%, respectively.10

It is becoming clear that there has been a generational improvement in DESs that has reduced the risk of ST. This has been paralleled by advances in DAPT regimens and interventional techniques that have collectively reduced the risk of ST. While the field will continue to search for answers to the

  • optimum duration of DAPT, and whether this is dependent on
  • stent type and
  • acuity of patient presentation,

DES polymers, design characteristics, and the antiproliferative drugs will also continue to evolve. Understanding incremental improvements in techniques, devices, and drugs will remain quite challenging as the rate of ST slowly moves closer to zero.

References

1. Cutlip DE, Baim DS, Ho KK, et al. Stent thrombosis in the modern era: a pooled analysis of multicenter coronary stent clinical trials. Circulation. 2001;103(15):1967-1971.

2. Palmerini T, Biondi-Zoccai G, Della Riva D, et al. Stent thrombosis with drug-eluting and bare-metal stents: evidence from a comprehensive network meta-analysis. Lancet. 2012;379(9824):1393-1402.

3. Kedhi E, Joesoef KS, McFadden E, et al. Second-generation everolimus-eluting and paclitaxel-eluting stents in real-life practice (COMPARE): a randomised trial. Lancet. 2010;375(9710):201-209.

4. Dores H, Raposo L, Teles RC, et al. Stent thrombosis with second versus first generation drug eluting stents in real world coronary percutaneous intervention. J Invasive Cardiol. 2013;25(7):330-336.

5. Holmes DR Jr, Kereiakes DJ, Garg S, et al. Stent thrombosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56(17):1357-1365.

6. Finn AV, Nakano M, Narula J, Kolodgie FD, Virmani R. Concept of vulnerable/unstable plaque. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2010;30(7):1282-1292.

7. Aoki J, Lansky AJ, Mehran R, et al. Early stent thrombosis in patients with acute coronary syndromes treated with drug-eluting and bare metal stents: the Acute Catheterization and Urgent Intervention Triage Strategy trial. Circulation. 2009;119(5):687-698.

8. Holmes DR Jr, Dehmer GJ, Kaul S, Leifer D, O’Gara PT, Stein CM. ACCF/AHA clopidogrel clinical alert: approaches to the FDA “boxed warning.” A report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Task Force on Clinical Expert Consensus Documents and the American Heart Association. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56(4):321-341.

9. Wiviott SD, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, et al; TRITON-TIMI 38 Investigators. Intensive oral antiplatelet therapy for reduction of ischaemic events including stent thrombosis in patients with acute coronary syndromes treated with percutaneous coronary intervention and stenting in the TRITON-TIMI 38 trial: a subanalysis of a randomised trial. Lancet. 2008;371(9621):1353-1363.

10. Wallentin L, Becker RC, Budaj A, et al; the PLATO Investigators. Ticagrelor versus clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2009;361(11):1045-1057.

Disclosure: The authors have completed and returned the ICMJE Form for Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interest. The authors report no conflicts of interest regarding the content herein.

Address for correspondence: David J. Moliterno, MD, Department of Internal Medicine, The University of Kentucky, 900 S. Limestone Avenue, 329 Wethington Building, Lexington, KY 40536-0200. Email: moliterno@uky.edu

Journal of invasive Cardiology, Volume 25 – Issue 7 – July 2013

http://www.invasivecardiology.com/articles/stent-thrombosis-through-generations

Stent Thrombosis With Second- Versus First-Generation Drug-Eluting Stents in Real-World Percutaneous Coronary Intervention: Analysis of 3806 Consecutive Procedures From a Large-Volume Single-Center Prospective Registry

Stent thrombosis (ST) is a serious and often fatal event limiting the efficacy of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). The pathophysiology of ST is multifactorial, and underlying causes including stent-, procedure-, lesion-, and patient-related factors seem to play different roles at different time points after the index procedure.1,2 When compared to first-generation (1stGEN) drug-eluting stents (DESs), newer DESs have been associated with a lower rate of ST in several randomized clinical trials, subsequent meta-analyses, and also in some registries, such as the recently published Swedish Coronary Angiography and Angioplasty Registry (SCAAR).3-7 New, second-generation (2ndGEN) DESs have been developed with improved design and materials, both of which may contribute to overcome some of the limitations of the older DESs. Decreased strut thickness — resulting in higher flexibility, conformability, and deliverability — and optimized polymer biocompatibility and drug delivery kinetics have been shown to contribute to a low late-loss rate and to a lower thrombotic risk.1 Despite the evidence pointing in this direction, most of the data comes from post hoc analysis and meta-analysis, mainly because studies defining ST as a primary endpoint are scarce.

We aimed to assess whether or not the systematic use of a 2ndGEN DES, relative to the 1stGEN DES, translates into a higher safety rate in a real-world population where DES implantation was indicated. For that purpose, we conducted an analysis of a single-center prospective registry, evaluating the incidence of definite ST, as defined by the Academic Research Consortium (ARC), at 12 months of follow-up as the primary outcome measure.

Author(s): 

Helder Dores, MD, Luís Raposo, MD, Rui Campante Teles, MD, Carina Machado, MD, Sílvio Leal, MD, Pedro Araújo Gonçalves, MD, Henrique Mesquita Gabriel, MD, Manuel Sousa Almeida, MD, Miguel Mendes, MD

Abstract

Background and Aims. When compared to their first-generation (1stGEN) counterparts, second-generation (2ndGEN) drug-eluting stents (DESs) have been associated with better clinical outcomes in randomized clinical trials, namely by reducing the rates of stent thrombosis (ST). Our goal was to investigate whether or not the broad use of newer devices would translate into higher safety in a real-world population. For that purpose, we compared the occurrence of definite ST at 12 months between two patient subsets from a large-volume single-center registry, according to the type of DES used. Total mortality was a secondary endpoint.

Methods and Results. Between January 2003 and December 2010, a total of 3806 patients were submitted to percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with only 1stGEN or 2ndGEN DES: 2388 patients (62.7%) were treated with 1stGEN DES only (sirolimus-eluting stent [SES] = 1295 [34.0%]; paclitaxel-eluting stent [PES] = 943 [24.8%]; both stent types were used in 150 patients) and 1418 patients (37.3%) were treated with 2ndGEN DESs only. The total incidence of definite ST (as defined by the Academic Research Consortium) at 12 months was 1.2% (n = 46). After correction for baseline differences between study groups and other variables deemed to influence the occurrence of ST, the use of 1stGEN DES was associated with a significant 2.4-fold increase in the risk of definite ST (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.05-5.42; P=.039) at 12 months; adjusted risk was higher with PES (hazard ratio [HR], 3.6; 95% CI, 1.48-8.70; P=.005) than with SES (HR, 2.3; 95% CI, 0.92-5.65; P=.074). Total mortality (3.7% vs 3.5%) did not differ significantly between groups (adjusted HR, 1.2; 95% CI, 0.81-1.84, P=.348).

Conclusions. Our data suggest that in the real-world setting of contemporary PCI, the unrestricted use of newer 2ndGEN DESs translates into an improvement in PCI safety (relative to 1stGEN DESs), with a significantly lower risk of definite ST at 12 months.

Journal of Invasive Cardiology                    Volume 25 – Issue 7 – July 2013

J INVASIVE CARDIOL 2013;25(7):330-336

Key words: stent thrombosis, drug-eluting stent

http://www.invasivecardiology.com/articles/stent-thrombosis-second-versus-first-generation-drug-eluting-stents-real-world-percutaneous

 

Part V

Stent Thrombosis in Randomized Trials of Drug-Eluting Stents:

Reappraisal of the Synthesis of Evidence!

Stent Thrombosis in Randomized Clinical Trials of Drug-Eluting Stents

Laura Mauri, M.D., Wen-hua Hsieh, Ph.D., Joseph M. Massaro, Ph.D., Kalon K.L. Ho, M.D., Ralph D’Agostino, Ph.D., and Donald E. Cutlip, M.D.

N Engl J Med 2007; 356:1020-1029February 12, 2007DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa067731

http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa067731?goback=%2Egde_675087_member_263490750

 

EDITORIAL on  bare-metal stents (BMS) vs sirolimus-eluting stents (SES)

With full interest, we read the article “Stent thrombosis in randomized clinical trials (RCT) of drug-eluting stents (DES)” by Mauri L et al, previously published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 2007 [1]. The authors concluded that “The incidence of stent thrombosis (ST) did not differ significantly between patients with DES and those with bare-metal stents (BMS) in RCT, although the power to detect small differences in rates was limited” [1]. 
I have the following concerns. First and foremost, ST in the BMS groups occurred more frequently among patients who underwent intervening target lesion revascularization (TLR) versus those who did not [1]. And since brachytherapy was the standard of care for treatment of restenosis at that time, it was used more frequently in patients with restenosis following BMS (9 out of 11 patients with BMS who underwent intervening TLR and subsequently developed definite/probable ST), in whom restenosis occurred more frequently and more diffusely, compared with DES [1]. In an observational study, brachytherapy was associated with a high risk of late (thrombotic) total occlusion of the index vessel at 6-month angiographic follow-up [2]. In that study, the mean time from brachytherapy to late total occlusion was 5.4 ± 3.2 months [2]. Therefore, brachytherapy may constitute selection bias for devices with higher rates of restenosis, by increasing the risk of late ST following intervening procedures for these devices. This might explain the much higher rate of late (beyond 30 days to 1 year) definite/probable ST following BMS compared with sirolimus-eluting stents (SES) (1% versus 0.1%, respectively), which was obviously responsible for the higher overall rate of definite/probable ST following BMS compared with SES at 4-year follow-up (1.7% versus 1.5%, respectively, p=0.7) [1]. It is worth mentioning that

  • BMS was associated with a lower rate of very late (beyond 1 year) definite/probable ST compared with SES (0.4% versus 0.9%, respectively) [1]. Second,
  • the study included 4 RCT of SES published from 2002 to 2004, and 4 RCT of paclitaxel-eluting stents (PES) published from 2003 to 2005, all of which were published before the Academic Research Consortium (ARC) report that put forward the current standard definitions of ST [3].

Thus, the ARC definitions were applied to all of these trials retrospectively, and therefore, might have missed some of the ST events.

  • Third, the study enrolled 878 patients with SES versus 870 treated with the corresponding BMS, 1400 patients with PES versus 1397 treated with the corresponding BMS; thus, it was clearly underpowered for detection of a difference in rare-by-nature events such as ST.  Forth, the
  • RCT included in the study were the earliest RCT of SES and PES; hence, they enrolled relatively low-risk patient, lesion, and clinical subsets, that do not reflect real-world practice.
  • Finally, the individual databases of RCT of PES were managed by Boston Scientific, which might introduce another source of bias!

References

1. Mauri L, Hsieh WH, Massaro JM, et al. Stent thrombosis in randomized clinical trials of drug-eluting stents. N Engl J Med 2007;356:1020-9.

2. Waksman R, Bhargava B, Mintz GS, et al. Late total occlusion after intracoronary brachytherapy for patients with in-stent restenosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;36:65-8.

3. Cutlip DE, Windecker S, Mehran R, et al. Clinical end points in coronary stent trials: a case for standardized definitions. Circulation 2007;115:2344-51.

Part VI

Duration of Dual Antiplatelet Therapy following Zotarolimus-Eluting Stents and A New Strategy for Discontinuation of Dual Antiplatelet Therapy

Dr. Pearlman: Drug eluting stents decrease in stent stenosis from endothelial exuberant growth at the cost of increased propensity to thrombosis, offset by prolonged use of dual anti platelet medication. The net effect depends on compliance which if good results in net decrease. The risk has increased due to drug eluting stent prevalence, but that is offset by management with dual anti platelet agents, so the net incidence is reduced. There have been a number of presentations based on angioscopy showing thrombus inside bare metal and drug eluting stents that supported the general concensus also supported by TIMI trials that stent thrombosis is promoted by metal stents until they endothelialize, and that drug-eluting stents impede the endothelialization “too well” prolonging that issue, so minimal dual platelet agent duration in practice is 3 months for BMS, 6-12 months for DES, but benefit fades to 2% at 1 year, 1% at 2 years at which point risk-benefit is unconvincing and many stop plavix, while some insist it is a lifetime medication.

With full interest, we read the article “Dual antiplatelet therapy duration and clinical outcomes following treatment with zotarolimus-eluting stents (ZES)” by Kandzari DE, et al [1]. The authors concluded that “Among patients treated with ZES, late-term events of death, myocardial infarction (MI), stroke, and stent thrombosis (ST) do not significantly differ between patients taking 6 months dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) compared with continuation beyond 1 year” [1].
I have the following concerns. First, although the authors claimed that their study was based on a pooled analysis of patients who received ZES in 5 ‘clinical trials’; actually, 2 out of 5 were not ‘trials’. One was a registry of direct stenting with ZES [2], and the other was a study of pharmacokinetics of ABT 578 in a subset of the ENDEAVOR II trial, that was not published in a medical journal [3]! Second, patients were classified by “DAPT adherence according to the most recent report of compliance with aspirin and thienopyridine”. Evidence supports that premature discontinuation clopidogrel is the most powerful independent predictor of late ST [4].

There is no evidence, however, that stopping aspirin predisposes to ST following drug-eluting stent implantation. Third, follow-up of DAPT adherence was done at 30 days, 6 months, then annually for 3 years. Reporting DAPT adherence based on “the last reported follow-up interval of compliance with both aspirin and clopidogrel” does not reflect the actual duration of clopidogrel received in any of the comparison groups. Forth, in the second comparison of “6 months on/24 months off” (on DAPT at 6 but not at 24 months) versus “≥24 months” (on DAPT at 6 and 24 months)”, the first group included, by definition, patients who were also on DAPT at 12 months (but not at 24 months). Thus, it cannot be taken to reflect a comparison between 6-month DAPT and 24-month DAPT!  Fifth, the ENDEAVOR II and ENDEAVOR III trials were published in 2006, before the publication of ARC report [5,6]. Therefore, the ARC definitions of ST were applied retrospectively in many patients, which might explain the absence of ‘probable’ ST in all comparison groups, in all time points. Sixth, major bleeding was defined exclusively as “any hemorrhagic event that required blood product transfusion”. This might explain why such rates were 0% in all groups, in all time points. Finally, the study involved low-risk patient and lesion subsets, and was statistically underpowered for rare events such as ST, cardiac death, or MI.

References
1. Kandzari DE, Barker CS, Leon MB, et al. Dual antiplatelet therapy duration and clinical outcomes following treatment with zotarolimus-eluting stents. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2011;4:1119-28.
2. Schultheiss HP, Grube E, Kuck KH, et al. Endeavor II Continued Access Investigators. Safety of direct stenting with the Endeavor stent: results of the Endeavor II continued access registry. EuroIntervention 2007;3:76–81.
3. Pharmacokinetics of ABT-578 in patients from Endeavor stent: results from a subset of a double-blind, randomized, multicenter (ENDEAVOR-II) trial. In: The ENDEAVOR II Study 30-Day Pharmacokinetic Report. Abbot Park, IL: Abbott Laboratories, 2004.
4. Iakovou I, Schmidt T, Bonizzoni E, et al. Incidence, predictors, and outcome of thrombosis after successful implantation of drug-eluting stents. JAMA 2005;293:2126-30.
5. Fajadet J, Wijns W, Laarman GJ, et al. ENDEAVOR II Investigators. Randomized, double-blind, multicenter study of the Endeavor zotarolimus-eluting phosphorylcholine-encapsulated stent for treatment of native coronary artery lesions: clinical and angiographic results of the ENDEAVOR II trial. Circulation 2006;114:798–806.
6. Kandzari DE, Leon MB, Popma JJ, et al. ENDEAVOR III Investigators. Comparison of zotarolimus-eluting and sirolimus-eluting stents in patients with native coronary artery disease: a randomized controlled trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006;48:2440–7.
SOURCE
interventions.onlinejacc.org <http://interventions.onlinejacc.org> interventions.onlinejacc.org <http://interventions.onlinejacc.org>

A New Strategy for Discontinuation of Dual Antiplatelet Therapy

With interest, we read the article “A New Strategy for Discontinuation of Dual Antiplatelet Therapy: REal Safety and Efficacy of 3-month dual antiplatelet Therapy following Endeavor zotarolimus-eluting stent implantation (RESET) Trial” by Kim B-K, et al [1]. The authors concluded that Endeavor zotarolimus-eluting stent (E-ZES) with 3-month dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) was noninferior to other drug-eluting stents (DES) with 12-month DAPT (standard therapy) with respect to the occurrence of the primary endpoint (a composite of cardiovascular death, myocardial infarction (MI), stent thrombosis (ST), target vessel revascularization (TVR), or bleeding at 1 year) [1]. 
I have the following concerns. First, the study design was defective since the comparator group should have been composed of patients who received the same stent (E-ZES) and took DAPT for 12 months. Moreover, the comparator group was not homogeneous, since it was composed of patients who received sirolimus-eluting stents (SES, Cypher, 28.5%), everolimus-eluting stents (EES, Xience, 30%), and ZES with a biocompatible polymer (R-ZES, Resolute, 41.5%). This would further complicate the comparison since it dilutes the results of the comparator group by mixing first- (Cypher) with second-generation (Xience and Resolute) DES. Further confusion was added with the unjustified stratified randomization of the comparator group: patients with Diabetes mellitus (DM) and those with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) were assigned to R-ZES; those with short lesions to SES; those with long lesions to EES. Second, whereas the trial compared two regimens (short versus long) of DAPT following DES, the primary endpoint adopted by the authors included ischemia-driven TVR; an event completely unrelated to the safety or efficacy of a DAPT regimen. Third, the authors could not explain why the event rates were very low (cardiovascular death 0.2%, MI 0.2%, ARC definite/probable ST 0.2%) compared with previous reports of the E-ZES at a similar time point: ENDEAVOR II trial (total death 1.2%, MI 2.7%, ST 0.5% at 9 months); ENDEAVOR IV trial (cardiac death 0.5%, MI 1.6%, ARC definite/probable ST 0.9% at 12 months) [2,3]. Forth, unexpectedly, both TVR and ST rates in patients with DM who received E-ZES were lower than the rates for the whole E-ZES group! And in the ACS subgroup, patients who received the standard therapy (R-ZES) had rates of cardiovascular death 0%, MI 0%, and ST 0%, at 12 months! And surprisingly, in the subset of short lesions, despite the shorter duration of DAPT, bleeding rates were higher with E-ZES + 3-month DAPT versus standard therapy (0.6% versus 0%)! Fifth, based on the current low 12-month rates of primary composite endpoint (4.7%) compared with the figure used for statistical power calculation (10-11%), the trial was underpowered for the primary endpoint. Additionally, the non-inferiority margin of 4% was very wide for the 12-month rates of primary endpoint (4.7%). Finally, enrollment of 2117 patients in 26 centers over 20 months speaks of a low enrollment rate of 4.1 patients/center/month, that reflects an overt selection bias.

References 


1. Kim BK, Hong MK, Shin DH, et al. A new strategy for discontinuation of dual antiplatelet therapy: the RESET Trial (REal Safety and Efficacy of 3-month dual antiplatelet Therapy following Endeavor zotarolimus-eluting stent implantation). J Am Coll Cardiol 2012;60:1340-8.

2. Fajadet J, Wijns W, Laarman GJ, et al. Randomized, double-blind, multicenter study of the Endeavor zotarolimus-eluting phosphorylcholine-encapsulated stent for treatment of native coronary artery lesions: clinical and angiographic results of the ENDEAVOR II trial. Circulation 2006;114:798-806.

3. Leon MB, Mauri L, Popma JJ, et al. A randomized comparison of the ENDEAVOR zotarolimus-eluting stent versus the TAXUS paclitaxel-eluting stent in de novo native coronary lesions 12-month outcomes from the ENDEAVOR IV trial.

SOURCE

J Am Coll Cardiol 2010;55:543-54.

content.onlinejacc.org content.onlinejacc.org

http://digitalreprints.elsevier.com/i/85787/6

Conclusions

by Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

This has been a six part discussion on the progress of stent design, and the decreasing problem of stent thrombosis, which evades elimination with a tradeoff in greater utility and somewhat greater risk.  However, the risk of thrombotic events has become low enough that accurate comparisons of stent technologies, method of placement, and antithrombotic techniques to avoid thrombotic complications is burdened by statistical power limitations.  In addition to the issue of sample size, there is an issue of patient characteristics that probably confer increased risk.

In the first part we found that stent placement is done in 15-20% of cases at a bifurcation site, where it is most favorable for plaque buildup from turbulent flow and shear stress.  Recall that Routledge et al. (1) presented 2-year outcome data of 477 patients treated for bifurcation coronary disease with provisional side branch T-stenting using drug-eluting stents (DES), and they concluded that a systematic approach is feasible for 90% of the patients, with acceptable efficacy and safety profiles.  There are several inherent problems that encumbered any analysis.  These were: numerous anatomic configurations of bifurcation types, with the concern for late complications, restenosis, and its frequency, leading to the dilemma of placing two stents versus one stent, and then another as a side branch, if needed.  The study (1) did indicate that provisional stenting is feasible in 90% of all patients, and those who received a second stent in the side branch, 28%, had similar long-term outcomes as those treated with 1 stent. The outcome of this study is similar to that of the Nordic Bifurcation study, which observed no difference in outcomes at 6 months’ follow-up between 1 and 2 stents (9).  As for technique, the latest Nordic Bifurcation Stent Technique study, comparing the culotte and crush techniques, reported low rates of angiographic restenosis and major adverse cardiac events for both techniques (10). However, kissing balloon was shown to be critical in preventing restenosis. Provisional T-stenting offers several advantages compared with other bifurcation techniques. It seems to be the simplest and is associated with favorable long-term outcomes.  It has also been shown that side branches and osteal disease are most problematic and that dedicated devices will have a role in left main disease.

The next issue for consideration is the use of biodegradable drug-eluting stents versus durable polymer DES. Biodegradable polymer DES resulted in lower rates than durable polymer DES of

  • target lesion revascularization (hazard ratio [HR] 0.82, 95 percent confidence interval [CI] 0.68-0.98, P=0.029).
  • definite stent thrombosis (the study’s primary safety endpoint), (HR 0.56, 95 percent CI 0.35-0.90, P=0.015).
  • very late stent thrombosis (clots occurring more than one year after angioplasty) for the biodegradable polymer group (HR 0.22, 95 percent CI 0.08-0.61, P=0.004).
  • cardiac death and heart attack (HR 0.59, 95 percent CI 0.73-0.95, P=0.031).

The third topic for consideration is the tradeoff between stent flexibility versus the concertina effect. Longitudinal strength was not recognized as a critical parameter by clinicians or regulators until recently. Measurements, only now becoming publically available, seem to confirm vulnerability of some modern designs to longitudinal deformation. Stent designs now provide high flexibility by reducing the number of connecting links between stent segments and by allowing the connecting links to easily change their length.  However, this design results in reduced longitudinal strength with the unintended effect of inducing some risk of longitudinal compression of the stent (the “concertina effect”).  While contemporary coronary stents are much more deliverable than older-generation stents, longitudinal deformation has emerged as a “new” complication in modern coronary stent platforms. This is more frequently associated with a particular stent design: the “offset peak-to-peak” stent design.  Thin-strut stents improve deliverability and conformability. There is only limited evidence that thinner struts may result in less vessel wall damage reducing risk of restenosis. The trend of thinner strut platforms has triggered innovative designs to maintain stent radial strength. The development of longer, thinner, more flexible, and easier-to-deliver stent platforms made percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) possible even in the most tortuous anatomy and calcified vessels.  Longitudinal stent deformation, the distortion or shortening of a stent in the longitudinal axis is the effect of a longitudinal compression force on the stent rings, causing them to nest or concertinate.

The fourth question is the effect of stent design on stent thrombosis.  A recent retrospective analysis provided further valuable information on the frequency and mechanisms of longitudinal stent deformation. The study involved 4455 interventional cases performed during a 4-year period. Stent deformation occurred in a total of 9 cases (0.2%) and affected 0.097% of stents deployed.   Longitudinal stent deformation is probably not a “class effect,” but highly dependent on a particular stent design.

Stent thrombosis (ST), while infrequent, remains a dreaded complication of percutaneous coronary revascularization because of the associated rates of

  • major myocardial infarction (60%-70%) and
  • early mortality (20%-25%).1

the emergence of ST redirected the efforts of the cardiology community to mitigate or eliminate this potentially catastrophic event by

  • stent design and strut thinness,
  • the advent of drug-eluting stent (DES) options, and
  • more potent antithrombotic therapy

DESs have been associated with higher ST rates as compared to their bare-metal counterparts, particularly when utilized among high-risk groups and high-risk lesions.

The overall occurrence of Academic Research Consortium (ARC)-defined definite ST at 12 months was 1.2% (46 events). After correction for baseline differences between study groups and other variables deemed to influence the occurrence of ST, Dores et al concluded that the

  • use of first-generation DESs was associated with a 2.4-fold increase in the risk of definite ST. Among the cases receiving a first-generation DES,
  • the risk of ST was higher for paclitaxel-eluting versus sirolimus-eluting stents.

It should not be a surprise that patients presenting with an ACS are known to be more vulnerable to early ST than patients with chronic stable disease. The initial plaque rupture of ACS triggers a prothrombotic avalanche of events, from platelet activation to local thrombus formation and occlusion, spasm, and distal embolization of microcirculatory debris.6 It is interesting to note in the Dores et al. registry that patients receiving second-generation DESs more often presented with an ACS, making their observations reassuring that ST rates can be kept low.   Patients who had early ST were characterized by diffuse atherosclerosis, angiography, inadequate pharmacotherapy, and had a higher incidence of renal insufficiency and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.  The ACUITY subanalysis found that the rate of ST within 30 days was 1.4%, significantly higher than the 0.3%-0.5% ST rates reported among patients with stable coronary artery disease.

Among the most critical factors in mitigating the risk of ST are adequate and consistent dual-antiplatelet therapy (DAPT).  Among patients with ACS, the need for more rapid and potent pharmacological suppression of platelet reactivity in the prevention of early ST is highlighted in clinical trials testing newer antiplatelet therapies.  In the Platelet Inhibition and Patient Outcomes (PLATO) study, there was a significant reduction in ST in the ticagrelor group vs the clopidogrel group, with definite ST rates of 1.3% and 1.9%, respectively.

This brings us to ST in randomized trials of DES.  There was a much higher rate of late (beyond 30 days to 1 year) definite/probable ST following BMS compared with sirolimus-eluting stents (SES) (1% versus 0.1%, respectively).  BMS was associated with a lower rate of very late (beyond 1 year) definite/probable ST compared with SES (0.4% versus 0.9%, respectively) [1].  The different overall rate of definite/ probable ST following BMS compared with SES is nearly equal at 4-year follow-up (1.7% versus 1.5%, respectively), is indeterminate (p=0.7) [1]. The study was underpowered for detection of a difference in rare-by-nature events such as ST.

Finally, Dr. Pearlman analyzes the published studies concerning whether there should be a reduction in the length of dual antiplatelet therapy to six months.  Drug eluting stents decrease in stent stenosis from endothelial exuberant growth at the cost of increased propensity to thrombosis, offset by prolonged use of dual anti-platelet medication.  The risk has increased due to drug eluting stent prevalence, but that is offset by management with dual anti platelet agents, so the net incidence is reduced. Stent thrombosis is promoted by metal stents until they endothelialize, but drug-eluting stents impede the endothelialization, so minimal dual platelet agent duration in practice is 3 months for BMS, 6-12 months for DES, but benefit fades to 2% at 1 year, 1% at 2 years at which point risk-benefit is unconvincing.  Evidence supports that premature discontinuation clopidogrel is the most powerful independent predictor of late ST.

So here we have the status in a nutshell.

  • ST has driven the design of stents to be simpler to insert effectively, with a clear goal to minimize ST
  • The stent designs have resulted in thinner, and multi-segmented longer insertions as needed.
  • The result of improved stent design has been an effect of local vessel distortion.
  • The standard of practice is provisional T-branch DES
  • The use of dual antiplatelet therapy for not less than 1 year is determined by the time required for endothelialization of the artery.
  • There is a risk difference incurred by ACS versus stable disease, and by adequacy of antithrombotic therapy prior to an acute event.

Other related articles published on this Open Access Online Scientific Journal, include the following:

AHA, ACC Change in requirement for surgical support:  Class IIb -> Class IIa Level of Evidence A: Supports Nonemergent PCI without Surgical Backup (Change of class IIb, level of Evidence B).

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Justin D Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC

Survivals Comparison of Coronary Artery Bypass Graft (CABG) and Percutaneous Coronary Intervention (PCI) / Coronary Angioplasty

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Coronary Reperfusion Therapies: CABG vs PCI – Mayo Clinic preprocedure Risk Score (MCRS) for Prediction of5. in-Hospital Mortality after CABG or PCI

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP  and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Coronary Artery Disease – Medical Devices Solutions: From First-In-Man Stent Implantation, via Medical Ethical Dilemmas to Drug Eluting Stents

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Absorb™ Bioresorbable Vascular Scaffold: An International Launch by Abbott Laboratories

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

CABG or PCI: Patients with Diabetes – CABG Rein Supreme

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

To Stent or Not? A Critical Decision

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

New Drug-Eluting Stent Works Well in STEMI

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Revascularization: PCI, Prior History of PCI vs CABG

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Drug Eluting Stents: On MIT’s Edelman Lab’s Contributions to Vascular Biology and its Pioneering Research on DES

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and  Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Outcomes in High Cardiovascular Risk Patients: Prasugrel (Effient) vs. Clopidogrel (Plavix); Aliskiren (Tekturna) added to ACE or added to ARB

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Read Full Post »

Calcium Cycling (ATPase Pump) in Cardiac Gene Therapy: Inhalable Gene Therapy for Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension and Percutaneous Intra-coronary Artery Infusion for Heart Failure: Contributions by Roger J. Hajjar, MD

Posted in Bio Instrumentation in Experimental Life Sciences Research, Biological Networks, Gene Regulation and Evolution, Biomarkers & Medical Diagnostics, Cardiac & Vascular Repair Tools Subsegment, Cardiac and Cardiovascular Surgical Procedures, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Chemical Genetics, Drug Delivery Platform Technology, FDA Regulatory Affairs, Frontiers in Cardiology and Cardiovascular Disorders, Genome Biology, Interviews with Scientific Leaders, Medical and Population Genetics, Medical Devices R&D Investment, Molecular Genetics & Pharmaceutical, Origins of Cardiovascular Disease, PCI, Personalized and Precision Medicine & Genomic Research, Pharmaceutical R&D Investment, Pharmacogenomics, Population Health Management, Genetics & Pharmaceutical, Proteomics, Regulated Clinical Trials: Design, Methods, Components and IRB related issues, Stem Cells for Regenerative Medicine, Technology Transfer: Biotech and Pharmaceutical, tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , , on August 1, 2013| 11 Comments »

Calcium Cycling (ATPase Pump) in Cardiac Gene Therapy: Inhalable Gene Therapy for Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension and Percutaneous Intra-coronary Artery Infusion for Heart Failure: Contributions by Roger J. Hajjar, MD

Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

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Article VI Calcium Cycling (ATPase Pump) in Cardiac Gene Therapy Inhalable Gene Therapy for Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension and Percutaneous Intra-coronary Artery Infusion for Heart

Image created by Adina Hazan 06/30/2021

This article is Part VI in a Series of articles on Calcium Release Mechanism, the series consists of the following articles:

Part I: Identification of Biomarkers that are Related to the Actin Cytoskeleton

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/10/identification-of-biomarkers-that-are-related-to-the-actin-cytoskeleton/

Part II: Role of Calcium, the Actin Skeleton, and Lipid Structures in Signaling and Cell Motility

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Stephen Williams, PhD and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/26/role-of-calcium-the-actin-skeleton-and-lipid-structures-in-signaling-and-cell-motility/

Part III: Renal Distal Tubular Ca2+ Exchange Mechanism in Health and Disease

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Stephen J. Williams, PhD
 and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/09/02/renal-distal-tubular-ca2-exchange-mechanism-in-health-and-disease/

Part IV: The Centrality of Ca(2+) Signaling and Cytoskeleton Involving Calmodulin Kinases and Ryanodine Receptors in Cardiac Failure, Arterial Smooth Muscle, Post-ischemic Arrhythmia, Similarities and Differences, and Pharmaceutical Targets

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/09/08/the-centrality-of-ca2-signaling-and-cytoskeleton-involving-calmodulin-kinases-and-ryanodine-receptors-in-cardiac-failure-arterial-smooth-muscle-post-ischemic-arrhythmia-similarities-and-differen/

Part V: Ca2+-Stimulated Exocytosis:  The Role of Calmodulin and Protein Kinase C in Ca2+ Regulation of Hormone and Neurotransmitter

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP
and
Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/23/calmodulin-and-protein-kinase-c-drive-the-ca2-regulation-of-hormone-and-neurotransmitter-release-that-triggers-ca2-stimulated-exocytosis/

Part VI: Calcium Cycling (ATPase Pump) in Cardiac Gene Therapy: Inhalable Gene Therapy for Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension and Percutaneous Intra-coronary Artery Infusion for Heart Failure: Contributions by Roger J. Hajjar, MD

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/01/calcium-molecule-in-cardiac-gene-therapy-inhalable-gene-therapy-for-pulmonary-arterial-hypertension-and-percutaneous-intra-coronary-artery-infusion-for-heart-failure-contributions-by-roger-j-hajjar/

Part VII: Cardiac Contractility & Myocardium Performance: Ventricular Arrhythmias and Non-ischemic Heart Failure – Therapeutic Implications for Cardiomyocyte Ryanopathy (Calcium Release-related Contractile Dysfunction) and Catecholamine Responses

Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/28/cardiac-contractility-myocardium-performance-ventricular-arrhythmias-and-non-ischemic-heart-failure-therapeutic-implications-for-cardiomyocyte-ryanopathy-calcium-release-related-contractile/

Part VIII: Disruption of Calcium Homeostasis: Cardiomyocytes and Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells: The Cardiac and Cardiovascular Calcium Signaling Mechanism

Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/09/12/disruption-of-calcium-homeostasis-cardiomyocytes-and-vascular-smooth-muscle-cells-the-cardiac-and-cardiovascular-calcium-signaling-mechanism/

Part IX: Calcium-Channel Blockers, Calcium Release-related Contractile Dysfunction (Ryanopathy) and Calcium as Neurotransmitter Sensor

Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Part X: Synaptotagmin functions as a Calcium Sensor: How Calcium Ions Regulate the fusion of vesicles with cell membranes during Neurotransmission

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/09/10/synaptotagmin-functions-as-a-calcium-sensor-how-calcium-ions-regulate-the-fusion-of-vesicles-with-cell-membranes-during-neurotransmission/

Part XI: Sensors and Signaling in Oxidative Stress

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/11/01/sensors-and-signaling-in-oxidative-stress/

Part XII: Atherosclerosis Independence: Genetic Polymorphisms of Ion Channels Role in the Pathogenesis of Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction and Myocardial Ischemia (Coronary Artery Disease (CAD))

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/12/21/genetic-polymorphisms-of-ion-channels-have-a-role-in-the-pathogenesis-of-coronary-microvascular-dysfunction-and-ischemic-heart-disease/

This article has THREE parts:

Part I: Scientific Leader in Cardiology, Contributions by Roger J. Hajjar, MD to Gene Therapy

Part II: Cardiac Gene Therapy: Inhalable Gene Therapy for Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension

Part III: Cardiac Gene Therapy: Percutaneous Intra-coronary Artery Infusion for Heart Failure

The following two discoveries in Cardiac Gene Therapies represent the FRONTIER IN CARDIOLOGY for 2012 – 2013: Solution Advancement for Improving Myocardial Contractility

Part I: Scientific Leader in Cardiology, Contributions by Roger J. Hajjar, MD to Gene Therapy

Roger J. Hajjar, MD, a pioneering Mount Sinai researcher who has published cutting-edge studies on heart failure, has been named the recipient of the 2013 BCVS Distinguished Achievement Award by theAmerican Heart Association and the Council on Basic Cardiovascular Sciences. Dr. Hajjar, who is The Arthur and Janet C. Ross Professor of Medicine and Director of The Helmsley Trust Translational Research Center, will be honored at the American Heart Association’s Scientific Sessions Annual Conference later this year.

“Dr. Hajjar will receive the award for his groundbreaking contributions to developing gene therapy treatments for cardiac disease,” says Joshua Hare, MD, who is President-elect of the Council on Basic Cardiovascular Sciences. He will also be recognized for his work on behalf of the Council.

Over the years, Dr. Hajjar’s laboratory has made important basic science discoveries that were translated into clinical trials. Most recently, Dr. Hajjar and his researchers identified a possible new drug target for treating or preventing heart failure. Says Mark A. Sussman, PhD, a former president of the Council, “Dr. Hajjar was among the first, and certainly the most successful, in combining gene therapy and treatment of heart failure. He shows a relentless pursuit of translating basic science into real-world treatment of heart disease.”

This article was first published in Inside Mount Sinai.

http://blog.mountsinai.org/blog/roger-j-hajjar-md-to-be-honored-for-research/

John Hopkins, Distinguished Alumnus Award 2011

Roger J. Hajjar, Engr ’86
Dr. Roger Hajjar received his bachelor’s degree in biomedical engineering from Johns Hopkins University in 1986. A cardiologist and translational scientist, he is a leader in gene therapy techniques and model testing for cardiovascular diseases. Dr. Hajjar is professor of medicine and cardiology, and professor of gene and cell medicine at Mount Sinai Medical Center in New York, as well as research director of Mount Sinai’s Wiener Family Cardiovascular Research Laboratories. Dr. Hajjar was recruited to Mt. Sinai from Harvard Medical School where he was assistant professor of medicine and staff cardiologist in the Heart Failure & Cardiac Transplantation Center. He received his medical degree from Harvard Medical School and trained in internal medicine and cardiology at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston. Dr. Hajjar has concentrated his research efforts on understanding the basic mechanisms of heart failure. He has developed gene transfer methods and techniques in the heart to improve contractility. Dr. Hajjar’s laboratory focuses on targeting signaling pathways in cardiac myocytes to improve contractile function in heart failure and to block signaling pathways in hypertrophy and apoptosis. Dr. Hajjar has significant expertise in gene therapy. In 1996, he won the Young Investigator Award of the American Heart Association (Council on Circulation). In 1999, Dr. Hajjar was awarded the prestigious Doris Duke Clinical Scientist award and won first prize at the Astra Zeneca Young Investigator Forum. Dr. Hajjar holds a number of NIH grants.

http://alumni.jhu.edu/distinguishedalumni2011

Dr Hajjar is the Director of the Cardiovascular Research Center, and the Arthur & Janet C. Ross Professor of Medicine at Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY. He received his BS in Biomedical Engineering from Johns Hopkins University and his MD from Harvard Medical School and the Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences & Technology. He completed his training in internal medicine, cardiology and research fellowships at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston.

Dr. Hajjar is an internationally renowned scientific leader in the field of cardiac gene therapy for heart failure. His laboratory focuses on molecular mechanisms of heart failure and has validated the cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase pump, SERCA2a, as a target in heart failure, developed methodologies for cardiac directed gene transfer that are currently used by investigators throughout the world, and examined the functional consequences of SERCA2a gene transfer in failing hearts. His basic science laboratory remains one of the preeminent laboratories for the investigation of calcium cycling in failing hearts and targeted gene transfer in various animal models. The significance of Dr Hajjar’s research has been recognized with the initiation and recent successful completion of phase 1 and phase 2 First-in-Man clinical trials of SERCA2a gene transfer in patients with advanced heart failure under his guidance.

Prior to joining Mount Sinai, Dr. Hajjar served as Director of the Cardiovascular Laboratory of Integrative Physiology and Imaging at Massachusetts General Hospital and Associate Professor of Medicine at Harvard Medical School. Dr. Hajjar has also been a staff cardiologist in the Heart Failure & Cardiac Transplantation Center at Massachusetts General Hospital.

Dr. Hajjar has won numerous awards and distinctions, including the Young Investigator Award of the American Heart Association. He was awarded a Doris Duke Clinical Scientist award and has won first prize at the Astra Zeneca Young Investigator Forum. He is a member of the American Society for Clinical Investigation. He was recently awarded the Distinguished Alumnus Award from Johns Hopkins University and the Mount Sinai Dean’s award for Excellence in Translational Science. He has authored over 260 peer-reviewed publications.

http://heart.sdsu.edu/~website/IRRI/Pages/faculty/roger-hajjar-md.html

Meet the Director of Mount Sinai’s Cardiovascular Research Center

“Cardiovascular diseases are the number one cause of death globally. In order to tackle them in all aspects, we must unite improved diagnostic techniques with more refined therapies.”

Roger J. Hajjar, MD, Director of the Cardiovascular Research Center, the Arthur & Janet C. Ross Professor of Medicine, Professor of Gene & Cell Medicine, Director of the Cardiology Fellowship Program, and Co-Director of the Transatlantic Cardiovascular Research Center, which combines Mount Sinai Cardiology Laboratories with those of the Universite de Paris – Madame Curie.

In the late 1990s, the possibility that discoveries in genetics and genomics could have a positive impact on the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of cardiovascular diseases seemed to be just a distant promise. Today, a little more than a decade later, the promise is beginning to take shape. Roger J. Hajjar, MD and his multidisciplinary team of investigators are beginning to translate scientific findings into real therapies for cardiovascular diseases. As Director of the Cardiovascular Research Institute and a cardiologist by training, Dr. Hajjar guides the growth of a cutting-edge translational research laboratory, which is positioning Mount Sinai as the leader in cardiovascular genomics.

An internationally recognized scientific leader in the field of cardiac gene therapy for heart failure, Dr. Hajjar is expanding studies of the basic mechanisms of cardiac diseases and identification of high-risk groups and genomic predictors so that they can be part of the daily clinical care of patients. Unique biorepositories combined with cardiovascular areas of excellence across Mount Sinai make possible crucial genetic studies.

First Gene Therapy for Heart Failure

Under Dr. Hajjar’s leadership, the Cardiovascular Research Center has already developed the world’s first potential gene therapy for heart failure. Known as AAV1.SERCA2a, this therapy actually revives heart tissue that has stopped working properly. It has led to new treatment possibilities for patients with advanced heart failure, whose options used to be severely limited. The significance of this research has been recognized with the initiation and successful completion Phase 1 and Phase 2 First-in-Man clinical trials of SERCA2a gene transfer in patients with advanced heart failure. Phase 3 validation begins in 2011.

The Cardiovascular Research Center’s next research projects, already underway, focus on using novel gene therapy vectors to target diastolic heart failure, ventricular arrhythmias, pulmonary hypertension, and myocardial infarctions.

In addition to targeting signaling pathways to aid failing heart cells, ongoing work at the Cardiovascular Research Center involves studying how to block signaling pathways in cardiac hypertrophy as well as apoptosis. The laboratory team is also targeting a number of signaling pathways in the aging heart to improve dystolic function.

Prior to joining Mount Sinai in 2007, Dr. Hajjar served as Director of the Cardiovascular Laboratory of Integrative Physiology and Imaging at Massachusetts General Hospital and Associate Professor of Medicine at Harvard Medical School. Dr. Hajjar has also been a staff cardiologist in the Heart Failure & Cardiac Transplantation Center at Massachusetts General Hospital. After earning a bachelors of science degree in Biomedical Engineering from Johns Hopkins University and a medical degree from Harvard Medical School and the Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, he completed his training in internal medicine, cardiology and research fellowships at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston.

Scientific Advisors
Roger J. Hajjar, MD, Co-Founder and a Scientific Advisor of Celladon Co, plans to commercialize AAV1.SERCA2a for the treatment of heart failure.
Dr. Roger J. Hajjar is the Director of the Cardiovascular Research Center at the Mt. Sinai School of Medicine. Previously, he was the Director of the Cardiovascular Laboratory of Integrative Physiology and Imaging at Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) and Associate Professor of Medicine at Harvard Medical School. Dr. Hajjar has an active basic science laboratory and concentrates his research efforts on understanding the basic mechanisms of heart failure. He has developed gene transfer methods and techniques targeting the heart as a therapeutic modality to improve contractility in heart failure. Dr. Hajjar’s laboratory focuses on targeting signaling pathways in cardiac myocytes to improve contractile function in heart failure and to block signaling pathways in hypertrophy and apoptosis.

Gene Therapy: Volume 19, Issue 6 (June 2012)

Special Issue: Cardiovascular Gene Therapy

Guest Editor

Roger J Hajjar MD, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY Director, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Arthur & Janet C Ross Professor of Medicine

SDF-1 in myocardial repair  

M S Penn, J Pastore, T Miller and R Aras

Gene Ther 19: 583-587; doi:10.1038/gt.2012.32

Abstract | Full Text | PDF

Gene- and cell-based bio-artificial pacemaker: what basic and translational lessons have we learned?  

R A Li

Gene Ther 19: 588-595; doi:10.1038/gt.2012.33

Abstract | Full Text | PDF

Sarcoplasmic reticulum and calcium cycling targeting by gene therapy  

J-S Hulot, G Senyei and R J Hajjar

Gene Ther 19: 596-599; advance online publication, May 17, 2012; doi:10.1038/gt.2012.34

Abstract | Full Text | PDF

Gene therapy for ventricular tachyarrhythmias  

J K Donahue

Gene Ther 19: 600-605; advance online publication, April 26, 2012; doi:10.1038/gt.2012.35

Abstract | Full Text | PDF

Prospects for gene transfer for clinical heart failure  

T Tang, M H Gao and H Kirk Hammond

Gene Ther 19: 606-612; advance online publication, April 26, 2012; doi:10.1038/gt.2012.36

Abstract | Full Text | PDF

Targeting S100A1 in heart failure  

J Ritterhoff and P Most

Gene Ther 19: 613-621; advance online publication, February 16, 2012; doi:10.1038/gt.2012.8

Abstract | Full Text | PDF

VEGF gene therapy: therapeutic angiogenesis in the clinic and beyond  

M Giacca and S Zacchigna

Gene Ther 19: 622-629; advance online publication, March 1, 2012; doi:10.1038/gt.2012.17

Abstract | Full Text | PDF

Vein graft failure: current clinical practice and potential for gene therapeutics  

S Wan, S J George, C Berry and A H Baker

Gene Ther 19: 630-636; advance online publication, March 29, 2012; doi:10.1038/gt.2012.29

Abstract | Full Text | PDF

Percutaneous methods of vector delivery in preclinical models  

D Ladage, K Ishikawa, L Tilemann, J Müller-Ehmsen and Y Kawase

Gene Ther 19: 637-641; advance online publication, March 15, 2012; doi:10.1038/gt.2012.14

Abstract | Full Text | PDF

Lentiviral vectors and cardiovascular diseases: a genetic tool for manipulating cardiomyocyte differentiation and function  

E Di Pasquale, M V G Latronico, G S Jotti and G Condorelli

Gene Ther 19: 642-648; advance online publication, March 1, 2012; doi:10.1038/gt.2012.19

Abstract | Full Text | PDF

Intracellular transport of recombinant adeno-associated virus vectors  

M Nonnenmacher and T Weber

Gene Ther 19: 649-658; advance online publication, February 23, 2012; doi:10.1038/gt.2012.6

Abstract | Full Text | PDF

Gene delivery technologies for cardiac applications  

M G Katz, A S Fargnoli, L A Pritchette and C R Bridges

Gene Ther 19: 659-669; advance online publication, March 15, 2012; doi:10.1038/gt.2012.11

Abstract | Full Text | PDF

Cardiac gene therapy in large animals: bridge from bench to bedside  

K Ishikawa, L Tilemann, D Ladage, J Aguero, L Leonardson, K Fish and Y Kawase

Gene Ther 19: 670-677; advance online publication, February 2, 2012; doi:10.1038/gt.2012.3

Abstract | Full Text | PDF

Progress in gene therapy of dystrophic heart disease  

Y Lai and D Duan

Gene Ther 19: 678-685; advance online publication, February 9, 2012; doi:10.1038/gt.2012.10

Abstract | Full Text | PDF

Targeting GRK2 by gene therapy for heart failure: benefits above β-blockade  

J Reinkober, H Tscheschner, S T Pleger, P Most, H A Katus, W J Koch and P W J Raake

Gene Ther 19: 686-693; advance online publication, February 16, 2012; doi:10.1038/gt.2012.9

Abstract | Full Text | PDF

Directed evolution of novel adeno-associated viruses for therapeutic gene delivery  

M A Bartel, J R Weinstein and D V Schaffer

Gene Ther 19: 694-700; advance online publication, March 8, 2012; doi:10.1038/gt.2012.20

Abstract | Full Text | PDF

http://www.nature.com/gt/journal/v19/n6/index.html

Part II: Cardiac Gene Therapy: Inhalable Gene Therapy for Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension

Public release date: 30-Jul-2013

Contact: Lauren Woods
lauren.woods@mountsinai.org
212-241-2836
The Mount Sinai Hospital / Mount Sinai School of Medicine

Inhalable gene therapy may help pulmonary arterial hypertension patients

Gene therapy when inhaled may restore function of a crucial enzyme in the lungs to reverse deadly PAH

The deadly condition known as pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), which afflicts up to 150,000 Americans each year, may be reversible by using an inhalable gene therapy, report an international team of researchers led by investigators at the Cardiovascular Research Center at Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai.

In their new study, reported in the July 30 issue of the journal Circulation, scientists demonstrated that gene therapy administered through a nebulizer-like inhalation device can completely reverse PAH in rat models of the disease. In the lab, researchers also showed in pulmonary artery PAH patient tissue samples reduced expression of the SERCA2a, an enzyme critical for proper pumping of calcium in calcium compartments within the cells. SERCA2a gene therapy could be sought as a promising therapeutic intervention in PAH.

“The gene therapy could be delivered very easily to patients through simple inhalation — just like the way nebulizers work to treat asthma,” says study co-senior investigator Roger J. Hajjar, MD, Director of the Cardiovascular Research Center and the Arthur & Janet C. Ross Professor of Medicine and Professor of Gene & Cell at Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. “We are excited about testing this therapy in PAH patients who are in critical need of intervention.”

This same SERCA2a dysfunction also occurs in heart failure. This new study utilizes the same gene therapy currently being tested in patients to reverse congestive heart failure in a large phase III clinical trial in the United States and Europe.

“What we have shown is that gene therapy restores function of this crucial enzyme in diseased lungs,” says Dr. Hajjar. “We are delighted with these new findings because it suggests that a gene therapy that is already showing great benefit in congestive heart failure patients may be able to help PAH patients who currently have no good treatment options — and are in critical need of a life sustaining therapy.”

When SERCA2a is down-regulated, calcium stays longer in the cells than it should, and it induces pathways that lead to overgrowth of new and enlarged cells. According to researchers, the delivery of the SERCA2a gene produces SERCA2a enzymes, which helps both heart and lung cells restore their proper use of calcium.

“We are now on a path toward PAH patient clinical trials in the near future,” says Dr. Hajjar, who developed the gene therapy approach. Studies in large animal models are now underway. SERCA2a gene therapy has already been approved by the National Institutes of Health for human study.

A Simple Inhalation Corrects Deadly Dysfunction

PAH most commonly results from heart failure in the left side of the heart or from a pulmonary embolism, when clots in the legs travel to the lungs and cause blockages. When the lung is damaged from these conditions, the tissue starts to quickly produce new and enlarged cells, which narrows pulmonary arteries. This increases the pressure inside them. The high pressure in these arteries resists the heart’s effort to pump through them and the blood flow between the heart and lungs is reduced. The right side of the heart then must overcome the resistance and work harder to push the blood through the pulmonary arteries into the lungs. Over time, the right ventricle becomes thickened and enlarged and heart failure develops.

The gene therapy that Dr. Hajjar developed uses a modified adeno-associated viral-vector that is derived from a parvovirus. It works by introducing a healthy SERCA2a gene into cells, but this gene does not incorporate into a patient’s chromosome, according to the study’s lead author, Lahouaria Hadri, PhD, an Instructor of Medicine in Cardiology at Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai.

“The clinical trials in congestive heart failure have shown already that the gene therapy is very safe,” says Dr. Hadri. Between 40-50 percent of individuals have antecedent antibodies to the adeno-associated vectors, so potential patients need to be screened before gene therapy to make sure they are eligible to receive the vectors. In patients without antibodies, the restorative enzyme gene therapy does not cause an immune response, according to Dr. Hadri.

The clinical application of the gene therapy for patients with PAH will most likely differ from those with heart failure. The replacement gene needs to be injected through the coronary arteries of heart failure patients using catheters, while in PAH patients, the gene will need to be administered through inhalation.

This study was supported by National Institutes of Health grants (K01HL103176, K08111207, R01 HL078691, HL057263, HL071763, HL080498, HL083156, and R01 HL105301).

Other study co-authors include Razmig G. Kratlian, MD, Ludovic Benard, PhD, Kiyotake Ishikawa, MD, Jaume Aguero, MD, Dennis Ladage, MD, Irene C.Turnbull, MD, Erik Kohlbrenner, BA, Lifan Liang, MD, Jean-Sébastien Hulot, MD, PhD, and Yoshiaki Kawase, MD, from Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai; Bradley A. Maron, MD and the study’s co-senior author Jane A. Leopold, MD, from Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School in Boston, MA; Christophe Guignabert, PhD, from Hôpital Antoine-Béclère, Clamart, France; Peter Dorfmüller, MD, PhD, and Marc Humbert, MD, PhD, both of the Hôpital Antoine-Béclère and INSERM U999, Centre Chirurgical Marie-Lannelongue, Le Plessis-Robinson, France; Borja Ibanez, MD, from Fundación Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Carlos III (CNIC), Madrid, Spain; and Krisztina Zsebo, PhD, of Celladon Corporation, San Diego, CA.

  • Dr. Hajjar and co-author Dr. Zsebo, have ownership interest in Celladon Corporation, which is developing AAV1.SERCA2a for the treatment of heart failure. Also,
  • Dr. Hajjar and co-authors Dr. Kawase and Dr. Ladage hold intellectual property around SERCA2a gene transfer as a treatment modality for PAH. In addition,
  • co-author Dr. Maron receives funding from Gilead Sciences, Inc. to study experimental pulmonary hypertension.
  • Other study co-authors have no financial interests to declare.

Therapeutic Efficacy of AAV1.SERCA2a in Monocrotaline-Induced Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension

  1. Lahouaria Hadri, PhD;
  2. Razmig G. Kratlian, MD;
  3. Ludovic Benard, PhD;
  4. Bradley A. Maron, MD;
  5. Peter Dorfmüller, MD, PhD;
  6. Dennis Ladage, MD;
  7. Christophe Guignabert, PhD;
  8. Kiyotake Ishikawa, MD;
  9. Jaume Aguero, MD;
  10. Borja Ibanez, MD;
  11. Irene C. Turnbull, MD;
  12. Erik Kohlbrenner, BA;
  13. Lifan Liang, MD;
  14. Krisztina Zsebo, PhD;
  15. Marc Humbert, MD, PhD;
  16. Jean-Sébastien Hulot, MD, PhD;
  17. Yoshiaki Kawase, MD;
  18. Roger J. Hajjar, MD*;
  19. Jane A. Leopold, MD*

+Author Affiliations


  1. From the Cardiovascular Research Center, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY (L.H., R.G.K., L.B., D.L., K.I., J.A., I.C.T., E.K., L.L., J.-S.H., Y.K., R.J.H.); Cardiovascular Medicine Division, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (B.A.M., J.A.L.); Hôpital Antoine-Béclère, Clamart, France (P.D., C.G., M.H.); INSERM U999, Centre Chirurgical Marie-Lannelongue, Le Plessis-Robinson, France (P.D., M.H.); Fundación Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Carlos III (CNIC), Madrid, Spain (B.I.); and Celladon Corporation, San Diego, CA (K.Z.).
  1. Correspondence to Lahouaria Hadri, PhD, Cardiovascular Research Center, Box 1030, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1470 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10029. E-mail lahouaria.hadri@mssm.edu

Abstract

Background—Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is characterized by dysregulated proliferation of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells leading to (mal)adaptive vascular remodeling. In the systemic circulation, vascular injury is associated with downregulation of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase 2a (SERCA2a) and alterations in Ca2+homeostasis in vascular smooth muscle cells that stimulate proliferation. We, therefore, hypothesized that downregulation of SERCA2a is permissive for pulmonary vascular remodeling and the development of PAH.

Methods and Results—SERCA2a expression was decreased significantly in remodeled pulmonary arteries from patients with PAH and the rat monocrotaline model of PAH in comparison with controls. In human pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells in vitro, SERCA2a overexpression by gene transfer decreased proliferation and migration significantly by inhibiting NFAT/STAT3. Overexpresion of SERCA2a in human pulmonary artery endothelial cells in vitro increased endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression and activation. In monocrotaline rats with established PAH, gene transfer of SERCA2a via intratracheal delivery of aerosolized adeno-associated virus serotype 1 (AAV1) carrying the human SERCA2a gene (AAV1.SERCA2a) decreased pulmonary artery pressure, vascular remodeling, right ventricular hypertrophy, and fibrosis in comparison with monocrotaline-PAH rats treated with a control AAV1 carrying β-galactosidase or saline. In a prevention protocol, aerosolized AAV1.SERCA2a delivered at the time of monocrotaline administration limited adverse hemodynamic profiles and indices of pulmonary and cardiac remodeling in comparison with rats administered AAV1 carrying β-galactosidase or saline.

Conclusions—Downregulation of SERCA2a plays a critical role in modulating the vascular and right ventricular pathophenotype associated with PAH. Selective pulmonary SERCA2a gene transfer may offer benefit as a therapeutic intervention in PAH.

Key Words:

  • Received January 24, 2013.
  • Accepted June 13, 2013.

http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/128/5/512.abstract?sid=9b3b4fcc-e158-4e5d-bb8b-125586e2ec12

Circulation.2013; 128: 512-523 Published online before print June 26, 2013,doi: 10.1161/​CIRCULATIONAHA.113.001585

Part III: Cardiac Gene Therapy: Percutaneous Intra-coronary Artery Infusion for Heart Failure

Etiology of Heart Failure

  • Alcoholic
  • Hypertensive
  • Idiopathic
  • Inflammatory
  • Ischemic
  • Pregnancy-related
  • Toxic
  • Valvular Heart DIsease

Administration of Cardiac Gene Therapy for Heart Failure: via Percutaneous Intra-coronary Artery Infusion

  • Gene delivery to viable myocardium

dominance and coronary artery anatomy from angiography determines infusion scenario

  • Antegrade epicardial coronary artery infusion over 10 minutes

60 mL divided into 1,2,3 infusions depending on anatomy

Delivered via commercially available angiographic injection system & guide or diagnostic catheters

Dr. Roger J. Hajjar of the Mount Sinai School of Medicine will present at the ASGCT 15th Annual Meeting during a Scientific Symposium entitled: Cell and Gene Therapy in Cardiovascular Disease on Wednesday, May 16, 2012 at 8:00 am. Below is a brief preview of his presentation.

Roger J. Hajjar, MD

Mount Sinai School of Medicine

New York, NY

Novel Developments in Gene Therapy for Cardiovascular Diseases

Chronic heart failure is a leading cause of hospitalization affecting nearly 6 million people in the U.S. with 670,000 new cases diagnosed every year. Heart failure leads to about 280,000 deaths annually.

Congestive heart failure remains a progressive disease with a desperate need for innovative therapies to reverse the course of ventricular dysfunction. The most common symptoms of heart failure are shortness of breath, feeling tired and swelling in the ankles, feet, legs and sometimes the abdomen. Recent advances in understanding the molecular basis of myocardial dysfunction, together with the evolution of increasingly efficient gene transfer technology have placed heart failure within reach of gene-based therapies.

One of the key abnormalities in both human and experimental HF is a defect in sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) function, which controls Ca2+ handling in cardiac myocytes on a beat to beat basis. Deficient SR Ca2+ uptake during relaxation has been identified in failing hearts from both humans and animal models and has been associated with a decrease in the activity of the SR Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA2a).

Over the last ten years we have undertaken a program of targeting important calcium cycling proteins in experimental models of heart by somatic gene transfer. This has led to the completion of a first-in-man phase 1 clinical trial of gene therapy for heart failure using adeno-associated vector (AAV) type 1 carrying SERCA2a. In this Phase I trial, there was evidence of clinically meaningful improvements in functional status and/or cardiac function which were observed in the majority of patients at various time points. The safety profile of AAV gene therapy along with the positive biological signals obtained from this phase 1 trial has led to the initiation and recent completion of a phase 2 trial of AAV1.SERCA2a in NYHA class III/IV patients. In the phase 2 trial, gene transfer of SERCA2a was found to be safe and associated with benefit in clinical outcomes, symptoms, functional status, NT-proBNP and cardiac structure.

The 12 month data presented showed that heart failure, which is a progressive disease, became stabilized in high dose AAV1.SERCA2a-treated patients: heart failure symptoms, exercise tolerance, serum biomarkers and cardiac function essentially improved or remained the same while these parameters deteriorated substantially in patients treated with placebo and concurrent optimal drug and device therapy. More recently, the 2-year CUPID data from long-term follow-up demonstrate a durable benefit in preventing major cardiovascular events.

The recent successful and safe completion of the CUPID trial along with the start of more recent phase 1 trials usher a new era for gene therapy for the treatment of heart failure. Furthermore, novel AAV derivatives with high cardiotropism and resistant to neutralizing antibodies are being developed to target a large number of cardiovascular diseases.

http://www.execinc.com/hosted/emails/asgct/file/Hajjar2(1).pdf

Power Point Presentation on Cardiac Gene Therapy –

VIEW SLIDE SHOW

http://my.americanheart.org/idc/groups/heart-public/@wcm/@global/documents/downloadable/ucm_311680.pdf

Gene Therapy for Heart Failure

  1. Lisa Tilemann,
  2. Kiyotake Ishikawa,
  3. Thomas Weber,
  4. Roger J. Hajjar

+Author Affiliations


  1. From the Cardiovascular Research Center, Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York, NY.
  1. Correspondence to Roger J. Hajjar, MD, Mount Sinai Medical Center, One Gustave Levy Place, Box 1030, New York, NY 10029. E-mail roger.hajjar@mssm.edu

Abstract

Congestive heart failure accounts for half a million deaths per year in the United States. Despite its place among the leading causes of morbidity, pharmacological and mechanic remedies have only been able to slow the progression of the disease. Today’s science has yet to provide a cure, and there are few therapeutic modalities available for patients with advanced heart failure. There is a critical need to explore new therapeutic approaches in heart failure, and gene therapy has emerged as a viable alternative. Recent advances in understanding of the molecular basis of myocardial dysfunction, together with the evolution of increasingly efficient gene transfer technology, have placed heart failure within reach of gene-based therapy. The recent successful and safe completion of a phase 2 trial targeting the sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase pump (SERCA2a), along with the start of more recent phase 1 trials, opens a new era for gene therapy for the treatment of heart failure.

Circulation Research.2012; 110: 777-793 doi: 10.1161/​CIRCRESAHA.111.252981

Key Words:

  • Received December 8, 2011.
  • Revision received January 29, 2012.
  • Accepted January 30, 2012.

Conclusions 

With a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms associated with heart failure and improved vectors with cardiotropic properties, gene therapy can now be considered as a viable adjunctive treatment to mechanical and pharmacological therapies for heart failure. In the coming years, more targets will emerge that are amenable to genetic manipulations, along with more advanced vector systems, which will undoubtedly lead to safer and more effective clinical trials in gene therapy for heart failure.

http://circres.ahajournals.org/content/110/5/777.full.pdf+html

Hijjar1
Figure 1.

AAV entry. 1 indicates receptor binding and endocytosis; 2, escape into cytoplasm; 3, nuclear import; 4, capsid disassembly; 5, double-strand synthesis; and 6, transcription.

Hijjar2

Figure 2.

Generation of mutant AAV library and directed evolution to identify cardiotropic AAVs. A, Creation of a library of AAVs through DNA shuffling.B, Selection of cardiotropic AAVs through directed evolution.

Hijjar3

Figure 3.

Antegrade coronary artery infusion. A, Coronary artery infusion. The vector is injected through a catheter without interruption of the coronary flow. B, Coronary artery infusion with occlusion of a coronary artery: The vector is injected through the lumen of an inflated angioplasty catheter. C, Coronary artery infusion with simultaneous blocking of a coronary artery and a coronary vein: The vector is injected through an inflated angioplasty catheter and resides in the coronary circulation until both balloons are deflated.

Hijjar4

Figure 4.

V-Focus system and retrograde coronary venous infusion. A, Recirculating antegrade coronary artery infusion: The vector is injected into a coronary artery, collected from the coronary sinus and after oxygenation readministered into the coronary artery. B, Retrograde coronary venous infusion with simultaneous blocking of a coronary artery and a coronary vein: The vector is injected into a coronary vein and resides in the coronary circulation until both balloons are deflated.

Hijjar5

Figure 5.

Direct myocardial injection and pericardial injection. A, Percutaneous myocardial injection: The vector is injected with an injection catheter via an endocardial approach.B, Surgical myocardial injection: The vector is injected via an epicardial approach. C, Percutaneous pericardial injection: The vector is injected via a substernal approach.

Hijjar6

Figure 6.

Excitation-contraction coupling in cardiac myocytes provides multiple targets for gene therapy.

SOURCE

http://circres.ahajournals.org/content/110/5/777.figures-only

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Cardiovascular Complications: Death from Reoperative Sternotomy after prior CABG, MVR, AVR, or Radiation; Complications of PCI; Sepsis from Cardiovascular Interventions

Posted in Abdominal Aorta, Aortic Valve: TAVR, TAVI vs Open Heart Surgery, CABG, Cardiac and Cardiovascular Surgical Procedures, Carotid Artery, Cerebrovascular and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Heart Transplant, Heart-Lung Transplant, Mechanical Assist Devices: LVAD, RVAD, BiVAD, Artificial Heart, Mitral Valve: Repair and Replacement, PCI, Peripheral Arterial Disease & Peripheral Vascular Surgery, Renal Denervation, Thoracic Aorta, tagged , , , , , , , , , on July 23, 2013| 4 Comments »

Cardiovascular Complications: Death from Reoperative Sternotomy after prior CABG, MVR, AVR, or Radiation; Complications of PCI; Sepsis from Cardiovascular Interventions

Author, Introduction and Summary: Justin D Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC

and

Article Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

The Curator recommends the e-Reader to read the following book on Surgical Complications:

Complications
“Essential Reading For Anyone Involved In Medicine”–Amazon.com –  2002

Cardiovascular Complications:

I. Reoperative Sternotomy after prior CABG, MVR, AVR, or radiation therapy

IIa. PCI, and

IIb. PAD Endovascular Interventions: Carotid Artery Endarterectomy

III. Incidence of Sepsis (circulation infection with serious consequences)

UPDATED 11/2/2013

As minimally interventional techniques improve, patients are offered a choice of invasive surgical remedies or less invasive procedures (video assisted, robotic, or percutaneous). The decision should not rest on the size of the scar or even the up front risk and discomfort, but rather should weigh all aspects of the risks and benefits. In addition to the risks and benefits for the current problem, one should also consider why the problem occurred and its likelihood of recurrence. Open chest surgery has a clear disadvantage when it comes to recurrences, as the scars from first surgery interfere with second surgery. Opening the chest (sternotomy) for a second or third time poses elevated risks analyzed herein. This article reviews data from major centers addressing the risks from repeat sternotomy and from minimally invasive cardiovascular surgeries. Any invasion of the body elevates risk of infection, which can lead to sepsis and possible death, so that risk is also addressed.

I. Risk of Injury During Repeat Sternotomy for CABG or Aortic Valve Replacement, Open Heart Surgery

II. Complications After Percutaneous Coronary intervention (PCI) and endovascular surgery for Peripheral Artery Disease (PAD)

  • (a) Post PCI, and 
  • (b) PAD Endovascular Interventions: Carotid Artery Endarterectomy

III. Cardiac Failure During Systemic Sepsis

This article addresses specific reports of complications but does not cover numerous other complications that may occur, such as lung collapse, cardiogenic shock, blood loss, local infection, emboli, thrombus, stroke.

I. Risk of Injury During Open Heart Surgery after prior Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting (CABG), Aortic Valve Replacement, Mitral Valve Replacement, or Radiation Therapy 

Conclusions of a Study conducted @Mayo Clinic on Reoperative (Repeat) Sternotomy (opening of the chest through the sternum):

Chan B. Park, MD,a,b Rakesh M. Suri, MD,a Harold M. Burkhart, MD,a Kevin L. Greason, MD,a

Joseph A. Dearani, MD,a Hartzell V. Schaff, MD,a and Thoralf M. Sundt III, MDa

Identifying patients at particular risk of injury during repeat sternotomy: Analysis of 2555 cardiac reoperations

Authors Affiliations: From the Division of Cardiovascular Surgery,

a Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn; and the Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery,

b St. Paul’s Hospital, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea.

Disclosures: None.

Read at the 90th Annual Meeting of The American Association for Thoracic Surgery, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, May 1–5, 2010. Received for publication April 6, 2010; revisions received July 19, 2010; accepted for publication July 30, 2010.

doi:10.1016/j.jtcvs.2010.07.086

Particular attention to protective strategies should be considered during reoperative sternotomy among patients with multiple previous sternotomies, previous mediastinal radiotherapy, and those with patent internal thoracic artery grafts. (J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2010;140:1028-35)

Of the 2555 patients,

  • 1537 (60%) had undergone previous coronary artery bypass grafting,
  • 700 (27%) previous mitral valve surgery, and
  • 643 (25%) previous aortic valve replacement (AVR).
  • 61 (2%) had prior mediastinal radiotherapy, and
  • 424 (17%) had more than one previous sternotomy.

 Injury Analysis – 9% events in 231 Patient in the study

In 231 patients, 267 injuries (9.0%) occurred.

Injury occurred

  • during sternotomy in 87 patients (33%) and
  • during prepump dissection in 135 (51%).

Hospital mortality rate was

6.5% among those without injury and

18.5% among those with injury (P < .001);

25% when injury occurred during sternal division

Injuries were more common

1. after previous coronary artery bypass grafting

  • 11% with previous coronary artery bypass grafting vs
  • 7% without, (P = .0012)

but not

  • previous aortic valve surgery,
  • previous mitral valve surgery, or
  • previous aorta surgery.

2.  Injury was also more common when the current operation was aortic valve replacement (AVR)

  • 10% with AVR vs
  • 8% without, (P = .04) or

3.  aorta surgery

  • 14% vs
  • 8% (P = .004).

Predicted injury by multivariate analysis –

Injury was an independent risk factor of hospital death (odds ratio, 2.6).

4.   previous radiotherapy (odds ratio, 4.9)

5.  a greater number of previous sternotomies (odds ratio 1.7), and

6.  a patent internal thoracic artery (odds ratio, 1.8)

J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2010 Nov;140(5):1028-35. doi: 10.1016/j.jtcvs.2010.07.086.

Identifying patients at particular risk of injury during repeat sternotomy: analysis of 2555 cardiac reoperations.

Source

Division of Cardiovascular Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA.

Abstract

OBJECTIVES:

A variety of protective strategies during repeat sternotomy been proposed; however, it remains unclear for which patients they are warranted.

METHODS:

We identified adults undergoing repeat median sternotomy for routine cardiac surgery at our institution between January 1, 1996, and December 31, 2007. The operative notes and perioperative outcomes were reviewed.

RESULTS:

Of the 2555 patients, 1537 (60%) had undergone previous coronary artery bypass grafting, 700 (27%) previous mitral valve surgery, and 643 (25%) previous aortic valve replacement (AVR). Sixty-one patients (2%) had prior mediastinal radiotherapy, and 424 (17%) had more than one previous sternotomy. In 231 patients, 267 injuries (9.0%) occurred. Injury occurred during sternotomy in 87 patients (33%) and during prepump dissection in 135 (51%). The hospital mortality rate was 6.5% among those without injury and 18.5% among those with injury (P < .001); when injury occurred during sternal division, the mortality rate was 25%. Injuries were more common after previous coronary artery bypass grafting (11% with previous coronary artery bypass grafting vs 7% without, P = .0012) but not previous AVR, mitral valve surgery, or aortic surgery. Injury was also more common when the current operation was AVR (10% with AVR vs 8% without, P = .04) or aortic surgery (14% vs 8%, P = .004). On multivariate analysis, previous radiotherapy (odds ratio, 4.9), a greater number of previous sternotomies (odds ratio 1.7), and a patent internal thoracic artery (odds ratio, 1.8) predicted injury. Injury was an independent risk factor of hospital death (odds ratio, 2.6).

CONCLUSIONS:

Particular attention to protective strategies should be considered during reoperative sternotomy among patients with multiple previous sternotomies, previous mediastinal radiotherapy, and those with patent internal thoracic artery grafts.

Copyright © 2010 The American Association for Thoracic Surgery. Published by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved.

Comment in

TABLE 2. Hospital mortality according to Timing of Injury

Timing Mortality rate with injury P value

  • Re-entry 19/76 (25.0%) <.001
  • Prepump 20/121 (16.5%) <.001
  • Cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB)  3/14 (21.4%) .05
  • Aortic CrossClamp (ACC 1/11) (9.1%) .85
  • Closing 5/17 (29.4%) <.001

TABLE 1. Preoperative patient characteristics

Characteristic No injury (n 1/4 2324) Injury (n 1/4 231) P value

Age (y) 66.9  12.4 67.7  11.5 .509

Men 1583 (68.1%) 167 (72.3%) .192

Diabetes mellitus 499 (21.5%) 61 (26.4%) .084

Hypertension 1536 (66.2%) 158 (68.4%) .490

Hypercholesterolemia 1656 (71.4%) 171 (74.0%) .395

Myocardial infarction 633 (27.3%) 68 (29.4%) .480

Congestive heart failure 758 (32.6%) 89 (38.5%) .069

NYHA .064

I-II 492 (21.2%) 37 (16.0%)

III-IV 1830 (78.8%) 184 (84.0%)

Previous operation No injury (n 1/4 2324) Injury (n 1/4 231) P value

CABG 1375 (59.2%) 162 (70.1%) .001

Aortic valve surgery 586 (25.2%) 57 (24.7%) .857

Mitral valve surgery 645 (27.8%) 55 (23.8%) .200

Tricuspid valve surgery 64 (2.8%) 9 (3.9%) .320

Aorta surgery 167 (7.2%) 20 (8.7%) .413

Current operation No injury (n 1/4 2324) Injury (n 1/4 231) P value

CABG 897 (38.6%) 104 (45.0%) .056

Aortic valve surgery 1020 (43.9%) 118 (51.1%) .036

Mitral valve surgery 821 (35.3%) 80 (34.6%) .833

Tricuspid valve surgery 414 (17.8%) 52 (22.5%) .078

Aortic surgery 232 (10.0%) 37 (16.0%) .004

DISCUSSION

The results of the present study have confirmed the significant risk of cardiovascular injury during reoperative cardiac surgery. The death rate from such injury can be 10-30%, particularly  when occurring during division of the sternum. These risks are greatest among patients with multiple previous sternotomies or prior chest radiotherapy.

Current PROTOCOL at Virginia University, now suggested to be considered for adoption @Mayo Clinic:

The Mayo Clinic’s Authors write: Our findings are more consistent with those reported by Roselli and colleagues.2 The explanation of these institutional differences is unclear, although a number of practice differences are likely present between these institutions in terms of both patient substrate and surgical practice. Compared with the series from the University of Virginia, the Mayo series we have reported represents a greater percentage of total cases performed at the institution (13.5% vs 7.8%), with a somewhat greater percentage of those reoperations being for CABG (41% vs 60%). In the Mayo series, a lower percentage were first-time repeat sternotomies (83% vs 90%) and a greater percentage were the fourth time or more (2.7% vs 1.1%).

The incidence of previous radiotherapy in the University of Virginia series was not reported.

It is also unclear to what degree the differences in surgical practice, including the role of the assistant surgeons in performing the repeat sternotomy, could account for these differences. In the present retrospective study, we were unable to demonstrate an effect of experience or expertise in either the occurrence of injury or the outcome. However, it is clear to all practicing surgeons that, when injury occurs, the judgment and expertise of the operating surgeon is critical to expeditious institution of CPB or other ‘‘rescue’’ maneuvers.

Perhaps of more practical value and broad applicability, however, is the standardized approach to repeat sternotomy advocated by the group at the University of Virginia, including routine preoperative CT scanning if the procedure is the third or fourth sternotomy and insertion of a femoral arterial line by which emergent percutaneous arterial inflow cannulation can be accomplished, if necessary. In their series, emergent institution of CPB using the femoral route was instituted in 1.8% of reoperative patients, constituting 19% of the patients with injury. Most notably, in their series, no deaths occurred among these patients. Serious consideration should be given to adopting such protocols.

Our high mortality rate associated with SVG injury during sternotomy, however, supports the  recommendation by others to carefully assess the course of bypass grafts by preoperative angiography. Routine preoperative CT imaging of all patients with more than one previous sternotomy has been advocated by Morishita and colleagues,3 with a demonstrable reduction in operative complications. Roselli and colleagues2 identified a lack of preparative imaging as the most common ‘‘lapse’’ in the preventive strategy among patients with injury. Our data suggest that CT scanning might be particularly helpful in the subset of patients with multiple previous sternotomies or radiotherapy and would support the institution of a policy of routine scanning for these patients.

FIGURE 1. Hospital mortality according to emergent cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) in The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery c November 2010, pp. 1032

TABLE 5. Postoperative results

No injury (n 1/4 2324) —  Injury (n 1/4 231) — P value

Postoperative transfusion (U)

PRCs 4.5  7.2 6.5  8.9 .046

ICU stay (h) 102.3  228.6 146.3 +/- 346.9 <.001

Reoperation for bleeding 127 (5.5%) 21 (9.1%) .024

Sepsis 86 (3.7%) 16 (6.9%) .017

Stroke 56 (2.4%) 11 (4.8%) .033

Prolonged ventilation 505 (21.7%) 97 (42.0%) <.001

Pneumonia 123 (5.3%) 25 (10.8%) <.001

ARDS 32 (1.4%) 8 (3.5%) .015

Postoperative renal failure 237 (10.2%) 51 (22.1%) <.001

Multisystem failure 45 (1.9%) 13 (5.6%) <.001

Perioperative MI 9 (0.4%) 2 (0.9%) .289

Hospital death 151 (6.5%) 43 (18.6%) <.001

Abbreviations:

IABP, intra-aortic balloon pump; ICU, intensive care unit; ARDS, acute respiratory

distress syndrome; MI, myocardial infarction.

SOURCE
The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery c November 2010, pp. 1032

Independent predictors for injury during repeat median sternotomy

The structures injured and the timing of injury in our study were similar to those reported by Roselli and colleagues.2  Bypass grafts were the most commonly injured and, perhaps in contrast to expectations, most injuries occurred during dissection, not during sternal division. Unlike their study, however, we found injury during sternal division to carry a greater mortality risk. We observed a remarkably high mortality rate associated with injury to the right ventricle, as did Roselli and colleagues.2  This may be particularly true in the presence of pulmonary hypertension, when attempts to repair the injury are hampered by inadequate access, progressive tearing of the ventricle secondary to traction injury, and what can be a relatively thin and friable free wall. The incidence of injury to the Internal thoracic artery (ITA) in our series (4.9%) was comparable to the 4.4%–5.3% reported by other investigators.11-14 Because the ITA was damaged more often during prepump dissection (20.7%) than during re-entry (11.5%), these data support the trend to avoid dissecting and isolating the ITA during AVR after previous CABG.12,13

FOUR CONCLUSIONS

1. On the basis of these data, we would advocate preoperative axial CT imaging to define the proximity of cardiovascular structures to the sternum of patients who have undergone more than one previous sternotomy and those who have undergone radiotherapy because these patients statistically have the greatest risk of injury.

2. We would also advocate considering percutaneous or open access of the femoral vessels, if not the institution of CPB, before sternotomy in these same patients, as well as those with significant pulmonary hypertension.

3. Because injury is common during prepump dissection, we support a philosophy of leaving patent ITA grafts undisturbed by attempts to gain control during AVR after previous CABG.

4. Finally, given the mortality rate associated with graft injury, patients with previous CABG should be considered for graft angiography or high-resolution CT.

Summary 

This is a very important study  on the Outcomes and the Complications involved in Cardiac Surgery @Mayo Clinic.

Study’s Objectives: A variety of protective strategies during repeat sternotomy been proposed; however, it remains unclear for which patients they are warranted.

Authors @Mayo Clinic reported:

We were unable to definitively assess the effect of any specific protective strategies on the incidence of injury. Because we do not have standardized or uniform prospective institutional policies in this regard, it was not possible to account for the confounding factor of the clinician’s judgment in the decision to use these strategies in particularly highrisk patients.

Our high mortality rate associated with saphenous vein graft (SVG) injury during sternotomy, however, supports the  recommendation by others to carefully assess the course of bypass grafts by preoperative angiography. Routine preoperative CT imaging of all patients with more than one previous sternotomy has been advocated by Morishita and colleagues,3 with a demonstrable reduction in operative complications.

The reader is advised to review another article Co-Curated by us on the following related study by Mayo Clinic researches, This article examines 10-year to 15-year survivals from arterial bypass grafts using arterial vs saphenous venous grafts.

CABG Survival in Multivessel Disease Patients: Comparison of Arterial Bypass Grafts vs Saphenous Venous Grafts

The conclusions in this article are:

In patients undergoing isolated coronary artery bypass graft surgery with LIMA to left anterior descending artery,

  • arterial grafting of the non-left anterior descending vessels conferred a survival advantage at 15 years compared with Saphenous Venous grafting (SVG).

It is still unproven whether these results apply to higher-risk subgroups of patients.

Related study

Coronary Artery Disease – Medical Devices Solutions: From First-In-Man Stent Implantation, via Medical Ethical Dilemmas to Drug Eluting Stents,

REFERENCES

1. Sabik JF III, Blackstone EH, Houghtaling PL,Walts PA, LytleBW. Is reoperation

still a risk factor in coronary artery bypass surgery? Ann Thorac Surg. 2005;80:

1719-27.

2. Roselli EE, Pettersson GB, Blackstone EH, Brizzio ME, Houghtaling PL,

Lauck R, et al. Adverse events during reoperative cardiac surgery: Frequency,

characterization, and rescue. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2008;135:316-23.

3. Morishita K, Kawaharada N, Fukada J, Yamada A, Masaru T, Kuwaki K, et al.

Three or more median sternotomies for patients with valve disease: Role of computed

tomography. Ann Thorac Surg. 2003;75:1476-81.

4. Luciani N, Anselmi A, De Geest R, Martinelli L, Perisano M, Possati G. Extracorporeal

circulation by peripheral cannulation before redo sternotomy: Indications

and results. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2008;136:572-7.

5. Potter DD, Sundt TM III, Zehr KJ, Dearani JA, Daly RC, Mullany CJ, et al. Risk

of repeat mitral valve replacement for failed mitral valve prostheses. Ann Thorac

Surg. 2004;78:67-72.

6. Potter DD, Sundt TM III, Zehr KJ, Dearani JA, Daly RC, Mullany CJ, et al. Operative

risk of reoperative aortic valve replacement. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg.

2005;129:94-103.

7. Sundt TM III, Murphy SF, Barzilai B, Schuessler RB, Mendeloff EN,

Huddleston CB, et al. Previous coronary artery bypass grafting is not a risk factor

for aortic valve replacement. Ann Thorac Surg. 1997;64:651-7.

8. Ellman PI, Smith RL, Girotti ME, Thompson PW, Peeler BB, Kern JA, et al. Cardiac

injury during resternotomy does not affect perioperative mortality. JAm Coll

Surg. 2008;206:993-9.

9. Chang ASY, Smedira NG, Chang CL, Benavides MM, Myhre U, Feng J, et al.

Cardiac surgery after mediastinal radiation: Extent of exposure influences outcome.

J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2007;133:404-13.

10. Schmuziger M, Christenson JT, Maurice J, Mosimann E, Simonet F, Velebit V.

Reoperative myocardial revascularization: An analysis of 458 reoperations and

2645 single operations. Cardiovasc Surg. 1994;2:623-9.

11. Gillinov AM, Casselman FP, Lytle BW, Blackstone EH, Parsons EM, Loop FD,

et al. Injury to a patent left internal thoracic artery graft at coronary reoperation.

Ann Thorac Surg. 1999;67:382-6.

12. Byrne JG, Karavas AN, Filsoufi F, Mihaljevic T, Aklog L, Adams DH, et al. Aortic

valve surgery after previous coronary artery bypass grafting with functioning

internal mammary artery grafts. Ann Thorac Surg. 2002;73:779-84.

13. Smith RL, Ellman PI, Thompson PW, Girotti ME, Mettler BA, Ailawadi G, et al.

Do you need to clamp a patent left internal thoracic artery—Left anterior descending

graft in reoperative cardiac surgery? Ann Thorac Surg. 2009;87:742-7.

14. Coltharp WH, Decker MD, Lea JWIV, Petracek MR, Glassford DM,

Thormas CS, et al. Internal mammary artery graft at reoperation: Risks, benefits,

and methods of preservation. Ann Thorac Surg. 1991;52:225-9.

15. O’Brien MF, Harrocks S, Clarke A, Garlick B, Barnett AG. How to do safe sternal

reentry and the risk factors of redo cardiac surgery: A 21-year review with

zero major cardiac injury. J Cardiac Surg. 2002;17:4-13.

16. Klein G. Naturalistic decision making. Human Factors. 2008;50:456-60.

II. Complications After Percutaneous Coronary intervention (PCI) and endovascular surgery for Peripheral Artery Disease (PAD)

(a) after prior PCI, and

(b) after prior PAD Endovascular Interventions: Carotid Artery Endarterectomy

II(a)  PCI  After Prior PCI – Major occurring Complications include the following:

 

  • Hematoma (a firm collection of blood greater than 2 cm around or in the proximity of the access site).
  • Pseudoaneurysm / dissection,
  • A-V fistula and ischemic leg were also considered along with
  • Retroperitoneal bleed. Retroperitoneal bleeding was defined by any amount of bleeding in the retroperitoneum diagnosed by computer tomography.
  • Inflammation of the Lower extremity on the side of the access site to the femoral artery

UPDATED 11/2/2013

VIEW VIDEO

Impact of Intra-procedural Stent Thrombosis during Percutaneous Coronary Intervention: Insights from the CHAMPION PHOENIX Trial ONLINE FIRST

Philippe Généreux, MD1; Gregg W. Stone, MD1; Robert A. Harrington, MD4; C. Michael Gibson, MD5; Ph. Gabriel Steg, MD6; Sorin J. Brener, MD10; Dominick J. Angiolillo, MD, PhD11; Matthew J. Price, MD12; Jayne Prats, PhD13; Laura LaSalle, MPH2; Tiepu Liu, MD, PhD12; Meredith Todd, B.Sc12; Simona Skerjanec, Pharm.D12; Christian W. Hamm, MD14; Kenneth W. Mahaffey, MD4; Harvey D. White, DSc15; Deepak L. Bhatt, MD, MPH16
J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;():. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2013.10.022

Abstract

Objective  We sought to evaluate the clinical impact of intra-procedural stent thrombosis (IPST), a relatively new endpoint.

Background  In the prospective, double-blind, active-controlled CHAMPION PHOENIX trial, cangrelor significantly reduced periprocedural and 30-day ischemic events in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), including IPST.

Methods  An independent core laboratory blinded to treatment assignment performed a frame-by-frame angiographic analysis in 10,939 patients for the development of IPST, defined as new or worsening thrombus related to stent deployment anytime during the procedure. Adverse events were adjudicated by an independent, blinded clinical events committee.

Results  IPST developed in 89 patients (0.8%), including 35/5470 (0.6%) and 54/5469 (1.0%) in the cangrelor and clopidogrel arms, respectively (OR [95%CI] = 0.65 [0.42,0.99], p=0.04). Compared to patients without IPST, IPST was associated with a marked increase in composite ischemia (death, myocardial infarction [MI], ischemia-driven revascularization, or new onset out-of-lab stent thrombosis [ARC]) at 48 hours and at 30 days (29.2% vs. 4.5% and 31.5% vs. 5.7%, P<0.0001 for both). After controlling for potential confounders, IPST remained a strong predictor of all adverse ischemic events at both time points.

Conclusion  In the large-scale CHAMPION PHOENIX trial, the occurrence of IPST was strongly predictive of subsequent adverse cardiovascular events. The potent intravenous ADP antagonist cangrelor substantially reduced IPST, contributing to its beneficial effects at 48 hours and 30 days.

Clinical trial info  CHAMPION PHOENIX; NCT01156571

Bleeding and Vascular Complications at the Femoral Access Site Following Percutaneous Coronary Intervention (PCI): An Evaluation of Hemostasis Strategies

Author(s):

Dale R. Tavris, MD, MPH1, Yongfei Wang, MS2, Samantha Jacobs, BS1, Beverly Gallauresi, MPH, RN1, Jeptha Curtis, MD2, John Messenger, MD3, Frederic S. Resnic, MD, MSc4, Susan Fitzgerald, MS, RN5

Authors Affiliation

From the 1US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, Maryland, 2Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 3University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, 4Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, and 5the American College of Cardiology, Bethesda, Maryland.

Abstract: Background. Previous research found at least one vascular closure device (VCD) to be associated with excess vascular complications, compared to manual compression (MC) controls, following cardiac catheterization. Since that time, several more VCDs have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). This research evaluates the safety profiles of current frequently used VCDs and other hemostasis strategies. Methods. Of 1089 sites that submitted data to the CathPCI Registry from 2005 through the second quarter of 2009, a total of 1,819,611 percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) procedures performed via femoral access site were analyzed. Assessed outcomes included bleeding, femoral artery occlusion, embolization, artery dissection, pseudoaneurysm, and arteriovenous fistula. Seven types of hemostasis strategy were evaluated for rate of “any bleeding or vascular complication” compared to MC controls, using hierarchical multiple logistic regression analysis, controlling for demographic factors, type of hemostasis, several indices of co-morbidity, and other potential confounding variables. Rates for different types of hemostasis strategy were plotted over time, using linear regression analysis.Results. Four of the VCDs and hemostasis patches demonstrated significantly lower bleeding or vascular complication rates than MC controls: Angio-Seal (odds ratio [OR], 0.68; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.65-0.70); Perclose (OR, 0.54; CI, 0.51-0.57); StarClose (OR, 0.77; CI, 0.72-0.82); Boomerang Closure Wire (OR, 0.63; CI, 0.53-0.75); and hemostasis patches (OR, 0.70; CI, 0.67-0.74). All types of hemostasis strategy, including MC, exhibited reduced complication rates over time. All trends were statistically significant except one. Conclusions. This large, nationally representative observational study demonstrated better safety profiles for most of the frequently used VCDs, compared to MC controls.

J INVASIVE CARDIOL 2012;24(7):328-334

Key words: hemostasis patch, mechanical compression, vascular closure device

Problems and Complications of the Transradial Approach for Coronary Interventions: A Review

The Journal of invasive Cardiology

Elizabeth Bazemore, BS and J. Tift Mann, III, MD

The benefits of the transradial approach have clearly been documented in numerous studies in the past ten years.1–9 Access site bleeding complication rates are lower and early ambulation results in a significant reduction in patient morbidity and a lower total procedure cost.3,4 Both patients undergoing the procedure and staff caring for these patients overwhelmingly prefer the transradial approach.10
As a result of these benefits, there has been an increase in the use of the radial artery for interventional procedures worldwide in the past several years. This experience has led to an understanding of the problems and complications that can result from the transradial approach. The purpose of the present manuscript is to review these issues.
Radial artery occlusion. Although this complication is a major concern, the consequences of radial artery occlusion are usually benign. The dual blood supply to the hand is an extremely protective mechanism (Figure 1). Hand ischemia with necrosis has occurred following prolonged cannulation of the radial artery for hemodynamic monitoring in critically ill patients; however, this complication has not been reported thus far after transradial coronary procedures.
The absence of ischemic complications is largely the result of the original recommendation by Kiemeneij that the transradial procedure be performed only in patients with a documented patent ulnar artery and palmar arch.1 This has traditionally been evaluated using the Allen’s test, but ultrasound, Doppler, and plethysmography prior to the procedure are more accurate methods.11
Plethysmography is probably the simplest and most effective method. A pulse oximetry test is performed with the probe placed on the patient’s thumb (Figure 2). The persistence of waveform and high oximetry readings after digital occlusion of the radial artery is very strong evidence that the patient will have sufficient collateral flow to prevent hand ischemia if the radial artery should become occluded as a result of the procedure. Barbeau has demonstrated the reappearance of the waveform and a high oximetry reading two minutes after initial negative results.11 This delayed recruitment of collaterals may be an additional explanation for the absence of hand ischemia with radial occlusion.
Several variables influence the incidence of radial artery occlusion. Adequate anticoagulation is extremely important. This is usually not an issue in patients undergoing interventional procedures, but the incidence of radial occlusion was as high as 30% in patients receiving only 1,000 units of heparin during diagnostic catheterization.12 The incidence of radial occlusion is reduced significantly by administering at least 5,000 units of heparin during the procedure.12,13 Due to this risk of radial occlusion, we tend to reserve the use of the radial artery for interventional procedures and “look-see” diagnostic catheterization. Elective diagnostic catheterizations are performed transradially only when there is an increased risk of femoral complications.
Catheter size has been shown to be an important predictor of post-procedure radial artery occlusion. Saito has studied the ratio of the radial artery internal diameter to the external diameter of the arterial sheath.14 The incidence of occlusion was 4% in patients with a ratio of greater than 1, as compared to 13% in those with a ratio of less than 1. Radial procedures have traditionally been performed using 6 Fr catheters, and most patients have an internal radial artery diameter larger than the 2.52 mm external 6 Fr sheath diameter.14 The incidence of radial occlusion following 6 Fr procedures is less than 5%, but the rate increases with larger sheath sizes.4,13 Virtually all interventional procedures can now be performed through large-bore, 6 Fr guide catheters, and larger-sized catheters are rarely necessary. For straightforward procedures, 5 Fr guide catheters may be utilized and are particularly useful in smaller women.
When the radial artery is utilized for hemodynamic monitoring in critically ill patients, the incidence of radial occlusion is significantly higher in patients with cannulation times greater than 24 hours, as compared to those under 20 hours.15 Since catheters are virtually always removed at the conclusion of a catheterization or interventional procedure, the time of cannulation may not be a factor. However, prolonged post-procedure compression times, particularly with high pressure using a mechanical device, may be a factor. We use sufficient pressure only to achieve hemostasis and try to remove the device as quickly as possible. Even in patients with intensive anticoagulation, it is rarely necessary to maintain mechanical compression for longer than one to two hours. A compression dressing using non-occlusive pressures can then be applied.
In summary, post-procedure radial occlusion occurs only in a small percentage of patients and is virtually always asymptomatic because of the dual blood supply to the hand. Patients with generalized vascular disease, diabetes mellitus, and those undergoing repeat procedures are more susceptible. The incidence can be minimized with appropriate anticoagulation, proper sheath selection, and avoiding prolonged high-pressure compression following the procedure.
Non-occlusive radial artery injury. Recent studies have demonstrated that permanent radial artery injury without occlusion may occur following transradial intervention in some patients. Mean radial artery internal diameter as measured by ultrasound was smaller in patients undergoing repeat transradial interventional procedures as compared to the initial procedure.16 This smaller diameter was not present on the day following the procedure, but developed during a mean follow up of 4.5 months. Wakeyama et al. demonstrated with intravascular ultrasound that this progressive narrowing is due to intimal hyperplasia, presumably induced by trauma from the cannulation sheath or catheter.17 The studies in our laboratory show that this hyperplasia is usually segmental rather than diffuse and is not present in all patients with a previous transradial procedure (Figure 3). The incidence of subsequent intimal hyperplasia in patients undergoing radial procedures is yet to be determined.
The ramifications of this injury are important not only in patients undergoing repeat interventional procedures, but also in patients in whom the radial artery may be used as a conduit for coronary artery bypass surgery. At our center, this is not an issue as most procedures are performed from the right radial artery and surgeons use the left radial artery for bypass graft purposes. At present, it would seem prudent not to use a radial artery that previously has been used for a catheterization as a bypass graft.
Radial artery spasm. Much of the morbidity of the transradial procedure is related to vasospasm induced by the introduction of a sheath or catheter into the radial artery. The vessel has a prominent medial layer that is largely dominated by alpha-1 adenoreceptor function.18 Thus, increased levels of circulating catecholamines are a cause of radial artery spasm. Local anesthesia and adequate sedation to control anxiety during catheter insertion are important preventative measures.
It has been demonstrated in isolated radial artery ring segments that nitroglycerin and verapamil are effective agents in preventing arterial spasm.19 Indeed, a vasodilator cocktail consisting of 3–6 mg of verapamil injected intra-arterially prior to sheath insertion is extremely effective in preventing radial artery spasm. The effect of the drug is immediate and significant arterial dilatation can be seen within minutes of its administration (Figure 4).
Intra-arterial verapamil and nitroglycerin have virtually eliminated vasospasm as a cause of significant morbidity of the procedure. It is now possible to perform transradial procedures using short sheaths and arm discomfort generally occurs only in patients with very small or tortuous radial arteries, particularly if guide catheter manipulation is excessive.
Spasm distal to the access site may be a cause of access failure. Occasionally, guide wire or guide catheter induced focal spasm may occur in a tortuous segment. Angiographic visualization of these areas is important as they generally respond to repeat verapamil administration and can be traversed with an angled hydrophilic coated guide wire. A soft-tipped coronary guide wire may also be used to cross these areas (Figure 5).
Sheath-induced spasm is also minimized by the use of sheaths with hydrophilic coating. Kiemeneij has documented that both patient discomfort and the force required to remove a sheath as measured by an automatic pull-back device was significantly less with hydrophilic coated sheaths as opposed to non-coated sheaths.20
Local access bleeding. The most important benefit of transradial procedures is the elimination of access site bleeding complications.1–4 The radial artery puncture site is located over bone and can easily be compressed with minimal pressure. Thus, bleeding from the radial access site can virtually always be prevented. Although manual pressure from an experienced operator is the ideal method to obtain hemostasis, several compression devices have been developed in an attempt to maximize operator and staff efficiency. Local hematomas may occur as a result of improper device application or device failure. It is important to emphasize that compression of the radial artery both proximally and distally to the puncture site must be performed because of retrograde flow from the palmar arch collaterals.
Forearm hematoma. Bleeding may occur from a site in the radial artery remote from the access site. The most common cause is perforation of a small side branch by the guide wire in patients receiving a platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitor (Figure 6). Avulsion of a small radial recurrent artery arising from a radial loop is another important cause of this syndrome.21,22 Hydrophilic guidewires preferentially select this small arterial remnant in patients with a radial loop and forceful advancement of the guide catheter can result in avulsion of the vessel. Radial artery perforation has been described in 1% of patients although in our experience the incidence is substantially lower. A low threshold to perform a radial artery arteriogram when any resistance to guide wire or catheter insertion is encountered will help prevent this complication.
Recognition of this bleeding remote from the access site is important as hemostatic pressure must be applied to an area other than the access site. Hemostasis is usually easily accomplished by the application of an Ace bandage to the forearm. A blood pressure sphygmomanometer may also be utilized. The latter is inflated to systolic pressure and then gradually released over a period of one to two hours. Sealing of a perforation with a long sheath is also an option, but this is rarely necessary.22
Compartment syndrome is the most dreaded complication of radial artery hemorrhage. A large hematoma causes hand ischemia due to pressure-induced occlusion of both the radial and ulnar arteries. Fasciotomy with hematoma evacuation must be performed as an emergency procedure to prevent chronic ischemic injury. This complication is rare, occurring only once in our early experience; it should always be preventable.

Access failure. Failure to cannulate the radial artery using a 20 gauge needle and a 0.025 mm straight Terumo guide wire occurs in less than 5% of patients with an experienced operator. The importance of adequate patient sedation and local anesthesia in the prevention of radial artery spasm has previously been emphasized. In addition, meticulous attention to detail is important as the probability of failure increases as the number of unsuccessful attempts to puncture the artery increases. It should be emphasized that the puncture site is proximal to the styloid process of the radius bone. The radial artery distally usually bifurcates and becomes less superficial and attempting to puncture the vessel too distally is a common cause of access failure (Figure 7).
The radial loop is the most common congenital anomaly of the radial artery and may be a cause of access failure. It occurs in 1–2% of patients and may be unilateral or bilateral.21 Wide loops can occasionally be traversed with hydrophilic guidewires and 5 Fr catheters without excessive patient discomfort.23 However, in most cases, it is preferable to consider an alternative access site.
Radial arteries that are smaller than 2 mm in diameter are difficult to access. These are generally seen in smaller women and patients with previous radial procedures. The use of a 5 Fr guide in this situation may be an option. However, complex or difficult procedures cannot be performed through a 5 Fr guide catheter.
Miscellaneous complications. Pseudoaneurysm formation may rarely occur at the radial artery access site. This is usually easily managed with thrombin injection and/or mechanical compression. However, surgery may be required. Radial artery avulsion due to intense spasm has been described but this complication should virtually never occur using contemporary techniques. Sterile abscesses rarely occur with the use of hydrophilic coated sheaths.24
Conclusion. The radial artery is an excellent access site for coronary interventions. Although technically more challenging with a definite learning curve, there are significant advantages to this approach. Complications are infrequent and many are preventable with careful technique.

 http://www.invasivecardiology.com/article/3821

J Invasive Cardiol. 2010 Apr;22(4):175-8.

Vascular complications after percutaneous coronary intervention following hemostasis with the Mynx vascular closure device versus the AngioSeal vascular closure device.

Source

Department Cardiology, New York Medical College, Macy Pavilion, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA.

Abstract

We investigated the prevalence of vascular complications after PCI following hemostasis in 190 patients (67% men and 33% women, mean age 64 years) treated with the AngioSeal vascular closure device (St. Jude Medical, Austin, Texas) versus 238 patients (67% men and 33% women, mean age 64 years) treated with the Mynx vascular closure device (AccessClosure, Mountain View, California).

RESULTS:

Death, myocardial infarction or stroke occurred in none of the 190 patients (0%) treated with the AngioSeal versus none of 238 patients (0%) treated with the Mynx. Major vascular complications occurred in 4 of 190 patients (2.1%) treated with the AngioSeal versus 5 of 238 patients (2.1%) treated with the Mynx (p not significant). Major vascular complications in patients treated with the AngioSeal included removal of a malfunctioning device (1.1%), hemorrhage requiring intervention (0.5%) and hemorrhage with a loss of > 3g Hgb (0.5%). The major vascular complications in patients treated with the Mynx included retroperitoneal bleeding requiring surgical intervention (0.8%), pseudoaneurysm with surgical repair (0.8%) and hemorrhage with a loss of > 3g Hgb (0.4%). These complications were not significantly different between the two vascular closure devices (p = 0.77). Minor complications included hematoma > 5 cm (0.5%, n = 1) within the AngioSeal group, as well as procedure failure requiring > 30 minutes of manual compression after device deployment, which occurred in 7 out of 190 patients (3.7%) treated with the AngioSeal versus 22 of 238 patients with the Mynx (9.2%) (p = 0.033).

CONCLUSIONS:

Major vascular complications after PCI following hemostasis with vascular closure devices occurred in 2.1% of 190 patients treated with the AngioSeal vascular closure device versus 2.1% of 238 patients treated with the Mynx vascular closure device (p not significant). The Mynx vascular closure device appears to have a higher rate of device failure.

Comment in

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20351388

Z Kardiol. 2005 Jun;94(6):392-8.

Incications and complications of invasive diagnostic procedures and percutaneous coronary interventions in the year 2003. Results of the quality control registry of the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Leitende Kardiologische Krankenhausarzte (ALKK).

Source

Herzzentrum Ludwigshafen, Bremserstrasse 79, 67063 Ludwigshafen, Germany. Uwe.Zeymer@t-online.de

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

The ALKK registry contains about 20% of the invasive and interventional cardiological procedures performed in Germany.

METHODS:

In 2003 a total of 82,282 consecutive diagnostic invasive and 30,689 interventional procedures from 75 hospitals were centrally collected and analyzed.

RESULTS:

The main indication for an invasive diagnostic procedure was coronary artery disease in 92.5% of cases, myocardial disease in 1.6%, impaired left ventricular function in 4.0%, valve disease in 4% and other indications in 1.9%. An acute coronary syndrome was present in 25% of the patients. The rate of severe complications in patients with a lone diagnostic invasive procedure was low (<0.5%). The indication for percutaneous coronary intervention (n=30,689) was stable angina in 44.1%, ST elevation myocardial infarction in 22.3%, non ST elevation myocardial infarction in 14.8%, unstable angina in 10.0%, silent ischemia in 2.2%, prognostic in 5.2% of patients. The majority of interventions were performed directly after the diagnostic procedure (n=23,887=78.6%). The intervention was successful in 94.6% of cases. Stent implantation was performed in 77.2%, with 1 stent in 88.4%, two stents in 7.6% and 3 or more stents in 3.3%. A drug-eluting stent was implanted in 3.6% of the cases. The complication rate after PCI was influenced by the indication for the intervention. The in-hospital mortality in patients with cardiogenic shock was 33%, while in patients with stable angina, silent ischemia and prognostic indication only 0.2% died.

CONCLUSION:

There is an increase of invasive diagnostic and interventional procedures in patients with acute coronary syndromes, with 47% of PCIs performed in these patient. PCIs were performed in 75% of the cases directly after the diagnostic procedure. The rate of stent implantation seems to have reached a plateau at around 80%, while drug-eluting stents were implanted only in a minority of cases. The complication rate is mainly dependent on the clinical presentation of the patients and the indication for PCI.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15940439

Coronary arterial complications after percutaneous coronary intervention in Behçet’s disease

Authors: Kinoshita T, Fujimoto S, Ishikawa Y, Yuzawa H, Fukunaga S, Toda M, Wagatsuma K, Akasaka Y, Ishii T, Ikeda T

Published Date February 2013 Volume 2013:4 Pages 9 – 12

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/RRCC.S41240,

Published: 05 February 2013
Toshio Kinoshita,1 Shinichiro Fujimoto,1 Yukio Ishikawa,2 Hitomi Yuzawa,1 Shunji Fukunaga,1Mikihito Toda,3 Kenji Wagatsuma,3 Yoshikiyo Akasaka,2 Toshiharu Ishii,2 Takanori Ikeda1
1Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, 2Department of Pathology, 3Division of Interventional Cardiology, Toho University Faculty of Medicine, Ohta City, Tokyo, Japan

Abstract: Behçet’s disease is a multisystemic vascular inflammatory disease, but concurrent cardiac diseases, such as acute myocardial infarction, are rare. Several complications may arise after coronary intervention for coronary lesions that interfere with treatment, and the incidence of coronary arterial complications due to invasive therapy remains unclear. Further, the long-term outcomes in patients with Behçet’s disease after stenting for acute myocardial infarction have not been described. The present report describes a 35-year-old Japanese man with Behçet’s disease who developed acute myocardial infarction. A coronary aneurysm developed at the stenting site of the left anterior descending coronary artery, along with stenosis in the left anterior descending segment proximal to the site. Although invasive therapy was considered, medication including immunosuppressants was selected because of the high risk of vascular complications after invasive therapy. The coronary artery disease has remained asymptomatic for the 4 years since the patient started medication. This case underscores the importance of considering the incidence of coronary arterial complications and of conservative treatment when possible.

Keywords: Behçet’s disease, myocardial infarction, coronary arterial complications, percutaneous coronary intervention, immunosuppressants

http://www.dovepress.com/coronary-arterial-complications-after-percutaneous-coronary-interventi-peer-reviewed-article-RRCC-recommendation1

REFERENCES

  1. Marso SP, Amin AP, House JA, et al; on behalf of the National Cardiovascular Data Registry. Association between use of bleeding avoidance strategies and risk of periprocedural bleeding among patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention. JAMA. 2010;303(21):2156-2164.
  2. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics — 2011 Update. American Heart Association, 2011.
  3. Tavris DR, Gallauresi BA, Dey S, Brindis R, Mitchel K. Risk of local adverse events by gender following cardiac catheterization. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2007;16(2):125-131.
  4. United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA). Manufacturer and user facility device experience; MAUDE Database, 2001: Accessed atwww.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfmaude/TextResults.cfm
  5. Tavris DR, Dey S, Gallauresi B, et al. Risk of local adverse events following cardiac catheterization by hemostasis device use — phase II. J Invasive Cardiol. 2005;17(12):644-650.
  6. An initiative of the American College of Cardiology Foundation, the NCDR, National Cardiovascular Data Registry, is a comprehensive, outcomes-based suite of registries focused on quality improvement. www.ncdr.com. 
  7. Applegate RJ, Sacrinty MT, Kutcher MA, et al. Propensity score analysis of vascular complications after diagnostic cardiac catheterization and percutaneous coronary intervention 1998-2003. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2006;67(4):556-562.
  8. Applegate RJ, Sacrinty M, Kutcher MA, et al. Vascular complications with newer generations of Angio-Seal vascular closure devices. J Interv Cardiol. 2006;19(1):67-74.
  9. Applegate RJ, Sacrinty MT, Kutcher MA, et al. Propensity score analysis of vascular complications after diagnostic cardiac catheterization and percutaneous coronary intervention using thrombin hemostatic patch-facilitated manual compression. J Invasive Cardiol. 2007;19(4):164-170.
  10. Sulzbach-Hoke LM, Ratcliffe SJ, Kimmel SE, et al. Predictors of complications following sheath removal with percutaneous coronary intervention. J Cardiovasc Nurs. 2010;25(3):E1-E8.
  11. Legrand V, Doneux P, Martinez C, et al. Femoral access management: comparison between two different vascular closure devices after percutaneous coronary intervention. Acta Cardiol. 2005;60(5):482-488.
  12. Hermiller JB, Simonton C, Hinohara T, et al. The StarClose Vascular Closure System: interventional results from the CLIP study. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2006;68(5):677-683.
  13. Martin JL, Pratsos A, Magargee E, et al. A randomized trial comparing compression, Perclose Proglide and Angio-Seal VIP for arterial closure following percutaneous coronary intervention: the CAP trial. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2008;71(1):1-5.
  14. Deuling JH, Vermeulen RP, Anthonio RA, et al. Closure of the femoral artery after cardiac catheterization: a comparison of Angio-Seal, StarClose, and manual compression. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2008;71(4):518-523.
  1. Wong SC, Bachinsky W, Cambier P, et al; ECLIPSE Trial Investigators. A randomized comparison of a novel bioabsorbable vascular closure device versus manual compression in the achievement of hemostasis after percutaneous femoral procedures: the ECLIPSE (Ensure’s Vascular Closure Device Speeds Hemostasis Trial). JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 2009;2(8):785-793.
  2. Arora N, Matheny ME, Sepke C, Resnic FS. A propensity analysis of the risk of vascular complications after cardiac catheterization procedures with the use of vascular closure devices. Am Heart J. 2007;153(4):606-611.
  3. Castillo-Sang M, Tsang AW, Almaroof B, et al. Femoral artery complications after cardiac catheterization: a study of patient profile. Ann Vasc Surg. 2010;24(3):328-335.
  4. Sanborn TA, Ebrahimi R, Manoukian SV, et al. Impact of femoral vascular closure devices and antithrombotic therapy on access site bleeding in acute coronary syndromes: the Acute Catheterization and Urgent Intervention Triage Strategy (ACUITY) trial. Circ Cardiovasc Interv. 2010;3(1):57-62.
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  8. Trimarchi S, Smith DE, Share D, et al; BMC2 Registry. Retroperitoneal hematoma after percutaneous coronary intervention: prevalence, risk factors, management, outcomes, and predictors of mortality: a report from the BMC2 (Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan Cardiovascular Consortium) registry. JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 2010;3(8):845-850.
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  10. Koreny M, Riedmuller E, Nikfardjam M, et al. Arterial puncture closing devices compared with standard manual compression after cardiac catheterization — systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2004;291(3):350-357.
  11. Nikolsky E, Mehran R, Halkin A, et al. Vascular complications associated with arteriotomy closure devices in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary procedures: a meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;44(6):1200-1209.
  12. Biancari F, D’Andrea V, Di Marco C, et al. Meta-analysis of randomized trials on the efficacy of vascular closure devices after diagnostic angiography and angioplasty. Am Heart J. 2010;159(4):518-531.
  13. Tavris DR, Dey S, Gallauresi B, et al. Risk of local adverse events following cardiac catheterization by hemostasis device use — phase II. J Invasive Cardiol. 2005;17(12): 644-650.

Frequency and Costs of Ischemic and Bleeding Complications After Percutaneous Coronary Interventions: Rationale for New Antithrombotic Therapy

Journal of Invasive Cardiology

http://www.invasivecardiology.com/article/2489

Author(s):

Mauro Moscucci, MD

Recent advances in catheter technology and antithrombotic therapy have led to a continuous improvement in outcomes of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). These improved outcomes have been associated with broadening of the indications for PCI, with an exponential growth in number of procedures performed, but they have also been paralleled by incremental procedure costs. The estimated costs of PCI currently range from $8,000–$13,000.1 With over 800,000 cases performed each year in the United States (US) alone, this represents over $10 billion annually for the US Healthcare System.2 Roughly half of these costs are incurred by the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS, formerly known as the Health Care Financing Administration).3 Total costs of PCI include disposable equipment used during the procedure (balloons, catheters, stents, etc.), cardiac catheterization laboratory overhead and depreciation, nursing and pharmacy costs, laboratory costs and physician services. In addition, factors that have been found to be associated with increased PCI costs include the use of special devices such as atherectomy or vascular closure devices, the use of multiple stents, the use of platelet glycoprotein (GP) IIb/IIIa inhibitors, and the presence of certain patient demographic characteristics including advanced age, gender and other comorbidities.1,4,5 Finally, complications related to the procedure have been identified in several studies as the single most significant contributor to increased costs of PC.5–7

Methods to reduce the cost of PCI include re-use of balloon catheters,8 percutaneous revascularization performed at the same time as diagnostic catheterization,9 reduced anticoagulation, the use of new devices or pharmacological interventions to reduce restenosis and complications, and the use of competitive bidding for cardiac cath lab supplies.10 For example, the evolution of anticoagulation therapy in stented patients from a regime of post-procedural heparin and warfarin to one of thienopyridines and aspirin,11 and the subsequent reduction of length of stay from 4 days in 1995 to 2 days in 2000, have helped keep total procedure costs down.12 In addition, a reduction in complication rates appears to be a key target for cost reduction efforts. In support of this statement, in the economic assessment of the Evaluation of 7E3 for the Prevention of Ischemic Complications (EPIC) trial in high-risk patients, Mark et al. identified bleeding complications, urgent and non-urgent coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG), and urgent and non-urgent percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) as important correlates of incremental costs.7 Unfortunately, standard aggressive antithrombotic therapy aimed toward a reduction of ischemic complications is often associated with an increase in bleeding complications. In the analysis of the EPIC trial, the benefits of abciximab in decreasing procedure costs through a reduction of ischemic complications were offset by drug acquisition costs and by an increase in bleeding complications.7 Thus, with ischemic complications becoming more rare as a result of improvement in PCI technology and more aggressive antithrombotic therapy, bleeding has become a rather common and costly complication of PCI, with a blood transfusion estimated to add up to $8,000 to the cost of care for the PCI patient.13

Based on these premises, it appears that the next challenge in the care of PCI patients will be to determine how to continue to prevent ischemic complications without increasing the risk of bleeding. This paper examines the frequency of PCI complications in both recent clinical trials and actual practice, discusses the costs of complications, and explores improvements in patient management and particularly changes in anticoagulation therapy that might impact total costs of PCI.

Complication rates in clinical trials

Ischemic complications in clinical trials. Despite advances in PCI technology and adjunctive pharmacotherapy, data from clinical trials indicate that ischemic complications still occur in 5–15% of patients.14–19 Typically, clinical trials define ischemic complications as a combination of death, myocardial infarction (MI; both Q-wave and non-Q wave) and either urgent or any target vessel revascularization (TVR). Different definitions of MI or revascularization can make comparisons across trials difficult. However, comparisons may still be possible through the application of strict meta-analysis methodology. A recent meta-analysis combined data from 6 double-blind PCI trials conducted predominantly in North America between 1993 and 1998.20 A total of 16,546 patients were enrolled in these trials (Table 1). Protocols and case report forms for trials included in the analysis were compared to ensure reasonable consistency of study methods, patient management, data reporting and data structure. Integration of the databases from the trials enabled a direct comparison of key event rates at 7 days, using standard classifications and criteria for severity. The meta-analysis showed that the use of high-dose heparin (175 U/kg) was associated with significantly less frequent clinical ischemic events (8.1%) than lower doses of heparin (100 U/kg; 10.3%). In this same meta-analysis, event rates in patients treated with low-dose heparin (70 U/kg) plus a GP IIb/IIIa inhibitor was 6.5%.20 Although not included in this meta-analysis, it is worth noting that the incidence of death, MI and revascularization in the ESPRIT trial was 9.3% in patients treated with low-dose heparin alone (60 U/kg).21

Bleeding complications in clinical trials. In clinical trials of antiplatelet and anti-thrombotic therapy in PCI, bleeding complications are generally defined using either thrombolysis in myocardial infarction (TIMI)22 or global utilization of streptokinase or tPA outcomes (GUSTO)23 criteria (Table 2). Rates of major bleeding in clinical trials using these criteria are generally less than 2% (Table 3).14–19,21,24,25 However, these restrictive definitions may not capture all clinically significant bleeding. For example, neither the TIMI nor the GUSTO major bleeding definition includes the need for a blood transfusion as part of the criteria. Thus, a broader measure of bleeding using a combination of both major and minor bleeding defined by TIMI or GUSTO criteria appears more likely to be representative of bleeding rates in clinical practice.

In the meta-analysis of contemporary PCI trials, TIMI criteria were used to classify hemorrhagic events, permitting direct comparisons between trials. In the high-dose heparin group, the combination of TIMI major and minor bleeding occurred in 10.5% of patients compared with a rate of 10.7% in the low-dose heparin group, while the bleeding rate was 14.3% in patients receiving a combination of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors and low-dose heparin.

As shown in Table 3, when both TIMI major and minor bleeding are combined in contemporary PCI trials, bleeding complications average 4–14%, depending on patient characteristics and the drug regime used. In addition, when transfusions are included in the definition, the frequency of bleeding complications increases substantially. For example, in NICE-3, bleeding complications were 10.5% when transfusions were included in the criteria, but only 2% of the patients experienced TIMI major bleeding.26

Notably, the only adjunctive anti-thrombotic agent shown to reduce both ischemic and bleeding complications in PCI is bivalirudin. In the Bivalirudin Angioplasty Trial,27 the risk of bleeding was decreased 62% in the bivalirudin group compared with high-dose heparin. The combined rate of TIMI major and TIMI minor bleeding in bivalirudin patients (n = 2,161) was found to be 4.3% in the meta-analysis of contemporary PCI trials with a corresponding ischemic event rate of 6.6%.20

Complications in practice

Ischemic complications in practice. Rates of ischemic complications in clinical practice are difficult to determine. Although several investigators have published data from multicenter databases, these data tend to be 3–5 years old by the time manuscripts are in print. Since trends in the published literature do show continued reduction in PCI complications over time, the frequency of complications noted in these publications may overestimate the actual rate of complications in clinical practice today. In addition, rates of complications can vary widely across institutions due to differences in practice patterns, definitions, operator skills and resource utilization. For example, in the Society for Cardiac Angiography and Interventions (SCA&I) registry, stent use among laboratories varied from 29–95%.28 Others have found lower complication rates in patients whose procedure was performed by a high-volume operator or in a high-volume institution.29 We identified 6 published reports of PCI complications in clinical practice reporting a variety of ischemic outcomes.1,28–31

Saucedo et al. prospectively collected data on 900 patients undergoing successful elective stent placement in native coronary arteries between January 1994 and December 1995.30 The purpose of this study was to evaluate the incidence and long-term clinical consequences of patients with creatine kinase (CK) myocardial isoenzyme band (CK-MB) elevations after stenting. By design, all patients in this observational study had a successful procedure defined as an increase of > 20% in luminal diameter with final percent diameter stenosis of < 50%, without the occurrence of any major complications (death, Q-wave MI and CABG). Nevertheless, 26.4% of patients had CK-MB elevations 1–5 times the upper limit of normal (ULN) and 8.5% had CK-MB elevations > 5 times ULN. In total, 3.9% of patients required a repeat diagnostic catheterization for recurrent ischemia and 1.2% required urgent target vessel revascularization. In this study, patients requiring the use of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors were excluded.

The Northern New England group (NNE) collected data on 14,498 patients undergoing PCI between 1994 and 1996.29 In this study, outcomes included the in-hospital occurrence of death; emergency CABG (eCABG) or non-eCABG; or new MI (defined as chest pain, diaphoresis, dyspnea or hypotension associated with the development of new Q-waves or ST-T wave changes and a rise in CK to at least twice normal with a positive CK-MB). Overall, death occurred in 1.2% of patients, CABG in 2.6% (0.8% eCABG and 1.8% non-eCABG), and MI in 2%. Stents were used in 22% of patients enrolled in this registry.

In the National Cardiovascular Network database (NCN), Batchelor et al. reported complications of PCI in 109,708 patients who underwent PCI between 1994 and 1997.31 In this observational study, in-hospital mortality was defined as the occurrence of death after the procedure, MI was defined as the appearance of new Q-waves in 2 contiguous leads on a 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) for up to 30 days post-PCI, and repeat revascularization was defined as the need for CABG or additional PCI prior to discharge. In this study, death occurred in 1.3% of patients, Q-wave MI in 1.4% and repeat revascularization in 4.5%. Half of the patients underwent stenting in this study. Notably, this database did not record myocardial enzymes or the use of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors.

Aronow and colleagues observed outcomes in a cohort of consecutive registry patients undergoing coronary stent placement between 1995 and 1997.32 A total of 373 patients underwent PCI during this time period, with death occurring in 9 patients (2.4%), CABG in 3 (0.8%) and MI in 19 (5.1%, including both QWMI and NQWMI). Repeat diagnostic catheterization was performed in 3.2% of patients and repeat PCI in 0.8%.

The SCA&I registry evaluated outcomes in 16,811 patients undergoing either balloon angioplasty (n = 6,121) or stenting (n = 10,690) between July 1996 and December 1998.28 In this observational analysis, 12.9% of patients received a GP IIb/IIIa inhibitor, 87% of patients enrolled in the database underwent PCI between 1997 and 1998, and 60% of the stent patients were enrolled in 1998. Outcomes reported included in-hospital death (occurring at any time during the hospitalization) and eCABG, defined as CABG occurring immediately after PCI. Death occurred in 0.4% of patients and eCABG in 0.5%.

Finally, Cohen and others recorded in-laboratory complications in 26,421 patients at 70 different centers undergoing PCI in 1998.1 In-laboratory complications were rare, with death occurring in 0.17%, cardiac arrest in 0.32%, stroke in 0.03%, ventricular fibrillation or tachycardia in 0.94%, abrupt closure in 0.71%, and eCABG in 0.53%. Overall, 72% of patients received stents and 20% received GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors.

In addition to published reports of PCI complications, data from unpublished sources can be used to determine outcomes in a more contemporary cohort of patients undergoing PCI.33 The MQ-Profile (MQ-Pro) Database [Cardinal Information Corporation (CIC), Marlborough, Massachusetts] is maintained by CIC, which sells and distributes software to US acute-care hospitals for the collection of detailed clinical and administrative data. Data from 5,373 PCI procedures performed between July 1, 1998 and June 30, 1999 were obtained from the database using International Classification of Diseases 9th Edition (ICD-9) procedure codes for PCI (36.01, 36.02, 36.05). Demographic, clinical and economic data were collected on each patient using a combination of database retrieval and chart review. In this analysis, death was defined as discharge disposition of “deceased”, MI as the presence of ECG changes consistent with MI (new Q-waves or ST-segment changes) or an increase in CK-MB of at least 2 times the testing facility’s ULN. CABG was identified by the presence of ICD-9 procedure code 36.1 and repeat PCI by either code 36.01, 36.02, or 36.05. Failed PCI was defined by the term “failed PTCA” in chart notes (for patients without a previous history of PCI) and recurrent ischemia documented by ECG changes. Death occurred in 2.0% of patients, MI in 3.1%, CABG in 1.3% and repeat PCI in 5.5%. Translated into a combined endpoint similar to those used in clinical trials, the rate of death/MI/revascularization was 11.9%.

Data from these published and unpublished observations of contemporary PCI practice indicate that while in-laboratory ischemic complications are exceedingly rare, in-hospital ischemic complications still occur in a substantial number of patients. Using an approximation of outcomes from these published and unpublished reports, mortality averages 1%, Q-wave MI occurs in 2% of patients, NQWMI in 6%, CABG in 2% and repeat PCI occurs in 3–5% of patients. It is important to underscore that although most deaths following PCI are due to underlying comorbidities (i.e., acute MI, cardiogenic shock, etc.) rather than to the procedure itself, few deaths still occur as a complication of the procedure.34,35 Extrapolated to the estimated PCI population of 800,000 cases per year, then 8,000 people will die and 64,000 will experience an MI. In addition, approximately 16,000 will require CABG and as many as 40,000 will need a repeat PCI before hospital discharge.

II(b) PAD Endovascular Interventions: Carotid Artery Endarterectomy

  • Original Contributions

Medical Complications Associated With Carotid Endarterectomy

Stroke.1999; 30: 1759-1763  doi: 10.1161/​01.STR.30.9.1759

  1. Maurizio Paciaroni, MD;
  2. Michael Eliasziw, PhD;
  3. L. Jaap Kappelle, MD;
  4. Jane W. Finan, BScN;
  5. Gary G. Ferguson, MD;
  6. Henry J. M. Barnett, MD;
  7. for the North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial (NASCET) Collaborators

+Author Affiliations


  1. From the John P. Robarts Research Institute (M.P., M.E., L.J.K., J.W.F., H.J.M.B) and the Departments of Epidemiology and Biostatistics (M.E.) and Clinical Neurological Sciences (M.E., G.G.F., H.J.M.B.), University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
  1. Correspondence to Dr H.J.M. Barnett, John P. Robarts Research Institute, PO Box 5015, 100 Perth Dr, London, ON N6A 5K8, Canada. E-mail barnett@rri.on.ca

Abstract

Background and Purpose—Carotid endarterectomy (CE) has been shown to be beneficial in patients with symptomatic high-grade (70% to 99%) internal carotid artery stenosis. To achieve this benefit, complications must be kept to a minimum. Complications not associated with the procedure itself, but related to medical conditions, have received little attention.

Methods—Medical complications that occurred within 30 days after CE were recorded in 1415 patients with symptomatic stenosis (30% to 99%) of the internal carotid artery. They were compared with 1433 patients who received medical care alone. All patients were in the North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial (NASCET).

Results—One hundred fifteen patients (8.1%) had 142 medical complications: 14 (1%) myocardial infarctions, 101 (7.1%) other cardiovascular disorders, 11 (0.8%) respiratory complications, 6 (0.4%) transient confusions, and 10 (0.7%) other complications. Of the 142 complications, 69.7% were of short duration, and only 26.8% prolonged hospitalization. Five patients died: 3 from myocardial infarction and 2 suddenly. Medically treated patients experienced similar complications with one third the frequency. Endarterectomy was ≈1.5 times more likely to trigger medical complications in patients with a history of myocardial infarction, angina, or hypertension (P<0.05).

Conclusions—Perioperative medical complications were observed in slightly fewer than 1 of every 10 patients who underwent CE. The majority of these complications completely resolved. Most complications were cardiovascular and occurred in patients with 1 or more cardiovascular risk factors. In this selected population, the occurrence of perioperative myocardial infarction was uncommon.

Key Words:

The North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial (NASCET) and the European Carotid Endarterectomy Trial showed unequivocal benefit of carotid endarterectomy (CE) in symptomatic patients with high-grade internal carotid artery (ICA) stenosis (70% to 99%).1 2 The parallel study dealing with symptomatic patients with moderate-grade stenosis (30% to 69%) showed benefits of CE only in a carefully selected group of patients.3 Currently, CE is the most common elective peripheral vascular procedure, which in 1997 was performed in ≈130 000 patients in the United States.4

Despite benefit in the long term, CE may cause complications either by the operation itself or by concomitant medical conditions. The challenge for the future is to reduce the perioperative risk as much as possible. The incidence and type of complications that are directly related to the surgical procedure have been the subject of many reports,5 6 7 8 910 whereas medical complications that are not directly caused by the procedure have received less attention. The aim of the present study is to describe the incidence and type of medical complications that occurred in patients randomized into NASCET and to determine their association with baseline risk factors.

Subjects and Methods

The methods of the NASCET have been described in detail elsewhere.1 11 Briefly, NASCET was a randomized clinical trial designed to compare the benefit of best medical therapy alone with best medical therapy plus CE in patients with recent transient or nondisabling neurological deficit caused by cerebral or retinal ischemia in the territory of the ICA. Among the exclusions were patients with recent history (6 months) of myocardial infarction, unstable angina pectoris, atrial fibrillation, recent congestive heart failure, and valvular heart disease. For inclusion, the ICA had to have a 30% to 99% stenosis as assessed by selective carotid angiography and to be technically suitable for CE. Baseline evaluations included a detailed medical history and complete physical and neurological examination.

Surgeons were invited to join NASCET if the center had a documented CE stroke and death rate of ≤6% in a minimum of 50 consecutive cases over a 2-year period. Surgery was completed at the earliest opportunity after randomization, and patients underwent a second complete physical and neurological examination 30 days after surgery. All medical and surgical complications that caused transient or permanent disability within the 30-day period were recorded.

Medical complications consisted of myocardial infarction (based on ECG and cardiac enzyme changes), arrhythmia (requiring antiarrhythmic medication), congestive heart failure, angina pectoris, hypertension (diastolic blood pressure >100 mm Hg requiring intravenous medication), hypotension (systolic pressure <90 mm Hg requiring administration of vasopressor agent), sudden death, respiratory problems (pneumonia, atelectasis, pulmonary edema, or exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), renal failure (doubling of preoperative urea and/or creatinine), depression, and confusion (requiring restraint). Complications were considered mild if they were transient and did not prolong hospital stay, moderate if they were transient but caused delay in hospital discharge, and severe if they were associated with permanent disability or death.

In the present study, patients were excluded from the analyses if they had serious complications that were directly attributable to the surgical procedure, such as those due to anesthesia, thrombosis at the operative site, wound hematomas requiring surgical intervention, or deficits from a vagus nerve injury interfering with swallowing. These surgical complications are described in detail elsewhere.12 For comparative purposes, a list of complications that occurred in the medically treated arm of NASCET was compiled for the 32-day period after randomization (ie, the 30-day period plus the average 2 days that lapsed from randomization to CE in the surgical arm). In both the surgical and medical arms, patients were censored at the time of a stroke, since the subsequent medical complications are commonly the result of the stroke.

Cox proportional hazards regression modeling was used to identify baseline factors that increased the risk of perioperative medical complications. Adjusted hazard rates and adjusted hazard ratios were used to summarize the results. The estimated hazard ratio (or relative hazard) is a measure of association that can be interpreted as a relative risk. Hazard ratios with corresponding probability value of <0.05 were considered statistically significant. Adjusted hazard rates were obtained from the regression model by using the mean value for a factor being adjusted.

The modeling strategy consisted of initially fitting a “full” model, which included all factors. A “final” model was determined by eliminating all factors that were not significantly predictive of the medical complications, using a backward selection approach. The “change-in-estimate” strategy was used to determine whether the remaining factors in the final model were independent risk factors. A factor was considered an independent risk factor if the change in hazard ratios between the full and final models was <10%.

Results

A total of 1436 eligible patients were randomized to the surgical arm and 1449 to the medical arm of the NASCET. In the surgical arm, 21 patients were not operated on for various reasons.12 In the medical arm 16 patients crossed over to surgical therapy within 30 days, leaving 1433 patients for analysis. CE was performed in 1415 patients (328 patients with severe stenosis and 1087 with moderate stenosis). Of the 1415, 59 (4.2%) patients had serious surgical complications that excluded them from further analyses, and 115 (8.1%) had medical complications (Table 1⇓). Of the 142 complications, 69.7% were mild, 26.8% were moderate, and 3.5% were severe. Twenty patients had ≥2 complications. No patient had pulmonary embolus, renal failure, or depression requiring medication. Cardiovascular disorders were >4 times as common as all other conditions combined. All 5 severe complications were fatal and were caused by cardiovascular disorders: 3 patients had fatal myocardial infarction, and 2 patients died suddenly. Of the patients with fatal myocardial infarction, 2 patients had massive myocardial infarctions on the day of surgery. In the other patient, CE was prolonged (7 hours) because of intraoperative occlusion of the ICA. Twenty-four hours after CE, the patient had a myocardial infarction followed by cardiac arrest, leaving the patient in a vegetative state. The patient died 2 months later. Two patients died suddenly on days 3 and 6 after CE, and both had a history of previous myocardial infarction. All patients with fatal medical complications were male, and all had multiple cardiovascular risk factors.

http://stroke.ahajournals.org/content/30/9/1759.full

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Intraoperative use of dextran is associated with cardiac complications after carotid endarterectomy.

J Vasc Surg. 2013 Mar;57(3):635-41. doi: 10.1016/j.jvs.2012.09.017. Epub 2013 Jan 18.

Source

Section of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, Boston University Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA. Alik.Farber@bmc.org

Abstract

OBJECTIVE:

Although dextran has been theorized to diminish the risk of stroke associated with carotid endarterectomy (CEA), variation exists in its use. We evaluated outcomes of dextran use in patients undergoing CEA to clarify its utility.

METHODS:

We studied all primary CEAs performed by 89 surgeons within the Vascular Study Group of New England database (2003-2010). Patients were stratified by intraoperative dextran use. Outcomes included perioperative death, stroke, myocardial infarction (MI), and congestive heart failure (CHF). Group and propensity score matching was performed for risk-adjusted comparisons, and multivariable logistic and gamma regressions were used to examine associations between dextran use and outcomes.

RESULTS:

There were 6641 CEAs performed, with dextran used in 334 procedures (5%). Dextran-treated and untreated patients were similar in age (70 years) and symptomatic status (25%). Clinical differences between the cohorts were eliminated by statistical adjustment. In crude, group-matched, and propensity-matched analyses, the stroke/death rate was similar for the two cohorts (1.2%). Dextran-treated patients were more likely to suffer postoperative MI (crude: 2.4% vs 1.0%; P = .03; group-matched: 2.4% vs 0.6%; P = .01; propensity-matched: 2.4% vs 0.5%; P = .003) and CHF (2.1% vs 0.6%; P = .01; 2.1% vs 0.5%; P = .01; 2.1% vs 0.2%; P < .001). In multivariable analysis of the crude sample, dextran was associated with a higher risk of postoperative MI (odds ratio, 3.52; 95% confidence interval, 1.62-7.64) and CHF (odds ratio, 5.71; 95% confidence interval, 2.35-13.89).

CONCLUSIONS:

Dextran use was not associated with lower perioperative stroke but was associated with higher rates of MI and CHF. Taken together, our findings suggest limited clinical utility for routine use of intraoperative dextran during CEA.

J Vasc Surg. 2008 Nov;48(5):1139-45. doi: 10.1016/j.jvs.2008.05.013. Epub 2008 Jun 30.

Factors associated with stroke or death after carotid endarterectomy in Northern New England.

Source

Section of Vascular Surgery Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH 03765, USA. philip.goodney@hitchcock.org

Abstract

OBJECTIVE:

This study investigated risk factors for stroke or death after carotid endarterectomy (CEA) among hospitals of varying type and size participating in a regional quality improvement effort.

METHODS:

We reviewed 2714 patients undergoing 3092 primary CEAs (excluding combined procedures or redo CEA) at 11 hospitals in Northern New England from January 2003 through December 2007. Hospitals varied in size (25 to 615 beds) and comprised community and teaching hospitals. Fifty surgeons reported results to the database. Trained research personnel prospectively collected >70 demographic and clinical variables for each patient. Multivariate logistic regression models were used to generate odds ratios (ORs) and prediction models for the 30-day postoperative stroke or death rate.

RESULTS:

Across 3092 CEAs, there were 38 minor strokes, 14 major strokes, and eight deaths (5 stroke-related) < or =30 days of the index procedure (30-day stroke or death rate, 1.8%). In multivariate analyses, emergency CEA (OR, 7.0; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.8-26.9; P = .004), contralateral internal carotid artery occlusion (OR, 2.8; 95% CI, 1.3-6.2; P = .009), preoperative ipsilateral cortical stroke (OR, 2.4; 95% CI, 1.1-5.1; P = .02), congestive heart failure (OR, 1.6; 95% CI, 1.1-2.4, P = .03), and age >70 (OR, 1.3; 95% CI, 0.8-2.3; P = .315) were associated with postoperative stroke or death. Preoperative antiplatelet therapy was protective (OR, 0.4; 95% CI, 0.2-0.9; P = .02). Risk of stroke or death varied from <1% in patients with no risk factors to nearly 5% with patients with > or =3 risk factors. Our risk prediction model had excellent correlation with observed results (r = 0.96) and reasonable discriminative ability (area under receiver operating characteristic curve, 0.71). Risks varied from <1% in asymptomatic patients with no risk factors to nearly 4% in patients with contralateral internal carotid artery occlusion (OR, 3.2; 95% CI, 1.3-8.1; P = .01) and age >70 (OR, 2.9; 95% CI, 1.0-4.9, P = .05). Two hospitals performed significantly better than expected. These differences were not attributable to surgeon or hospital volume.

CONCLUSION:

Surgeons can “risk-stratify” preoperative patients by considering the variables (emergency procedure, contralateral internal carotid artery occlusion, preoperative ipsilateral cortical stroke, congestive heart failure, and age), reducing risk with antiplatelet agents, and informing patients more precisely about their risk of stroke or death after CEA. Risk prediction models can also be used to compare risk-adjusted outcomes between centers, identify best practices, and hopefully, improve overall results.

III. Cardiac Failure During Systemic Sepsis

CHANGES IN HEART FUNCTION DURING SEPSIS

The patient with sepsis has severely altered physiology in a number of ways, which can influence cardiac function. Firstly, there is a

  • Loss of intravascular volume due to excessive third space loss that results in a decrease in preload. Systemic vascular resistance is decreased which results in a fall in afterload. In addition,
  • end diastolic volumes often increase and
  • ejection fraction falls. However, many of these changes are overcome by an
  • increase in heart rate that may result in an increase in cardiac output. However, it should be remembered that even in the presence of high cardiac outputs it is usually always possible to demonstrate
  • ventricular dysfunction in patients with sepsis. Echocardiographic studies consistently confirm that there is decreased left ventricular systolic function in humans with sepsis.

In addition, there have been many studies in animals and a few in humans which have confirmed the presence of

  • diastolic dysfunction – particularly in those patients that go on to die from sepsis.

In the presence of adequate fluid resuscitation there is an increase in end diastolic volume and this is probably a normal response to a decrease in contractility. However, in the non-survivors of sepsis there is a normal or low end diastolic volume that is the result of a decrease in ventricular diastolic compliance. Thus, there is a decreased end diastolic volume at the same filling pressure.

During sepsis, a

  • decrease in contractility results in a shift to the right of the end-systolic pressure / volume curve and if this is not compensated for results in a
  • a decrease in stroke volume and cardiac output.

When patients with sepsis are appropriately fluid resuscitated there is an

  • increase in end diastolic pressure that increases stroke volume. In addition, the
  • decrease in afterload will also increase stroke volume and will prevent a decrease in ejection fraction.

Alas, because there is a decrease in systolic contractility it would be expected that there would also be a decrease in diastolic stiffness which would allow cardiac output to be maintained despite the relatively low filling pressures. However, if this diastolic compliance change does not occur (as in the nonsurvivors of sepsis) then it is apparent  that the ability of the ventricle to generate a stroke volume is impaired at both ends of the curve.

The cause of the altered cardiac function in sepsis remains unknown although there are many theoretical explanations. Clearly, one of the most important mechanisms which can be readily corrected is hypovolaemia.

  • Myocardial oedema may contribute to a decrease in contractility.
  • Increased circulating catecholamines can result in a decrease in diastolic compliance, particularly important since these agents are often used to improve myocardial contractility.
  • Increased intrathoracic pressure caused by positive pressure ventilation can also result in decreased diastolic compliance. In addition, many of the
  • mediators of the inflammatory response, including products of activated endothelial cells and polymorphonuclear leucocytes (e.g. nitric oxide, tumour necrosis factor and interleukins 1 and 2) have all been postulated as negative inotropes and negative lusitropes.

Another, as yet, unidentified agent which is believed to be released from the splanchnic bed –

  • myocardial depressant factor – is postulated to play a role.

Treatments aimed at correcting the effects of these various inflammatory mediators may be eventually found but until these approaches have been proven to be beneficial the septic patient will continue to be managed according to the physiological principles outlined by Starling.

http://www.rcsed.ac.uk/RCSEDBackIssues/journal/vol46_1/4610005.htm

Sepsis and the Heart – Cardiovascular Involvement in General Medical Conditions

  1. M.W. Merx, MD;
  2. C. Weber, MD

+Author Affiliations


  1. From the Department of Medicine (M.W.M.), Division of Cardiology, Pulmonary Diseases and Vascular Medicine and the Institute of Molecular Cardiovascular Research (IMCAR) at the University Hospital (C.W.), RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany.
  1. Correspondence to Marc W. Merx, MD, Medizinische Klinik I, Universitätsklinikum der RWTH Aachen, Pauwelstraße 30, 52057 Aachen, Germany (e-mailmmerx@ukaachen.de), or Christian Weber, MD, Institut für Kardiovaskuläre Molekularbiologie, Universitätsklinikum der RWTH Aachen, Pauwelstraße 30, 52057 Aachen, Germany (e-mail cweber@ukaachen.de).
Circulation.2007; 116: 793-802doi: 10.1161/​CIRCULATIONAHA.106.678359

Abstract

Sepsis is generally viewed as a disease aggravated by an inappropriate immune response encountered in the afflicted individual. As an important organ system frequently compromised by sepsis and always affected by septic shock, the cardiovascular system and its dysfunction during sepsis have been studied in clinical and basic research for more than 5 decades. Although a number of mediators and pathways have been shown to be associated with myocardial depression in sepsis, the precise cause remains unclear to date. There is currently no evidence supporting global ischemia as an underlying cause of myocardial dysfunction in sepsis; however, in septic patients with coexistent and possibly undiagnosed coronary artery disease, regional myocardial ischemia or infarction secondary to coronary artery disease may certainly occur.

A circulating myocardial depressant factor in septic shock has long been proposed, and potential candidates for a myocardial depressant factor include

  • cytokines,
  • prostanoids, and
  • nitric oxide, among others.
  • Endothelial activation and
  • induction of the coagulatory system also contribute to the pathophysiology in sepsis.

Prompt and adequate antibiotic therapy accompanied by surgical removal of the infectious focus, if indicated and feasible, is the mainstay and also the only strictly causal line of therapy. In the presence of severe sepsis and septic shock, supportive treatment in addition to causal therapy is mandatory. The purpose of this review is to delineate some characteristics of septic myocardial dysfunction, to assess the most commonly cited and reported underlying mechanisms of cardiac dysfunction in sepsis, and to briefly outline current therapeutic strategies and possible future approaches.

Key Words:

Sepsis, defined by consensus conference as “the systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) that occurs during infection,”1 is generally viewed as a disease aggravated by the inappropriate immune response encountered in the affected individual (for review, see Hotchkiss and Karl2 and Riedemann et al,3). The Table gives the current criteria for the establishment of the diagnosis of systemic inflammatory response syndrome, sepsis, and septic shock.1,4 Morbidity and mortality are high, resulting in sepsis and septic shock being the 10th most common cause of death in the United States.5 The incidence of sepsis and sepsis-related deaths appears to be increasing by 1.5% per year.6 In a recent study,6 the total national hospital cost invoked by severe sepsis in the United States was estimated at approximately $16.7 billion on the basis of an estimated severe sepsis rate of 751 000 cases per year with 215 000 associated deaths annually. A recent study from Britain documented a 46% in-hospital mortality rate for patients presenting with severe sepsis on admission to the intensive care unit.7

Current Criteria for Establishment of the Diagnosis of SIRS, Sepsis, and Septic Shock1,4

As an important organ system frequently affected by sepsis and always affected by septic shock, the cardiovascular system and its dysfunction during sepsis have been studied in clinical and basic research for more than 5 decades. In 1951, Waisbren was the first to describe cardiovascular dysfunction due to sepsis.8 He recognized a hyperdynamic state with full bounding pulses, flushing, fever, oliguria, and hypotension. In addition, he described a second, smaller patient group who presented clammy, pale, and hypotensive with low volume pulses and who appeared more severely ill. With hindsight, the latter group might well have been volume underresuscitated, and indeed, timely and adequate volume therapy has been demonstrated to be one of the most effective supportive measures in sepsis therapy.9

Under conditions of adequate volume resuscitation, the profoundly reduced systemic vascular resistance typically encountered in sepsis10 leads to a concomitant elevation in cardiac index that obscures the myocardial dysfunction that also occurs. However, as early as the mid-1980s, significant reductions in both stroke volume and ejection fraction in septic patients were observed despite normal total cardiac output.11 Importantly, the presence of cardiovascular dysfunction in sepsis is associated with a significantly increased mortality rate of 70% to 90% compared with 20% in septic patients without cardiovascular impairment.12 Thus, myocardial dysfunction in sepsis has been the focus of intense research activity. Although a number of mediators and pathways have been shown to be associated with myocardial depression in sepsis, the precise cause remains unclear.

The purpose of the present review is to delineate some characteristics of septic myocardial dysfunction, to assess the most commonly cited and reported underlying mechanisms of cardiac dysfunction in sepsis, and to briefly outline current therapeutic strategies and possible future approaches. This review is not intended to be all inclusive.

Characteristics of Myocardial Dysfunction in Sepsis

Using portable radionuclide cineangiography, Calvin et al13 were the first to demonstrate myocardial dysfunction in adequately volume-resuscitated septic patients with decreased ejection fraction and increased end-diastolic volume index. Adding pulmonary artery catheters to serial radionuclide cineangiography, Parker and colleagues11 extended these observations with the 2 major findings that (1) survivors of septic shock were characterized by increased end-diastolic volume index and decreased ejection fraction, whereas nonsurvivors typically maintained normal cardiac volumes, and (2) these acute changes in end-diastolic volume index and ejection fraction, although sustained for several days, were reversible. More recently, echocardiographic studies have demonstrated impaired left ventricular systolic and diastolic function in septic patients.14–16 These human studies, in conjunction with experimental studies ranging from the cellular level17 to isolated heart studies18,19 and to in vivo animal models,20–22 have clearly established decreased contractility and impaired myocardial compliance as major factors that cause myocardial dysfunction in sepsis.

Notwithstanding the functional and structural differences between the left and right ventricle, similar functional alterations, as discussed above, have been observed for the right ventricle, which suggests that right ventricular dysfunction in sepsis closely parallels left ventricular dysfunction.23–26 However, the relative contribution of the right ventricle to septic cardiomyopathy remains unknown.

Myocardial dysfunction in sepsis has also been analyzed with respect to its prognostic value. Parker et al,27 reviewing septic patients on initial presentation and at 24 hours to determine prognostic indicators, found a heart rate of <106 bpm to be the only cardiac parameter on presentation that predicted a favorable outcome. At 24 hours after presentation, a systemic vascular resistance index >1529 dyne · s−1 · cm−5 · m−2, a heart rate <95 bpm or a reduction in heart rate >18 bpm, and a cardiac index >0.5 L · min−1 · m−2 suggested survival.27 In a prospective study, Rhodes et al28 demonstrated the feasibility of a dobutamine stress test for outcome stratification, with nonsurvivors being characterized by an attenuated inotropic response. The well-established biomarkers in myocardial ischemia and heart failure, cardiac troponin I and T, as well as B-type natriuretic peptide, have also been evaluated with regard to sepsis-associated myocardial dysfunction. Although B-type natriuretic peptide studies have delivered conflicting results in septic patients (for review, see Maeder et al29), several small studies have reported a relationship between elevated cardiac troponin T and I and left ventricular dysfunction in sepsis, as assessed by echocardiographic ejection fraction30–33 or pulmonary artery catheter–derived left ventricular stroke work index.34 Cardiac troponin levels also correlated with the duration of hypotension35 and the intensity of vasopressor therapy.34In addition, increased sepsis severity, measured by global scores such as the Simplified Acute Physiology Score II (SAPS II) or the Acute Physiology And Chronic Health Evaluation II score (APACHE II), was associated with increased cardiac troponin levels,31,33 as was poor short-term prognosis.32,33,35,36 Despite the heterogeneity of study populations and type of troponin studied, the mentioned studies were univocal in concluding that elevated troponin levels in septic patients reflect higher disease severity, myocardial dysfunction, and worse prognosis. In a recent meta-analysis of 23 observational studies, Lim et al37 found cardiac troponin levels to be increased in a large percentage of critically ill patients. Furthermore, in a subset of studies that permitted adjusted analysis and comprised 1706 patients, this troponin elevation was associated with an increased risk of death (odds ratio, 2.5; 95% CI, 1.9 to 3.4, P<0.001)37; however, the underlying mechanisms clearly require further research.

Thus, it appears reasonable to recommend inclusion of cardiac troponins in the monitoring of patients with severe sepsis and septic shock to facilitate prognostic stratification and to increase alertness to the presence of cardiac dysfunction in individual patients. However, it remains to be shown whether risk stratification based on cardiac troponins can identify patients in whom aggressive therapeutic regimens might reap the greatest benefit and so translate into a survival benefit.

Mechanisms Underlying Myocardial Dysfunction in Sepsis

Cardiac depression during sepsis is probably multifactorial (Figure). Nevertheless, it is important to identify individual contributing factors and mechanisms to generate worthwhile therapeutic targets. As a consequence, a vast array of mechanisms, pathways, and disruptions in cellular homeostasis have been examined in septic myocardium.

Figure

View larger version:

Synopsis of potential underlying mechanisms in septic myocardial dysfunction. MDS indicates myocardial depressant substance.

Global Ischemia

An early theory of myocardial depression in sepsis was based on the hypothesis of global myocardial ischemia; however, septic patients have been shown to have high coronary blood flow and diminished coronary artery–coronary sinus oxygen difference.38 As in the peripheral circulation, these alterations can be attributed to disturbed flow autoregulation or disturbed oxygen utilization.39,40 Coronary sinus blood studies in patients with septic shock have also demonstrated complex metabolic alterations in septic myocardium, including increased lactate extraction, decreased free fatty acid extraction, and decreased glucose uptake.41 Furthermore, several magnetic resonance studies in animal models of sepsis have demonstrated the presence of normal high-energy phosphate levels in the myocardium.42,43 It has also been proposed that myocardial dysfunction in sepsis may reflect hibernating myocardium.44 To reach this conclusion, Levy et al44 studied a murine cecal ligation and double-puncture model and observed diminished cardiac performance, increased myocardial glucose uptake, and deposits of glycogen in a setting of preserved arterial oxygen tension and myocardial perfusion. Although all of the above-mentioned findings reflect important alterations in coronary flow and myocardial metabolism, mirroring effects observed in peripheral circulation during sepsis, there is no evidence supporting global ischemia as an underlying cause of myocardial dysfunction in sepsis. However, in septic patients with coexistent and possibly undiagnosed coronary artery disease (CAD), regional myocardial ischemia or infarction secondary to CAD may certainly occur. The manifestation of myocardial ischemia due to CAD might even be facilitated by the volatile hemodynamics in sepsis, as well as by the generalized microvascular dysfunction so frequently observed in sepsis.45 Additional CAD-aggravating factors encountered in sepsis encompass generalized inflammation and the activated coagulatory system. Furthermore, the endothelium plays a prominent role in sepsis (see below), but little is known of the impact of preexisting, CAD-associated endothelial dysfunction in this context. In a postmortem study of 21 fatal cases of septic shock, previously undiagnosed myocardial ischemia at least contributed to death in 7 of the 21 cases (all 21 patients were males, with a mean age of 60.4 years).46 It certainly appears prudent to remain wary of CAD complications while treating sepsis, especially in patients with identifiable risk factors and in view of the ever-increasing mean age of intensive care unit patients and including septic patients.

Myocardial Depressant Substance

A circulating myocardial depressant factor in septic shock was first proposed more than 50 years ago.47 Parrillo et al48 quantitatively linked the clinical degree of septic myocardial dysfunction with the effect the serum, taken from respective patients, had on rat cardiac myocytes, with clinical severity correlating well with the decrease in extent and velocity of myocyte shortening. These effects were not seen when serum from convalescent patients whose cardiac function had returned to normal was applied or when serum was obtained from other critically ill, nonseptic patients.48 In extension of these findings, ultrafiltrates from patients with severe sepsis and simultaneously reduced left ventricular stroke work index (<30 g · m−1 · m−2) displayed cardiotoxic effects and contained significantly increased concentrations of interleukin (IL)-1, IL-8, and C3a.49Recently, Mink et al50 demonstrated that lysozyme c, a bacteriolytic agent believed to originate mainly from disintegrating neutrophilic granulocytes and monocytes, mediates cardiodepressive effects during Escherichia coli sepsis and, importantly, that competitive inhibition of lysozyme c can prevent myocardial depression in the respective experimental sepsis model. Additional potential candidates for myocardial depressant substance include other cytokines, prostanoids, and nitric oxide (NO). Some of these will be discussed below.

Cytokines

Infusion of lipopolysaccharide (LPS, an obligatory component of Gram-negative bacterial cell walls) into both animals and humans51 partially mimics the hemodynamic effects of septic shock.51,52 However, only a minority of patients with septic shock have detectable LPS levels, and the prolonged time course of septic myocardial dysfunction and the chemical characteristics of LPS are not consistent with LPS representing the sole myocardial depressant substance.48,53 Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) is an important early mediator of endotoxin-induced shock.54 TNF-α is derived from activated macrophages, but recent studies have shown that TNF-α is also secreted by cardiac myocytes in response to sepsis.55 Although application of anti-TNF-α antibodies improved left ventricular function in patients with septic shock,56 subsequent studies using monoclonal antibodies directed against TNF-α or soluble TNF-α receptors failed to improve survival in septic patients.57–59 IL-1 is synthesized by monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils in response to TNF-α and plays a crucial role in the systemic immune response. IL-1 depresses cardiac contractility by stimulating NO synthase (NOS).60 Transcription of IL-1 is followed by delayed transcription of IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1-ra), which functions as an endogenous inhibitor of IL-1. Recombinant IL-1-ra was evaluated in phase III clinical trials, which showed a tendency toward improved survival61 and increased survival time in a retrospective analysis of the patient subgroup with the most severe sepsis62; however, to date, this initially promising therapy has failed to deliver a statistically significant survival benefit. IL-6, another proinflammatory cytokine, has also been implicated in the pathogenesis of sepsis and is considered a more consistent predictor of sepsis than TNF-α because of its prolonged elevation in the circulation.63 Although cytokines may very well play a key role in the early decrease in contractility, they cannot explain the prolonged duration of myocardial dysfunction in sepsis, unless they result in the induction or release of additional factors that in turn alter myocardial function, such as prostanoids or NO.64,65

Prostanoids

Prostanoids are produced by the cyclooxygenase enzyme from arachidonic acid. The expression of cyclooxygenase enzyme-2 is induced, among other stimuli, by LPS and cytokines (cyclooxygenase enzyme-1 is expressed constitutively).66 Elevated levels of prostanoids such as thromboxane and prostacyclin, which have the potential to alter coronary autoregulation, coronary endothelial function, and intracoronary leukocyte activation, have been demonstrated in septic patients.67 Early animal studies with cyclooxygenase inhibitors such as indomethacin yielded very promising results.68,69Along with other positive results, these led to an important clinical study involving 455 septic patients who were randomized to receive intravenous ibuprofen or placebo.70Unfortunately, that study did not demonstrate improved survival for the treatment arm. Similarly, a more recent, smaller study on the effects of lornoxicam failed to provide evidence for a survival benefit through cyclooxygenase inhibition in sepsis.71 Animal studies aimed at elucidating possible benefits of isotype-selective cyclooxygenase inhibition have so far produced conflicting results.72,73

Endothelin-1

Endothelin-1 (ET-1; for an in-depth review of endothelin in sepsis, see Gupta et al74) upregulation has been demonstrated within 6 hours of LPS-induced septic shock.75Cardiac overexpression of ET-1 triggers an increase in inflammatory cytokines (among others, TNF-α, IL-1, and IL-6), interstitial inflammatory infiltration, and an inflammatory cardiomyopathy that results in heart failure and death.76 The involvement of ET-1 in septic myocardial dysfunction is supported by the observation that tezosentan, a dual endothelin-A and endothelin-B receptor antagonist, improved cardiac index, stroke volume index, and left ventricular stroke work index in endotoxemic shock.77 However, higher doses of tezosentan exhibited cardiotoxic effects and led to increased mortality.77Although ET-1 has been demonstrated to be of pathophysiological importance in a wide array of cardiac diseases through autocrine, endocrine, or paracrine effects, its biosynthesis, receptor-mediated signaling, and functional consequences in septic myocardial dysfunction warrant further investigation to assess the therapeutic potential of ET-1 receptor antagonists.

Nitric Oxide

NO exerts a plethora of biological effects in the cardiovascular system.78 It has been shown to modulate cardiac function under physiological and a multitude of pathophysiological conditions. In healthy volunteers, low-dose NO increases LV function, whereas inhibition of endogenous NO release by intravenous infusion of the NO synthase (NOS) inhibitor NG-monomethyl-L-arginine reduced the stroke volume index.79 Higher doses of NO have been shown to induce contractile dysfunction by depressing myocardial energy generation.80 The absence of the important NO scavenger myoglobin (Mb) in Mb knockout mice results in impaired cardiac function that is partially reversible by NOS inhibition.81 Endogenous NO contributes to hibernation in response to myocardial ischemia by reducing oxygen consumption and preserving calcium sensitivity and contractile function.82 NO also represents a potent modulator of myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury. However, as in sepsis-related NO research, the reported effects of NO on ischemia/reperfusion injury are inconsistent owing to a multitude of confounding experimental factors.83

Sepsis leads to the expression of inducible NOS (iNOS) in the myocardium,84,85 followed by high-level NO production, which in turn importantly contributes to myocardial dysfunction, in part through the generation of cytotoxic peroxynitrite, a product of NO and superoxide (for an excellent review, see Pacher et al86). In iNOS-deficient mice, cardiac function is preserved after endotoxin challenge.87 Nonspecific NOS inhibition restores cardiac output and stroke volume after LPS injection.88 Strikingly, in septic patients, infusion of methylene blue, a nonspecific NOS inhibitor, improves mean arterial pressure, stroke volume, and left ventricular stroke work and decreases the requirement for inotropic support but, unfortunately, does not alter outcome.89 An interesting study comparing the inhibition of NO superoxide and peroxynitrite in cytokine-induced myocardial contractile failure found peroxynitrite to indeed be the most promising therapeutic target.90 It has also been proposed that the constitutively expressed mitochondrial isoform of NOS (mtNOS), the expression of which can be augmented by induction, controls rates of oxidative phosphorylation by inhibiting various steps of the respiratory chain.91 Although this hypothesis would provide a plausible explanation for the reduced coronary oxygen extraction observed during sepsis (see above), the effects of sepsis on expression of mtNOS and NO generation remain to be explored. Furthermore, the constitutively expressed endothelial NOS (eNOS), previously neglected in the context of sepsis, has been shown to be an important regulator of iNOS expression, resulting in a more stable hemodynamic status in eNOS-deficient mice after endotoxemia.92 Very recently, a functional NOS in red blood cells (rbcNOS) was identified that regulates deformability of erythrocyte membranes and inhibits activation of platelets.93 With both effect targets thus far demonstrated for rbcNOS lying at the core of microvascular dysfunction in sepsis, this discovery opens a whole new window to NO-related sepsis research. Given the existence of different NOS isoforms and their various modulating interactions, dose-dependent NO effects, and the precise balance of NO, superoxide, and thus peroxynitrite generated in subcellular compartments, further advances in our understanding of the complex NO biology and its derived reactive nitrogen species hold the promise of revealing new, more specific and effective therapeutic targets.

Adhesion Molecules

Surface-expression upregulation of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 has been demonstrated in murine coronary endothelium and cardiomyocytes after LPS and TNF-α stimulation.94 After cecal ligation and double puncture, myocardial intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression increases in rats.95Vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 blockade with antibodies has been shown to prevent myocardial dysfunction and decrease myocardial neutrophil accumulation,94,96 whereas both knockout and antibody blockade of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 ameliorate myocardial dysfunction in endotoxemia without affecting neutrophil accumulation.94 In addition, neutrophil depletion does not protect against septic cardiomyopathy, which suggests that the cardiotoxic potential of neutrophils infiltrating the myocardium is of lesser importance in this context.94 Other aspects of adhesion molecules are discussed in conjunction with possible statin effects below.

The e-Reader is advised to consider the following expansion on the subject matter carrying the discussion to additional related clinical issues:

Advanced Topics in Sepsis and the Cardiovascular System at its End Stage

Author: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/18/advanced-topics-in-sepsis-and-the-cardiovascular-system-at-its-end-stage/

Therapeutic Approaches: The Present and the Future

A detailed discussion of therapeutic options in septic patients would clearly be beyond the scope of this review, and readers are kindly referred to the multiple excellent reviews published on the subject (eg, Hotchkiss and Karl,2 Annane et al,4 and Dellinger et al97). Although a number of preventive measures, such as prophylactic antibiotics, maintenance of normoglycemia, selective digestive tract decontamination, vaccines, and intravenous immunoglobulin, have shown benefit in distinct patient populations, preventive strategies with a broader aim remain elusive. Once sepsis is manifest (see the Table for criteria), prompt and adequate antibiotic therapy accompanied by surgical removal of the infectious focus, if indicated and feasible, is the mainstay and also the only strictly causal line of therapy. In the presence of severe sepsis and septic shock, supportive treatment in addition to causal therapy is mandatory. Supportive therapy encompasses early and goal-directed fluid resuscitation,9 vasopressor and inotropic therapy, red blood cell transfusion, mechanical ventilation, and renal support when indicated. It is very likely beneficial to monitor cardiac performance in these patients. A wide array of techniques are available for this purpose, ranging from echocardiography to pulmonary catheters, thermodilution techniques, and pulse pressure analysis.98 Because none of these techniques have demonstrated superiority, physicians should use the method with which they are most familiar. Whichever method is chosen, it should be applied frequently to tailor supportive therapy to the individual patient and to achieve the “gold standard” of early goal-directed therapy. In recent years, several attempts have been made to therapeutically address myocardial dysfunction in sepsis. Although the combination of norepinephrine as vasopressor and dobutamine as inotropic agent is probably the most frequently applied in septic shock, there is currently no evidence to recommend one catecholamine over the other.97 In human endotoxemia, epinephrine has been demonstrated to inhibit proinflammatory pathways and coagulation activation, as well as to augment antiinflammatory pathways,99,100 whereas no immunomodulatory or coagulant effects could be demonstrated for dobutamine in a similar setting.101 Isoproterenol has recently been applied successfully in a small group of patients with septic shock, no known history of CAD, and inappropriate mixed venous oxygen concentration despite correction of hypoxemia and anemia.102 In a cecal ligation and double-puncture model of sepsis, the β-blocker esmolol given continuously after sepsis induction improved myocardial oxygen utilization and attenuated myocardial dysfunction,103 which suggests that therapeutic strategies proven in ischemic heart failure might also hold promise in septic cardiomyopathy. However, the optimal mode of β-receptor stimulation (or indeed inhibition) to limit myocardial dysfunction remains a wide-open field for inspired investigation.

Given the generally accepted view of sepsis as a disease largely propelled by an inappropriate immune response, numerous basic research and clinical trials have been undertaken to curb the lethal toll of sepsis through modulation of this uncontrolled immune response.2,3 To date, activated protein C104 and low-dose hydrocortisone105 have emerged as the only inflammation-modulating substances that have been confirmed to be of benefit in patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. Over the past years, increasing evidence has accumulated that suggests that inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase, or statins, have therapeutic benefits independent of cholesterol lowering, termed “pleiotropic” effects. These have added a wide scope of potential targets for statin therapy that range from decreasing renal function loss106 and lowering mortality in patients with diastolic heart failure107 to prevention and treatment of stroke,108 to name just a few. These pleiotropic effects include antiinflammatory and antioxidative properties, improvement of endothelial function, and increased NO bioavailability and thus might contribute to the benefit observed with statin therapy. Notably, these important immunomodulatory effects of statins have been demonstrated to be independent of lipid lowering109 and appear to be mediated via interference with the synthesis of mevalonate metabolites (nonsteroidal isoprenoid products). Blockade of the mevalonate pathway has been shown to suppress T-cell responses,110 reduce expression of class II major histocompatibility complexes on antigen presenting cells,109 and inhibit chemokine synthesis in peripheral blood mononuclear cells.111 Furthermore, CD11b integrin expression and CD11b-dependent adhesion of monocytes have been found to be attenuated by the initiation of statin treatment in hypercholesterolemic patients.112 In this context, Yoshida et al113 have reported that statins reduce the expression of both monocytic and endothelial adhesion molecules, eg, the integrin leukocyte function-associated antigen-1 (LFA-1), via an inhibition of Rho GTPases, in particular their membrane anchoring by geranylation. In addition, mechanisms for antiinflammatory actions of statins have been revealed that are not related to the isoprenoid metabolism. For instance, Weitz-Schmidt et al114 have identified that some statins act as direct antagonists of LFA-1 owing to their capacity to bind to the regulatory site in the LFA-1 i-domain. In addition to these multifaceted antiinflammatory effects, statins may interfere with activation of the coagulation cascade, as illustrated by the suppression of LPS-induced monocyte tissue factor in vitro.115 Beyond their immunomodulatory functions, statins have been shown to exert direct antichlamydial effects during pulmonary infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae in mice,116 and a recent report suggests the benefit of statins may also extend to viral pathogens.117

Given the strong impact of statins on inflammation, statins might represent a welcome enforcement in the battle against severe infectious diseases such as sepsis. Consequently, several investigators have evaluated the role of statins in the prevention and treatment of sepsis. In a retrospective analysis, Liappis et al118 demonstrated a reduced overall and attributable mortality in patients with bacteremia who were treated concomitantly with statins. Pretreatment with simvastatin has been shown to profoundly improve survival in a polymicrobial murine model of sepsis by preservation of cardiovascular function and inhibition of inflammatory alterations.19 Encouraged by these findings, the same model was used to successfully treat sepsis in a clinically feasible fashion, ie, treatment was initiated several hours after the onset of sepsis. With different statins (atorvastatin, pravastatin, and simvastatin) being effective, the therapeutic potential of statins in sepsis appears to be a class effect.22 Recently, Steiner et al119observed that pretreatment with simvastatin can suppress the inflammatory response induced by LPS in healthy human volunteers. Furthermore, in a prospective observational cohort study in patients with acute bacterial infections performed by Almog et al,120previous treatment with statins was associated with a considerably reduced rate of severe sepsis and intensive care unit admissions. A total of 361 patients were enrolled in that study, and 82 of these patients had been treated with statins for at least 4 weeks before their admission. Severe sepsis developed in 19% of patients in the no-statin group compared with only 2.4% in patients who were taking statins. The intensive care unit admission rates were 12.2% for the no-statin group and 3.7% for the statin group. Because of the number of patients enrolled, the study was not powered to detect differences in mortality, although the large effect on sepsis rate and intensive care unit admission were at least suggestive. As the most recent development in this field, Hackam et al121 have produced an impressive observational study by initial evaluation of 141 487 cardiovascular patients, which resulted in a well-paired and homogenous study cohort of 69 168 patients after propensity-based matching. Drawing from this solid base, Hackam and coauthors were able to support the conclusion that statin therapy is associated with a considerably decreased rate of sepsis (hazard ratio, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.72 to 0.90), severe sepsis (hazard ratio, 0.83; 95% CI, 0.70 to 0.97), and fatal sepsis (hazard ratio, 0.75; 95% CI, 0.61 to 0.93). This protective effect prevailed at both high and low statin doses and for several clinically important subpopulations, such as diabetic and heart failure patients.

As has been suggested previously,122 statins might provide cumulative benefit by reducing mortality from cardiovascular and infectious diseases such as sepsis. However, statins may have detrimental effects in distinct subsets of patients. Therefore, caution should prevail, and the use of statins in patients with sepsis must be accompanied by meticulous monitoring of unexpected side effects and well-designed randomized, controlled clinical trials.

Beyond an apparent rationale for randomized trials on statins in sepsis, it is notable that the results with other immunomodulatory approaches in sepsis have yielded rather limited success. For instance, use of the anti-TNF antibody F(ab′)2 fragment afelimomab led to a significant but rather modest reduction in risk of death and to improved organ-failure scores in patients with severe sepsis and elevated IL-6 levels.123 Moreover, a selective inhibitor of group IIA secretory phospholipase A2 failed to improve clinical outcome for patients with severe sepsis, with a negative trend most pronounced among patients with cardiovascular failure.124 Hence, because none of the available strategies proven to be effective in sepsis are designed specifically to target myocardial dysfunction, one might conclude that strategies that preferentially address cardiac morbidity in sepsis may be a promising area for investigation. For instance, lipoteichoic acid, a major virulence factor in Gram-positive sepsis, causes cardiac depression by activating myocardial TNF-α synthesis via CD14 and induces coronary vascular disturbances by activating thromboxane 2 synthesis. It thus contributes to cardiac depression and may therefore be a worthwhile and cardiac-specific target.125 The implications of intensified efforts in the search for successful novel approaches to the treatment of myocardial dysfunction in sepsis may be considerable with regard to improved patient care that results in reduced mortality. This is of major significance in view of the substantial economic consequences of increasing sepsis morbidity in an aging population.

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Circulation.2007; 116: 793-802doi: 10.1161/​CIRCULATIONAHA.106.678359

Other articles on Sepsis published on this Open Access Online Scientific Journal, include the following:

Advanced Topics in Sepsis and the Cardiovascular System at its End Stage

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/18/advanced-topics-in-sepsis-and-the-cardiovascular-system-at-its-end-stage/

Nitric Oxide and Sepsis, Hemodynamic Collapse, and the Search for Therapeutic Options

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/20/nitric-oxide-and-sepsis-hemodynamic-collapse-and-the-search-for-therapeutic-options/

Sepsis, Multi-organ Dysfunction Syndrome, and Septic Shock: A Conundrum of Signaling Pathways Cascading Out of Control

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/13/sepsis-multi-organ-dysfunction-syndrome-and-septic-shock-a-conundrum-of-signaling-pathways-cascading-out-of-control/

Automated Inferential Diagnosis of SIRS, sepsis, septic shock

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/01/automated-inferential-diagnosis-of-sirs-sepsis-septic-shock/

The role of biomarkers in the diagnosis of sepsis and patient management

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/07/28/the-role-of-biomarkers-in-the-diagnosis-of-sepsis-and-patient-management/

Bernstein, HL, Pearlman, JD and A. Lev-Ari  Alternative Designs for the Human Artificial Heart: The Patients in Heart Failure – Outcomes of Transplant (donor)/Implantation (artificial) and Monitoring Technologies for the Transplant/Implant Patient in the Community

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/05/alternative-designs-for-the-human-artificial-heart-the-patients-in-heart-failure-outcomes-of-transplant-donorimplantation-artificial-and-monitoring-technologies-for-the-transplantimplant-pat/

Pearlman, JD and A. Lev-Ari 7/22/2013 Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy (CRT) to Arrhythmias: Pacemaker/Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator (ICD) Insertion

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/22/cardiac-resynchronization-therapy-crt-to-arrhythmias-pacemakerimplantable-cardioverter-defibrillator-icd-insertion/

Lev-Ari, A. 7/19/2013 3D Cardiovascular Theater – Hybrid Cath Lab/OR Suite, Hybrid Surgery, Complications Post PCI and Repeat Sternotomy

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/19/3d-cardiovascular-theater-hybrid-cath-labor-suite-hybrid-surgery-complications-post-pci-and-repeat-sternotomy/

Pearlman, JD and A. Lev-Ari 7/17/2013 Emerging Clinical Applications for Cardiac CT: Plaque Characterization, SPECT Functionality, Angiogram’s and Non-Invasive FFR

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/17/emerging-clinical-applications-for-cardiac-ct-plaque-characterization-spect-functionality-angiograms-and-non-invasive-ffr/

Lev-Ari, A. 7/14/2013 Vascular Surgery: International, Multispecialty Position Statement on Carotid Stenting, 2013 and Contributions of a Vascular Surgeon at Peak Career – Richard Paul Cambria, MD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/14/vascular-surgery-position-statement-in-2013-and-contributions-of-a-vascular-surgeon-at-peak-career-richard-paul-cambria-md-chief-division-of-vascular-and-endovascular-surgery-co-director-thoracic/

Lev-Ari, A. 7/9/2013 Heart Transplant (HT) Indication for Heart Failure (HF): Procedure Outcomes and Research on HF, HT @ Two Nation’s Leading HF & HT Centers

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/09/research-programs-george-m-linda-h-kaufman-center-for-heart-failure-cleveland-clinic/

Lev-Ari, A. 7/8/2013 Becoming a Cardiothoracic Surgeon: An Emerging Profile in the Surgery Theater and through Scientific Publications 

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/08/becoming-a-cardiothoracic-surgeon-an-emerging-profile-in-the-surgery-theater-and-through-scientific-publications/

Pearlman, JD and A. Lev-Ari  7/4/2013 Fractional Flow Reserve (FFR) & Instantaneous wave-free ratio (iFR): An Evaluation of Catheterization Lab Tools (Software Validation) for Ischemic Assessment (Diagnostics) – Change in Paradigm: The RIGHT vessel not ALL vessels

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/04/fractional-flow-reserve-ffr-instantaneous-wave-free-rario-ifr-an-evaluation-of-catheterization-lab-tools-for-ischemic-assessment/

Lev-Ari, A. 7/1/22013 Endovascular Lower-extremity Revascularization Effectiveness: Vascular Surgeons (VSs), Interventional Cardiologists (ICs) and Interventional Radiologists (IRs)

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/01/endovascular-lower-extremity-revascularization-effectiveness-vascular-surgeons-vss-interventional-cardiologists-ics-and-interventional-radiologists-irs/

Lev-Ari, A. 6/10/2013 No Early Symptoms – An Aortic Aneurysm Before It Ruptures – Is There A Way To Know If I Have it?

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/06/10/no-early-symptoms-an-aortic-aneurysm-before-it-ruptures-is-there-a-way-to-know-if-i-have-it/

Lev-Ari, A. 6/9/2013 Congenital Heart Disease (CHD) at Birth and into Adulthood: The Role of Spontaneous Mutations

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/06/09/congenital-heart-disease-at-birth-and-into-adulthood-the-role-of-spontaneous-mutations-the-genes-and-the-pathways/

Lev-Ari, A. 6/3/2013 Clinical Indications for Use of Inhaled Nitric Oxide (iNO) in the Adult Patient Market: Clinical Outcomes after Use, Therapy Demand and Cost of Care

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/06/03/clinical-indications-for-use-of-inhaled-nitric-oxide-ino-in-the-adult-patient-market-clinical-outcomes-after-use-therapy-demand-and-cost-of-care/

Lev-Ari, A. 6/2/2013 Inhaled Nitric Oxide in Adults: Clinical Trials and Meta Analysis Studies – Recent Findings

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/06/02/inhaled-nitric-oxide-in-adults-with-acute-respiratory-distress-syndrome/

Pearlman, JD and A. Lev-Ari 5/24/2013 Imaging Biomarker for Arterial Stiffness: Pathways in Pharmacotherapy for Hypertension and Hypercholesterolemia Management

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/24/imaging-biomarker-for-arterial-stiffness-pathways-in-pharmacotherapy-for-hypertension-and-hypercholesterolemia-management/

Pearlman, JD and A. Lev-Ari 5/22/2013 Acute and Chronic Myocardial Infarction: Quantification of Myocardial Perfusion Viability – FDG-PET/MRI vs. MRI or PET alone

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/22/acute-and-chronic-myocardial-infarction-quantification-of-myocardial-viability-fdg-petmri-vs-mri-or-pet-alone/

Lev-Ari, A. 5/17/2013 Synthetic Biology: On Advanced Genome Interpretation for Gene Variants and Pathways: What is the Genetic Base of Atherosclerosis and Loss of Arterial Elasticity with Aging

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/17/synthetic-biology-on-advanced-genome-interpretation-for-gene-variants-and-pathways-what-is-the-genetic-base-of-atherosclerosis-and-loss-of-arterial-elasticity-with-aging/

Justin D Pearlman, HL Bernstein and A. Lev-Ari 5/15/2013 Diagnosis of Cardiovascular Disease, Treatment and Prevention: Current & Predicted Cost of Care and the Promise of Individualized Medicine Using Clinical Decision Support Systems

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/15/diagnosis-of-cardiovascular-disease-treatment-and-prevention-current-predicted-cost-of-care-and-the-promise-of-individualized-medicine-using-clinical-decision-support-systems-2/

Pearlman, JD and A. Lev-Ari 5/11/2013 Hypertension and Vascular Compliance: 2013 Thought Frontier – An Arterial Elasticity Focus

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/11/arterial-elasticity-in-quest-for-a-drug-stabilizer-isolated-systolic-hypertension-caused-by-arterial-stiffening-ineffectively-treated-by-vasodilatation-antihypertensives/

Pearlman, JD and A. Lev-Ari 5/7/2013 On Devices and On Algorithms: Arrhythmia after Cardiac Surgery Prediction and ECG Prediction of Paroxysmal Atrial Fibrillation Onset

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Pearlman, JD and A. Lev-Ari 5/4/2013 Cardiovascular Diseases: Decision Support Systems for Disease Management Decision Making

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/04/cardiovascular-diseases-decision-support-systems-for-disease-management-decision-making/

Lev-Ari, A. 5/3/2013 Gene, Meis1, Regulates the Heart’s Ability to Regenerate after Injuries.

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/03/gene-meis1-regulates-the-hearts-ability-to-regenerate-after-injuries/

Lev-Ari, A. 4/30/2013 Prostacyclin and Nitric Oxide: Adventures in Vascular Biology – A Tale of Two Mediators

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/30/prostacyclin-and-nitric-oxide-adventures-in-vascular-biology-a-tale-of-two-mediators/

Lev-Ari, A. 4/28/2013 Genetics of Conduction Disease: Atrioventricular (AV) Conduction Disease (block): Gene Mutations – Transcription, Excitability, and Energy Homeostasis

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Lev-Ari, A. 4/25/2013 Economic Toll of Heart Failure in the US: Forecasting the Impact of Heart Failure in the United States – A Policy Statement From the American Heart Association

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/25/economic-toll-of-heart-failure-in-the-us-forecasting-the-impact-of-heart-failure-in-the-united-states-a-policy-statement-from-the-american-heart-association/

Lev-Ari, A. 4/24/2013 Harnessing New Players in Atherosclerosis to Treat Heart Disease

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/25/harnessing-new-players-in-atherosclerosis-to-treat-heart-disease/

Lev-Ari, A. 4/25/2013 Revascularization: PCI, Prior History of PCI vs CABG

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/25/revascularization-pci-prior-history-of-pci-vs-cabg/

Lev-Ari, A. 4/7/2013 Cholesteryl Ester Transfer Protein (CETP) Inhibitor: Potential of Anacetrapib to treat Atherosclerosis and CAD

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/07/cholesteryl-ester-transfer-protein-cetp-inhibitor-potential-of-anacetrapib-to-treat-atherosclerosis-and-cad/

Lev-Ari, A. 4/4/2013 Hypertriglyceridemia concurrent Hyperlipidemia: Vertical Density Gradient Ultracentrifugation a Better Test to Prevent Undertreatment of High-Risk Cardiac Patients

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/04/hypertriglyceridemia-concurrent-hyperlipidemia-vertical-density-gradient-ultracentrifugation-a-better-test-to-prevent-undertreatment-of-high-risk-cardiac-patients/

Lev-Ari, A. 4/3/2013 Fight against Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease: A Biologics not a Small Molecule – Recombinant Human lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (rhLCAT) attracted AstraZeneca to acquire AlphaCore

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/03/fight-against-atherosclerotic-cardiovascular-disease-a-biologics-not-a-small-molecule-recombinant-human-lecithin-cholesterol-acyltransferase-rhlcat-attracted-astrazeneca-to-acquire-alphacore/

Lev-Ari, A. 3/31/2013 High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL): An Independent Predictor of Endothelial Function & Atherosclerosis, A Modulator, An Agonist, A Biomarker for Cardiovascular Risk

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/31/high-density-lipoprotein-hdl-an-independent-predictor-of-endothelial-function-artherosclerosis-a-modulator-an-agonist-a-biomarker-for-cardiovascular-risk/

Lev-Ari, A. 3/10/2013 Acute Chest Pain/ER Admission: Three Emerging Alternatives to Angiography and PCI

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/10/acute-chest-painer-admission-three-emerging-alternatives-to-angiography-and-pci/

Lev-Ari, A. and L H Bernstein 3/7/2013 Genomics & Genetics of Cardiovascular Disease Diagnoses: A Literature Survey of AHA’s Circulation Cardiovascular Genetics, 3/2010 – 3/2013

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/07/genomics-genetics-of-cardiovascular-disease-diagnoses-a-literature-survey-of-ahas-circulation-cardiovascular-genetics-32010-32013/

Lev-Ari, A. 2/28/2013 The Heart: Vasculature Protection – A Concept-based Pharmacological Therapy including THYMOSIN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/02/28/the-heart-vasculature-protection-a-concept-based-pharmacological-therapy-including-thymosin/

Lev-Ari, A. 2/27/2013 Arteriogenesis and Cardiac Repair: Two Biomaterials – Injectable Thymosin beta4 and Myocardial Matrix Hydrogel

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/02/27/arteriogenesis-and-cardiac-repair-two-biomaterials-injectable-thymosin-beta4-and-myocardial-matrix-hydrogel/

Lev-Ari, A. 12/29/2012. Coronary artery disease in symptomatic patients referred for coronary angiography: Predicted by Serum Protein Profiles

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/29/coronary-artery-disease-in-symptomatic-patients-referred-for-coronary-angiography-predicted-by-serum-protein-profiles/

Bernstein, HL and Lev-Ari, A. 11/28/2012. Special Considerations in Blood Lipoproteins, Viscosity, Assessment and Treatment

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/28/special-considerations-in-blood-lipoproteins-viscosity-assessment-and-treatment/

Lev-Ari, A. 11/13/2012 Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR-gamma) Receptors Activation: PPARγ transrepression for Angiogenesis in Cardiovascular Disease and PPARγ transactivation for Treatment of Diabetes

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/13/peroxisome-proliferator-activated-receptor-ppar-gamma-receptors-activation-pparγ-transrepression-for-angiogenesis-in-cardiovascular-disease-and-pparγ-transactivation-for-treatment-of-dia/

Lev-Ari, A. 10/19/2012 Clinical Trials Results for Endothelin System: Pathophysiological role in Chronic Heart Failure, Acute Coronary Syndromes and MI – Marker of Disease Severity or Genetic Determination?

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/19/clinical-trials-results-for-endothelin-system-pathophysiological-role-in-chronic-heart-failure-acute-coronary-syndromes-and-mi-marker-of-disease-severity-or-genetic-determination/

Lev-Ari, A. 10/4/2012 Endothelin Receptors in Cardiovascular Diseases: The Role of eNOS Stimulation

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/04/endothelin-receptors-in-cardiovascular-diseases-the-role-of-enos-stimulation/

Lev-Ari, A. 10/4/2012 Inhibition of ET-1, ETA and ETA-ETB, Induction of NO production, stimulation of eNOS and Treatment Regime with PPAR-gamma agonists (TZD): cEPCs Endogenous Augmentation for Cardiovascular Risk Reduction – A Bibliography

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/04/inhibition-of-et-1-eta-and-eta-etb-induction-of-no-production-and-stimulation-of-enos-and-treatment-regime-with-ppar-gamma-agonists-tzd-cepcs-endogenous-augmentation-for-cardiovascular-risk-reduc/

Lev-Ari, A. 8/29/2012 Positioning a Therapeutic Concept for Endogenous Augmentation of cEPCs — Therapeutic Indications for Macrovascular Disease: Coronary, Cerebrovascular and Peripheral

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/29/positioning-a-therapeutic-concept-for-endogenous-augmentation-of-cepcs-therapeutic-indications-for-macrovascular-disease-coronary-cerebrovascular-and-peripheral/

Lev-Ari, A. 8/28/2012 Cardiovascular Outcomes: Function of circulating Endothelial Progenitor Cells (cEPCs): Exploring Pharmaco-therapy targeted at Endogenous Augmentation of cEPCs

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/28/cardiovascular-outcomes-function-of-circulating-endothelial-progenitor-cells-cepcs-exploring-pharmaco-therapy-targeted-at-endogenous-augmentation-of-cepcs/

Lev-Ari, A. 8/27/2012 Endothelial Dysfunction, Diminished Availability of cEPCs, Increasing CVD Risk for Macrovascular Disease – Therapeutic Potential of cEPCs

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/27/endothelial-dysfunction-diminished-availability-of-cepcs-increasing-cvd-risk-for-macrovascular-disease-therapeutic-potential-of-cepcs/

Lev-Ari, A. 8/24/2012 Vascular Medicine and Biology: CLASSIFICATION OF FAST ACTING THERAPY FOR PATIENTS AT HIGH RISK FOR MACROVASCULAR EVENTS Macrovascular Disease – Therapeutic Potential of cEPCs

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/24/vascular-medicine-and-biology-classification-of-fast-acting-therapy-for-patients-at-high-risk-for-macrovascular-events-macrovascular-disease-therapeutic-potential-of-cepcs/

Lev-Ari, A. 7/19/2012 Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) and the Role of agent alternatives in endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase (eNOS) Activation and Nitric Oxide Production

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/07/19/cardiovascular-disease-cvd-and-the-role-of-agent-alternatives-in-endothelial-nitric-oxide-synthase-enos-activation-and-nitric-oxide-production/

Lev-Ari, A. 4/30/2012 Resident-cell-based Therapy in Human Ischaemic Heart Disease: Evolution in the PROMISE of Thymosin beta4 for Cardiac Repair

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/04/30/93/

Lev-Ari, A. 5/29/2012 Triple Antihypertensive Combination Therapy Significantly Lowers Blood Pressure in Hard-to-Treat Patients with Hypertension and Diabetes

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/05/29/445/

Lev-Ari, A. 7/2/2012 Macrovascular Disease – Therapeutic Potential of cEPCs: Reduction Methods for CV Risk

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/07/02/macrovascular-disease-therapeutic-potential-of-cepcs-reduction-methods-for-cv-risk/

 

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Hybrid Cath Lab/OR Suite’s da Vinci Surgical Robot of Intuitive Surgical gets FDA Warning Letter on Robot Track Record

Posted in Aortic Valve: TAVR, TAVI vs Open Heart Surgery, Mitral Valve: Repair and Replacement, PCI, Peripheral Arterial Disease & Peripheral Vascular Surgery, tagged , , , on July 19, 2013| 1 Comment »

Reporter: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

 

The technology functionality of da Vinci Surgical Robot of Intuitive Surgical is described in

3D Cardiovascular Theater – Hybrid Cath Lab/OR Suite, HybridSurgery, Complications Post PCI and Repeat Sternotomy

 

FDA Letter for Inspection dates 04/01/2013 – 05/30/2013

Observation 1:

A correction or removal, conducted to reduce a risk to health posed by a device, was not reported in writing to FDA.

Observation 2:

Illnesses or injuries that have occurred with use of devices subject to corrections or removals have not been reported

Observation 3:

Procedures for design change have not been adequately established.

Observation 4:

Design input requirements were not adequately documented.

http://assets.fiercemarkets.com/public/lifesciences/intuitive483new.pdf

Intuitive Surgical Declines on Warning Letter From FDA

By Robert Langreth – Jul 19, 2013 4:07 PM ET
BSIP/UIG via Getty Images
At the Lyon Hospital in France, they use a surgical robotic system called Da Vinci Surgical System, made by Intuitive Surgical, designed to facilitate complex surgery using a minimally invasive approach.

Intuitive Surgical Inc. (ISRG), the robot surgery company, has lost about $7 billion in value over five months after disclosures about adverse events with its products, a recent recall and, now, a regulatory warning it hasn’t adequately reported on issues concerning the devices.

In February, Bloomberg News reported that the FDA was surveying surgeons on the robots following a rise in reports that included as many as 70 deaths since 2009. A review of Food and Drug Administration records now shows the reports of injuries involving robot procedures have doubled in the first six months of 2013, compared with a year earlier.

On July 8, the Sunnyvale, California-based company reported that sales slowed for its robots in the second quarter, and four days later Intuitive said that 30 of its devices were recalled because they may not have been properly tested. Yesterday’s announcement, coming after the close of trading, prompted JMP Securities LLC to cut its rating on Intuitive to market underperform with a target of $275, a drop from yesterday’s closing price of $421.27.

“We see little reason to own shares at the current levels,” J.T. Haresco, a San Francisco-based analyst at JMP Securities, said today in a note to investors.

Intuitive’s shares fell 6.8 percent to $392.67 at the close in New York after Chief Executive Officer Gary Guthart yesterday advised investors about the July 17 warning in a conference call. The company has lost 32 percent of its market value, or about $7 billion, since Feb. 27, the day before Bloomberg News reported that the FDA was surveying surgeons about the safety of its robot products.

FDA Inspections

FDA inspections in April and May found the most recent deficiencies, according to a report dated May 30. Guthart said the agency is asking for additional steps to resolve two of the observations in the inspection report.

“We believe these issues are addressable and will continue to work with the FDA to ensure this is resolved to their satisfaction,” Angela Wonson, a company spokeswoman, said in an e-mail after the call.

Safety and cost effectiveness of the company’s da Vinci robot devices have been under scrutiny since the disclosure that the FDA was studying how the robot surgeons were being used.

“Rates of adverse events have remained low and in line with historical trends,” Wonson said today in an e-mail.

Robot Use

The robots, in more than 1,300 U.S. hospitals, cost $1.5 million each and were used in 367,000 U.S. procedures in 2012. They are the company’s primary product and have been the subject of negligence lawsuits alleging that patients were injured during surgeries. Cancer surgery, hysterectomies and gall bladder removals are among the procedures conducted with the robot.

Yesterday, Calvin Darling, the company’s senior director of finance, said 2013 revenue is expected to range from unchanged to an increase of 7 percent from 2012. Intuitive in Januaryforecast annual sales growth of 16 percent to 19 percent and in April said it expected the higher end of the range.

“The company will survive but maybe not as-is,” said Erik Gordon, a business professor at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. “The pounding down of the share price is fresh bait for activist investors like Carl Icahn and for strategic acquirers. The warning letter puts a dent in the reputation of a company that had once been viewed as a shiny new Porsche.

‘‘They enjoyed some easier, boom years when doctors and patients were awed by the thought of surgical robotics turning surgeons into super-surgeons,’’ Gordon said in an e-mail today. ‘‘Now, the people who pay for the surgery are stepping in and questioning whether the robots are worth the extra cost.’’

‘Money-Losing’

With more changes approaching from the Affordable Care Act, community hospitals are likely to reconsider whether it makes sense to do ‘‘money-losing procedures’’ on the pricey robot, Suraj Kalia, an analyst for Northland Securities, wrote today in a report to clients. In particular, using the robot for simple gall bladder surgeries is ‘‘prohibitively expensive,’’ he wrote.

Intuitive’s forecasts suggests new installations of the expensive robot in the U.S. are ‘‘hitting a brick wall,’’ Kalia wrote.

JMP’s Haresco also questioned the company’s future, saying that more use of personalized medicine will make it easier for physicians to tailor medical therapy and treat patients conservatively, that insurers will continue to drive procedures to outpatient settings, limiting the need for robotics, and that recent declines in benign hysterectomy appear to be the start of a long-term decline.

‘Outright Invalid’

‘‘While we still believe that robotic surgery will play a central role in the delivery of medicine, we also believe that some of the underlying assumptions that define the market potential are questionable, if not outright invalid,” Haresco said today in his note.

One of the two issues Intuitive has been asked to respond to by the agency in its warning letter is the observation that some device corrections hadn’t been adequately reported, Wonson said. She couldn’t provide a copy of the agency’s letter.

In the inspection report, FDA officials also said the company didn’t document the need for surgeons to sometimes clean robotic instruments during procedures. Intuitive has received complaints about arcing of energized surgical instruments after some surgeons cleaned off instruments by scraping them against each other during surgery, the agency said.

The scraping “led to tears or holes in protective tip covers that led to arcing that in turn led to injuries to patients,” the agency said in the report.

Intuitive Surgical also yesterday reported second-quarter net income rose 2.7 percent to $159.1 million, or $3.90 a share, from $154.9 million, or $3.75 a share. Revenue gained 7.8 percent to $578.5 million, missing the average of $596 million of 17 analysts’ estimates compiled by Bloomberg.

While sales of instruments and accessories increased 18 percent during the quarter, revenue from systems declined 6 percent, the company said.

To contact the reporter on this story: Robert Langreth in New York at rlangreth@bloomberg.net

To contact the editor responsible for this story: Reg Gale at rgale5@bloomberg.net

http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-07-18/intuitive-surgical-declines-on-warning-letter-from-fda.html

 

 

Intuitive Surgical’s ($ISRG) share price plunged more than 13% in extended trading after the company disclosed July 18 it had received an FDA warning letter, adding to the cracks beginning to form in its da Vinci surgical robot track record.

 

The stock price listed at $363.91 in pre-market trading on July 19, down a whopping 13.6% from its $421.47 closing price at the end of trading on July 18. It had gained a healthy amount at the end of trading, in the wake of Intuitive’s generally positive 2013 second quarter earnings release.

 

But as Bloomberg reports, the company’s stock price went into a spiral after CEO Gary Guthard disclosed Intuitive’s July 17 warning letter during an analyst conference call held late afternoon to discuss second-quarter earnings. Regulators inspected the company in April and May, after which they cited Intuitive for not adequately reporting device corrections to regulators or patient “adverse events.” (Regulators detailed their initial concerns in a Form 483 issued earlier this year, which generally precedes a formal warning letter.) Additionally, the FDA faulted Intuitive for not documenting the need for surgeons using the da Vinci system to sometimes have to scrape instruments against each other during a procedure in order to clean them. This causes arcing and injured some patients, according to FDA concerns detailed in the story.

 

An Intuitive spokeswoman told Bloomberg that the issues cited with the FDA are “addressable” and that the company will continue working with regulators to solve the problem.

 

But investors are watching closely to see if company obstacles become more widespread. As The Wall Street Journal reported before Intuitive’s earning release, some hospitals and surgeons have said they are more heavily scrutinizing their use of da Vinci products in the wake of controversies over their safety and price tag (an average $1.55 million apiece).  Experts are questioning da Vinci’s benefits compared to standard hysterectomy procedures, for example, versus the extra cost of the machine and procedure.

 

Observers predicted that Intuitive’s stock would take major hits if its growth momentum slowed any more, the article noted. The new warning letter against the company pointed to a “growth momentum” risk, and investors reacted accordingly.

 

While 2013 second quarter results are generally good, there are signs of trouble. Sure, second-quarter revenue hit the $579 million mark, up 8% from the $537 million figure generated by the company over the 2012 second quarter. But analysts had expected much higher than this, The Wall Street Journal notes. And net income reached $159 million ($3.90 per diluted share), a moderate rise from $155 million in net revenue a year ago ($3.75 per diluted share).

 

Broken down, it’s more of a mixed bag.

 

Second-quarter systems revenue for 2013 dipped 6% to $216 million, versus $229 million over the same period last year, as the California company sold fewer da Vinci Surgical Systems, a trend it blamed in part on hospitals cutting back their spending. But more da Vinci surgical procedures and greater demand for new products bumped instruments and accessories to $265 million, an 18% jump over $224 million in revenue generated during the 2012 second quarter. Service revenue also enjoyed a double-digit jump, thanks to a greater installed base of the company’s surgical robots.

 

Spencer Nam, an equity analyst at Janney Montgomery Scott, noted to The Wall Street Journal that this was the first time since mid-2009 that Intuitive sold fewer da Vinci systems than it did in the previous year.

 

When Intuitive released its preliminary second-quarter results a week ago, Guthart said in a statement that the company was “disappointed” in its performance during the quarter but remained confident in the value Intuitive’s products offered. Meanwhile, the company’s stock closed July 18 at $421.57, up nearly 1.5%, after some wild fluctuation during the day.

http://www.fiercemedicaldevices.com/story/intuitives-surgical-robot-juggernaut-shows-some-cracks-q2/2013-07-18?utm_medium=nl&utm_source=internal

 

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3D Cardiovascular Theater – Hybrid Cath Lab/OR Suite, Hybrid Surgery, Complications Post PCI and Repeat Sternotomy

Posted in Abdominal Aorta, Aortic Valve: TAVR, TAVI vs Open Heart Surgery, Atherogenic Processes & Pathology, Cardiac & Vascular Repair Tools Subsegment, Cardiac and Cardiovascular Surgical Procedures, Ecosystems & Industrial Concentration in the Medical Device Sector, Frontiers in Cardiology and Cardiovascular Disorders, Interviews with Scientific Leaders, Medical Devices R&D and Inventions, Medical Devices R&D Investment, Medical Imaging Technology, Image Processing/Computing, MRI, CT, Nuclear Medicine, Ultra Sound, Mitral Valve: Repair and Replacement, Origins of Cardiovascular Disease, PCI, Peripheral Arterial Disease & Peripheral Vascular Surgery, Pharmacotherapy of Cardiovascular Disease, Renal Denervation, Stents & Tools, Thoracic Aorta, Valves & Tools, tagged , , , , , , , , on July 19, 2013| 3 Comments »

3D Cardiovascular Theater – Hybrid Cath Lab/OR Suite, Hybrid Surgery, Complications Post PCI and Repeat Sternotomy

Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Article ID #70: Cardiovascular Original Research: Cases in Methodology Design for Content Curation and Co-Curation. Published on 7/19/2013

WordCloud Image Produced by Adam Tubman

This article has THREE Parts: 

Part One:  Hybrid Cath Lab/OR Suite for Hybrid Surgery

Part Two: Cardiac Surgery 

Part Three: Invasive Interventions with Complications

1. Repeat Sternotomy Post CABG and/or Aortic Valve Replacement

2. Complications Post PCI – Pump Catheter in Use

The voice of Series A Content Consultant, Justin D Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC

The leading cause of death and disability from any cause is cardiovascular disease, principally, heart attacks and strokes. Both the heart and brain typically allow only 10 minutes or so of inadequate blood supply before starting a committed course of permanent tissue injury, progressing in severity as time goes by without successful interruption of the disease process. Thus there is great time urgency to get patients to a definitive treatment that can stop the injury and restore adequate nutrient blood supply. Many patients can benefit from a catheterization to identify blockages and insert a small balloon within the blockage to expand the narrow channel, often followed by placement of a stent (wire cage) to maintain the expanded vessel diameter. Chemicals released over time from drug-eluting stents can prevent tissue in growth that may obstruct stents. These emergeny interventions are not always successful. There may be complications from the attempt to access an entry artery, and the blockages may not be amenable to a balloon. When such limitations are encountered, the next chance to help is surgical, with continued time pressure.

The fastest way to make the transition from a diagnostic catheterization to a timely intervention is a hybrid intervention suite that offers non-invasive imaging, catheterization and surgery all in one location. The following articles present the current state of hybrid “do it all” intervention suites. Additional articles address the risks of bad outcomes from such interventions.

Part One 

Hybrid Cath Lab/OR Suite for Hybrid Surgery

In ACC.10 and i2 Summit, 59th Annual Scientific Session, 3/14-3/16, 2010, Alfred A. Bove, M.D., Ph.D., F.A.C.C., ACC President addressed the conference attendees:

Welcome to the all-new Hybrid Cath Lab/OR and 3D CV Theater. Recent developments in cardiac surgery and interventional cardiology have led to the creation of integrated, hybrid cath lab/operating rooms (OR), which provide significant advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of patients requiring cardiac procedures—helping to facilitate a rapid-response approach. These multimodality rooms are designed to support a variety of integrated surgical and endovascular procedures. We are excited to provide you with this opportunity to get a first-hand look—and feel—of the latest technologies. We hope you take the time to explore this interactive, multivendor venue. Learning is at the core of the ACC Annual Scientific Session and we invite you to expand your educational experience in this dynamic learning environment.

In the Hybrid Cath Lab/OR Suite, you’ll discover how integrating cutting edge angiographic and surgical equipment and technologies can facilitate a broad range of procedures within one location. Additionally, you will learn how hybrid suites are providing solutions that enable interventionalists and surgeons to work collaboratively to provide the best treatment options for patients. The adjoining 3D CV Theater features presentations by physicians currently performing intravascular and surgical procedures in hybrid suites. Each live presentation pairs a cardiologist with a surgeon, allowing you to hear perspectives from both sides on a variety of hybrid suite procedures and cases. In addition, the Theater offers video presentations of cases from around the world.

The ACC thanks the supporters of the Hybrid Suite for providing us with the opportunity to share this unique learning destination with you.

http://www.expo.acc.org/acc12/CUSTOM/images/ACC12/ACC.10%20Hybrid%20Suite%20Directory.pdf

Hybrid Cath Lab/OR Suite for Hybrid Surgery

Procedures Performed in a Hybrid Suite

The treatment of cardiovascular diseases has undergone a paradigm shift within the last few years, from

  • open surgery to minimally invasive surgical procedures and from
  • limited percutaneous catheter-based interventions to hybrid interventions for the entire cardiovascular tree.

The Hybrid Suite

are perfect examples of procedures that could, and should, be carried out in a hybrid OR. High-risk patients who require less invasive interventions are the best candidates for treatment in a hybrid suite.

As cardiac surgery becomes less invasive, incisions are becoming smaller and smaller, and even totally endoscopic heart surgery is now possible. Cardiac surgeons have started to perform procedures that include catheter-based skills, such as transapical valve replacement. For these operations, surgeons need more sophisticated imaging techniques, fluoroscopy and contrast injections. The hybrid OR offers all these facilities. Perhaps the most obvious and easiest procedure that can be performed in a hybrid OR is coronary revascularization combining coronary artery bypass grafting with on-table intra-operative completion angiography for quality control. If the surgeon detects a problem during the procedure, he or she can revise the graft immediately and thereby prevent potential perioperative and long-term complications. Currently, cardiologists and cardiovascular surgeons have shown special interest in so-called hybrid coronary interventions, which are combinations of minimally invasive coronary artery bypass grafting and percutaneous coronary interventions. In these procedures, cardiovascular surgeons place a left-internal mammary artery bypass graft to the left-anterior descending artery through small incisions (MIDCAB) or completely endoscopically (TECAB), while any remaining obstructed coronary arteries are treated with stents by an interventional cardiologist. This procedure is an attractive alternative to multivessel open coronary artery bypass grafting. Transcatheter heart-valve replacement and repair are especially suited to a hybrid suite because percutaneous transfemoral and transapical aortic valve repairs include risks that can only be treated successfully by immediate surgical intervention, such as coronary artery obstruction, aortic dissection and aortic perforations.

In addition, endovascular aortic stent grafting for the repair of abdominal aortic aneurysms is a suitable procedure for a hybrid operating room. Endovascular aneurysm repair has become an established alternative to open repair and is increasingly used for thoracic aorta repair as well. Some

  • emergency procedures for traumatic lesions of the thoracic aorta and
  • fulminant pulmonary embolism may also be performed in a hybrid OR. Several
  • pediatric interventions can be carried out in a hybrid suite as well, such as implantation of closure devices for atrial and ventricular septal defects in small children and
  • treatments for hypoplastic left-heart syndrome.

http://www.expo.acc.org/acc12/CUSTOM/images/ACC12/ACC.10%20Hybrid%20Suite%20Directory.pdf

In a recent article we reported on the Change in Requirement for Surgical Support by Cath Labs for performance of Nonemergent PCI without Surgical Backup, that increases the autonomy of Interventional Cardiologists. In the Hybrid OR that change is irrelevant since the presence of a Cardiac Surgeon is a fact of the division of labor between the two types of specialties. Cardiac Surgeons are involved with  percutaneous transfemoral and transapical aortic valve repairs and intervention for endoscopic aorta, AAA and Thoracic AA grafting.

AHA, ACC Change in Requirement for Surgical Support:  Class IIb -> Class III, Level of Evidence A: Supports Nonemergent PCI without Surgical Backup (Change of class IIb, level of Evidence B).

What is a Cardiovascular Hybrid Suite?

Cardiovascular hybrid suite is a state-of-the-art operating room equipped with a fully functional catheterization laboratory, thus allowing surgical procedures and catheter-based interventions to be carried out in the same room. Hybrid suites provide a place where treatments traditionally available only in a cath lab and procedures only available in an operating room can be performed together to provide patients with the best available combination of therapies for cardiovascular disease. These multidisciplinary, integrated cardiovascular procedural suites bring the best of two worlds together by combining all the advantages of a modern cath lab with an up-to-date cardiovascular surgery operating room (OR).

Hybrid suites began to evolve in the mid to late 1990s, when some groups of interventional cardiologists started sharing operating rooms with cardiovascular surgeons. The appeal of the hybrid suite concept has grown as have catheter based devices (stents, coils, balloons and lasers) have been developed that enable interventional cardiologists to advance the invasiveness and effectiveness and applications of percutaneous transcatheter interventions. The interest in these suites has also increased as cardiovascular surgeons have developed a variety of techniques for

  • Minimally invasive procedures, such as minimally invasive direct coronary artery bypass grafting (MIDCAB) or
  • Totally endoscopic coronary artery bypass grafting (TECAB).

With the advent of more tools, interventional cardiologists are becoming more like surgeons, and with less invasive tools, cardiovascular surgeons are becoming more like interventionalists. Rather than separating surgical procedures from interventional procedures performed in traditional operating rooms and cath labs, hybrid suites provide a high-tech environment that allows cardiologists and surgeons to work together to offer patients complex, minimally invasive therapies.

Some experts believe that hybrid suites represent the wave of the future in cardiovascular care and that most heart centers will eventually install hybrid suites to offer patients the latest cardiovascular procedures safely and effectively with minimal surgical trauma. The rooms can be costly to build and equip, but if a medical center is considering building a new operating room or cath lab, setting up a hybrid suite makes sense. Medical centers that have a hybrid suite available can clearly differentiate themselves in a positive way from centers that do not have such capabilities.

The Benefits of a Hybrid Suite for Medical Centers

While building a hybrid suite is more expensive than building a traditional operating room or cath lab, a hybrid suite can potentially be used for all types of cardiovascular procedures, including

  • traditional cardiac and vascular surgery,
  • interventional coronary procedures,
  • endovascular aortic procedures and
  • electrophysiology procedures.

Hybrid suites reinforce the trend in cardiovascular care toward less invasive, comprehensive hybrid procedures. Once a hybrid suite is in place, the demand for its use will likely grow due to increasing indications and referrals for these innovative treatments, many of which are increasingly covered by third-party payers.

http://www.expo.acc.org/acc12/CUSTOM/images/ACC12/ACC.10%20Hybrid%20Suite%20Directory.pdf

What Equipment is Needed?

Interventional cath labs usually have excellent imaging capabilities but lack the sterile facilities and staff needed for a formal OR, while operating rooms frequently lack high-level imaging equipment. Some of the essential equipment for a hybrid suite includes:

• A state-of-the-art imaging system capable of performing 3D rotational angiography, CT scanning, and ultrasound is advantageous. Floor-mounted and ceiling-mounted systems are available, but many hospitals use ceiling-mounted systems because access to the patient is slightly easier. Some ceiling-mounted systems provide 3D imaging from the surgeon’s position perpendicular to the patient. However, some hospitals prefer floor-mounted systems because having mechanical parts running above the operative field may cause dust to fall, resulting in infections. An important aspect is that the C-arm can be parked away when it is not used. This especially enhances access of the anesthesia team to the patient.

• An operating table that meets the needs of both surgeons and interventionalists by electronically integrating the table with the imaging system is also essential. These tables should have retractable rails for retractors and other surgical tools. To perform 3D imaging on the operating table, the C-arm of the imaging system should allow fast and precise rotation around the patient.

• A variety of other surgical and interventional systems and equipment may also be needed, including a robotic surgical system, a heart-lung machine, an image integration system, an endoscopic imaging system, a radiology display system, an audiovisual system to move images to different monitors and an anesthesia monitoring system, including transesophageal echocardiography. Some equipment like the integrated OR table and the angiography unit need to be fixed parts of the hybrid OR. Some equipment will be mobile in order to maintain some flexibility in workflow.

Hybrid1

Hybrid2

Hybrid3

Hybrid4

Hybrid5

Who are the Equipment Vendors?

Philips Healthcare

Phone: 800-934-7372

Email: healthcare@philips.com

Web: http://www.philips.com/healthcare

Philips is one of the world’s leading technology companies, with a long history of practical innovation and visionary design. In healthcare, we are committed to understanding the human and technological needs of patients and caregivers. We believe this understanding will help us deliver solutions that not only enable more confident diagnoses and more efficient delivery of care, but also improve the overall experience of care. We offer equipment, software and services for imaging, patient monitoring, resuscitation and much more.  A Hybrid OR can help make life simpler for the interdisciplinary teams who operate in this environment every day. As a world leader in cardiovascular X-ray, Philips has the experience and expertise to deliver the first class technology you need to perform minimally invasive procedures with speed, accuracy and confidence. A long history of innovation has enabled Philips to develop pioneering imaging solutions that really make a difference.

For example, Philips Allura Xper cardiovascular X-ray systems are designed to deliver enhanced imaging with superb performance for all cardiac projections, and our iE33 ultrasound system with Live 3D TEE and QLAB can assist interventional procedures and provide comprehensive quantitative information to support critical decisions. Our cardiology informatics solutions help you manage patient information throughout the cardiovascular care continuum. Philips solutions allow minimally invasive and catheter-based procedures to take place in the same suite as conventional cardiac surgery.

Phillips EchoNavigator – X-Ray and 3-D Ultrasound is described in:

Minimally Invasive Structural CVD Repairs: FDA grants 510(k) Clearance to Philips’ EchoNavigator – X-ray and 3-D Ultrasound Image Fused.

Intuitive Surgical, Inc. 

da Vinci.Surgery by Intuitive Surgical, Inc. 

Phone: 800-876-1310

Email: info@intusurg.com

Web: http://www.intuitivesurgical.com

Intuitive Surgical, Inc. is the global technology leader in robotic-assisted, minimally invasive surgery. The company’s da Vinci® Surgical System offers breakthrough capabilities that enable cardiac surgeons to use a minimally invasive approach and avoid median sternotomy.

Content of FDA Warning Letter, following  FDA Inspection on dates 04/01/2013 – 05/30/2013 – it discussed in

Hybrid Cath Lab/OR Suite’s da Vinci Surgical Robot of Intuitive Surgical gets FDA Warning Letter on Robot Track Record

 

MAVIG GmbH 

Phone: 631-266-2229,

585-247-1212 ext. 60

Email: info@mavig.com

Web: http://www.mavig.com

MAVIG’s specialty is ceiling/boom suspension systems for lighting (exam, surgical and LED), monitor-suspension systems—single, multibank (one to eight) systems and widescreen, overhead radiation shielding and contrast injector adapters. MAVIG also manufactures radiation protection products such as aprons, gloves, table-attachable lower body shields, adjustable- and fixed-height mobile and modular barriers.

Toshiba America Medical Systems, Inc.

Phone: 714-730-5000

Email: mktgcomm@tams.com

Web: http://www.medical.toshiba.com

Creating a hybrid lab may be complicated, but having an experienced partner that listens makes all the difference. Toshiba’s unique blend of hybrid experience and industry recognized Infinix™-i imaging systems for the Cath Lab.

Hybrid Cath Lab/OR Suite in Leading Hospitals in the US

  • The  Hybrid Cath Lab/OR Suite at New York Presbyterian Hospital/Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY is presented in

Becoming a Cardiothoracic Surgeon: An Emerging Profile in the Surgery Theater and through Scientific Publications

  • The  Hybrid Cath Lab/OR Suite at Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio is presented in

Heart Transplant (HT) Indication for Heart Failure (HF): Procedure Outcomes and Research on HF, HT @ Two Nation’s Leading HF & HT Centers

Speakers at 3D CV Theater, 2010 are working in Hospitals where Hybrid Cath Lab/OR Suite are in operations at the present time. The list include the following Hospitals with a Hybrid Cath Lab/OR Suite:

  • Vanderbilt Medical Center, Nashville, TN
  • University of Maryland Heart Center, Baltimore, MD
  • The Heart Center at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, Ohio
  • The Robotic Surgical Center, East Carolina University Department of Surgery, Greenville, N.C.
  • University of Washington Medicine Regional Heart Center, Seattle, WA
  • Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA
  • Saint Joseph’s Hospital and Peachtree Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery, Atlanta, GA
  • Emory University Hospital, Atlanta, GA
  • Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA
  • Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA
  • Mayo Graduate School of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
  • Lankenau Hospital, Lancaster, PA
  • Cardiac Non-Invasive Laboratory at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA
  • Robotic Surgery at St. Joseph’s Hospital, Atlanta, GA

Speakers at 3D CV Theater, 2010, included the following Cardiovascular Interventionists leading the adoption process of Hybrid Surgery in Hybrid Cath Lab/OR Suite into care modalities for cardiovascular disease:

Johannes O. Bonatti, M.D., is professor of surgery and director of coronary surgery and advanced coronary interventions at the University of Maryland Heart Center, Baltimore. He received his training in general surgery and cardiac surgery at the department of surgery at Innsbruck Medical University in Austria. Prior to his arrival at the University of Maryland, he worked at this institution as an attending surgeon and associate professor. Dr. Bonatti’s main interest is the development of minimally invasive, totally endoscopic coronary artery bypass grafting (TECAB) procedures using robotic technology.

As one of the international leaders in this field, he performed the largest series of robotic TECAB on the arrested heart, including single-, double- and triple-vessel TECAB. He has published significantly on procedure development and the implementation process of completely endoscopic coronary surgery using the da Vinci robotic system. Together with colleagues from interventional cardiology, Dr. Bonatti is working on integrated concepts for treatment of coronary artery disease. He was the first to perform a simultaneous hybrid coronary intervention using TECAB and placement of a coronary stent. He is organizing international meetings on hybrid interventions in cardiovascular medicine (http://www.icrworkshop.com). He has trained heart surgeons from around the world in the use of the da Vinci robot for heart surgery and he has introduced TECAB procedures in Austria, the Czech Republic, Greece, Turkey, India and Australia.

John G. Byrne, M.D., is the William S. Stoney Professor of Cardiac Surgery at Vanderbilt University School of Medicine and chair of the department of cardiac surgery at Vanderbilt Medical Center, Nashville, TN.

Before moving to Vanderbilt, he was associate chief and residency program director in the division of cardiac surgery at Brigham and Women’s Hospital, and associate professor of surgery at Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA. A graduate of the University of California, Davis, he received his medical degree in 1987 from Boston University. His postdoctoral training was completed at the University of Illinois affiliated hospitals and Brigham and Women’s Hospital in Boston.

Dr. Byrne is the author of more than 100 scientific articles on cardiac surgery and related areas. His patient care emphasis is

  • aortic root surgery,
  • coronary artery disease and
  • valve surgery

He is board-certified in general surgery and thoracic surgery.

John P. Cheatham, M.D., is director of cardiac catheterization and interventional therapy and codirector of The Heart Center at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, Ohio. He is also the George H. Dunlap Endowed Chair in Interventional Cardiology and professor of pediatrics and internal medicine at The Ohio State University College of Medicine. Dr. Cheatham’s area of expertise is transcatheter intervention and hybrid therapy of newborns, children and adults with complex congenital heart disease. He has pioneered several new techniques and devices in non-surgical intervention and is a leader in developing hybrid therapies. He has been a principal investigator in numerous FDA-sponsored clinical trials evaluating non-surgical closure devices and stent therapy over the past two decades. Additionally, Dr. Cheatham designed the first hybrid cardiac catheterization suites and advanced imaging equipment at Nationwide Children’s Hospital. He serves as a consultant to various medical companies and proctors new transcatheter techniques and devices to other physicians around the world. Dr. Cheatham has implemented a formal physician exchange program with two of the leading medical institutions in China. In cooperation with China Red Cross, he is also the foreign director of the International Training Center for treatment of congenital heart disease in poor children. Dr. Cheatham has written more than 120 manuscripts, 16 book chapters, 300 national and international presentations and is co-editor of the book, Complications in Percutaneous Interventions for Congenital and Structural Heart Disease. After graduating from the University of Oklahoma College of Medicine, he completed his residency at Boston Children’s Hospital, followed by a fellowship in Pediatric Cardiology at Texas Children’s Hospital in Houston.

W. Randolph Chitwood, Jr., M.D., is senior associate vice chancellor for health sciences and chief of cardiovascular services at East Carolina University Department of Surgery, Greenville, N.C. Dr. Chitwood is a leading international pioneer in minimally invasive and robotic heart surgery. The Robotic Surgical Center at East Carolina University has trained more than 350 surgeons. His research activities relate to myocardial preservation, simulation in surgery and endoscopic/robotic cardiac surgery. He was the principal investigator of the FDA robotic mitral valve trials that led to approval for use in the U.S. He is the son and grandson of “southwestern Virginia mountain doctors” who set the guidelines for his professional life. He graduated from Hampden-Sydney College and received his medical degree from the University of Virginia. After medical school, he completed the surgical residency at Duke University Medical Center under David C. Sabiston, M.D., an influential surgical educator of the era. At Duke he spent 10 years training in general and cardiothoracic surgery, as well as basic science research.

After his chief residency at Duke in 1984, he was selected to begin and head the new cardiac surgery program at the East Carolina University School of Medicine. Because of his prolific publication record as a resident and clinical acumen, his initial appointment was as a full professor of surgery. Except for a two-year hiatus as the chief of cardiothoracic surgery at the University of Kentucky, he has spent his entire career at East Carolina University, where he also served as chairman of the department of surgery. In 2003, he was named to be in charge of the development of the East Carolina Heart Institute, which now includes an integrated department of cardiovascular sciences as well as a $200 million heart hospital, outpatient, research and education center.

Larry S. Dean, M.D., is director of the University of Washington Medicine Regional Heart Center and is professor of medicine and of surgery at the University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle. In addition to general cardiology, he is an expert in cardiac catheterization and interventional cardiology. He also conducts research on stents to keep blocked heart arteries open and on ways to prevent restenosis after stents are inserted. He is currently involved in the evaluation of percutaneous aortic valve replacement. Dr. Dean earned his M.D. from the University of Alabama School of Medicine, Birmingham, and served his internship and residency at the University of Washington. He then returned to the University of Alabama Hospital for fellowships in cardiovascular disease and in angioplasty. After nearly 15 years as a faculty member at the University of Alabama, he returned to the University of Washington to direct the Regional Heart Center. He is a fellow of the American College of Cardiology and is board-certified in internal medicine, cardiovascular disease and interventional cardiology. He is also a fellow of the American Heart Association and president-elect of the Society of Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions.

Andrew Craig Eisenhauer, M.D., is director of the interventional cardiovascular medicine service at Brigham and Women’s Hospital and assistant professor of medicine at Harvard Medical School. His specialties are

  • interventional cardiology,
  • vascular medicine and
  • congenital and inherited diseases.

He earned his medical degree at New York University School of Medicine and served a residency at Peter Bent Brigham Hospital and a fellowship at Massachusetts General Hospital. He is certified in internal medicine, cardiovascular disease and interventional cardiology. His clinical interests are

  • endovascular therapy,
  • complex coronary disease,
  • peripheral vascular disease,
  • cerebrovascular disease,
  • congenital heart disease and structural heart disease

Douglas A. Murphy, M.D., is chief of cardiothoracic surgery at Saint Joseph’s Hospital and a cardiothoracic surgeon at Peachtree Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery, Atlanta. His areas of interest are robotically assisted heart surgery with an emphasis on repairing the mitral valve rather than replacing it. A graduate of the University of Pennsylvania Medical School, Philadelphia, he served an internship and residency at Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, and at Emory University, Atlanta.

Khusrow Niazi, M.D., is an assistant professor at Emory University School of Medicine and director of peripheral and carotid intervention at Emory University Hospital Midtown, Atlanta. He earned his medical degree at King Edward Medical College, Lahore, Pakistan, and served an internship at Kettering Medical Center, Dayton, Ohio, and a fellowship at William Beaumont Hospital, Royal Oak, MI. He has published papers on stenting following rotational atherectomy, small vessel stenting for coronary arteries, imaging of lower extremities and treatment of peripheral arterial disease.

Jeffrey J. Popma, M.D., is director of innovations in interventional cardiology, a senior attending physician at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and an associate professor of medicine at Harvard Medical School in Boston. Dr. Popma received his bachelor’s degree in economics from Stanford University, and his M.D. from Indiana University School of Medicine. He completed his internship, residency, chief residency and fellowship at University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center. He also completed an interventional cardiology fellowship at the University of Michigan. Dr. Popma is the past president of the Society for Cardiac Angiography and Intervention and is the co-chair of the ACC Interventional Council. He sits on the editorial boards of several publications, and reviews for several cardiology periodicals. Dr. Popma has more than 300 published peer-reviewed manuscripts.

Dr. Popma also directs the BIDMC Angiographic Core Laboratory and is principal investigator for more than 65 ongoing multicenter device studies within the research laboratory. Over the past 15 years, these trials have included a broad array of new technology, including bare-metal stents, drug-eluting stents, distal-protection devices, total-occlusion devices and carotid and peripheral revascularization procedures. His primary clinical interest currently is the use of percutaneous aortic valve replacement for patients with high-risk aortic stenosis.

Robert S. Poston, M.D., is chief of cardiac surgery at Boston Medical Center and associate professor of cardiothoracic surgery at Boston University School of Medicine. He has a strong background in minimally invasive cardiac bypass surgery and is a pioneer in using robotics, specifically the da Vinci Surgical System, to treat coronary artery disease. A graduate of the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Dr. Poston completed a residency in general surgery at the University of California, San Francisco, and continued his training with a research fellowship in cardiothoracic surgery at Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, and a cardiothoracic residency at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center.

Charanjit S. Rihal, M.D., is professor of medicine and director of the cardiac catheterization laboratory at Mayo Graduate School of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN. A graduate of the University of Winnipeg, Dr. Rihal did his residency and fellowship at the Mayo Graduate School of Medicine and also earned an MBA at the Carlson School of Management, University of Minnesota. His medical interests are interventional cardiology, structural heart disease interventions and the management of quality and costs in healthcare.

Timothy A. Shapiro, M.D., is director of the Interventional Cardiology Fellowship Program and campus chief, interventional cardiology, at Lankenau Hospital, Lancaster, PA. A graduate of Yale University School of Medicine, he served his residency and a fellowship at the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania.

Robert J. Siegel, M.D., is director of the Cardiac Non-Invasive Laboratory at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, cardiology director of the Cedars-Sinai Marfan Center, and Rexford S. Kennamer, M.D., chair in cardiac ultrasound at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles. Dr. Siegel is also professor of medicine in residence at the David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles. He previously served as senior staff fellow in cardiac pathology at the Heart, Lung and Blood Institute of the National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD. Internationally recognized as one of the leading experts in the field of cardiovascular ultrasound, Dr. Siegel specializes in cardiovascular ultrasound, including transthoracic, transesophageal and intravascular methodologies. His research interests include

  • valvular heart disease,
  • therapeutic applications of ultrasound energy,
  • transesophageal and intraoperative echocardiography, and the
  • development and use of hand-held portable echocardiographic systems for clinical innovations.

In addition, he is involved with clinical research studies related to the diagnosis, assessment and management of patients with

  • Marfan syndrome,
  • hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and
  • pericardial and valvular heart disease.

Dr. Siegel is a fellow, and has previously served as the president of the California Chapter of the American College of Cardiology and president of the Los Angeles Society of Echocardiography. He has been active in numerous cardiovascular societies, including the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology and the American Society of Echocardiography. Dr. Siegel received his medical degree at Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, where he developed an interest in cardiology. He completed his medical residency at Emory University and at Los Angeles County + USC Medical Center. He completed his cardiology fellowship at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center.

Over the last two years Dr. Siegel has worked extensively with live 3D transesophageal echo in the cardiac intervention center and the operating room. He and his echocardiologist colleagues, doctors Shiota, Biner, Tolstrup and Gurudevan, have worked closely at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles with the interventional cardiologists, doctors Kar and Makkar, as well as with the cardiac surgeons, doctors Trento and Fontana. They use live 3D TEE extensively for the assessment of structural heart disease. In addition, it is used on a regular basis for the guidance of percutaneous procedures for mitral valve e-clip repair, mitral balloon valvuloplasty, aortic and pulmonic valve replacement, left atrial appendage exclusion by the Watchman device as well as for ASD closure.

Sudhir P. Srivastava, M.D., president of the International College of Robotic Surgery at St. Joseph’s Hospital, Atlanta, is a pioneer in performing beating heart totally endoscopic coronary artery bypass surgeries. Previously, he was assistant professor of surgery and director of robotic and minimally invasive cardiac surgery at the University of Chicago Medical Center. Dr. Srivastava specializes in robotically assisted totally endoscopic coronary artery bypass surgery. He has performed approximately 1,000 robotic cardiothoracic surgical procedures, of which 450  have been single- and multivessel beating heart totally endoscopic coronary bypass (BH TECAB) procedures. He has keen interest in hybrid coronary revascularization in TECAB patients to achieve complete revascularization.

Dr. Srivastava has helped launch robotic revascularization programs throughout the world. He has performed numerous live BH TECAB demonstrations both in the U.S. and abroad, and continues to be a presenter and invited speaker at numerous national and international scientific meetings. He earned his medical degree at the Jawahar Lal Nehru Medical College in Ajmer, India and immigrated to the U.S. in 1972. He completed his cardiothoracic surgery residency at the hospitals associated with the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.

Francis P. Sutter, D.O., F.A.C.S., is clinical professor of surgery at Thomas Jefferson University-Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, and chief of cardiothoracic surgery at Lankenau Hospital, Main Line Health System, Wynnewood, PA. A graduate of Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine, his surgical residency and a cardiothoracic fellowship were completed at Thomas Jefferson University Hospital.

Mark R. Vesely, M.D., is an assistant professor of medicine at the University of Maryland School of Medicine. He completed medical school at the George Washington University and postgraduate training—an internal medicine residency and fellowships in cardiovascular disease and interventional cardiology—at the University of Maryland. He is board-certified in internal medicine, cardiovascular disease, nuclear cardiology and interventional cardiology. Dr. Vesely is the associate program director of the Interventional Cardiology fellowship at University of Maryland. His special interests include the partnered approach (interventional cardiologists and cardiac surgeons) for hybrid coronary revascularization and structural heart disease interventions. Additional research interests include investigation of techniques to minimize acute myocardial infarction injury with ventricular-assist devices and adult stem cell therapies.

David X. M. Zhao, M.D., Ph.D., is an associate professor of medicine and cardiac surgery, Harry and Shelley Page Chair in Interventional Cardiology, director of the Cardiac Catheterization Laboratories and interventional cardiology director of the Interventional Cardiology Fellowship Training Program, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN. He earned his medical degree at Shanghai Medical University, Shanghai, P.R. China, and his Ph.D. in immunology at Queensland University, Brisbane, Australia. His postdoctoral training was at Zhongshan Hospital, Shanghai Medical University, Shanghai, P.R. China, The Prince Charles Hospital, Brisbane, Australia, and Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston.

http://www.expo.acc.org/acc12/CUSTOM/images/ACC12/ACC.10%20Hybrid%20Suite%20Directory.pdf

Part Two

Cardiac Surgery

 

Cardiac Surgery @ Cleveland Clinic: Traditional OR & Hybrid Cath Lab/OR Suite

Nation #1 for 19 consecutive years – The Heart Center: Miller Family Heart & Vascular Institute @ Cleveland Clinic

The Sydell and Arnold Miller Family Heart & Vascular Institute is one of the largest, most experienced cardiovascular specialty groups in the world. Our physicians are committed to providing the most advanced diagnostic and treatment options, better outcomes and improved quality of life. U.S.News & World Reporthas ranked Cleveland Clinic as the No.1 heart program in America every year since 1995.

Departments & Centers:

Below we present two articles on Cardiac Surgery @ Mayo Clinic 

Cardiac Surgery @ Mayo Clinic: Traditional OR & Hybrid Cath Lab/OR Suite 

Coronary Reperfusion Therapies: CABG vs PCI – Mayo Clinic preprocedure Risk Score (MCRS) for Prediction of in-Hospital Mortality after CABG or PCI

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Comparison of the 10-year and 15-year survivals after CABG demonstrated benefit from a change in graft sources used at the Mayo Clinic and widely adapted by others: vascular grafts from the left internal mammary artery (LIMA) instead of just leg veins, for multiple grafts (up to 3), LIMA-to-LAD plus grafts using LIMA or radial artery vs LIMA/saphenous vein (SV).

CABG Survival in Multivessel Disease Patients: Comparison of Arterial Bypass Grafts vs Saphenous Venous Grafts

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Part Three 

Invasive Interventions with Complications

In the following article we covered multiple etiologies for cardiovascular complications related to invasive interventions: cardiovascular and peripheral arterial or peri- and post- cardiac surgery of the open heart type.

Cardiovascular Complications: Death from Reoperative Sternotomy after prior CABG, MVR, AVR, or Radiation; Complications of PCI; Sepsis from Cardiovascular Interventions

Justin D Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/23/cardiovascular-complications-of-multiple-etiologies-repeat-sternotomy-post-cabg-or-avr-post-pci-pad-endoscopy-andor-resultant-of-systemic-sepsis/

This article covers types of Cardiovascular Complications derived from the following THREE types of assault on the Human body, two related to cardiac invasive interventions, the last due to its systemic nature is taking a fatal Cardiac toll: the Sepsis condition causing cardiac failure.

Three types of Cardiovascular Complications:

I. Risk of Injury During Repeat Sternotomy – following CABG orAortic Valve Replacement, both done in Open Heart Surgery

II. Complications After Percutaneous Coronary intervention (PCI) and endovascular surgery for Peripheral Artery Disease (PAD)

  • (a) Post PCI, and
  • (b) PAD Endovascular Interventions: Carotid Artery Endarterectomy

III. Cardiac Failure During Systemic Sepsis

This article does NOT cover the following two types of Cardiovascular Complications:

1. Trauma Injury causing cardiac arrest, lung collapse or cardiogenic shock

2. Surgical Complication of Non-cardiac surgery type causing cardiac arrest, i.e, Surgery of Joint Replacement causing sepsis causing death or death caused by complications of surgery i.e., blood loss, viral infection, emboli, thrombus, stroke, or cardiogenic shock not related to Cardiovascular and Cardiac invasive interventions

The e-Reader is advised to consider the following expansion on the subject matter carrying the discussion to additional related clinical issues:

Larry H Bernstein, Advanced Topics in Sepsis and the Cardiovascular System at its End Stage

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/18/advanced-topics-in-sepsis-and-the-cardiovascular-system-at-its-end-stage/

Bernstein, HL, Pearlman, JD and A. Lev-Ari  Alternative Designs for the Human Artificial Heart: The Patients in Heart Failure – Outcomes of Transplant (donor)/Implantation (artificial) and Monitoring Technologies for the Transplant/Implant Patient in the Community

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/08/05/alternative-designs-for-the-human-artificial-heart-the-patients-in-heart-failure-outcomes-of-transplant-donorimplantation-artificial-and-monitoring-technologies-for-the-transplantimplant-pat/

Pearlman, JD and A. Lev-Ari Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy (CRT) to Arrhythmias: Pacemaker/Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator (ICD) Insertion

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/22/cardiac-resynchronization-therapy-crt-to-arrhythmias-pacemakerimplantable-cardioverter-defibrillator-icd-insertion/

Read Full Post »

Emerging Clinical Applications for Cardiac CT: Plaque Characterization, SPECT Functionality, Angiogram’s and Non-Invasive FFR

Posted in Atherogenic Processes & Pathology, FDA Regulatory Affairs, Frontiers in Cardiology and Cardiovascular Disorders, Interviews with Scientific Leaders, ISO 10993 for Product Registration: FDA & CE Mark for Development of Medical Devices and Diagnostics, Medical Devices R&D Investment, Medical Imaging Technology, Image Processing/Computing, MRI, CT, Nuclear Medicine, Ultra Sound, Origins of Cardiovascular Disease, PCI, Regulated Clinical Trials: Design, Methods, Components and IRB related issues, Technology Transfer: Biotech and Pharmaceutical, tagged , , , , , , on July 17, 2013| 2 Comments »

Emerging Clinical Applications for Cardiac CT: Plaque Characterization, SPECT Functionality, Angiogram’s and Non-Invasive FFR

Author, and Content Consultant to e-SERIES A: Cardiovascular Diseases: Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC

and

Article Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Article ID #69: Emerging Clinical Applications for Cardiac CT: Plaque Characterization, SPECT Functionality, Angiogram’s and Non-Invasive FFR. Published on 7/17/2013

WordCloud Image Produced by Adam Tubman

 

UPDATED on 7/25, 2018

VIDEOS | CT ANGIOGRAPHY (CTA) | JULY 19, 2018

VIDEO: Using FFR-CT in Everyday Practice

Kavitha Chinnaiyan, M.D., FACC, FSCCT, associate professor, Oakland University, William Beaumont School of Medicine, Royal Oak, Mich. She presented at the Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography (SCCT) 2018 meeting.

VIEW VIDEO 

https://www.dicardiology.com/videos/video-using-ffr-ct-everyday-practice?eid=333021707&bid=2184627

Related FFR-CT Content:

Clinical Applications of FFR-CT

VIDEO: Implementation and the Science Behind FFR-CT — interview with James Min, M.D.

VIDEO: Early U.S. Experience With FFR-CT in Evaluating ED Chest Pain Presentation — interview with Simon Dixon, M.D.

VIDEO: Status of FFR-CT Adoption in the United States — interview with Campbell Rogers, M.D.

ASNC | JULY 25, 2018
VIDEO: American Society of Nuclear Cardiology (ASNC) Celebrates 25 Years

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY (CT) | JULY 25, 2018
VIDEO: Tips and Tricks to Aid Cardiac CT Technologist Workflow

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY (CT) | JULY 23, 2018
VIDEO: Cardiovascular CT Educational Initiatives by SCCT

CT ANGIOGRAPHY (CTA) | JULY 19, 2018
VIDEO: Using FFR-CT in Everyday Practice

JULY 18, 2018
VIDEO: Applications of Spectral CT

CT ANGIOGRAPHY (CTA) | JULY 18, 2018
VIDEO: The State of CT Myocardial Perfusion Imaging

HEART VALVE TECHNOLOGY | JULY 18, 2018
VIDEO: The Essentials of CT Transcatheter Valve Imaging

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY (CT) | JULY 17, 2018
VIDEO: Will CT-FFR Replace Diagnostic Angiograms?
SOURCE

Clinical studies of coronary anatomy by computed tomography use equipment with various numbers of concurrent slices through the heart: 1, 4, 16, 32, 64, 128, and recently 256 or more. Like interventional catheterization, iodine is injected to make the inside of the coronary arteries opaque to xray transmission, to create contrast (otherwise the xray of the coronary tree would be like a photograph of a white polar bear in a snow storm; the contrast acts like spray paint). Computed tomographic angiography (CTA) uses a similar or higher dye load than catheterization, and provides generally lower imaging quality than catheterization but with 3-dimensional reconstruction instead of flat projection (hundreds of linear views at different angles versus one or two image planes at a time). The results from CTA are generally deemed qualitative: whther or not there are potentially flow-limiting lesions in the major branch arteries that supply the heart (with exception: the posterior descending artery to the inferior wall of the heart is not reliably seen). Catheter-based projection coronary angiography sees smaller branches with finer ability to measure the degree of lumen narrowing. However, other imaging methods show greater promise in identifying plaque character. The following examines initial enthusiasm for improvements in CTA which offer better results compared to current clinical CTA and hope to offer advantages over catheter-based methods beyond the avoidance of catheters.

I. Cardiac CT Challenging Functionality of SPECT and Angiogram

Noninvasive computed tomography (CT) perfusion imaging added to CT angiography accurately identifies flow-limiting coronary lesions that need to be treated, results of the CORE320 trial show.

Dr João AC Lima (Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD) presented results of the 381-patient, 16-center trial, which showed that stress CT myocardial perfusion analysis (CTP) significantly improves the diagnostic power of rest CT angiography (CTA) alone. The study also showed that the CTA+CTP strategy has about the same power to identify patients who need revascularization within 30 days as the current standard strategy of invasive angiography plus a single photon-emission computed tomography (SPECT) myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) test.

Lima explained that the potential advantage of the CT-based approach is that it can obtain information on myocardial perfusion and coronary flow in two scans about 10 minutes apart and is noninvasive.

All patients in the study had been referred for an invasive angiogram to investigate suspected or known coronary artery disease (CAD), but all patients underwent a rest CTA, stress CTP, and SPECT-MPI test in addition to the invasive angiogram. Invasive angiography alone identified apparently obstructive coronary disease in 59% of patients, but adding the SPECT-MPI information reduced that number to 38%.

The accuracy of the CTA+CTP approach was measured as the area under the receiver-operating-characteristic curve. When 50% greater stenosis on invasive angiography was set as the reference standard for a flow-limiting stenosis, the accuracy of the CTA+CTP approach for detecting flow-limiting CAD was 0.87 on a per-patient basis. When the standard was >70% stenosis, the accuracy of the CTA+CTP approach was 0.89.

 

 VIEW VIDEO on CORE320 with Dr João Lima
Flow Limiting Lesion (low perfusion) vs. Anatomic Stenosis Severity
SOURCES

II. FFR-CT

Results of the Diagnosis of Ischemia-Causing Stenoses Obtained via Noninvasive Fractional Flow Reserve (DISCOVER FLOW) study show that the coronary stenoses that cause ischemia can be identified noninvasively with computer analysis of coronary computed tomography angiograms (CCTAs) [1].

“I think it’s a potential game-changer, because for the first time you have the ability to look at coronary stenosis and ischemia simultaneously, [and] you have the ability to pinpoint the lesion that is causing the ischemia,” DISCOVER FLOW senior investigator Dr James Min (Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA) told heartwire. “You can imagine a scenario where somebody has an abnormal stress test and then you go in and you do an angiogram and see four or five stenoses, but you don’t really know which one caused the ischemia.” But this new “virtual fractional flow reserve” process—or FFRCT—can quantify the fractional flow reserve for each lesion with the data taken from a CCTA, thereby revealing which stenoses are causing ischemia and ought to be treated, as well as which stenoses do not need to be treated. “We’ve never before had this one-stop shop to . . . pinpoint the lesions that cause the ischemia noninvasively.”

As reported by heartwire at EuroPCR 2011, in DISCOVER FLOW, Dr Bon-Kwon Koo (Seoul National University Hospital, Korea) and colleagues used computation of FFRCT to assess 159 vessels in 103 patients undergoing CCTA. Results of the study are published in the November 1, 2011 issue of the Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

All of the patients also underwent invasive CCTA and invasive catheter FFR imaging. Ischemia was defined as an FFR of <0.80 and anatomically obstructive coronary disease was defined as stenosis >50% as measured on the CCTA scan. The diagnostic performance of FFRCT and CCTA were assessed against invasive FFR as the reference standard. Of the patients in the study, 56% had at least one vessel with an FFR of <0.80.

Because only about half of stenoses over 50% actually cause ischemia, the specificity of traditional assessment of a stenosis by CCTA is below 50%. “The concern there is that you identify some high-grade stenoses that are angiographically confirmed, but the lesions don’t actually cause ischemia.” Fractional flow reserve measures how much of the blood flow is being blocked by a lesion, so it is about 25% more accurate than traditional CCTA at picking out lesions that cause ischemia, Min explained.

Per vessel diagnostic accuracy FFRCT and CCTA (reference for both was invasive FFR) 

Imaging technology Accuracy(%) Sensitivity(%) Specificity(%) Positive predictive value (%) Negative predictive value (%)
FFRCTa  84.3 87.9 82.2 73.9 92.2
CCTAb 58.5 91.4 39.6 46.5 88.9

a. Ischemic defined as <0.80

b. Ischemia defined as stenosis >50%

FFRCT can assess stenoses from any CCTA scan—prospectively gated or retrospectively gated—without any additional imaging techniques or changes to the acquisition parameters. Just as computational fluid dynamics can predict the behavior of an airplane wing under different environmental parameters, FFRCT can measure the flow of blood through a stenotic coronary based on the specific geometry of the patient’s coronaries and myocardium.

At the American Heart Association meeting in Orlando next month, Min will present results of a substudy from DISCOVER FLOW looking specifically at intermediate-grade stenoses (40%-69%), which present the most difficult treatment decisions. “If somebody sees a 90% stenosis or 10% stenosis, they are comfortable with what to do with that. But when you hit that 40% to 70% range—it’s possible that those lesions are ischemic, but you don’t know until you actually assess them,” Min said.

DISCOVER FLOW was designed to evaluate the accuracy of FFRCT on a per-vessel basis, but the more important demonstration of its value will be its ability to guide treatment decisions for each patient. TheDEFACTO trial, which finished enrollment at 17 centers about three weeks ago, is evaluating FFRCT per patient. “That’s the big one,” Min said. “DEFACTO will be the pivotal trial.” Specifically, the 285-patient DEFACTO trial is assessing the ability of CCTA plus FFRCT to determine the presence or absence of at least one hemodynamically significant coronary stenosis in each trial subject. Invasive catheter FFR is the reference standard. Min expects that study to be completed in the first quarter of 2012.

http://www.theheart.org/article/1299631.do

SOURCES

III. Ten Emerging Uses for Cardiac CT from SCCT 2013

July 11-14, 2013
Palais des congrès
Montréal, Québec, Canada

JULY 16, 2013  – heartwire

Dr Matthew Budoff (Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute, CA), a longtime researcher in the use of cardiac CT, described what he believes to be the most important uses for CT today [1].

First, CT angiography is emerging as “a single tool that gives us [information about] function and anatomy,” he told the audience.

Second, it is now known that patients are more likely to have a cardiovascular event if they have low-attenuation plaque (soft plaque), positive remodeling, and spotty calcification, he explained. If a clinician were limited to looking only at plaque or stenosis, he would advise him or her to “just read the CTA for plaque and plaque characteristics and [don’t] read it for stenosis severity, and you’ll probably serve your patients better in predicting risk” of a cardiovascular event. “I think in future we’re going to be using plaque characterization in every case,” he added. “I certainly don’t advocate stenting these patients [who have vulnerable plaque] yet, but . . . I do treat these patients more aggressively.”

Third, coronary CT angiography is a noninvasive way to identify complex aortic-valve geometry and guide TAVR.

“With perfusion imaging, TAVR, and plaque assessment leading the way, the increased utilization of CTA is certain,” Budoff concluded. “However, more validation work is needed to ensure that industry and payers accept these applications.”

Speaking to heartwire, Budoff singled out TAVR as “an easy launching point for doctors to get familiar with” CT angiography. He also believes that using CT for “heart-failure assessment or even plaque assessment . . . will really add value to their practice.” CT also allows clinicians to “start getting a handle on what’s causing stenosis [in a patient], what it looks like, and . . . how severe the stenosis is.”

In a separate presentation [2], Dr James K Min (Cedars-Sinai, Los Angeles, CA) identified the same three clinical applications as Budoff in his “top 10 things to watch” in coronary CT in the coming year. He identified his “up-and-coming areas to watch” in the following order:

  • Dual-energy CT scanners. This hardware, when combined with new software, is producing enhanced image quality that allows, for example, a “plaque biopsy,” which provides detailed information about plaque characteristics.
  • Myocardial CT perfusion. “We’ve looked at this for seven years, and I think it’s starting to become ready for prime time,” said Min. In the next year, he expects investigators to figure out exactly how to use CT to look at coronary flow reserve.
  • Computational fluid dynamics. Exciting work is being done, for example, using a virtual stent to see how a real stent would potentially resolve a patient’s ischemia.
  • Plaque. Coronary CT can do more than identify how many vessels are blocked, he said, echoing Budoff’s words. It is enabling investigators to study the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. “We’re going to be able to identify plaque characteristics beyond stenosis for the prediction of acute MI,” Min said.
  • Structural heart disease. CT is already being used to help guide TAVR to reduce postsurgery complications.
  • Radiation-dose reduction. Min weighed in and said, “I think it’s becoming a nonissue.” He noted that during the past year, investigators reported how coronary CT angiography can be used with radiation doses as low as 0.01 mSv, (should be 1mSv) whereas a screening mammogram exposes a woman to 0.05 mSv of radiation. (1/5 of mammography)
  • Contrast-agent reduction.”I think we will see improvements—we will get to the 10-cc scan,” Min predicted.
  • Appropriate-use criteria. Physicians are continuing to identify which patients benefit from cardiac CT, as the technology is advancing.
  • Two trials. Among the many ongoing trials in the field, Min identified two to watch. The PROMISEstudy is comparing functional vs anatomic testing to identify heart disease. The Coronary Computed Tomographic Angiography for Selective Cardiac Catheterization (CONSERVE) trial is looking at using CT as a “gatekeeper” to the cath lab, to identify which patients should be sent for invasive coronary angiography and which ones have only have mild stenosis and could be sent home and treated with medical therapy .
  • Worldwide growth in CT. Collaboration with investigators around the world is growing, and the SCCT meetings next year in Hawaii and China will offer more opportunities for this.
Budoff has received research/grant support from HeartFlow, study funding from Wakunaga of America and GE Healthcare and has been a consultant and speaker for GE Healthcare. Min has received research/grant support fromGE Healthcare, Phillips Healthcare, and Vital Images and study funding from Astellas. He has been a consultant for GE Healthcare and Arineta and on the speaker’s bureau for GE Healthcare. He holds equity interest in TC3 and MDXX.

Sources

  1. Budoff MJ. Emerging Clinical applications for cardiac CT. Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography 2013 Annual Scientific Meeting; July 12, 2013; Montreal, QC.
  2. Min JK. The future of cardiac CT. What will the next 12 months bring? Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography 2013 Annual Scientific Meeting; July 12, 2013; Montreal, QC.

Related links

SOURCE

http://www.theheart.org/article/1561163.do?utm_medium=email&utm_source=20130717_heartwire&utm_campaign=newsletter

IV. Stress CT Perfusion matches SPECT for detecting Myocardial Ischemia

Montreal, QC – In stress testing using regadenoson (Lexiscan, Astellas), detection rates of myocardial ischemia were similar with less invasive computed-tomography (CT) perfusion imaging compared with the reference method, single-photon-emission CT (SPECT) imaging, in a phase 2 trial [1].

JULY 18, 2013 

Regadenoson, a selective adenosine-receptor agonist that produces coronary vasodilation in patients unable to undergo exercise stress testing, is the most common agent used to induce pharmaceutical stress in SPECT tests in the US; it was used off-label for the CT imaging.

Dr Ricardo C Cury (Baptist Hospital of Miami, FL) presented the trial results here at a late-breaking clinical-trials session at the Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography (SCCT) 2013 Scientific Meeting.

To heartwire, Cury noted that this trial established noninferiority of regadenoson stress CT perfusion to the reference method, regadenoson SPECT, to detect or exclude myocardial ischemia, which was the primary study outcome.

“This is the second multicenter trial validating [regadenoson] stress CT perfusion, which [builds on the accumulating supporting data from] many single-center studies,” he said, adding that it is still too early, however, to implement these findings into clinical practice.

To heartwire, session moderator Dr John Hoe (Parkway Health Radiology, Singapore) commented that “this is quite an important multicenter trial . . . and the results look very good.” Echoing Cury, he added that “this [research] is slowly [progressing] along the path to validate [regadenoson] CT perfusion as a technique to assess myocardial ischemia.”

In study, 39% of patients had suspected CAD

This was a crossover study conducted at 11 sites in the US, using six types of CT scanners, including 64-, 128-, 256-, and 320-slice machines.

A total of 124 individuals with known (39%) or suspected CAD were randomized to either rest and stress SPECT using regadenoson on day 1, followed by rest and combined stress CT perfusion using regadenoson and coronary CT angiography on day 2; or the same tests in the reverse order.

At baseline, the subjects had a mean age of about 62 and an average body-mass index (BMI) of close to 30. Their average heart rate increased from 64 to 84 beats per minute with the stress-CT perfusion test.

Myocardial ischemia was defined as having two or more reversible defects.

High agreement, specificity, and sensitivity

When it came to detecting myocardial ischemia, CT perfusion imaging agreed with the findings of the reference method, SPECT, 87% of the time (95% CI 0.77-0.97).

“This was well above the specified primary end point for the agreement rate between SPECT and CT perfusion for the detection of ischemia,” Cury said.

Stress CT perfusion imaging also had a high specificity (84%) and sensitivity (90%) for detecting or excluding myocardial ischemia.

Similarly, when it came to detecting the presence or absence of one or more fixed myocardial defects, CT perfusion imaging agreed with the results of the reference method, SPECT, 86% of the time (95% CI 0.74-0.98).

Again, stress CT perfusion imaging had a high specificity (95%) and sensitivity (77%) for detecting or excluding fixed defects.

Used alone, compared with the reference standard of SPECT, stress CT perfusion diagnosed or excluded ischemia accurately in 85% of cases, whereas CT angiography alone made the correct diagnosis in 69% of cases. Thus, “stress CT perfusion may add significant [diagnostic] value to CT angiography alone,” Cury noted.

Regadenoson was well tolerated, and the most common adverse events were flushing or headache.

The study was funded by Astellas. Cury is a consultant for Astellas and has received research grants from Astellas and GE Healthcare. Hoe has received grant and research support and travel funding from Toshiba Medical Systems and is on its speaker’s bureau. 

SOURCE

http://www.theheart.org/article/1561685.do

V. New Protocol Limits Use Of SPECT MPI For Angina

Article Date: 07 May 2013 – 1:00 PDT

A new stress test protocol that investigates reducing the use of perfusion imaging in low risk patients undergoing SPECT myocardial perfusion imaging for possible anginasymptoms was found to be diagnostically safe, revealed a US retrospective analysis. The study, reported as an abstract¹ at the International Conference on Nuclear Cardiology and Cardiac CT (ICNC11) May 5 to May 8 in Berlin, Germany, predicted that using exercise ECG stress testing alone in patients with high exercise capacity would have had no adverse effects on their prognosis at five years.

“Our results are reassuring in that there are few patients whose diagnosis of coronary artery disease (CAD) would be missed,” said Milena Henzlova, the first author of the study. “Not only would widespread adoption of this approach reduce radiation exposure, it would also save considerable amounts of time and money.”

Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) has been used for over 30 years to detect ischemia in patients with suspected CAD. In SPECT MPI patients are injected with radioactive agents (such as Tc-99m or Thallium 201) whose passage through the heart is viewed with a SPECT camera. By comparing the heart’s blood flow at rest and during stress (patients exercise on a treadmill, cycle ergometers or undergo pharmacological stress with vasodilators or dobutamine), cardiologists can determine if the myocardium receives sufficient blood supply, as well as the location and extent of underlying CAD.

“Because it’s non invasive and many patients with a chest pain syndrome don’t have coronary disease, SPECT MPI is often viewed as a ‘gate keeper’ to coronary angiography,” explained Lane Duvall, an investigator in the study.

While SPECT MPI represents a well established technique, the main disadvantage is that patients are exposed to diagnostic levels of radiation. In recent years intensive efforts have been made to reduce ionizing radiation associated with cardiac imaging due to concerns that it damages DNA in cells and may ultimately give rise to cancer. Indeed, extrapolating data from the survivors of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombs, Andrew Einstein, from Columbia University Medical Center, New York, has estimated that the low levels of radiation encountered during medical imaging might lead to a 2% excess relative risk for future cancers.

Other studies have suggested that exercise treadmill testing alone may be sufficient to predict CVD outcome without use of SPECT MPI in low risk patients. In 2011, Bourque and colleagues from the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, reported that patients who exercise at >10 metabolic equivalents (METS), [the unit used to estimate the amount of oxygen used by the body during physical activity] during stress testing had a very low prevalence of significant ischemia and very low rates of cardiac events during follow-up².

The advantage of exercise treadmill testing is that it offers a quicker study that involves no radiation exposure, with prognostic information provided via a variety of treadmill scores, most notably the Duke Treadmill score. “This has led to investigators questioning the added value of SPECT MPI over exercise testing alone. There’s growing recognition that patients need to be treated as individuals and that those in whom the CVD risks are considered negligible shouldn’t be undergoing the risks of radiation exposure,” said Duvall.

In the current abstract, Henzlova, Duvall and colleagues, from the Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, US, set out to investigate retrospectively if a provisional injection protocol in which patients where they met certain criteria were converted to exercise treadmill tests without imaging maintained diagnostic accuracy and prognostic ability. For the retrospective study, data was reviewed from a total of 24,689 patients who had undergone SPECT MPI between February 2004 and June 2010. After exclusion of patients older than 65 years of age, who had known CAD and uninterruptable resting ECGs, 5,352 subjects were identified for analysis.

Subjects were divided into those who would have met all the criteria for not undergoing SPECT MPI (the No injection group n= 1,561 [29.2%]) and those who met the criteria for undergoing SPECT MPI (the Yes injection group, n=3,791, [70.8%]). For the study the criteria laid down for patients considered eligible for not undergoing SPECT MPI included achieving a maximal predicted heart rate >85%, > 10 METs of exercise, no symptoms of chest pain or significant shortness of breath during stress, and no ECG changes (ST depression or arrhythmia). Outcomes for the two groups at five years were then compared based on their actual myocardial perfusion imaging results and all-cause mortality that had been retrospectively identified from the National Death Index.

At a mean follow-up of 60.6 months, 1.1% of patients had died in the No-injection cohort compared to 2.2% Yes injection cohort (P=.01). Furthermore perfusion results were abnormal in 5.9% of the No injection group compared to 14.4% in the Yes injection group (P<.0001). The risk adjusted survival at the end of the follow up was 98.8% in the No injection group compared to 97.2% for patients found to have normal perfusion in the Yes injection group (P=0.009).

“Withholding isotope injections in these selected patients was found to be diagnostically safe with a small percentage of ‘missed’ abnormal perfusion studies, a very low rate of significant stress perfusion defects and left ventricular ischemia, and a prognosis which was better than their counterparts who were injected with the isotope,” said Duvall.

Eliminating the need for imaging in 6% of the 9 million SPECT MPI studies performed annually in the US, the authors added, would result in significant cost savings and the total test time would be halved from three hours to roughly one hour. “There’s a need to accept that less can be more. By individualizing therapy we can reduce radiation exposure and costs without jeopardizing the quality, the diagnostic utility or missing something important,” said Henzlova. 

REFERENCES
1. M Henzlova, EJ Levine, S Moonthungal, et al. A protocol for the provisional use of perfusion imaging with exercise stress testing. Abstract no 70123.
2. Bourque JM, Charlton GT, Holland BH, et al. Prognosis in patients achieving >10 METS on exercise stress testing: was SPECT imaging useful? J Nucl Cardiol 2011, 2 230-7.
European Society of Cardiology
SOURCE

VI. Contemporary Stress Echo good for Risk Stratification in Chest-Pain Units

12/20/2012, Lisa Nainggolan

London, UK – Doctors in a London chest-pain unit have shown that employing contemporary stress echocardiography in patients with suspected acute coronary syndrome (ACS) but normal ECG and negative troponin is a successful approach for risk stratification [1].

Stress echo is feasible and safe and allows early triage and rapid discharge of patients, plus it is a good predictor of hard events, say Dr Benoy N Shah (Royal Brompton Hospital, London, UK) and colleagues in their paper published online December 18, 2012 in Circulation: Cardiovascular Imaging. Those with an abnormal stress echo had a 13- to15-fold increased risk of MI or death compared with those who had a normal stress echo, they report.

“Stress echo is a very effective gatekeeper for patients undergoing further risk stratification,” senior author Dr Roxy Senior (Royal Brompton Hospital) told heartwire. “It helps select patients for coronary angiography [those with a positive stress echo] and allows immediate discharge of those patients with a negative result.”

Stress echo is perceived to be a technique that is difficult, but that is a misconception.

But Senior says his chest-pain unit is the only one in the UK using this approach. “It is perceived to be a technique that is difficult, but that is a misconception. We have nine stress-echo operators, and it’s easy to train people. With contemporary techniques, which employ contrast in around 50% of cases, the images are quite clear and quick and easy to interpret. It’s very user-friendly. We want to show people around the world that it’s a very doable technique, so why don’t you use it?”

Stress echo also compares favorably with other tests used or proposed for risk stratification of such patients, he says. Exercise ECG is perhaps the most basic technique, “and we have shown that the downstream costs are lower with stress echo than with exercise ECG,” given that the latter provides such equivocal results [2], he explained. And with regard to other imaging modalities that have been employed in this way, computed tomography coronary angiography (CTCA) and single-photon-emission computed tomography (SPECT) require the use of ionizing radiation and have other drawbacks, he notes.

Nevertheless, he and his colleagues say that further, multicenter studies comparing stress echo with CTCA, SPECT, and other imaging techniques for this purpose “will help determine the most cost-effective means of investigating this acute patient population.”

Stress echo performed within 24 hours of admission

Shah and colleagues say that after they showed in 2007 that stress echo was more cost-effective than exercise ECG, they have been employing the former in day-to-day practice in their unit to assess patients who come in with severe chest pain, but whose troponin is negative at 12 hours and whose ECG is “nondiagnostic” (ie, does not suggest any abnormality or shows only minor changes).

The current study is a retrospective look at the patients they have seen so far and is the first evaluation of the clinical impact of incorporating stress echo in a real-world chest-pain unit for the assessment of both short- and long-term prediction of hard events, they say.

“This was sort of an audit; we wanted to know, ‘Is this right? Or are we overcalling it?’ ” Senior explains.

He says the stress echos are performed, for the most part, “within 24 hours” of admission to the chest-pain unit, from 9 am-5 pm Monday to Friday. Those admitted on a weekend will wait slightly longer for a stress echo, he acknowledged. The stress echo is performed on a treadmill if the patient is capable of exercise; if not, a pharmacological stress test is performed using dobutamine. Approximately 30% of the patients in this study performed the test on a treadmill, Senior noted.

Results of the stress echo are available quickly and, if negative, the patient is discharged immediately. If they are positive, the patient is investigated further.

Event rate much higher for those with a positive stress echo

In the study, 839 consecutive patients were assessed; 802 were available for follow-up. Approximately 75% of them had a normal stress echo and were discharged.

“The 30-day readmission rate for all patients was extremely low,” Senior notes, but for those with a negative stress echo it was exceedingly low (at 0.3% compared with 1.1% for those with an abnormal stress echo).

A normal stress echo carried a 99.7% event-free survival for death and 99.5% event-free survival for all hard events in the first year of follow-up; these event rates increased 15-fold and 13-fold respectively if the stress echo was abnormal.

There were 15 “hard” events, 0.5% in the normal stress echo group and 6.6% in the abnormal stress echo group in the first year. At two years, 2.3% of those in the normal stress echo group had died or had a nonfatal MI compared with 9.6% in the stress echo abnormal group, and at three years these figures were 5.1% and 21.1%, respectively. The median follow-up for the study was 27 months.

“For the patients who had a positive stress echo, the event rate was much higher,” Senior notes. Of these 184 patients, 98 had ischemia and most of these underwent coronary angiography, with 57 demonstrating flow-limiting coronary artery disease and 30 subsequently undergoing revascularization.

Among all prognostic variables, only abnormal stress echo (hazard ratio 4.08) and advancing age (HR 1.78) predicted hard events in multivariable regression analysis.

Stress echo should be much more widely used in chest-pain units

“This study demonstrates the excellent feasibility and safety of stress echo in a real-world chest-pain-unit setting, with rapid early triaging and discharge and accurate risk stratification,” the researchers say.

“The two most important outcomes for patients reassured and discharged from the emergency department are that they do not suffer early mortality or early readmission with the same complaint. Our study highlights the excellent negative predictive value of stress echo and very low 30-day readmission rate.”

In addition, the results show that stress echo “appropriately influences the use of coronary angiography and subsequent revascularization” and overall support the wider use of this technique in chest-pain units, they conclude.

Senior has previously received consultancy fees from Lantheus Medical. The coauthors report they have no conflicts of interest.
REFERENCES

Sources

  1. Shah BN, Balaji G, Alhajiri A, et al. The incremental diagnostic and prognostic value of contemporary stress echo in a chest pain unit: mortality and morbidity outcomes from a real-world setting. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 2012; DOI:10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.112.980797. Available at: http://circimaging.ahajournals.org.
  2. Jeetley P, Burden L, Stoykova B, Senior R. Clinical and economic impact of stress echocardiography compared with exercise electrocardiography in patients with suspected acute coronary syndrome but negative troponin: a prospective randomized controlled study. Eur Heart J. 2007; 28:204-211.

http://www.theheart.org/article/1490677.do

VII. PET Perfusion Imaging Improves Risk Estimates

12/5/2012 Reed Miller

Boston, MA – New data from a large multicenter registry suggest that positron-emission-tomography (PET) myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) can greatly improve the accuracy of risk estimation in coronary disease patients compared with a model based on traditional risk factors [1].

Only small single-center studies have demonstrated the prognostic value of PET MPI in predicting which patients are at greatest risk for coronary disease events. So Dr Sharmila Dorbala (Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston) and colleagues analyzed outcomes from 7061 patients from four centers who underwent a clinically indicated rest/stress rubidium-82 PET MPI test.

Results of the study are published online December 5, 2012 in the Journal of the American College of Cardiology. “The results of the current study are critical to advance the field and guide more effective use of PET MPI in clinical practice,” Dorbala et al state.

Median follow-up was 2.2 years. During follow-up, there were 169 cardiac arrests and 570 all-cause deaths. Net reclassification improvement and integrated discrimination analyses showed that the risk-adjusted hazard of cardiac death increases as the percentage of abnormal myocardium increases. A mildly abnormal stress test is associated with a 2.3 times greater risk of cardiac death than a normal test. The hazard ratio for a severely abnormal test is 4.9.

The addition of PET MPI measurements of myocardial ischemia and myocardial scarring to traditional clinical information improves the performance of a risk prediction model based on traditional risk factors (C statistic 0.805-0.839) as well as risk reclassification for cardiac death, with small improvements in risk assessments for all-cause death. The assessment of the magnitude of ischemia and scar added to the reclassification of risk for cardiac death in one in every nine patients who underwent clinical PET MPI in the study.

Unlike computed-tomography (CT) coronary angiography, perfusion imaging provides information about myocardial blood flow and accounts for underlying coronary disease, collateral flow, and myocardial adaptation to wall stress and can be used in patients with renal insufficiency, the authors point out. Compared with single-photon-emission computed tomography (SPECT) perfusion imaging, PET MPI offers better image quality, test specificity for the diagnosis of obstructive coronary disease, and identification of scar and ischemia, according to Dorbala et al, and PET MPI uses a lower effective radiation dose. However, while the prognostic value of SPECT MPI has been described in tens of thousands of patients, the prognostic value of PET MPI has been studied in only a few thousand patients.

Does more risk information help?

The value of the prognostic information offered by PET MPI is not yet clear, according to an accompanying editorial by Drs Paul Schoenhagen and Rory Hachamovitch (Cleveland Clinic, OH) [2]. “Rather than assessing whether a test yields improvement in risk assessment, the focus [should be] shifted to whether a test can identify which patients will gain a benefit from a specific therapeutic approach,” they write. “The role of testing [should be] defined in the context of a specific intervention and whether the effectiveness of the intervention is improved by the use of an imaging study to identify optimal candidates for treatment.

“However, this process is neither simple nor inexpensive and will require prospective randomized clinical trials, validating the results and hypotheses generated by observational data,” the editorialists conclude.

Commenting on the study, Dr Kavitha Chinnaiyan (William Beaumont Hospital, Royal Oak, MI) toldheartwire, “While the details of downstream management of these patients are unclear in this paper, the association of ischemia with mortality is clear, as is the reclassification of risk. The next step in terms of management of ischemic patients is really the question here.” She also pointed out that the ongoingISCHEMIA trial, comparing angiography and revascularization plus optimal medical therapy with optimal medical therapy only, may provide more insights on the best option for patients who show more than mild ischemia on stress studies.

Dorbala has received research grants from Astellas Pharma and Bracco Diagnostics; has served on advisory boards for Astellas Pharma; and has received honoraria from MedXcel. Disclosures for the coauthors are listed in the paper.Schoenhagen and Hachamovitch report that they have no relationships relevant to the contents of this paper to disclose. Chinnaiyan has no relevant disclosures.

REFERENCES

  1. Dorbala S, Di Carli M, Beanlands RS, et al. Prognostic value of stress myocardial perfusion positron emission tomography. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013; DOI:10.1016/j.jacc.2012.09.044. Available at:http://content.onlinejacc.org.
  2. Schoenhagen P and Hachamovitch R. Evaluating the clinical impact of cardiovascular imaging: Is a risk-based stratification paradigm relevant. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013; DOI:10.1016/j.jacc.2012.09.044. Available at:http://content.onlinejacc.org.

SOURCE

Other related articles published on this Open Access Online Scientific Journal, include the following:

Fractional Flow Reserve (FFR) & Instantaneous wave-free ratio (iFR): An Evaluation of Catheterization Lab Tools for Ischemic Assessment

Justin D Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/07/04/fractional-flow-reserve-ffr-instantaneous-wave-free-rario-ifr-an-evaluation-of-catheterization-lab-tools-for-ischemic-assessment/

 

CT Angiography (CCTA) Reduced Medical Resource Utilization compared to Standard Care reported in JACC

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/16/ct-angiography-ccta-reduced-medical-resource-utilization-compared-to-standard-care-reported-in-jacc/

 

Acute Chest Pain/ER Admission: Three Emerging Alternatives to Angiography and PCI – Corus CAD, hs cTn, CCTA

Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/10/acute-chest-painer-admission-three-emerging-alternatives-to-angiography-and-pci/

 

Acute and Chronic Myocardial Infarction: Quantification of Myocardial Perfusion Viability – FDG-PET/MRI vs. MRI or PET alone

Justin D. Pearlman, MD, PhD and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/05/22/acute-and-chronic-myocardial-infarction-quantification-of-myocardial-viability-fdg-petmri-vs-mri-or-pet-alone/

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AHA, ACC Change in Requirement for Surgical Support for PCI Performance: Class IIb -> Class III, Level of Evidence A: Support Nonemergent PCI without Surgical Backup (Change of class IIb, Level of evidence B).

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AHA, ACC Change in Requirement for Surgical Support:  Class IIb -> Class III, Level of Evidence A: Supports Nonemergent PCI without Surgical Backup (Change of class IIb, Level of Evidence B).

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Author, Curator, Volumes 1,2,3,4,5,6 Co-Editor and Author, Volume Two & Five, Co-Editor and Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC, Content Consultant to Six-Volume e-SERIES A: Cardiovascular Diseases

Article ID #68: AHA, ACC Change in Requirement for Surgical Support for PCI Performance: Class IIb -> Class III, Level of Evidence A: Support Nonemergent PCI without Surgical Backup (Change of class IIb, Level of evidence B). Published on 7/17/2013

WordCloud Image Produced by Adam Tubman

 

Voice of content consultant: Justin Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC

The American Heart Association (AHA) and the American College of Cardiology (ACC) have convened teams of experts to summarize evidence and opinion regarding a wide range of decisions relevant to cardiovascular disease. The system accounts for some of the short comings of “evidence based medicine” by allowing for expert opinion in areas where evidence is not sufficient. The main argument for evidence-based medicine is the existence of surprises, where a plausible decision does not actually appear to work as desired when it is tested. A major problem with adhesion to evidence based medicine is that it can impede adaptation to individual needs (we are all genetically and socially/environmentally unique) and impede innovation. Large studies carry statistical weight but do not necessary consider all relevant factors. Commonly, the AFFIRM trial is interpreted as support that rate control suffices for most atrial fibrillation (AFIB), but half of those randomized to rhythm control were taken off anticoagulation without teaching patients to check their pulse daily for recurrence of AFIB. Thus the endorsed “evidence” may have more to do with the benefits of anticoagulation for both persisting and recurring AFIB and rhythm control may yet prove better than rate control. However, with wide acceptance of a particular conclusion, randomizing to another treatment may be deemed unethical, or may simply not get a large trial due to lack of economic incentive, leaving only the large trial products as the endorsed options. A medication without patent protection, such as bismuth salts for H Pylori infection, lacks financial backing for large trials.

The American Heart Association Evidence-Based Scoring System
Classification of Recommendations

● Class I: Conditions for which there is evidence, general

agreement, or both that a given procedure or treatment is

useful and effective.

● Class II: Conditions for which there is conflicting evidence,

a divergence of opinion, or both about the usefulness/

efficacy of a procedure or treatment.

● Class IIa: Weight of evidence/opinion is in favor of

usefulness/efficacy.

● Class IIb: Usefulness/efficacy is less well established by

evidence/opinion.

● Class III: Conditions for which there is evidence, general

agreement, or both that the procedure/treatment is not useful/

effective and in some cases may be harmful.

Level of Evidence

● Level of Evidence A: Data derived from multiple randomized

clinical trials

● Level of Evidence B: Data derived from a single randomized

trial or nonrandomized studies

● Level of Evidence C: Consensus opinion of experts

Circulation 2006 114: 1761 – 1791.

Assessment of Coronary Artery Disease by Cardiac Computed Tomography

A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association Committee on Cardiovascular Imaging and Intervention, Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention, and Committee on Cardiac Imaging, Council on Clinical Cardiology

Reported by Chris Kaiser, Cardiology Editor, MedPage  7/2013  

 

Action Points

  1. Patients with indications for nonemergency PCI who presented at hospitals without on-site cardiac surgery, were randomly assigned to undergo PCI at a hospital without on-site cardiac surgery or at a hospital with on-site cardiac surgery.
  2. The rates of death, myocardial infarction, repeat revascularization, and stroke did not differ significantly between the groups.
  3. Community hospitals without surgical services can safely perform percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) in low-risk patients — and not refuse higher-risk patients either, the MASS COMM trial found.

Summary

  • The co-primary endpoint of major adverse cardiac events (MACE) at 30 days occurred at a rate of 9.5% in the 10 hospitals without surgical backup versus 9.4% in the seven hospitals with onsite surgery (P<0.001 for noninferiority), Alice K. Jacobs, MD, of Boston University School of Medicine, and colleagues found.
  • The other co-primary endpoint of MACE at 12 months was also significant, occurring in 17.3% of patients in hospitals without backup versus 17.8% in centers with surgical services (P<0.001 for non-inferiority), they reported in the study published online by the New England Journal of Medicine. The findings were also reported at the American College of Cardiology meeting.

Study Characteristics and Results

Primary Endpoints

  1. death
  2. myocardial infarction
  3. repeat revascularization
  4. stroke
no significant differences between the two groups at 30 days and at 12 months.

Rate of stent thrombosis at 30 days

similar in both groups (0.6% versus 0.8%) and at 12 months (1.1% versus 2.1%).
Jacobs and colleagues noted that the 2011 PCI guidelines lacked evidence to fully support nonemergent PCI without surgical backup (class IIb, level of evidence B).

CPORT – E trial

Even though those guidelines came out before the results of the CPORT-E trial were published, CPORT-E trial showed similar non-inferiority at 9 months between centers that perform PCI with or without surgical backup in a cohort of nearly 19,000 non-emergent patients. The CPORT-E results were published in the March 2012 issue of the New England Journal of Medicine, and in May three cardiology organizations published an update to cath lab standards allowing for PCI without surgical.

 MASS COMM study

To further the evidence, Jacobs and colleagues in 2006  had designed and carried out the Randomized Trial to Compare Percutaneous Coronary Intervention between Massachusetts Hospitals with Cardiac Surgery On-Site and Community Hospitals without Cardiac Surgery On-Site (MASS COMM) in collaboration with the Massachusetts Department of Public Health who collaborated to obtain “evidence on which to base regulatory policy decisions about performing non-emergent PCI in hospitals without on-site cardiac surgery.”

  • Hospitals without backup surgery were required to perform at least 300 diagnostic catheterizations per year, and operators were mandated to have performed a minimum of 75 PCI procedures per year.
  • The researchers randomized 3,691 patients to each arm in a 3:1 ratio (without/with backup). The median follow-up was about 1 year.
  • The median age of patients was 64, one-third were women, and 92% were white. Both groups had similar median ejection fractions at baseline (55%).
  • The mean number of vessels treated was 1.17 and most patients (84%) had one vessel treated. The mean number of lesions treated was 1.45 and most patients (67%) had one lesion treated.

The indications for PCI were:

1. ST-segment elevated MI (>72 hours before PCI of infarct-related or non–infarct-related artery — 19% and 17%
2. Unstable angina — 45% and 47%
3. Stable angina — 27% and 28%
4. Silent ischemia — 5% and 6%
5. Other — 2.5% and 2.8%
Regarding secondary endpoints, both groups had similar rates of emergency CABG and urgent or emergent PCI at 30 days. Results at 30 days and 12 months were similar for rates of ischemia-driven target-vessel revascularization and target-lesion revascularization. Other endpoints as well were similar at both time points, including
  • all-cause death
  • repeat revascularization
  • stroke
  • definite or probable stent thrombosis
  • major vascular complications
Researchers adjusted for a 1.3 greater chance of MACE occurring at a randomly selected hospital compared with another randomly selected hospital and found
  • the relative risks at 30 days and 12 months “were consistent with those of the primary results” (RR 1.02 and 0.98, respectively).

However, they cautioned that new sites perhaps should be monitored as they gain experience.

A prespecified angiographic review of 376 patients who were in the PCI-without-backup arm and 87 in the other arm showed no differences in
  1. rates of procedural success,
  2. proportion with complete revascularization, or
  3. the proportion of guideline-indicated appropriate lesions for PCI.
Such results show consistent practice patterns between the groups, they noted.
The study had several limitations including the
  • loss of data for 13% of patients, the
  • exclusion of some patients for certain clinical and anatomical features, and
  • not having the power to detect non-inferiority in the separate components of the primary endpoint, researchers wrote.

Cardio Notes: Score Predicts PCI Readmission

Published: Jul 15, 2013

By Chris Kaiser, Cardiology Editor, MedPage Today
  

A simple calculation of patient variables before PCI may help stem the tide of readmission within the first month. Also this week, two blood pressure drugs that benefit diabetics and imaging cardiac sympathetic innervation.

Pre-PCI Factors Predict Return Trip

A new 30-day readmission risk prediction model for patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) showed it’s possible to predict risk using only variables known before PCI, according to a study published online in Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes.

After multivariable adjustment, the 10 pre-PCI variables that predicted 30-day readmission were older age (mean age 68 in this study), female sex, insurance type (Medicare, state, or unknown), GFR category (less than 30 and 30-60 mL/min per 1.73m2), current or history of heart failure, chronic lung disease, peripheral vascular disease, cardiogenic shock at presentation, admit source (acute and non-acute care facility or emergency department), and previous coronary artery bypass graft surgery.

Additional significant variables post-discharge that predicted 30-day readmission were beta-blocker prescribed at discharge, post-PCI vascular or bleeding complications, discharge location, African American race, diabetes status and modality of treatment, any drug-eluting stent during the index procedure, and extended length of stay.

A risk score calculator using the pre-PCI variables will be available online soon, according to Robert W. Yeh, MD, MSc, of Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, and colleagues.

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