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Lesson 4 Cell Signaling And Motility: G Proteins, Signal Transduction: Curations and Articles of reference as supplemental information: #TUBiol3373
Curator: Stephen J. Williams, Ph.D.
Updated 7/15/2019
Below please find the link to the Powerpoint presentation for lesson #4 for #TUBiol3373. The lesson first competes the discussion on G Protein Coupled Receptors, including how cells terminate cell signals. Included are mechanisms of receptor desensitization. Please NOTE that desensitization mechanisms like B arrestin decoupling of G proteins and receptor endocytosis occur after REPEATED and HIGH exposures to agonist. Hydrolysis of GTP of the alpha subunit of G proteins, removal of agonist, and the action of phosphodiesterase on the second messenger (cAMP or cGMP) is what results in the downslope of the effect curve, the termination of the signal after agonist-receptor interaction.
Summary: The criticality of renal function is traced to the emergence of animal forms from the sea to land. It also becomes acutely and/or chronically dysfunctional in metabolic, systemic inflammatory and immunological diseases of man. We have already described the key role that nitric oxide and the NO synthases play in reduction of oxidative stress, and we have seen that a balance has to be struck between pro- and anti-oxidative as well as inflammatory elements for avoidance of diseases, specifically involving the circulation, but effectively not limited to any organ system. In this discussion we shall look at kidney function, NO and NO donors. This is an extension of a series of posts on NO and NO related disorders.
Part I. The evolution of kidney structure and FunctionEvolution of kidney function
In fish the nerves that activate breathing take a short journey from an ancient part of the brain, the brain stem, to the throat and gills. For the ancient tadpole, the nerve controlling a reflex related to hiccup in man served a useful purpose, allowing the entrance to the lung to remain open when breathing air but closing it off when gulping water – which would then be directed only to the gills.
For humans and other mammals it provides a bit of evidence of our common ancestry. DNA evidence has pinned iguanas and chameleons as the closest relatives to snakes. In utero, we develop three separate kidneys in succession, absorbing the first two before we wind up with the embryonic kidney that will become our adult kidney. The first two of these reprise embryonic kidneys of ancestral forms, and in the proper evolutionary order.
The pronephric kidney does not function in human and other mammalian embryos. It disappears and gives rise to the Mesonephric kidney. This kidney filters wastes from the blood and excretes them to the outside of the body via a pair of tubes called the mesonephric ducts (also “Wolffian ducts”). The mesonephric kidney goes on to develop into the adult kidney of fish and amphibians.
This kidney does function for a few weeks in the human embryo, but then disappears as our final kidney forms, which is the Metanephric kidney. This begins developing about five weeks into gestation, and consists of an organ that filters wastes from the blood and excretes them to the outside through a pair ureters. In the embryo, the wastes are excreted directly into the amniotic fluid. The metanephric kidney is the final adult kidney of reptiles, birds, and mammals.
The first two kidneys resemble, in order, those of primitive aquatic vertebrates (lampreys and hagfish) and aquatic or semiaquatic vertebrates (fish and amphibians): an evolutionary order.
The explanation, then, is that we go through developmental stages that show organs resembling those of our ancestors. Take a step back and we see that fresh water fish have glomerular filtration. Cardiac contraction provides the pressure to force the water, small molecules, and ions into the glomerulus as nephric filtrate. The essential ingredients are then reclaimed by the tubules, returning to the blood in the capillaries surrounding the tubules. The amphibian kidney also functions chiefly as a device for excreting excess water.
But the problem is to conserve water, not eliminate it. The frog adjusts to the varying water content of its surroundings by adjusting the rate of filtration at the glomerulus. When blood flow through the glomerulus is restricted, a renal portal system is present to carry away materials reabsorbed through the tubules. Bird kidneys function like those of reptiles (from which they are descended). Uric acid is also their chief nitrogenous waste. All mammals share our use of urea as their chief nitrogenous waste. Urea requires much more water to be excreted than does uric acid. Mammals produce large amounts of nephric filtrate but are able to reabsorb most of this in the tubules. But even so, humans lose several hundred ml each day in flushing urea out of the body.
In his hypothesis of the evolution of renal function Homer Smith proposed that the formation of glomerular nephron and body armor had been adequate for the appearance of primitive vertebrates in fresh water and that the adaptation of homoiotherms to terrestrial life was accompanied by the appearance of the loop of Henle.
In the current paper, the increase in the arterial blood supply and glomerular filtration rate and the sharp elevation of the proximal reabsorption are viewed as important mechanisms in the evolution of the kidney. The presence of glomeruli in myxines and of nephron loops in lampreys suggests that fresh water animals used the preformed glomerular apparatus of early vertebrates, while mechanisms of urinary concentration was associated with the subdivision of the kidney into the renal cortex and medulla. The principles of evolution of renal functions can be observed at several levels of organizations in the kidney.
Natochin YV. Evolutionary aspects of renal function. Kidney International 1996; 49: 1539–1542; doi:10.1038/ki.1996.220. Smith HW: From Fish to Philosopher. Boston, Little, Brown, 1953.
The kidney lies in the lower abdomen capped by the adrenal glands. It has an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The basic unit is the nephron, which filters blood at the glomerulus, and not only filters urine eliminating mainly urea, also uric acid, and other nitrogenous waste, but also reabsorbs Na+ in exchange for H+/(reciprocal K+) through the carbonic anhydrase of the epithelium. In addition, it serves as a endocrine organ and receptor through the renin-angiotensin/aldosterone system, sensitivity to water loss controlled by antidiuretic hormone, and is sensitive to the natriuretic peptides of the heart. The kidney is an elegant structure with a high concentration of glomeruli in the cortex, and in the medulla one finds a U-shaped tube that is critical in a countercurrent multiplier system with a descending limb, Loop of Henley, and ascending limb.
As the filtrate flows through the glomerulus into the descending limb, there is reabsorption of glucose and of H+ by the carbonic anhydrase conversion to water and CO2, except with serious acidemia, in which K+ is reabsorbed with H+ loss to the filtrate, resulting in a hyperkalemia. In the descending limb Na+ is absorbed into the interstitium, and the hypertonic interstitium draws water back for circulation, regulated by the action of ADH on the epithelium of the ascending limb. The result in terms of basic urinary clearance, the volume of urine loss is moderated by the amount needed for circulation (10 units of whole blood) without dehydration, and an amount sufficient for metabolite loss (including drug metabolites). The urine flows into the kidney pelvis and flow down the ureters.
The renal blood flow needs mention. The blood reaches the glomerulus by way of the afferent arteriole and leaves by way of the efferent arteriole. In a book by the Harvard Pathologist Shields Warren on diabetes he made a distinction between hypertension and diabetes in that efferent arteriolar sclerosis is present in both, but diabetes is uniquely identified by afferent arteriolar sclerosis. In diabetes you also have a typical glomerulosclerosis, which might be related to the same hyalinization found in the pancreatic islets – a secondary amyloidosis.
English: Nephron, Diagram of the urine formation. The number inside tubular urin concentration in mOsm/l – when ADH acts Polski: Nefron, Schemat tworzenia moczu. Cyfry wewnątrz kanalików oznaczają lokalne stężenie w mOsm/l – gdy działa ADH (dochodzi do zagęszczania moczu). (Photo credit: Wikipedia)
Loop of Henle (Grey’s Anatomy book) (Photo credit: Wikipedia)
Frontal section through the kidney (Photo credit: Wikipedia)
_ Part IIa. Nitric Oxide role in renal tubular epithelial cell functionTubulointerstitial Nephritides
As part of the exponential growth in our understanding of nitric oxide (NO) in health and disease over the past 2 decades, the kidney has become appreciated as a major site where NO may play a number of important roles. Although earlier work on the kidney focused more on effects of NO at the level of larger blood vessels and glomeruli, there has been a rapidly growing body of work showing critical roles for NO in tubulointerstitial disease. In this review we discuss some of the recent contributions to this important field.
Nitric oxide donors and renal tubular (subepithelial) matrix
Nitric oxide (NO) and its metabolite, peroxynitrite (ONOO-), are involved in renal tubular cell injury. If NO/ONOO- has an effect to reduce cell adhesion to the basement membrane, does this effect contribute to tubular obstruction and would it be partially responsible for the harmful effect of NO on the tubular epithelium during acute renal failure (ARF)?
Wangsiripaisan A, et al. examined the effect of the NO donors
[3] the ONOO- donor 3-morpholinosydnonimine (SIN-1) on
cell-matrix adhesion to collagen types I and IV, and also fibronectin using three renal tubular epithelial cell lines:
[1] LLC-PK1,
[2] BSC-1, and
[3] OK.
It was only the exposure to SIN-1 that caused a dose-dependent impairment in cell-matrix adhesion.
Similar results were obtained in the different cell types and matrix proteins. The effect of SIN-1 (500 microM) on LLC-PK1 cell adhesion was not associated with either cell death or alteration of matrix protein and was attenuated by either
[1] the NO scavenger 2-(4-carboxyphenyl)-4,4,5,5-tetramethylimidazoline-1-oxyl-3-oxide,
[2] the superoxide scavenger superoxide dismutase, or
[3] the ONOO- scavenger uric acid in a dose-dependent manner.
These investigators concluded in this seminal paper that ONOO- generated in the tubular epithelium during ischemia/reperfusion has the potential to impair the adhesion properties of tubular cells, which then may contribute to the tubular obstruction in ARF.
Coexpressed Nitric Oxide Synthase and Apical β1 Integrins
In sepsis-induced acute renal failure, actin cytoskeletal alterations result in shedding of proximal tubule epithelial cells (PTEC) and tubular obstruction.
This study examined the hypothesis that inflammatory cytokines, released early in sepsis, cause PTEC cytoskeletal damage and alter integrin-dependent cell-matrix adhesion. The question of whether the intermediate nitric oxide (NO) modulates these cytokine effects was also examined. After exposure of human PTEC to tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1α, and interferon-γ, the actin cytoskeleton was disrupted and cells became elongated, with extension of long filopodial processes.
Cytokines induced shedding of viable, apoptotic, and necrotic PTEC, which was dependent on NO synthesizedby inducible NO synthase (iNOS) produced as a result of cytokine actions on PTEC. Basolateral exposure of polarized PTEC monolayers to cytokines induced maximal NO-dependent cell shedding, mediated in part through NO effects on cGMP. Cell shedding was accompanied by dispersal of basolateral β1 integrins and E-cadherin, with corresponding upregulation of integrin expression in clusters of cells elevated above the epithelial monolayer.
These cells demonstrated coexpression of iNOS and apically redistributed β1 integrins. These authors point out that the major ligand involved in cell anchorage was laminin, probably through interactions with the integrin α3β1.
This interaction was downregulated by cytokines but was not dependent on NO. They posulate a mechanism by which inflammatory cytokines induce PTEC damage in sepsis, in the absence of hypotension and ischemia.
Potentiation by Nitric Oxide of Apoptosis in Renal Proximal Tubule Cells
Proximal tubular epithelial cells (PTEC) exhibit a high sensitivity to undergo apoptosis in response to proinflammatory stimuli and immunosuppressors and participate in the onset of several renal diseases. This study examined the expression of inducible nitric oxide (NO) synthase after challenge of PTEC with bacterial cell wall molecules and inflammatory cytokines and analyzed the pathways that lead to apoptosis in these cells by measuring changes in the mitochondrial transmembrane potential and caspase activation.
The data show that the apoptotic effects of proinflammatory stimuli mainly were due to the expression of inducible NO synthase. Cyclosporin A and FK506 inhibited partially NO synthesis.
However, both NO and immunosuppressors induced apoptosis, probably through a common mechanism that involved the irreversible opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore. Activation of caspases 3 and 7 was observed in cells treated with high doses of NO and with moderate concentrations of immunosuppressors.
The conclusion is that the cooperation between NO and immunosuppressors that induce apoptosis in PTEC might contribute to the renal toxicity observed in the course of immunosuppressive therapy.
Part IIb. Related studies with ROS and/or RNS on nonrenal epithelial cells
Reactive nitrogen species block cell cycle re-entryEndogenous sources of reactive nitrogen species (RNS) act as second messengers in a variety of cell signaling events, whereas environmental sources of RNS like nitrogen dioxide (NO2) inhibit cell survival and growth through covalent modification of cellular macromolecules. Murine type II alveolar cells arrested in G0 by serum deprivation were exposed to either NO2 or SIN-1, a generator of RNS, during cell cycle re-entry.
In serum-stimulated cells, RNS blocked cyclin D1 gene expression, resulting in cell cycle arrest at the boundary between G0 and G1. Dichlorofluorescin diacetate (DCF) fluorescence indicated that RNS induced sustained production of intracellular hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which normally is produced only transiently in response to serum growth factors.
Loading cells with catalase prevented enhanced DCF fluorescence and rescued cyclin D1 expression and S phase entry.
These studies indicate environmental RNS interfere with cell cycle re-entry through an H2O2-dependent mechanism that influences expression of cyclin D1 and progression from G0 to the G1 phase of the cell cycle.
Peroxynitrite (ONOO-) is a strong oxidant derived from nitric oxide (‘NO) and superoxide (O2.-), reactive nitrogen (RNS) and oxygen species (ROS) present in inflamed tissue. Other oxidant stresses, e.g., TNF-alpha and hyperoxia, induce mitochondrial, manganese-containing superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) gene expression. 3-morpholinosydnonimine HCI (SIN-1) (10 or 1000 microM) increased MnSOD mRNA, but did not change hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (HPRT) mRNA. Authentic peroxynitrite (ONOO ) (100-500 microM) also increased MnSOD mRNA but did not change constitutive HPRT mRNA expression. ONOO stimulated luciferase gene expression driven by a 2.5 kb fragment of the rat MnSOD gene 5′ promoter region.
MnSOD gene induction due to ONOO- was
[1] inhibited effectively by L-cysteine (10 mM) and
[2] partially inhibited by N-acetyl cysteine (NAC)(50 mM) or
[3] pyrrole dithiocarbamate (10 mM).
.NO from 1-propanamine, 3-(2-hydroxy-2-nitroso-1-propylhydrazine) (PAPA NONOate) (100 or 1000 microM) did not change MnSOD or HPRT mRNA, nor did either H202 or NO2-, breakdown products of SIN-1 and ONOO, have any effect on MnSOD mRNA expression; ONOO- and SIN-1 also did not increase detectable MnSOD protein content or increase MnSOD enzymatic activity.
Nevertheless, increased steady state [O2.-] in the presence of .NO yields ONOO , and ONOO has direct, stimulatory effects on MnSOD transcriptexpression driven at the MnSOD gene 5′ promoter region inhibited completely by L-cysteine and partly by N-acetyl cysteine in lung epithelial cells. This raises a question of whether the same effect is seen in renal tubular epithelium.
Comparative impacts of glutathione peroxidase-1 gene knockout on oxidative stress
Selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase-1 (GPX1) protects against reactive-oxygen-species (ROS)-induced oxidative stress in vivo, but its role in coping with reactive nitrogen species (RNS) is unclear. Primary hepatocytes were isolated from GPX1-knockout (KO) and wild-type (WT) mice to test protection of GPX1 against cytotoxicity of
[1] superoxide generator diquat (DQ),
[2]NO donor S-nitroso-N-acetyl-penicillamine (SNAP) and
Treating cells with SNAP in addition to DQ produced synergistic cytotoxicity that minimized differences in apoptotic cell death and oxidative injuries between the KO and WT cells. Less protein nitrotyrosine was induced by 0.05-0.5 mM DQ+0.25 mM SNAP in the KO than in the WT cells.
Total GPX activity in the WT cells was reduced by 65 and 25% by 0.5 mM DQ+0.1 mM SNAP and 0.5 mM DQ, respectively. Decreases in Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and increases in Mn-SOD activity in response to DQ or DQ+SNAP were greater in the KO cells than in the WT cells.
The study indicates GPX1 was more effective in protecting hepatocytes against oxidative injuries mediated by ROS alone than by ROS and RNS together, and knockout of GPX1 did not enhance cell susceptibility to RNS-associated cytotoxicity. Instead, it attenuated protein nitration induced by DQ+SNAP.
To better understand the mechanism(s) underlying nitric oxide (. NO)-mediated toxicity, in the presence and absence of concomitant oxidant exposure, postmitotic terminally differentiated NT2N cells (which are incapable of producing . NO) were exposed to [1]PAPA-NONOate (PAPA/NO) and [2] 3-morpholinosydnonimine (SIN-1).
Exposure to SIN-1, which generated peroxynitrite (ONOO) in the range of 25-750 nM/min, produced a concentration- and time-dependent delayed cell death. In contrast, a critical threshold concentration (>440 nM/min) was required for . NO to produce significant cell injury. There is a largely necrotic lesion after ONOO exposure and an apoptotic-like morphology after . NO exposure.
Cellular levels of reduced thiols correlated with cell death, and pretreatment with N-acetylcysteine (NAC) fully protected from cell death in either PAPA/NO or SIN-1 exposure. NAC given within the first 3 h posttreatment further delayed cell death and increased the intracellular thiol level in SIN-1 but not . NO-exposed cells.
Cell injury from . NO was independent of cGMP, caspases, and superoxide or peroxynitrite formation. Overall, exposure of non-. NO-producing cells to . NO or peroxynitrite results in delayed cell death, which, although occurring by different mechanisms, appears to be mediated by the loss of intracellular redox balance.
NO2 effect on phosphatidyl cholineNitrogen dioxide (NO2) inhalation affects the extracellular surfactant as well as the structure and function of type II pneumocytes.
The studies had differences in oxidant concentration, duration of exposure, and mode of NO2 application. This study evaluated the influence of the NO2 application mode on the phospholipid metabolism of type II pneumocytes. Rats were exposed to identical NO2 body doses (720 ppm x h), which were applied continuously (10 ppm for 3 d), intermittently (10 ppm for 8 h per day, for 9 d), and repeatedly (10 ppm for 3 d, 28 d rest, and then 10 ppm for 3 d). Immediately after exposure, type II cells were isolated and evaluated for cell yield, vitality, phosphatidylcholine (PC) synthesis, and secretion.
Type II pneumocyte cell yield was only increased from animals that had been continuously exposed to NO2, but vitality of the isolated type II pneumocytes was not affected by the NO2 exposure modes. Continuous application of 720 ppm x h NO2 resulted in increased activity of the cytidine-5-diphosphate (CDP)-choline pathway. After continuous NO2 application,
[4] pool sizes of CDP-choline and PC were significantly increased over those of controls.
Intermittent application of this NO2 body dose provoked less increase in PC synthesis and the synthesis parameters were comparable to those for cells from control animals after repeated exposure. Whereas PC synthesis in type II cells was stimulated by NO2, their secretory activity was reduced. Continuous exposure reduced the secretory activity most, whereas intermittent exposure nonsignificantly reduced this activity as compared with that of controls. The repeated application of NO2 produced no differences.
The authors conclude that…. type II pneumocytes adapt to NO2 atmospheres depending on the mode of its application, at least for the metabolism of PC and its secretion from isolated type II pneumocytes.
The reader asks whether this effect could also be found in renal epithelial cells, for which PC is not considered vital as for type II pneumocytes and possibly related to surfactant activity in the lung.
iNOS involved in immediate response to anaphylaxis
The generation of large quantities of nitric oxide (NO) is implicated in the pathogenesis of anaphylactic shock. The source of NO, however, has not been established and conflicting results have been obtained when investigators have tried to inhibit its production in anaphylaxis.
This study analyzed the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) in a mouse model of anaphylaxis. BALB/c mice were sensitized and challenged with ovalbumin to induce anaphylaxis. Tissues were removed from the heart and lungs, and blood was drawn at different time points during the first 48 hours after induction of anaphylaxis. The Griess assay was used to measure nitric oxide generation.
Nitric oxide synthase expression was examined by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry. A significant increase in iNOS mRNA expression and nitric oxide production was evident as early as 10 to 30 minutes after allergen challenge in both heart and lungs.
In contrast, expression of eNOS mRNA was not altered during the course of the experiment. The results support involvement of iNOS in the immediate physiological response of anaphylaxis.
Yue G, Lai PS, Yin K, Sun FF, Nagele RG, Liu X, Linask KK, Wang C, Lin KT, Wong PY. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2001 Jun;297(3):915-25. PMID: 11356911 [PubMed – indexed for MEDLINE] Free Article
Part IIIa. Acute renal failure Acute renal failure (ARF), characterized by sudden loss of the ability of the kidneys to [1] excrete wastes, [2] concentrate urine, [3] conserve electrolytes, and [4] maintain fluid balance, is a frequent clinical problem, particularly in the intensive care unit, where it is associated with a mortality of between 50% and 80%.
This clinical entity was described as an acute loss of kidney function that occurred in severely injured crush victims because of histological evidence for patchy necrosis of renal tubules at autopsy. In the clinical setting, the terms ATN and acute renal failure (ARF) are frequently used interchangeably. However, ARF does not include increases in blood urea due to [1] reversible renal vasoconstriction (prerenal azotemia) or [2] urinary tract obstruction (postrenal azotemia). Acute hemodialysis was first used clinically during the Korean War in 1950 to treat military casualties, and this led to a decrease in mortality of the ARF clinical syndrome from about 90% to about 50%. In the half century that has since passed, much has been learned about the pathogenesis of ischemic and nephrotoxic ARF in experimental models, but there has been very little improvement in mortality. This may be explained by changing demographics: [1] the age of patients with ARF continues to rise, and [2] comorbid diseases are increasingly common in this population. Both factors may obscure any increased survival related to improved critical care. Examining the incidence of ARF in several military conflicts does, however, provide some optimism. The incidence of ARF in seriously injured casualties decreased between World War II and the Korean War, and again between that war and the Vietnam War, despite the lack of any obvious difference in the severity of the injuries. What was different was the rapidity of the fluid resuscitation of the patients? Fluid resuscitation on the battlefield with the rapid evacuation of the casualties to hospitals by helicopter began during the Korean War and was optimized further during the Vietnam War. For seriously injured casualties the incidence of ischemic ARF was one in 200 in the Korean War and one in 600 in the Vietnam War. This historical sequence of events suggests that early intervention could prevent the occurrence of ARF, at least in military casualties. In experimental studies it has been shown that progression from an azotemic state associated with renal vasoconstriction and intact tubular function (prerenal azotemia) to established ARF with tubular dysfunction occurs if the renal ischemia is prolonged. Moreover, early intervention with fluid resuscitation was shown to prevent the progression from prerenal azotemia to established ARF. Diagnostic evaluation of ARF One important question, therefore, is how to assure that an early diagnosis of acute renal vasoconstriction can be made prior to the occurrence of tubular dysfunction, thus providing the potential to prevent progression to established ARF. In this regard, past diagnostics relied on observation of the patient response to a fluid challenge: [1] decreasing levels of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) indicated the presence of reversible vasoconstriction, [2] while uncontrolled accumulation of nitrogenous waste products, i.e., BUN and serum creatinine, indicated established ARF.
This approach, however, frequently led to massive fluid overload in the ARF patient with resultant
[1] pulmonary congestion,
[2] hypoxia, and
[3] premature need for mechanical ventilatory support and/or hemodialysis.
On this background the focus turned to an evaluation of urine sediment and urine chemistries to differentiate between renal vasoconstriction with intact tubular function and established ARF.
It was well established that if tubular function was intact, renal vasoconstriction was associated with enhanced tubular sodium reabsorption. Specifically, the fraction of filtered sodium that is rapidly reabsorbed by normal tubules of the vasoconstricted kidney is greater than 99%.
Thus, when nitrogenous wastes, such as creatinine and urea, accumulate in the blood due to a fall in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) secondary to renal vasoconstriction with intact tubular function, the fractional excretion of filtered sodium (FENa = [(urine sodium × plasma creatinine) / (plasma sodium × urine creatinine)]) is less than 1%. An exception to this physiological response of the normal kidney to vasoconstriction is when the patient is receiving a diuretic, including mannitol, or has glucosuria, which decreases tubular sodium reabsorption and increases FENa.
It has recently been shown in the presence of diuretics that a rate of fractional excretion of urea (FEurea) of less than 35 indicates intact tubular function, thus favoring renal vasoconstriction rather than established ARF as a cause of the azotemia.
Based on the foregoing comments, this discussion of mechanisms of ARF will not include nitrogenous-waste accumulation due to renal vasoconstriction with intact tubular function (prerenal azotemia) or urinary tract obstruction (postrenal azotemia). The mechanisms of ARF involve both vascular and tubular factors. An ischemic insult to the kidney will in general be the cause of the ARF. While a decrease in renal blood flow with diminished oxygen and substrate delivery to the tubule cells is an important ischemic factor, it must be remembered that a relative increase in oxygen demand by the tubule is also a factor in renal ischemia.
Approximately 30–70% of these shed epithelial tubule cells in the urine are viable and can be grown in culture. Recent studies using cellular and molecular techniques have provided information relating to the structural abnormalities of injured renal tubules that occur both in vitro and in vivo. In vitro studies using chemical anoxia have revealed abnormalities in the proximal tubule cytoskeleton that are associated with translocation of Na+/K+-ATPase from the basolateral to the apical membrane.
A comparison of cadaveric transplanted kidneys with delayed versus prompt graft function has also provided important results regarding the role of Na+/K+-ATPase in ischemic renal injury. This study demonstrated that, compared with kidneys with prompt graft function, those with delayed graft function had a significantly greater cytoplasmic concentration of Na+/K+-ATPase and actin-binding proteins — spectrin (also known as fodrin) and ankyrin — that had translocated from the basolateral membrane to the cytoplasm.
Such a translocation of Na+/K+-ATPase from the basolateral membrane to the cytoplasm could explain the decrease in tubular sodium reabsorption that occurs with ARF. An important focus of research is the mechanisms whereby the critical residence of Na+/K+-ATPase in the basolateral membrane (which facilitates vectorial sodium transport) is uncoupled by hypoxia or ischemia. The actin-binding proteins,
spectrin and
ankyrin,
serve as substrates for the calcium-activated cysteine protease calpain.
In vitro studies in proximal tubules have shown a rapid rise in cytosolic calcium concentration during acute hypoxia, which antedates the evidence of tubular injury as assessed by lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) release. There is further evidence to support the importance of the translocation of Na+/K+-ATPase from the basolateral membrane to the cytoplasm during renal ischemia/reperfusion.
Specifically, calpain-mediated breakdown products of the actin-binding protein spectrin occur with renal ischemia. Calpain activity was demonstrated to increase during hypoxia in isolated proximal tubules. Measurement of LDH release following calpain inhibition indicated attenuation of hypoxic damage to proximal tubules. There was no evidence of an increase in cathepsin, a (cysteine protease) in proximal tubules during hypoxia , but there is a calcium-independent pathway for calpain activation during hypoxia.
Calpastatin, an endogenous cellular inhibitor of calpain activation, was shown to be diminished during hypoxia in association with the rise in another cysteine protease, caspase.
This effect of diminished calpastatin activity could be reversed by caspase inhibition. Proteolytic pathways appear to be involved in calpain-mediated proximal tubule cell injury during hypoxia. Calcium activation of phospholipase A has also been shown to contribute to renal tubular injury during ischemia.
The existence of proteolytic pathways involving cysteine proteases, namely calpain and caspases, may therefore explain
the decrease in proximal tubule sodium reabsorption and
increased FENa
secondary to proteolytic uncoupling of Na+/K+-ATPase from its basolateral membrane anchoring proteins.
This tubular perturbation alone, however, does not explain the fall in GFR that leads to nitrogenous-waste retention and thus the rise in BUN and serum creatinine. Decreased proximal tubule sodium reabsorption may lead to a decreased GFR during ARF. First of all, brush border membranes and cellular debris could provide the substrate for intraluminal obstruction in the highly resistant portion of distal nephrons.
In fact, microdissection of individual nephrons of kidneys from patients with ARF demonstrated obstructing casts in distal tubules and collecting ducts. This observation could explain the dilated proximal tubules that are observed upon renal biopsy of ARF kidneys. The intraluminal casts in ARF kidneys stain prominently for Tamm-Horsfall protein (THP), which is produced in the thick ascending limb. Importantly, THP is secreted into tubular fluid as a monomer but subsequently may become a polymer that forms a gel-like material in the presence of increased luminal Na+ concentration, as occurs in the distal nephron during clinical ARF with the decrease in tubular sodium reabsorption.
Thus, the THP polymeric gel in the distal nephron provides an intraluminal environment for distal cast formation involving viable, apoptotic, and necrotic cells.
The loss of the tubular epithelial cell barrier and/or the tight junctions between viable cells during acute renal ischemia could lead to a leak of glomerular filtrate back into the circulation. (If this occurs and normally non-reabsorbable substances, such as inulin, leak back into the circulation, then a falsely low GFR will be measured as inulin clearance. It should be noted, however, that the degree of extensive tubular damage observed in experimental studies demonstrating tubular fluid backleak is rarely observed with clinical ARF in humans). Moreover, dextran sieving studies in patients with ARF demonstrated that, at best, only a 10% decrease in GFR could be explained by backleak of filtrate. Cadaveric transplanted kidneys with delayed graft function, however, may have severe tubular necrosis, and thus backleak of glomerular filtration may be more important in this setting.
Inflammation and NO
There is now substantial evidence for the involvement of inflammation in the pathogenesis of the decreased GFR associated with acute renal ischemic injury. In this regard, there is experimental evidence that iNOS may contribute to tubular injury during ARF. Hypoxia in isolated proximal tubules has been shown to increase NO release, and there is increased iNOS protein expression in ischemic kidney homogenates. An antisense oligonucleotide was shown to block the upregulation of iNOS and afford functional protection against acute renal ischemia. Moreover, when isolated proximal tubules from iNOS, eNOS, and neuronal NO synthase (nNOS) knockout mice were exposed to hypoxia, only the tubules from the iNOS knockout mice were protected against hypoxia, as assessed by LDH release. The iNOS knockout mice were also shown to have lower mortality during ischemia/reperfusion than wild-type mice. The scavenging of NO by oxygen radicals produces peroxynitrite causing tubule damage during ischemia. While iNOS may contribute to ischemic injury of renal tubules, the vascular effect of eNOS in the glomerular afferent arteriole is protective against ischemic injury. In this regard, eNOS knockout mice are more sensitive to endotoxin-related injury than normal mice.
Moreover, the protective role of vascular eNOS may be more important than the deleterious effect of iNOS at the tubule level during renal ischemia. This is because treatment of mice with the nonspecific NO synthase (NOS) inhibitor L-NAME, which blocks both iNOS and eNOS, worsens renal ischemic injury. NO may downregulate eNOS and is a potent inducer of heme oxygenase-1, which has been shown to be cytoprotective against renal injury. The MAPK pathway also appears to be involved in renal oxidant injury. Activation of extracellular signal–regulated kinase (ERK) or inhibition of JNK ameliorates oxidant injury–induced necrosis in mouse renal proximal tubule cells in vitro. Upregulation of ERK may also be important in the effect of preconditioning whereby early ischemia affords protection against a subsequent ischemia/reperfusion insult. Alterations in cell cycling are also involved in renal ischemic injury. Upregulation of p21, which inhibits cell cycling, appears to allow cellular repair and regeneration, whereas homozygous p21 knockout mice demonstrate enhanced cell necrosis in response to an ischemic insult.
Prolonged duration of the ARF clinical course and the need for dialysis are major factors projecting a poor prognosis. Patients with ARF who require dialysis have a 50–70% mortality rate. Infection and cardiopulmonary complications are the major causes of death in patients with ARF. Excessive fluid administration in patients with established ARF may lead to pulmonary congestion, hypoxia, the need for ventilatory support, pneumonia, and multiorgan dysfunction syndrome, which has an 80–90% mortality rate. Until means to reverse the diminished host defense mechanisms in azotemic patients with clinical ARF are available, every effort should be made to avoid invasive procedures such as the placement of bladder catheters, intravenous lines, and mechanical ventilation. Over and above such supportive care, it may be that combination therapy will be necessary to prevent or attenuate the course of ARF. Such combination therapy must involve agents with potential beneficial effects on vascular tone, tubular obstruction, and inflammation.
Saadat H, et al. Endothelial Nitric Oxide Function and Tubular Injury in Premature Infants. Int J App Sci and Technol 2012; 7(6): 77-81. http://www.ijastnet.com.
The hypothesis proposes that early hypertension is episodic and is mediated by a hyperactive sympathetic nervous system or activated renin-angiotensin system.
Cell membrane alterations
Hypotheses linking abnormal ionic fluxes to increased peripheral resistance through increase in cell sodium, calcium, or pH. The hypertension that is more common in obese people may arise in large part from the insulin resistance and resultant hyperinsulinaemia that results from the increased mass of fat. However, rather unexpectedly, insulin resistance may also be involved in hypertension in non-obese people.
Overall scheme for the mechanisms by which obesity, if predominantly upper body or visceral in location, could promote
The explanation for insulin resistance found in as many as half of nonobese hypertensive is not obvious and may involve one or more aspects of insulin’s action
This study investigated the involvement of nitric oxide (NO) into the irradiation-induced increase of cell attachment. These experiments explored the cellular mechanisms of low-power laser therapy. HeLa cells were irradiated with a monochromatic visible-tonear infrared radiation (600–860 nm, 52 J/m2) or with a diode laser (820 nm, 8–120 J/m2) and the number of cells attached to a glass matrix was counted after 30 minute incubation at 37oC. The NO donors
sodium nitroprusside (SNP),
glyceryl trinitrate (GTN), or
sodium nitrite (NaNO2)
were added to the cellular suspension before or after irradiation. The action spectra and the concentration and fluence dependencies obtained were compared and analyzed.
The well-structured action spectrum for the increase of the adhesion of the cells, with maxima at 619, 657, 675, 740, 760, and 820 nm, points to the existence of a photoacceptor responsible for the enhancement of this property (supposedly cytochrome c oxidase, the terminal respiratory chain enzyme), as well as signaling pathways between the cell mitochondria, plasma membrane, and nucleus.
Treating the cellular suspension with SNP before irradiation significantly modifies the action spectrum for the enhancement of the cell attachment property (band maxima at 642, 685, 700, 742, 842, and 856 nm). The action of SNP, GTN, andNaNO2 added before or after irradiation depends on their concentration and radiation fluence.
The NO donors added to the cellular suspension before irradiation eliminate the radiation induced increase in the number of cells attached to the glass matrix, supposedly by way of binding NO to cytochrome c oxidase. NO added to the suspension after irradiation can also inhibit the light-induced signal downstream. Both effects of NO depend on the concentration of the NO donors added.
The results indicate that NO can control the irradiation-activated reactions that increase the attachment of cells.
IFNa-2b (IFN-a) effect on barrier function of renal tubular epithelium
IFNa treatment can be accompanied by impaired renal function and capillary leak. This study shows IFNa produced dose-dependent and time-dependent decrease in transepithelial resistance (TER) ameliorated by tyrphostin, an inhibitor of phosphotyrosine kinase with increased expression of occludin and E-cadherin. In conclusion, IFNa can directly affect barrier function in renal epithelial cells via ovewrexpression or missorting of the junctional proteins occludin and E-cadherin.
The pathophysiology of acute renal failure (ARF) is complex and not well understood. Numerous models of ARF suggest that oxygen-derived reactive species are important in renal ischemia-reperfusion (I-R) injury, but the nature of the mediators is still controversial. Treatment with oxygen radical scavengers, antioxidants, and iron chelators such as
superoxide dismutase,
dimethylthiourea,
allopurinol, and
deferoxamine
are protective in some models, and suggest a role for the hydroxyl radical formation. However, these compounds are not protective in all models of I-R injury, and direct evidence for the generation of hydroxyl radical is absent. Furthermore, these inhibitors have another property in common.
They all directly scavenge or inhibit the formation of peroxynitrite (ONOO−), a highly toxic species derived from nitric oxide (NO) and superoxide. Thus, the protective effects seen with these inhibitors may be due in part to their ability to inhibit ONOO− formation. Even though reactive oxygen species are thought to participate in ischemia-reperfusion (I-R) injury, induction of and production of high levels of inducible nitric oxide (NO) also contribute to this injury.
NO combines with superoxide to form the potent oxidant peroxynitrite (ONOO−). NO and ONOO− were investigated in a rat model of renal I-R injury using the selective iNOS inhibitor L-N6-(1-iminoethyl)lysine (L-NIL).
I-R surgery significantly increased plasma creatinine levels to 1.9 ± 0.3 mg/dl (P < .05) and caused renal cortical necrosis. L-NIL administration (3 mg/kg) in animals subjected to I-R significantly decreased plasma creatinine levels to 1.2 ± 0.10 mg/dl (P < .05 compared with I-R) and reduced tubular damage.
ONOO− formation was evaluated by detecting 3-nitrotyrosine-protein adducts (3NTyPAs), a stable biomarker of ONOO− formation. The kidneys from I-R animals had increased levels of 3NTyPAs compared with control animals L-NIL-treated rats (3 mg/kg) subjected to I-R showed decreased levels of 3NTyPAs.
These results suggests that iNOS-generated NO mediates damage in I-R injury possibly through ONOO− formation.
Walker LM, Walker PD, Imam SZ, et al. Evidence for Peroxynitrite Formation in Renal Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury: Studies with the Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase InhibitorL-N6-(1-Iminoethyl)lysine1. 2000.
Role of TNFa independent of iNOS Renal failure is a frequent complication of sepsis, mediated by renal vasoconstrictors and vasodilators. Endotoxin induces several proinflammatory cytokines, among which tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is thought to be of major importance. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) has been suggested to be a factor in the acute renal failure in sepsis or endotoxemia. Passive immunization by anti-TNFa prevented development of septic shock in animal experiments.The development of ARF involves excessive intrarenal vasoconstriction. Involvement of nitric oxide (NO), generated by inducible NO synthase (iNOS), is still a factor in the pathogenesis of endotoxin-induced renal failure. TNF-a leads to a decrease in glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
This study tested the hypothesis that the role of TNF-a in endotoxic shock related ARF is mediated by iNOS-derived NO. An injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) constituent of gram-negative bacteria to wild-type mice resulted in a 70% decrease in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and in a 40% reduction in renal plasma flow (RPF) 16 hours after the injection. The results occurred independent of hypotension, morphological changes, apoptosis, and leukocyte accumulation. In mice pretreated with TNFsRp55, only a 30% decrease in GFR was observedwithout a significant change in RPF as compared with controls. Pretreatment with TNKsRp55 on renal functionWild-type mice were pretreated with TNFsRp55(10 mg/kg IP) for one hour before the administration of 5 mg/kg intraperitoneal endotoxin. GFR and RPF were determined 16 hours thereafter. Data are expressed as mean 6, SEM, N 5 6. *P , 0.05 vs. Control; §P , 0.05 vs. LPS, by ANOVA.
The serum NO concentration was significantly lower in endotoxemic wild-type mice pretreated with TNFsRp55, as compared with untreated endotoxemic wild-type mice. In LPS-injected iNOS knockout mice and wild-type mice treated with a selective iNOS inhibitor, 1400W, the development of renal failure was similar to that in wild-type mice. As in wild-type mice,TNFsRp55 significantly attenuated the decrease in GFR (a 33% decline, as compared with 75% without TNFsRp55) without a significant change in RPF in iNOS knockout mice given LPS. These results demonstrate a role of TNF in the early renal dysfunction (16 h) in a septic mouse model independent of iNOS,
hypotension,
apoptosis,
leukocyte accumulation,and
morphological alterations,
thus suggesting renal hypoperfusion secondary to an imbalance between, as yet to be defined renal vasoconstrictors and vasodilators.
Inflammation plays a major role in the pathophysiology of acute renal failure resulting from ischemia. This review discusses the contribution of
endothelial
epithelial cells and
leukocytes
to this inflammatory response. The roles of cytokines/chemokines in the injury and recovery phase are reviewed. The protection of mouse kidney prior to exposure to ischemia or urinary tract obstruction is a potential model to search for pharmacologic agents to protect the kidney against injury by inflammatory mediators produced by tubular epithelial cells and activated leukocytes in renal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. Tubular epithelia produce
TNF-a,
IL-1,
IL-6,
IL-8,
TGF-b,
MCP-1,
ENA-78,
RANTES, and
fractalkines,
whereas leukocytes produce
TNF-a,
IL-1,
IL-8,
MCP-1,
ROS, and
eicosanoids.
The release of these chemokines and cytokines serve as effectors for a positive feedback pathway enhancing inflammation and cell injury, the cycle of tubular epithelial cell injury and repair following renal ischemia/reperfusion. Tubular epithelia are typically cuboidal in shape and apically-basally polarized; the Na+/K+-ATPase localizes to basolateral plasma membranes, whereas cell adhesion molecules, such as integrins localize basally. In response to ischemia reperfusion,
the Na+/K+-ATPase appears apically, and
integrins are detected on lateral and basal plasma membranes.
Some of the injured epithelial cells undergo necrosis and/or apoptosis detaching from the underlying basement membrane into the tubular space where they contribute to tubular occlusion. Viable cells that remain attached, dedifferentiate, spread, and migrate to repopulate the denuded basement membrane. With cell proliferation, cell-cell and cell-matrix contacts are restored, and the epithelium redifferentiates and repolarizes, forming a functional, normal epithelium Inflammation is a significant component of renal I/R injury, playing a considerable role in its pathophysiology.
Although significant progress has been made in defining the major components of this process, the complex cross-talk between endothelial cells, inflammatory cells, and the injured epithelium with each generating and often responding to cytokines and chemokines is not well understood. In addition, we have not yet taken full advantage of the large body of data on inflammation in other organ systems.
Furthermore, preconditioning the kidney to afford protection to subsequent bouts of ischemia may serve as a useful model challenging us to therapeutically mimic endogenous mechanisms of protection.
Understanding the inflammatory response prevalent in ischemic kidney injury will facilitate identification of molecular targets for therapeutic intervention.
Gene expression profiles in renal proximal tubules In kidney disease renal proximal tubular epithelial cells (RPTEC) actively contribute to the progression of tubulointerstitial fibrosisby mediating both
an inflammatory response and
via epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition.
Using laser capture microdissection we specifically isolated RPTEC from cryosections of the healthy parts of kidneys removed owing to renal cell carcinoma and from kidney biopsies from patients with proteinuric nephropathies. RNA was extracted and hybridized to complementary DNA microarrays after linear RNA amplification. Statistical analysis identified 168 unique genes with known gene ontology association, which separated patients from controls. Besides distinct alterations in signal-transduction pathways (e.g. Wnt signalling), functional annotation revealed a significant upregulation of genes involved in
The study also revealed differential expression of a number of genes responsible for cell adhesion (like BH-protocadherin) with a marked downregulation of most of these transcripts. In summary, the results obtained from RPTEC revealed a differential regulation of genes, which are likely to be involved in either pro-fibrotic or tubulo-protective mechanisms in proteinuric patients at an early stage of kidney disease.
Oxidative stress involved with diabetic nephropathy
Diabetic Nephropathy (DN) poses a major health problem. There is strong evidence for a potential role of the eNOS gene. This case control study investigated the possible role of genetic variants of the endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase (eNOS) gene and oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of nephropathy in patients with diabetes mellitus. The study included 124 diabetic patients;
68 of these patients had no diabetic nephropathy (group 1) while
56 patients exhibited symptoms of diabetic nephropathy (group 2).
Sixty two healthy non-diabetic individuals were also included as a control group.
Blood samples from subjects and controls were analyzed to investigate the eNOS genotypes and to estimate
the lipid profile and
markers of oxidative stress such as malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO).
No significant differences were found in the frequency of eNOS genotypes between diabetic patients (either in group 1 or group 2) and controls (p >0.05). Also, no significant differences were found in the frequency of eNOS genotypes between group 1 and group 2 (p >0.05). Both group 1 and group 2 had significantly higher levels of nitrite and MDA when compared with controls (all p = 0.0001). Also group 2 patients had significantly higher levels of nitrite and MDA when compared with group 1 (p = 0.02, p = 0.001 respectively).
The higher serum level of the markers of oxidative stress in diabetic patients particularly those with diabetic nephropathy suggest that oxidative stress and not the eNOS gene polymorphism is involved in the pathogenesis of the diabetic nephropathy in this subset of patients
Renal ischemia plays an important role in renal impairment and transplantation. Metformin is a biguanide used in type 2 diabetes, it inhibits hepatic glucose production and increases peripheral insulin sensitivity. While the mode of action of metformin is incompletely understood, it appears to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects involved in its beneficial effects on insulin resistance. Control, Sham, ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) and Metformin treated I /R groups A renal I/R injury was done by a left renal pedicle occlusion to induce ischemia for 45 min followed by 60 min of reperfusion with contralateral nephrectomy. Metformin pretreated I/R rats in a dose of 200 mg/kg/day for three weeks before ischemia induction.
Nitric oxide (NO),
tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF α) ,
catalase (CAT) and
reduced glutathione (GSH) activities
were determined in renal tissue, while
creatinine clearance (CrCl) ,
blood urea nitrogen (BUN) were measured and
5 hour urinary volume and electrolytes were estimated . BUN and CrCl levels in the I/R group were significantly higher than in control rats (p<0.05) table (1).
When metformin was administered before I/R, BUN and CrCl levels were still significantly higher than control group but their elevation were significantly lower in comparison to I/R group alone (P<0.05). TNF α and NO levels were significantly higher in the I/R group than those of the control group (Table 2). Pre-treatment with metformin significantly lowered their levels in comparison to I/R group (P<0.05).
These results showed significant increase in NO,TNF α, BUN , CrCl and significant decrease in urinary volume , electrolytes, CAT and GSH activities in the I/R group than those in the control group. Metformin decreased significantly NO, TNF α, BUN and CrCl while increased urinary volume, electrolytes, CAT and GSH activities. Lipid peroxidation is related to I/R induced tissue injury. Production of inducible NO synthase (NOS) under lipid peroxidation and inflammatory conditions results in the induction of NO which react with O2 liberating peroxynitrite (OONO-). NO itself inactivates the antioxidant enzyme system CAT and GSH. Alteration in NO synthesis have been observed in other kidney injuries as nephrotoxicity and acute renal failure induced by endotoxins.
Treatment with iNOS inhibitors improved renal function and decreased peroxynitrite radical which is believed to be responsible for the shedding of proximal convoluted tubules in I/R. Metformin produced anti-inflammatory renoprotective effect on CrCl and diuresis in renal I/R injury.
Possible role of NO donors in ARFThe L-arginine-nitric oxide (NO) pathway has been implicated in many physiological functions in the kidney, including
regulation of glomerular hemodynamics,
mediation of pressure-natriuresis,
maintenance of medullary perfusion,
blunting of tubuloglomerular feedback (TGF),
inhibition of tubular sodium reabsorption and
modulation of renal sympathetic nerve activity
Its net effect in the kidney is to promote natriuresis and diuresis, contributing to adaptation to variations of dietary salt intake and maintenance of normal blood pressure. Nitric oxide has been implicated in many physiologic processes that influence both acute and long-term control of kidney function. Its net effect in the kidney is to promote natriuresis and diuresis, contributing to adaptation to variations of dietary salt intake and maintenance of normal blood pressure. A pretreatment with nitric oxide donors or L-arginine may prevent the ischemic acute renal injury. In chronic kidney diseases, the systolic blood pressure is correlated with the plasma level of asymmetric dimethylarginine, an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase. A reduced production and biological action of nitric oxide is associated with an elevation of arterial pressure, and conversely, an exaggerated activity may represent a compensatory mechanism to mitigate the hypertension.
Acute renal failure (ARF) is a common condition which develops in 5% of hospitalized patients. Of the patients who develop ARF, ~10% eventually require renal replacement therapy. Among critical care patients who have acute renal failure and survive, 2%-10% develop terminal renal failure and require long-term dialysis. The kidneys are particularly susceptible to ischemic injury in many clinical conditions such as renal transplantation, treatment of suprarenal aneurysms, renal artery reconstructions, contrast-agent induced nephropathy, cardiac arrest, and shock. One reason for renal sensitivity to ischemia is that the kidney microvasculature is highly complex and must meet a high energy demand.
Under normal, steady state conditions, the oxygen (O2) supply to the renal tissues is well in excess of oxygen demand. Under pathological conditions, the delicate balance of oxygen supply versus demand is easily disturbed due to the unique arrangement of the renal microvasculature and its increasing numbers of diffusive shunting pathways.
The renal microvasculature is serially organized, with almost all descending vasa recta emerging from the efferent arterioles of the juxtamedullary glomeruli. Adequate tissue oxygenation is thus partially dependent on the maintenance of medullary perfusion by adequate cortical perfusion. This, combined with the low amount of medullary blood flow (~10% of total renal blood flow) in the U-shaped microvasculature of the medulla allows O2 shunting between the descending and ascending vasa recta and contributes to the high sensitivity of the medulla and cortico-medullary junction to decreased O2 supply.
Whereas past investigations have focused mainly on tubular injury as the main cause of ischemia-related acute renal failure, increasing evidence implicates alterations in the intra-renal microcirculation pathway and in the O2 handling. Indeed, although acute tubular necrosis (ATN) has classically been believed to be the leading cause of ARF, data from biopsies in patients with ATN have shown few or no changes consistent with tubular necrosis.
The role played by microvascular dysfunction, however, has generated increasing interest. The complex pathophysiology of ischemic ARF includes the inevitable
reperfusion phase associated with oxidative stress,
cellular dysfunction and
altered signal transduction.
During this process, alterations in oxygen transport pathways can result in cellular hypoxia and/or dysoxia. In this context, the distinction between hypoxia and dysoxiais that
cellular hypoxia refers to the condition of decreased availability of oxygen due to inadequate convective delivery from the microcirculation.
Cellular dysoxia, in contrast, refers to a pathological condition where the ability of mitochondria to perform oxidative phosphorylation is limited, regardless of the amount of available oxygen.
The latter condition is associated with mitochondrial failure and/or activation of alternative pathways for oxygen consumption. Thus, we would expect that an optimal balance between oxygen supply and demand is essential to reducing damage from renal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. Complex interactions exist between
tubular injury,
microvascular injury, and
inflammation after renal I/R.
On the one hand, insults to the tubule cells promotes the liberation of a number of inflammatory mediators, such as TNF-á, IL-6, TGF-â, and chemotactic cytokines(RANTES, monocyte chemotactic protein-1, ENA-78, Gro-á, and IL-8). On the other hand, chemokine production can promote
leukocyte-endothelium interactions and
leukocyte activation,
resulting in…..
renal blood flow impairment and
the expansion of tubular damage
impaired renal hemodynamics and
electrolyte reabsorption
Adequate medullary tissue oxygenation, in terms of balanced oxygen supply and demand, is dependent on the maintenance of medullary perfusion by adequate cortical perfusion and also on the high rate of O2 consumption required for active electrolyte transport. Furthermore, renal blood flow is closely associated with renal sodium transport, mitochondrial activity and NO-mediated O2 consumption In addition to having a limited O2 supply due to the anatomy of the microcirculation anatomy, the sensitivity of the medulla to hypoxic conditions results from this high O2 consumption.
Renal sodium transport is the main O2-consuming function of the kidney and is closely linked to renal blood flow for sodium transport, particularly in the thick ascending limbs of the loop of Henle and the S3 segments of the proximal tubules. Medullary renal blood flow is also highly dependent on cortical perfusion, with almost all descending vasa recta emerging from the efferent arteriole of juxta medullary glomeruli. A profound reduction in cortical perfusion can disrupt medullary blood flow and lead to an imbalance between O2 supply and O2 consumption. On theother hand, inhibition of tubular reabsorption by diuretics increases medullary pO2 by decreasing the activity of Na+/K+-ATPases and local O2 consumption.
Mitochondrial activity and NO-mediated O2 consumption
The medulla has been found to be the main site of production of NO in the kidney. In addition to the actions described above, NO appears to be a key regulator of renal tubule cell metabolism by inhibiting the activity of the Na+-K+-2Cl- cotransporter and reducing Na+/H+ exchange. Since superoxide (O2-) is required to inhibit solute transport activity, it was assumed that these effects were mediated by peroxynitrite (OONO-). Indeed, mitochondrial nNOS upregulation, together with an increase in NO production, has been shown to increase mitochondrial peroxynitrite generation, which in turn, can induce cytochrome c release and promote apoptosis. NO has also been shown to directly compete with O2 at the mitochondrial level. These findings support the idea that NO acts as an endogenous regulator to match O2 supply to O2 consumption, especially in the renal medulla. NO reversibly binds to the O2 binding site of cytochrome oxidase, and acts as a potent, rapidMitochondrial activity and NO-mediated O2 consumption, and reversible inhibitor of cytochrome oxidase in competition with molecular O2. This inhibition could be dependent on the O2 level, since the IC50 (the concentration of NO that reduces the specified response by half) decreases with reduction in O2 concentration. The inhibition of electron flux at the cytochrome oxidase level switches the electron transport chain to a reduced state, and consequently leads to depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane potential and electron leakage.
To summarize, while the NO/O2 ratio can act as a regulator of cellular O2 consumption by matching decreases in O2 delivery to decreases in cellular O2 cellular, the inhibitory effect of NO on mitochondrial respiration under hypoxic conditions further impairs cellular aerobic metabolism. This leads to a state of “cytopathic hypoxia,” as described in the sepsis literature. Only cell-secreted NO competes with O2 and to regulate mitochondrial respiration. In addition to the 3 isoforms (eNOS, iNOS, cnNOS), an α-isoform of neuronal NOS, the mitochondrial isoform (mNOS) located in the inner mitochondrial membrane, has also been shown to regulate mitochondrial respiration. These data support a role for NO in the balanced regulation of renal O2 supply and O2 consumption after renal I/R However, the relationships between the determinants of O2 supply, O2 consumption, and renal function, and their relation to renal damage remain largely unknown.
Sustained endothelial activation Ischemic renal failure leads to persistent endothelial activation, mainly in the form of endothelium-leukocyte interactions and the activation of adhesion molecules. This persistent activation can compromise renal blood flow, prevent the recovery of adequate tissue oxygenation, and jeopardize tubular cell survival despite the initial recovery of renal tubular function. A 30-50% reduction in microvascular density was seen 40 weeks after renal ischemic injury in a rat model. Vascular rarefaction has been proposed to induce chronic hypoxia resulting in tubulointerstitial fibrosis via the molecular activation of fibrogenic factors such as transforming growth factor (TGF)-β, collagen, and fibronectin, all of which may play an important role in the progression of chronic renal disease.
Adaptation to hypoxia Over the last decade, the role of hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) in O2 supply and adaptation to hypoxic conditions has found increasing support. HIFs are O2-sensitive transcription factors involved in O2-dependent gene regulation that mediate cellular adaptation to O2 deprivation and tissue protection under hypoxic conditions in the kidney. NO generation can promote HIF-1α accumulation in a cGMP-independent manner. However, Hagen et al. (2003) showed that NO may reduce the activation of HIF in hypoxia via the inhibitory effect of NO on cytochrome oxidase.
Therefore, it seems that NO has pleiotropic effects on HIF expression, with various responses related to different pathways. HIF-1α upregulates a number of factors implicated in cytoprotection, including angiogenic growth factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGF), endothelial progenitor cell recruitment via the endothelial expression of SDF-1, heme-oxygenase-1 (HO-1), and erythropoietin (EPO), and vasomotor regulation.
HO-1 produces carbon monoxide (a potent vasodilator) while degrading heme, which may preserve tissue blood flow during reperfusion. Thus, it has been suggested that the induction of HO-1 can protect the kidney from ischemic damage by decreasing oxidative damage and NO generation.
Finally, in addition to its anti-apoptotic properties, EPO may protect the kidney from ischemic damage by restoring the renal microcirculation by stimulating the mobilization and differentiation of progenitor cells toward an endothelial phenotype and by inducing NO release from eNOS.
Pharmacological interventions
Use of pharmacological interventions which act at the microcirculatory level may be a successful strategy to overcome ischemia-induced vascular damage and prevent ARF. Activated protein C (APC), an endogenous vitamin K-dependent serine protease with multiple biological activities, may meet these criteria. Along with antithrombotic and profibrinolytic properties, APC can reduce the chemotaxis and interactions of leukocytes with activated endothelium.
However, renal dysfunction was not improved in the largest study published so far. In addition, APC has been discontinued by Lilly for the use intended in severe sepsis. Moreover, neither drugs with renal vasodilatory effects (i.e., dopamine, fenoldopam, endothelin receptors blockers, adenosine antagonists) nor agents that decrease renal oxygen consumption (i.e., loop diuretics) have been shown to protect the kidney from ischemic damage. We have to bear in mind that a magic bullet to treat the highly complex condition of which is renal I/R is not in sight.
We can expect that understanding the balance between O2 delivery and O2 consumption, as well as the function of O2-consuming pathways (i.e., mitochondrial function, reactive oxygen species generation) will be central to this treatment strategy.
Take home point
The deleterious effects of NO are thought to be associated with the NO generated by the induction of iNOS and its contribution to oxidative stress both resulting in vascular dysfunction and tissue damage. Ischemic injury also leads to structural damage to the endothelium and leukocyte infiltration. Consequently, renal tissue hypoxia is proposed to promote the initial tubular damage, leading to acute organ dysfunction. Comment: I express great appreciation for refeering to this work, which does provide enormous new insights into hypoxia-induced acute renal failure, and ties together the anatomy, physiology, and gene regulation through signaling pathways.
Nitric oxide and non-hemodynamic functions of the kidney
One of the major scientific advances in the past decade in understanding of the renal function and disease is the prolific growth of literature incriminating nitric oxide (NO) in renal physiology and pathophysiology. NO was first shown to be identical with endothelial derived relaxing factor (EDRF) in 1987 and this was followed by a rapid flurry of information defining the significance of NO in not only vascular physiology and hemodynamics but also in neurotransmission, inflammation and immune defense systems. Although most actions of NO are mediated by cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) signaling, S-nitrosylation of cysteine residues in target proteins constitutes another well defined non-cGMP dependent mechanism of NO effects. Recent years have witnessed a phenomenal scientific interest in the vascular biology, particularly the relevance of nitric oxide (NO) in cardiovascular and renal physiology and pathophysiology. Although hemodynamic actions of NO received initial attention, a variety of non-hemodynamic actions are now known to be mediated by NO in the normal kidney, which include
tubular transport of electrolyte and water,
maintenance of acid-base homeostasis,
modulation of glomerular and interstitial functions,
renin-angiotensin activation and
regulation of immune defense mechanism in the kidney.
One of the renal regulatory mechanisms related to maintenance of arterial blood pressure involves the phenomenon of pressure-natriuresis in response to elevation of arterial pressure. This effect implies inhibition of tubular sodium reabsorption resulting in natriuresis, in an effort to lower arterial pressure. Experimental evidence from indicates that intra-renal NO modulates pressure natriuresis.
Furthermore many studies have confirmed the role of intra renal NO in mediating tubulo-glomerular feedback (TGF). In vivo micropuncture studies have shown that NO derived from nNOS in macula densa specifically inhibits the TGF responses leading to renal afferent arteriolar vasoconstriction in response to sodium reabsorption in the distal tubule. Other recent studies support the inhibitory role of NO from eNOS and iNOS in mTALH segment on TGF effects.
Recent observations in vascular biology have yielded new information that endothelial dysfunction early in the course might contribute to the pathophysiology of acute renal failure. Structural and functional changes in the vascular endothelium are demonstrable in early ischemic renal failure. Altered NO production and /or decreased bioavailability of NO comprise the endothelial function in acute renal failure.
Several studies have indicated imbalance of NOS activity with enhanced expression and activity of iNOS and decreased eNOS in ischemic kidneys.
The imbalance results from enhanced iNOS activity and attenuated eNOS activity in the kidney.
Many experimental studies support a contributory role for NO in glomerulonephritis (GN). Evidence from recent studies pointed out that NO may be involved in peroxynitrite formation, pro-inflammatory chemokines and signaling pathways in addition to direct glomerular effects that promote albumin permeability in GN. Although originally macrophages and other leukocytes were first considered as the source renal NO production in GN, it is now clear iNOS derived NO from glomerular mesangial cells are the primary source of NO in GN.
In most pathological states, the role of NO is dependent by the stage of the disease, the nitric oxide synthase (NOS) isoform involved and the presence or absence of other modifying intrarenal factors. Additionally NO may have a dual role in several disease states of the kidney such as acute renal failure, inflammatory nephritides, diabetic nephropathy and transplant rejection.
A rapidly growing body of evidence supports a critical role for NO in tubulointerstitial nephritis (TIN). In the rat model of autoimmune TIN, Gabbai et al. demonstrated increased iNOS expression in the kidney and NO metabolites in urine and plasma. However the effects of iNOS on renal damage in TIN seem to have a biphasic effect- since iNOS specific inhibitors (eg. L-Nil) are renoprotectivein the acute phase while they actually accelerated the renal damage in the chronic phase.
Thus chronic NOS inhibition is used to induce chronic tubulointerstitial injury and fibrosis along with mild glomerulosclerosis and hypertension.
Major pathways of L-arginine metabolism.
L-arginine may be metabolized by the urea cycle enzyme arginase to L-ornithine and urea by arginine decarboxylase to agmatine and CO2 or by NOS to nitric oxide (NO) and L-citrulline.
Adapted from Klahr S: Can L-arginine manipulation reduce renal disease? Semin Nephrol 1999; 61:304-309.
It is obvious that kidney is not only a major source of arginine and nitric oxide but NO plays an important role in the water and electrolyte balance and acid-base physiology and many other homeostatic functions in the kidney. Unfortunately we are far from a precise understanding of the significance of NO alterations in various disease states primarily due to conflicting data from the existing literature.
Therapeutic potential for manipulation of L-arginine- nitric oxide axis in renal disease states has been discussed. More studies are required to elucidate the abnormalities in NO metabolism in renal diseases and to confirm the therapeutic potential of L-arginine.
Excess NO generation plays a major role in the hypotension and systemic vasodilatation characteristic of sepsis. Yet the kidney response to sepsis is characterized by vasoconstriction resulting in renal dysfunction. We have examined the roles of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and endothelial NOS (eNOS) on the renal effects of lipopolysaccharide administration by comparing the effects of specific iNOS inhibition, L-N6-(1-iminoethyl)lysine (L-NIL), and 2,4-diamino-6-hydroxy-pyrimidine vs. nonspecific NOS inhibitors (nitro-L-arginine-methylester). cGMP responses to carbamylcholine (CCh) (stimulated, basal) and sodium nitroprusside in isolated glomeruli were used as indices of eNOS and guanylate cyclase (GC) activity, respectively. LPS significantly decreased blood pressure and GFR (P =0.05) and inhibited the cGMP response to CCh.
GC activity was reciprocally increased. L-NIL and 2,4-diamino-6-hydroxy-pyrimidine administration prevented the decrease in GFR, restored the normal response to CCh, and GC activity was normalized. In vitro application of L-NIL also restored CCh responses in LPS glomeruli. Neuronal NOS inhibitors verified that CCh responses reflected eNOS activity.
L-NAME, a nonspecific inhibitor, worsened GFR, a reduction that was functional and not related to glomerular thrombosis, and eliminated the CCh response. No differences were observed in eNOS mRNA expression among the experimental groups. Selective iNOS inhibition prevents reductions in GFR, whereas nonselective inhibition of NOS further decreases GFR.
These findings suggest that the decrease in GFR after LPS is due to local inhibition of eNOS by iNOS, possibly via NO autoinhibition.
Salt-Sensitivity and Hypertension Renin-angiotensin system (RAS) plays a key role in the regulation of renal function, volume of extracellular fluid and blood pressure. The activation of RAS also induces oxidative stress, particularly superoxide anion (O2-) formation.
Although the involvement of O2 – production in the pathology of many diseases is known for long, recent studies also strongly suggest its physiological regulatory function of many organs including the kidney. However, a marked accumulation of O2- in the kidney alters normal regulation of renal function and may contribute to the development of salt-sensitivity and hypertension.
In the kidney, O2- acts as vasoconstrictor and enhances tubular sodium reabsoption. Nitric oxide (NO), another important radical that exhibits opposite effects than O2 -, is also involved in the regulation of kidney function. O2- rapidly interacts with NO and thus, when O2- production increases, it diminishes the bioavailability of NO leading to the impairment of organ function. As the activation of RAS, particularly the enhanced production of angiotensin II, can induce both O2- and NO generation, it has been suggested that physiological interactions of
RAS,
NO and
O2-
provide a coordinated regulation of kidney function. The imbalance of these interactions is critically linked to the pathophysiology of salt-sensitivity and hypertension.
In this review I attempted to evaluate complex and still incomplete and conflicting conclusions from many studies. I thus broke the report into three major portions:
1 The kidney and its anatomy, physiology, and ontogeny.
2 The pathological disease variation affecting the kidney
a: a tie in to eNON and iNos, nitric oxide, cGMP and glutaminase – in acute renal failure, hypertension, chronic renal failure, dialysis the pathology of acute tubular necrosis, glomerular function, efferent arteriolar and kidney medullary circulatory impairment, and cast formation related to Tamm Horsfall protein
b :The role of NO, eNOS and iNOS in disorders of the lund alveolar cell and subendothelial matrix, and of liver disease also affecting the kidney, and the heart. c Additional references
3 b Additional references 4. Nitric oxide donors – opportunities for therapeutic targeting? As we see this in as full a context as possible, it is hard to distinguish the cart from the horse.
We know that there is an unquestionable role of NO, and a competing balance to be achieved between eNOS, iNOS, an effect on tubular water and ion-cation reabsorptrion, a role of TNFa, and consequently an important role in essential/malignant hypertension, with the size of the effect related to the stage of disorder, the amount of interstitial fibrosis, the remaining nephron population, the hypertonicity of the medulla, the vasodilation of the medullary circulation, and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Substantial data and multiple patients with many factors per patient would be need to extract the best model using a supercomputer.
Treating the diverse effects of NO on platelets, the coagulation cascade, and protein-membrane interactions with low flow states, local and systemic inflammatory disease, oxidative stress, and hematologic disorders. It is highly complex as the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic pathways become blurred as a result of endothelial shear stress, distinctly different than penetrating or traumatic injury. In addition, other factors that come into play are also considered.
The workhorse tests of the modern coagulation laboratory, the prothrombin time (PT) and the activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), are the basis for the published extrinsic and intrinsic coagulation pathways. This is, however, a much simpler model than one encounters delving into the mechanism and interactions involved in hemostasis and thrombosis, or in hemorrhagic disorders.
We first note that there are three components of the hemostatic system in all vertebrates:
Platelets,
vascular endothelium, and
plasma proteins.
The liver is the largest synthetic organ, which synthesizes
albumin,
acute phase proteins,
hormonal and metal binding proteins,
albumin,
IGF-1, and
prothrombin, mainly responsible for the distinction between plasma and serum (defibrinated plasma).
Role of vascular endothelium.
I have identified the importance of prothrombin, thrombin, and the divalent cation Ca 2+ (1% of the total body pool), mention of heparin action, and of vitamin K (inhibited by warfarin). Endothelial functions are inherently related to procoagulation and anticoagulation. The subendothelial matrix is a complex of many materials, most important related to coagulation being collagen and von Willebrand factor.
What about extrinsic and intrinsic pathways? Tissue factor, when bound to factor VIIa, is the major activator of the extrinsic pathway of coagulation. Classically, tissue factor is not present in the plasma but only presented on cell surfaces at a wound site, which is “extrinsic” to the circulation. Or is it that simple?
Endothelium is the major synthetic and storage site for von Willebrand factor (vWF). vWF is…
secreted from the endothelial cell both into the plasma and also
abluminally into the subendothelial matrix, and
acts as the intercellular glue binding platelets to one another and also to the subendothelial matrix at an injury site.
acts as a carrier protein for factor VIII (antihemophilic factor).
It binds to the platelet glycoprotein Ib/IX/V receptor and
mediates platelet adhesion to the vascular wall under shear. [Lefkowitz JB. Coagulation Pathway and Physiology. Chapter I. in Hemostasis Physiology. In ( ???), pp1-12].
Ca++ and phospholipids are necessary for all of the reactions that result in the activation of prothrombin to thrombin. Coagulation is initiated by an extrinsic mechanism that
generates small amounts of factor Xa, which in turn
activates small amounts of thrombin.
The tissue factor/factorVIIa proteolysis of factor X is quickly inhibited by tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI).The small amounts of thrombin generated from the initial activation feedback
to create activated cofactors, factors Va and VIIIa, which in turn help to
generate more thrombin.
Tissue factor/factor VIIa is also capable of indirectly activating factor X through the activation of factor IX to factor IXa.
Finally, as more thrombin is created, it activates factor XI to factor XIa, thereby enhancing the ability to ultimately make more thrombin.
The reconceptualization of hemostasis
The common theme in activation and regulation of plasma coagulation is the reduction indimensionality. Most reactions take place in a 2D world that will increase the efficiency of the reactions dramatically. The localization and timing of the coagulation processes are also dependent on the formation of protein complexes on the surface of membranes. The coagulation processes can also be controlled by certain drugs that destroy the membrane binding ability of some coagulation proteins – these proteins will be lost in the 3D world and not able to form procoagulant complexes on surfaces.
Assembly of proteins on membranes – making a 3D world flat
• The timing and efficiency of coagulation processes are handled by reduction in dimensionality
– Make 3 dimensions to 2 dimensions
• Coagulation proteins have membrane binding capacity
• Membranes provide non-coagulant and procoagulant surfaces
– Intact cells/activated cells
• Membrane binding is a target for anticoagulant drugs
– Anti-vitamin K (e.g. warfarin)
Modern View
It can be divided into the phases of initiation, amplification and propagation.
In the initiation phase, small amounts of thrombin can be formed after exposure of tissue factor to blood.
In the amplification phase, the traces of thrombin will be inactivated or used for amplification of the coagulation process.
At this stage there is not enough thrombin to form insoluble fibrin. In order to proceed further thrombin activates platelets, which provide a procoagulant surface for the coagulation factors. Thrombin will also activate the vital cofactors V and VIII that will assemble on the surface of activated platelets. Thrombin can also activate factor XI, which is important in a feedback mechanism.
In the final step, the propagation phase, the highly efficient tenase and prothrombinase complexes have been assembled on the membrane surface. This yields large amounts of thrombin at the site of injury that can cleave fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin. Factor XI activation by thrombin then activates factor IX, which leads to the formation of more tenase complexes. This ensures enough thrombin is formed, despite regulation of the initiating TF-FVIIa complex, thus ensuring formation of a stable fibrin clot. Factor XIII stabilizes the fibrin clot through crosslinking when activated by thrombin.
Platelet Aggregation
The activities of adenylate and guanylate cyclase and cyclic nucleotide 3′:5′-phosphodiesterase were determined during the aggregation of human blood platelets with
The platelet guanylate cyclase activity during aggregation depends on the nature and mode of action of the inducing agent.
The membrane adenylate cyclase activity during aggregation is independent of the aggregating agent and is associated with a reduction of activity and
Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase remains unchanged during the process of platelet aggregation and release.
The role of platelets in arterial thrombosis
Formation of a thrombus on a ruptured plaque is the product of a complex interaction between coagulation factors in the plasma and platelets.
Tissue factor (TF) released from the subendothelial tissue after endothelial damage induces a cascade of activation of coagulation factors ultimately leading to the formation of thrombin.
Thrombin cleaves fibrinogen to fibrin, which assembles into a mesh that supports the platelet aggregates.
The Platelet
The platelets are …
anucleated,
discoid shaped cell fragments
originating from megakaryocytes
fragmented as they are released from the bone marrow
Whether they can in circumstances be developed at extramedullary sites (liver sinusoid) is another matter. They have a lifespan of 7-10 days. Of special interest is:
They have a network of internal membranes forming a dense tubular system and the open canalicular system (OCS).
The plasma membrane is an extension of the OCS, thereby greatly increasing the surface area of the platelet.
The dense tubular system is comparable to the endoplasmatic reticulum in other cell types and is the main storage place of the majority of the platelet’s Ca2+.
Three types of secretory granules exist in platelets:
the dense granules
In the dense granules serotonin
adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and
Ca2+ are stored.
a-granules contain
P-selectin,
fibrinogen,
thrombospondin,
Von Willebrand Factor,
platelet factor 4 and
platelet derived growth factor
lysosomes.
Circulating platelets are kept in a resting state by endothelial cell derived
prostacyclin (PGI2) and
nitric oxide (NO).
PGI2 increases cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), the most potent platelet inhibitor.
Contact activation
The major regulator of the activation of the contact system is the plasma protease inhibitor, C1-INH, which inhibits activated fXII, kallikrein and fXIa. In addition, α2-macroglobulin is an important inhibitor of kallikrein and α1-antitrypsin for fXIa. Factor XII also converts the fXI to an active enzyme, fXIa, which, in turn, converts fIX to fIXa, thereby activating the intrinsic pathway of coagulation.
Activation
Several agonists can activate platelets;
ADP,
collagen,
thromboxane A2 (TxA2),
epinephrin,
serotonine and
thrombin,
which lead to activation previously referred to:
platelet shape change is
followed by aggregation and
granule secretion.
Upon activation the discoid shape changes into a spherical form.
Activation of platelets is increased by two positive feedback loops
arachidonic acid is cleaved from phospholipids and transformed by cyclooxygenase
(COX) to prostaglandin G2 and H2,
followed by the formation of TxA2, a potent platelet agonist.
2. the secretion of ADP by the dense granules,
resulting in activation of the ADP receptor P2Y12.
This causes inhibition of cyclic AMP and sustained aggregation.
Aggregation
The integrin receptor αIIbβ3 plays a vital role in platelet aggregation. The platelet agonists
induce a conformational change of the αIIbβ3 receptor and
exposition of binding domains for fibrinogen and von Willebrand Factor.
This allows cross-linking of platelets and the formation of aggregates.
In addition to shape change and aggregation, the membranes of the α- and dense granules fuse with the membranes of the OCS. This causes the release of their contents and the transportation of proteins embedded in their membrane to the plasma membrane.
This complex interaction between
endothelial cells
clotting factors
platelets and
other factors and cells
can be studied in both in vitro and in vivo model systems. The disadvantage of in vitro assays is that it studies the role of a certain protein or cell in isolation. Given the large number of participants and the complex interactions of thrombus formation there is need to study thrombosis and hemostasis in intact living animals, with all the components important for thrombus formation – a vessel wall and flowing blood – present.
Endothelial Damage and Role as “Primer”
Endothelial injury changes the permeability of the arterial wall.
This is followed by an influx of low-density lipoprotein (LDL).
This elicits an inflammatory response in the vascular wall.
Monocytes and T-cells bind to the endothelial cells promoting increased migration of the cells into the intima layer
The monocytes differentiate into macrophages, which take up modified lipoproteins and transform them into foam cells.
Concurrent with this process macrophages produce cytokines and proteases.
This is a vicious circle of lipid driven inflammation that leads to narrowing of the vessel’s lumen without early clinical consequences. Clinical manifestations of more advanced atherosclerotic disease are caused by destabilization of an atherosclerotic plaque formed as described.
The first recognizable lesion of the stable atherosclerotic plaque is the fatty streak, which consists of the above described foam cells and T-lymphocytes in the intima.
Further development of the lesion leads to the intermediate lesion, composed
of layers of macrophages and smooth muscle cells.
A more advanced stage is called the vulnerable plaque.
It has a large lipid core that is covered by a thin fibrous cap.
This cap separates the lipid contents of the plaque from the circulating blood.
The vulnerable plaque is prone to rupture, resulting in the formation of a thrombus on the site of disruption or the thrombus can be superimposed on plaque erosion without signs of plaque rupture.
The formation of a superimposed thrombus on a disrupted atherosclerotic plaque in the lumen of the artery leads to
an acute occlusion of the vessel
hypoxia of the downstream tissue.
Depending on the location of the atherosclerotic plaque this will cause a myocardial infarction, stroke or peripheral vascular disease.
Endothelial regulation of coagulation
The endothelium attenuates platelet activity by releasing
nitric oxide and
prostacyclin.
Several coagulation inhibitors are produced by endothelial cells.
Endothelium-derived TFPI (on its surface) is rapidly released into circulation after heparin administration, reducing the pro-coagulant activities of TF-fVIIa. Endothelial cells also secrete heparin-sulphate, a glycosaminoglycan which catalyzes anti-coagulant activity of AT. Plasma AT binds to heparin-sulphate located on the luminal surface and in the basement membrane of the endothelium. Thrombomodulin is another endothelium-bound protein with anti-coagulant and anti-inflammatory functions. In response to systemic pro-coagulant stimuli, tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA) is transiently released from the Weibel-Palade bodies of endothelial cells to promote fibrinolysis. Downstream of the vascular injury, the complex of TF-fVIIa/fXa is inhibited by TFPI. Plasma (free) fXa and thrombin are rapidly neutralized by heparan-bound AT. Thrombin is also taken up by endothelial surface-bound thrombomodulin.
The protein C pathway works in hemostasis to control thrombin formation in the area surrounding the clot. Thrombin, generated via the coagulation pathway, is localized to the endothelium by binding to the integral membrane protein, thrombomodulin (TM). TM by occupying exosite I on thrombin, which is required for fibrinogen binding and cleavage, reduces thrombin’s pro-coagulant activities. TM bound thrombin on the endothelial cell surface is able to cleave PC producing activated protein C (APC), a serine protease. In the presence of protein S, APC inactivates FVa and FVIIIa. The proteolytic activity of APC is regulated predominantly by a protein C inhibitor.
Fibrinolytic pathway
Fibrinolysis is the physiological breakdown of fibrin to limit and resolve blood clots. Fibrin is degraded primarily by the serine protease, plasmin, which circulates as plasminogen. In an auto-regulatory manner, fibrin serves as both the co-factor for the activation of plasminogen and the substrate for plasmin. In the presence of fibrin, tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) cleaves plasminogen producing plasmin, which proteolyzes the fibrin. This reaction produces the protein fragment D-dimer, which is a useful marker of fibrinolysis, and a marker of thrombin activity because fibrin is cleaved from fibrinogen to fibrin.
Nitric Oxide and Platelet Energy Production
Nitric oxide (NO) has been increasingly recognized as an important intra- and intercellular messenger molecule with a physiological role in
vascular relaxation
platelet physiology
neurotransmission and
immune responses.
In vitro NO is a strong inhibitor of platelet adhesion and aggregation. In the blood stream, platelets remain in contact with NO that is permanently released from the endothelial cells and from activated macrophages. It has been suggested that the activated platelet itself is able to produce NO. It has been proposed that the main intracellular target for NO in platelets is soluble cytosolic guanylate cyclase. NO activates the enzyme. When activated, intracellular cGMP elevation inhibits platelet activation. Further, elevated cGMP may not be the sole factor directly involved in the inhibition of platelet activation.
The reaction mechanism of Nitric oxide synthase (Photo credit: Wikipedia)
Platelets are fairly active metabolically and have a total ATP turnover rate of about 3–8 times that of resting mammalian muscle. Platelets contain mitochondria which enable these cells to produce energy both in the oxidative and anaerobic pathways.
Under aerobic conditions, ATP is produced by aerobic glycolysis which can account for 30–50% of total ATP production,
by oxidative metabolism using glucose and glycogen (6–11%), amino-acids (7%) or free fatty acids (20–40%).
The inhibition of mitochondrial respiration by removing oxygen or by respiratory chain blockers (antimycin A, cyanide, rotenone) results in the stimulation of glycolytic flux. This phenomenon indicates that in platelets glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration are tightly functionally connected. It has been reported that the activation of human platelets by high concentration of thrombin is accompanied by an acceleration of lactate production and an increase in oxygen consumption.
The results (in porcine platelets) indicate that:
NO is able to diminish mitochondrial energy production through the inhibition of cytochrome oxidase
The inhibitory effect of NO on platelet secretion (but not aggregation) can be attributed to the reduction of mitochondrial energy production.
Porcine blood platelets stimulated by collagen produce more lactate. This indicates that both glycolytic and oxidative ATP production supports platelet responses, and blocking of energy production in platelets may decrease their responses. It is well established that platelet responses have different metabolic energy (ATP) requirements increasing in the order:
Aggregation
< dense and alfa granule secretion
< acid hydrolase secretion.
In addition, exogenously added NO (in the form of NO donors) stimulates glycolysis in intact porcine platelets. Since in platelets glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration are tightly functionally connected, this indicates the stimulatory effect of NO on glycolysis in intact platelets may be produced by non-functional mitochondria.
Can this be the case?
NO donors are able to inhibit both mitochondrial respiration and platelet cytochrome oxidase.
Interestingly, the concentrations of NO donors inhibiting mitochondrial respiration and cytochrome oxidase were similar to those stimulating glycolysis in intact platelets.
Studies have shown that mitochondrial complex I is inhibited only after a prolonged (6–18 h) exposure to NO and
This inhibition appears to result from S-nitrosylation of critical thiols in the enzyme complex.
Further studies are needed to establish whether long term exposure of platelets to NO affects Mitochondrial complexes I and II.
Comparison of the concentrations of SNAP and SNP affecting cytochrome oxidase activity and mitochondrial respiration with those reducing the platelet responses indicates that NO does not reduce platelet aggregation through the inhibition of oxidative energy production. The concentrations of the NO donors inhibiting platelet secretion, mitochondrial respiration and cytochrome oxidase were similar. Thus, the platelet release reaction strongly depends on the oxidative energy production, and in porcine platelets NO inhibits mitochondrial energy production at the step of cytochrome oxidase.
Taking into account that platelets may contain NO synthase and are able to produce significant amounts of NO it seems possible that nitric oxide can function in these cells as a physiological regulator of mitochondrial energy production.
Key words: glycolysis, mitochondrial energy production, nitric oxide, porcine platelets.
Abbreviations: NO, nitric oxide; SNAP, S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicyllamine; SNP, sodium nitroprusside.
The adhesion of human platelets to monolayers of bovine endothelial cells in culture was studied to determine the role of endothelium-derived nitric oxide in the regulation of platelet adhesion. The adhesion of unstimulated and thrombin-stimulated platelets, washed and labelled with indium-111, was lower in the presence than in the absence of bradykinin or exogenous nitric oxide. The inhibitory action of both bradykinin and nitric oxide was abolished by hemoglobin, but not by aspirin, and was potentiated by superoxide dismutase to a similar degree. It appears that the effect of bradykinin is mediated by the release of nitric oxide from the endothelial cells, and that nitric oxide release contributes to the non-adhesive properties of vascular endothelium.
1 The interactions between endothelium-derived nitric oxide (NO) and prostacyclin as inhibitors of platelet aggregation were examined to determine whether release of NO accounts for the inhibition of platelet aggregation attributed to EDRF.
2 Porcine aortic endothelial cells treated with indomethacin and stimulated with bradykinin (10-100 nM) released NO in quantities sufficient to account for the inhibition of platelet aggregation attributed to endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF).
3 In the absence of indomethacin, stimulation of the cells with bradykinin (1-3 nM) released small amounts of prostacyclin and EDRF which synergistically inhibited platelet aggregation.
4 EDRF and authentic NO also caused disaggregation of platelets aggregated either with collagen or with U46619.
5 A reciprocal potentiation of both the anti- and the disaggregating activity was also observed between low concentrations of prostacyclin and authentic NO or EDRF released from endothelial cells.
6 It is likely that interactions between prostacyclin and NO released by the endothelium play a role in the homeostatic regulation of platelet-vessel wall interactions.
Although primarily recognized for maintaining the hemostatic balance, blood proteases of the coagulation and fibrinolytic cascades elicit rapid cellular responses in
vascular
mesenchymal
inflammatory cell types.
Considerable effort has been devoted to elucidate the molecular interface between protease-dependent signaling and pleiotropic cellular responses. This led to the identification of several membrane protease receptors, initiating intracellular signal transduction and effector functions in vascular cells. In this context, thrombin receptor activation
generated second messengers in endothelium and smooth muscle cells,
released inflammatory cytokines from monocytes, fibroblasts, and endothelium, and
increased the expression of leukocyte-endothelial cell adhesion molecules.
Similarly, binding of factor Xa to effector cell protease receptor-1 (EPR-1) participated in
in vivo acute inflammatory responses,
platelet and brain pericyte prothrombinase activity, and
endothelial cell and smooth muscle cell signaling and proliferation.
Factor Xa stimulated a 5- to 10-fold increased release of nitric oxide (NO) in a dose-dependent reaction (0.1–2.5 mgyml) unaffected by the thrombin inhibitor hirudin but abolished by active site inhibitors, tick anticoagulant peptide, or Glu-Gly-Arg-chloromethyl ketone. In contrast, the homologous clotting protease factor IXa or another endothelial cell ligand, fibrinogen, was ineffective.
A factor Xa inter-epidermal growth factor synthetic peptide L83FTRKL88(G) blocking ligand binding to effector cell protease receptor-1 inhibited NO release by factor Xa in a dose-dependent manner, whereas a control scrambled peptide KFTGRLL was ineffective.
Catalytically active factor Xa induced hypotension in rats and vasorelaxation in the isolated rat mesentery, which was blocked by the NO synthase inhibitor L-NG-nitroarginine methyl ester (LNAME) but not by D-NAME. Factor Xa/NO signaling also produced a dose-dependent endothelial cell release of interleukin 6 (range 0.55–3.1 ngyml) in a reaction
inhibited by L-NAME and by the
inter-epidermal growth factor peptide Leu83–Leu88 but
unaffected by hirudin.
We observe that incubation of HUVEC monolayers with factor Xa which resulted in a concentration-dependent release of NO, as determined by cGMP accumulation in these cells, was inhibited by the nitric oxide synthase antagonist L-NAME.
Catalytically inactive DEGR-factor Xa or TAP-treated factor Xa failed to stimulate NO release by HUVEC.
To determine whether factor Xa-induced NO release could also modulate acute phase/inflammatory cytokine gene expression we examined potential changes in IL-6 release following HUVEC stimulation with factor Xa. HUVEC stimulation with factor Xa resulted in a concentration-dependent release of IL-6.
The specificity of factor Xa-induced cytokine release was investigated. Factor Xa-induced IL-6 release from HUVEC was quantitatively indistinguishable from that obtained with tumor necrosis factor-a or thrombin stimulation. This response was abolished by heat denaturation of factor Xa.
Maximal induction of interleukin 6 mRNA required a brief, 30-min stimulation with factor Xa, and was unaffected by subsequent addition of tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI). These data suggest that factor Xa-induced NO release modulates endothelial cell-dependent vasorelaxation and IL-6 cytokine gene expression.
Here, we find that factor Xa induces the release of endothelial cell NO
regulating vasorelaxation in vivo and acute response cytokine gene expression in vitro.
This pathway requires a dual step cascade, involving
binding of factor Xa to EPR-1 and
a secondary as yet unidentified protease activated mechanism.
This pathway requiring factor Xa binding to effector cell protease receptor-1 and a secondary step of ligand-dependent proteolysis may preserve an anti-thrombotic phenotype of endothelium but also trigger acute phase responses during activation of coagulation in vivo.
In summary, these investigators have identified a signaling pathway centered on the ability of factor Xa to rapidly stimulate endothelial cell NO release. This involves a two-step cascade initiated by catalytic active site-independent binding of factor Xa to its receptor, EPR-1, followed by a second step of ligand dependent proteolysis.
Thrombocytopenia is a marked feature of chronic liver disease and cirrhosis. Traditionally, this thrombocytopenia was attributed to passive platelet sequestration in the spleen. More recent insights suggest an increased platelet breakdown and to a lesser extent decreased platelet production plays a more important role. Besides the reduction in number, other studies suggest functional platelet defects. This platelet dysfunction is probably both intrinsic to the platelets and secondary to soluble plasma factors. It reflects not only a decrease in aggregability, but also an activation of the intrinsic inhibitory pathways. (Witters P, Freson K, Verslype C, Peerlinck K, et al. Review article: blood platelet number and function in chronic liver disease and cirrhosis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2008; 27: 1017–1029).
The shortcomings of the old Y-shaped model of normal coagulation are nowhere more apparent than in its clinical application to the complex coagulation disorders of acute and chronic liver disease. In this condition, the clotting cascade is heavily influenced by numerous currents and counter-currents resulting in a mixture of pro- and anticoagulant forces that are themselves further subject to change with altered physiological stress such as super-imposed infection or renal failure.
Multiple mechanisms exist for thrombocytopenia common in patients with cirrhosis besides hypersplenism and expected altered thrombopoietin metabolism. Increased production of two important endothelial derived platelet inhibitors
nitric oxide and
prostacyclin
may contribute to defective platelet activation in vivo. On the other hand, high plasma levels of vWF in cirrhosis appear to support platelet adhesion.
Reduced levels of coagulation factors V, VII, IX, X, XI, and prothrombin are also commonly observed in liver failure. Vitamin K–dependent clotting factors (II, VII, IX, X) may be defective in function as a result of decreased y-carboxylation (from vitamin K deficiency or intrinsically impaired carboxylase activity). Fibrinogen levels are decreased with advanced cirrhosis and in patients with acute liver failure.
A hyperfibrinolytic state may develop when plasminogen activation by tPA is accelerated on the fibrin surface. Physiologic stress including infection may be key in tipping this process off through increased release of tPA. Not uncommonly, laboratory abnormalities in decompensated cirrhosis come to resemble disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). Relatively stable platelet levels and characteristically high factor VIII levels distinguish this process from DIC as does the absence of uncompensated thrombin generation. The features of both hyperfibrinolysis and DIC are often evident in the decompensated liver disease patient, and the term “accelerated intravascular coagulation and fibrinolysis” (AICF) has been proposed as a way to encapsulate the process under a single heading. The essence of AICF can be postulated to be the result of formation of a fibrin clot that is more susceptible to plasmin degradation due to elevated levels of tPA coupled with inadequate release of PAI to control tPA and lack of a-2 plasmin inhibitor to quench plasmin activity and the maintenance of high local concentrations of plasminogen on clot surfaces despite lower total plasminogen production. These normally balanced processes become pronounced when disturbed by additional stress such as infection.
Normal hemostasis and coagulation is now viewed as primarily a cell-based process wherein key steps in the classical clotting cascade
occur on the phospholipid membrane surface of cells (especially platelets)
beginning with activation of tissue factor and factor VII at the site of vascular breach
which produces an initial “priming” amount of thrombin and a
subsequent thrombin burst.
Coagulation and hemostasis in the liver failure patient is influenced by multiple, often opposing, and sometimes changing variables. A bleeding diathesis is usually predominant, but the assessment of bleeding risk based on conventional laboratory tests is inherently deficient.
Cardiac surgery with concomitant CPB can profoundly alter haemostasis, predisposing patients to major haemorrhagic complications and possibly early bypass conduit-related thrombotic events as well. Five to seven percent of patients lose more than 2 litres of blood within the first 24 hours after surgery, between 1% and 5% require re-operation for bleeding. Re-operation for bleeding increases hospital mortality 3 to 4 fold, substantially increases post-operative hospital stay and has a sizeable effect on health care costs. Nevertheless, re-exploration is a strong risk factor associated with increased operative mortality and morbidity, including sepsis, renal failure, respiratory failure and arrhythmias.
As the life expectancy of β-thalassemia patients has increased in the last decade, several new complications are being recognized. The presence of a high incidence of thromboembolic events, mainly in thalassemia intermedia patients, has led to the identification of a hypercoagulable state in thalassemia. Patients with thalassemia intermedia (TI) have, in general, a milder clinical phenotype than those with TM and remain largely transfusion independent. The pathophysiology of TI is characterized by extravascular hemolysis, with the release into the peripheral circulation of damaged red blood cells (RBCs) and erythroid precursors because of a high degree of ineffective erythropoiesis. This has also been recently attributed to severe complications such as pulmonary hypertension (PHT) and thromboembolic phenomena.
Many investigators have reported changes in the levels of coagulation factors and inhibitors in thalassemic patients. Prothrombin fragment 1.2 (F1.2), a marker of thrombin generation, is elevated in TI patients. The status of protein C and protein S was investigated in thalassemia in many studies and generally they were found to be decreased; this might be responsible for the occurrence of thromboembolic events in thalassemic patients.
The pathophysiological roles of hemolysis and the dysregulation of nitric oxide homeostasis are correlated with pulmonary hypertension in sickle cell disease and in thalassemia. Nitric oxide binds soluble guanylate cyclase, which converts GTP to cGMP, relaxing vascular smooth muscle and causing vasodilatation. When plasma hemoglobin liberated from intravascularly hemolyzed sickle erythrocytes consumes nitric oxide, the balance is shifted toward vasoconstriction. Pulmonary hypertension is aggravated and in sickle cell disease, it is linked to the intensity of hemolysis. Whether the same mechanism contributes to hypercoagulability in thalassemia is not yet known.
While there are diverse factors contributing to the hypercoagulable state observed in patients with thalassemia. In most cases, a combination of these abnormalities leads to clinical thrombosis. An argument has been made for the a higher incidence of thrombotic events in TI compared to TM patients attributed to transfusion for TM. The higher rate of thrombosis in transfusion-independent TI compared to polytransused TM patients suggests a potential role for transfusions in decreasing the rate of thromboembolic events (TEE). The reduction of TEE in adequately transfused patients may be the result of decreased numbers of pathological RBCs.
Severe sepsis, defined as sepsis associated with acute organ dysfunction, results from a generalized inflammatory and procoagulant host response to infection. Coagulopathy in severe sepsis is commonly associated with multiple organ dysfunction, and often results in death. The molecule that is central to these effects is thrombin, although it may also have anticoagulant and antithrombotic effects through the activation of Protein C and induction of prostacyclin. In recent years, it has been recognized that chemicals produced by endothelial cells play a key role in the pathogenesis of sepsis. Thrombomodulin on endothelial cells coverts Protein C to Activated Protein C, which has important antithrombotic, profibrinolytic and anti-inflammatory properties. A number of studies have shown that Protein C levels are reduced in patients with severe infection, or even in inflammatory states without infection. Because coagulopathy is associated with high mortality rates, and animal studies have indicated that therapeutic intervention may result in improved outcomes, it was rational to initiate clinical studies.
Considering the coagulation cascade as a whole, it is the extrinsic pathway (via TF and thrombin activation) rather than the intrinsic pathway that is of primary importance in sepsis. Once coagulation has been triggered by TF activation, leading to thrombin formation, this can have further procoagulant effects, because thrombin itself can activate factors VIII, IX and X. This is normally balanced by the production of anticoagulant factors, such as TF pathway inhibitor, antithrombin and Activated Protein C.
It has been recognized that endothelial cells play a key role in the pathogenesis of sepsis, and that they produce important regulators of both coagulation and inflammation. They can express or release a number of substances, such as TF, endothelin-1 and PAI-1, which promote the coagulation process, as well as other substances, such as antithrombin, thrombomodulin, nitric oxide and prostacyclin, which inhibit it.
Protein C is the source of Activated Protein C. Although Protein C is a biomarker or indicator of sepsis, it has no known specific biological activity. Protein C is converted to Activated Protein C in the presence of normal endothelium. In patients with severe sepsis, the vascular endothelium becomes damaged. The level of thrombomodulin is significantly decreased, and the body’s ability to convert Protein C to Activated Protein C diminishes. Only when activated does Protein C have antithrombotic, profibrinolytic and anti-inflammatory properties.
Blood Coagulation (Thrombin) and Protein C Pathways (Blood_Coagulation_and_Protein_C_Pathways.jpg) (Photo credit: Wikipedia)
Coagulation abnormalities can occur in all types of infection, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial infections, or even in the absence of infection, such as in inflammatory states secondary to trauma or neurosurgery. Interestingly, they can also occur in patients with localized disease, such as those with respiratory infection. In a study by Günther et al., procoagulant activity in bronchial lavage fluid from patients with pneumonia or acute respiratory distress syndrome was found to be increased compared with that from control individuals, with a correlation between the severity of respiratory failure and level of coagulant activity.
Severe sepsis, defined as sepsis associated with acute organ dysfunction, results from a generalized inflammatory and procoagulant host response to infection. Once the endothelium becomes damaged, levels of endothelial thrombomodulin significantly decrease, and the body’s ability to convert Protein C to Activated Protein C diminishes. The ultimate cause of acute organ dysfunction in sepsis is injury to the vascular endothelium, which can result in microvascular coagulopathy.
During the past decade a unifying hypothesis has been developed to explain the vascular changes that occur in septic shock on the basis of the effect of inflammatory mediators on the vascular endothelium. The vascular endothelium plays a central role in the control of microvascular flow, and it has been proposed that widespread vascular endothelial activation, dysfunction and eventually injury occurs in septic shock, ultimately resulting in multiorgan failure. This has been characterized in various models of experimental septic shock. Now, direct and indirect evidence for endothelial cell alteration in humans during septic shock is emerging.
The vascular endothelium regulates the flow of nutrient substances, diverse biologically active molecules and the blood cells themselves. This role of endothelium is achieved through the presence of membrane-bound receptors for numerous molecules, including proteins, lipid transporting particles, metabolites and hormones, as well as through specific junction proteins and receptors that govern cell–cell and cell–matrix interactions. Endothelial dysfunction and/or injury with subendothelium exposure facilitates leucocyte and platelet aggregation, and aggravation of coagulopathy. Therefore, endothelial dysfunction and/or injury should favour impaired perfusion, tissue hypoxia and subsequent organ dysfunction.
Anatomical damage to the endothelium during septic shock has been assessed in several studies. A single injection of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) has long been demonstrated to be a nonmechanical technique for removing endothelium. In endotoxic rabbits, observations tend to demonstrate that EC surface modification occurs easily and rapidly, with ECs being detached from the internal elastic lamina with an indication of subendothelial oedema. Proinflammatory cytokines increase permeability of the ECs, and this is manifested approximately 6 hours after inflammation is triggered and becomes maximal over 12–24 hours as the combination of cytokines exert potentiating effects. Endothelial physical disruption allows inflammatory fluid and cells to shift from the blood into the interstitial space.
In sepsis
ECs become injured, prothrombotic and antifibrinolytic
They promote platelet adhesion
They promote leucocyte adhesion and inhibit vasodilation
An important point is that EC injury is sustained over time. In an endotoxic rabbit model, we demonstrated that endothelium denudation is present at the level of the abdominal aorta as early as after several hours following injury and persisted for at least 5 days afterward. After 21 days we observed that the endothelial surface had recovered. The de-endothelialized surface accounted for approximately 25% of the total surface.
Thrombomodulin and protein C activation at the microcirculatory level.
The endothelial cell surface thrombin (Th)-binding protein thrombomodulin (TM) is responsible for inhibition of thrombin activity. TM, when bound to Th, forms a potent protein C activator complex. Loss of TM and/or internalization results in Th–thrombin receptor (TR) interaction. Loss of TM and associated protein C activation represents the key event of decreased endothelial coagulation modulation ability and increased inflammation pathways.
( Iba T, Kidokoro A, Yagi Y: The role of the endothelium in changes in procoagulant activity in sepsis. J Am Coll Surg 1998; 187:321-329. Keywords: ATIII, antithrombin III; NF-κ, nuclear factor-κB; PAI,plasminogen activator inhibitor).
In order to test the role of the endothelial-derived relaxing factors NO and PGI2, we investigated, in dogs, the influence of a combination of NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (an inhibitor of NO synthesis) and indomethacin (an inhibitor of PGI2 synthesis). In these dogs treated with indomethacin plus NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester, the severity of the oxygen extraction defect was lower than that observed in the deoxycholate-treated dogs, suggesting that other mediators and/or mechanisms may be involved in microcirculatory control during hypoxia. One of these mediators or mechanisms could be related to hyperpolarization. Membrane potential is an important determinant of vascular smooth muscle tone through its influence on calcium influx via voltage-gated calcium channels. Hyperpolarization (as well as depolarization) has been shown to be a means of cell–cell communication in upstream vasodilatation and microcirculatory coordination. It is important to emphasize that intercell coupling exclusively involves ECs.
Interestingly, it was recently shown that sepsis, a situation that is characterized by impaired tissue perfusion and abnormal oxygen extraction, is associated with abnormal inter-EC coupling and reduction in the arteriolar conducted response. An intra-organ defect in blood flow related to abnormal vascular reactivity, cell adhesion and coagulopathy may account for impaired organ oxygen regulation and function. If specific classes of microvessels must or must not be perfused to achieve efficient oxygen extraction during limitation in oxygen delivery, then impaired vascular reactivity and vessel injury might produce a pathological limitation in supply. In sepsis, the inflammatory response profoundly alters circulatory homeostasis, and this has been referred to as a ‘malignant intravascular inflammation’ that alters vasomotor tone and the distribution of blood flow among and within organs. These mechanisms might coexist with other types of sepsis associated cell dysfunction. For example, data suggest that endotoxin directly impairs oxygen uptake in ECs and indicate the importance of endothelium respiration in maintaining vascular homeostasis under conditions of sepsis.
Consistent with the hypothesis that alteration in endothelium plays a major in the pathophysiology of sepsis, it was observed that chronic ecNOS overexpression in the endothelium of mice resulted in resistance to LPS-induced hypotension, lung injury and death . This observation was confirmed by another group of investigators, who used transgenic mice overexpressing adrenomedullin – a vasodilating peptide that acts at least in part via an NO-dependent pathway. They demonstrated resistance of these animals to LPS-induced shock, and lesser declines in blood pressure and less severe organ damage than occurred in the control animals. It might therefore be of importance to favour ecNOS expression and function during sepsis. The recent negative results obtained with therapeutic strategies aimed at blocking inducible NOS with the nonselective NOS inhibitor NG-monomethyl-L-arginine in human septic shock further confirm the overall importance of favoring vessel dilatation.
An association between IBD and thrombosis has been recognized for more than 60 years. Not only are patients with IBD more likely to have thromboembolic complications, but it has also been suggested that thrombosis might be pathogenic in IBD.
Coagulation Described. See Part I. (Cascade)
Endothelial injury exposes TF, which forms a complex with factor VII. This complex activates factors X and, to a lesser extent, IX. TFPI prevents this activation progressing further; for coagulation to progress, factor Xa must be produced via factors IX and VIII. Thrombin, generated by the initial production of factor Xa, activates factor VIII and, through factor XI, factor IX, resulting in further activation of factor X. This positive feedback loop allows coagulation to proceed. Fibrin polymers are stabilized by factor XIIIa. Activated proteins CS (APCS) together inhibit factors VIIIa and Va, whereas antithrombin (AT) inhibits factors VIIa, IXa, Xa, and XIa. Fibrinolysis balances this system through the action of plasmin on fibrin. Plasminogen activator inhibitor controls the plasminogen activator-induced conversion of plasminogen to plasmin.
Inflammation and Thrombotic Processes Linked
Although interest has recently moved away from the proposal that ischemia is a primary cause of IBD, it has become increasingly clear that inflammatory and thrombotic processes are linked. A vascular component to the pathogenesis of CD was first proposed only a year after Crohn et al. described the condition. Subsequently, in 1989, a series of changes comprising vascular injury, focal arteritis, fibrin deposition, arterial occlusion, and then microinfarction or neovascularization was proposed as a possible pathogenetic sequence in CD. In this study, resin casts of the intestinal vasculature showed changes ranging from intravascular fibrin deposition to complete thrombotic occlusion. Furthermore, the early vascular changes appeared to precede mucosal changes, suggesting that they were more likely to cause rather than result from the pathologic features of CD. Subsequent studies showed that intravascular fibrin deposition occurred at the site of granulomatous destruction of mesenteric blood vessels, and positive immunostaining for platelet glycoprotein IIIa occurred in fibrinoid plugs of mucosal capillaries in CD. In addition, intracapillary thrombus has been identified in biopsies from inflamed rectal mucosa from patients with CD. When combined with evidence of ongoing intravascular coagulation in both active and quiescent CD, the above data point toward a thrombotic element contributing to the pathogenesis of CD.
Not only are many different prothrombotic changes described in association with IBD, but they can also have multiple causes. Hyperhomocysteinemia, for example, is known to predispose to thrombosis, and patients with IBD are more likely to have hyperhomocysteinemia than control subjects. Hyperhomocysteinemia in IBD might be due to multiple possible causes, such as deficiencies of vitamin B12 as a result of terminal ileal disease or resection; B6, which is commonly reduced in IBD. A vegan diet can’t be discarded either because of seriously deficient methyl donors (S-adenosyl methionine).
The realization that platelets are not only prothrombotic but also proinflammatory has stimulated interest in their role in both the pathogenesis and complications of IBD. The association between thrombocytosis and active IBD was first described more than 30 years ago. More recent observations link decreased or normal platelet survival to IBD-related thrombocytosis, possibly due to increased thrombopoiesis. This in turn could be driven by an interleukin-6 –induced increase in thrombopoietin synthesis in the liver. Spontaneous in vitro platelet aggregation occurs in platelets isolated from 30% of patients with IBD but not in platelets from control subjects. Moreover, collagen, arachidonic acid, ristocetin, and ADP-induced platelet activation are more marked in platelets from patients with active IBD than in those from healthy volunteers.
The roles of activated platelets and PLAs in mucosal inflammation. Activated platelets can interact with other cells involved in the inflammatory response either through direct contact or through the release of soluble mediators. Activated platelets interact directly with activated vascular endothelium, causing the latter to express adhesion molecules and release inflammatory and chemotactic cytokines.
Platelet activation might be pathogenic in IBD in several ways. Platelet activation might increase platelet aggregation, hence increasing the likelihood of thrombus formation at sites of vascular injury, for example, within the mesenteric circulation. P-selectin is the major ligand for leukocyte-endothelial interaction and is responsible for the rolling of platelets, leukocytes, and PLAs on vascular endothelium. Moreover, platelets adherent to injured vascular endothelium support leukocyte adhesion via P-selectin, an effect that could contribute to leukocyte emigration from the vasculature into the lamina propria in patients with IBD. In addition, P-selectin is the major platelet ligand for platelet-leukocyte interaction, which in turn causes both leukocyte activation and further platelet activation.
Platelet-Leukocyte Aggregation
Recently, studies showing that platelets and leukocytes that circulate together in aggregates (PLA) are more activated than those that circulate alone have generated interest in the role of PLA in various inflammatory and thrombotic conditions. PLA numbers are increased in patients with ischemic heart disease, systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis, myeloproliferative disorders, and sepsis and are increased by smoking.
We have recently shown that patients with IBD have more PLAs than both healthy and inflammatory control subjects (patients with inflammatory arthritides). As with platelet activation, there was no correlation with disease activity, suggesting that increased PLA formation might be an underlying abnormality. PLAs could contribute to the pathogenesis of IBD in a number of ways. As previously mentioned, TF is key to the initiation of thrombus formation. TF has recently been demonstrated on the surface of activated platelets and in platelet-derived microvesicles. Interaction between neutrophils and activated platelets or microvesicles vastly increases the activity of “intravascular” TF.
Conclusion
It is becoming increasingly apparent that thrombosis and inflammation are intrinsically linked. Hence the involvement of thrombotic processes in the pathogenesis of IBD, although perhaps not as the primary event, seems likely. Indeed, with the recently mounting evidence of the role of activated platelets and of their interaction with leukocytes in the pathogenesis of IBD, it seems even more probable that thrombosis plays some role in the pathogenic process.
(Irving PM, Pasi KJ, and Rampton DS. Thrombosis and Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology 2005;3:617–628. PII: 10.1053/S1542-3565(05)00154-0.)
Bleeding in Patients with Renal Insufficiency
Approximately 20–40% of critically ill patients will have renal insufficiency at the time of admission or will develop it during their ICU stay, depending on the definition of renal insufficiency and the case mix of the ICU. Such patients are also predisposed to bleeding because of uremic platelet dysfunction, typically multiple comorbidities, coagulopathies and frequent concomitant treatment with antiplatelet or anticoagulant agents.
The impairment in hemostasis in uremic patients is multifactorial and includes physiological defects in platelet hemostasis, an imbalance of mediators of normal endothelial function and frequent comorbidities such as vascular disease, anemia and the frequent need for medical interventions required to treat such comorbidities. Physiologic alterations in uremia include:
decreased platelet glycoprotein IIb–IIIa binding to both von Willebrand factor (vWf) and fibrinogen, causing an impairment in platelet aggregation;
increased prostacyclin and nitric oxide production, both potent inhibitors of platelet activation and vasoconstriction; and
decreased levels of platelet adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and serotonin, causing an impairment in platelet secretion.
In addition to other factors, small peptides containing the RGD (Arg-Gly-Asp) sequence of amino acids have been shown to be inhibitors of platelet aggregation that act by competing with vWf and fibrinogen for binding to the glycoprotein IIb–IIIa receptor.
Conclusion
ICU patients have dynamic risks of thrombosis and bleeding. Invasive procedures may require temporary interruption of anticoagulants. Consequently, approaches to thromboprophylaxis require daily reevaluation.
I have covered a large amount of material on one of the most complex systems in medicine, and still not comprehensive, with a sufficient dash of repetition. The task is to have some grasp of the cell-mediated imbalances inherent if coagulation and bleeding disorders. The key points are:
inflammation and oxidative stress invariably lurk in the background
the Y-shaped model with an extrinsic, intrinsic, and common pathway has no basis in understanding
the current model is based on a cell-mediated concept of endothelial damage and platelet-endothelial interaction
the model has 3 components: Initiation, Amplification, Propagation
NO and prostacyclin have key roles in the process
The plasma proteins involved are in the serine-protease class of enzymes
The conversion of Protein C to APC has a central role as anti-coagulant
Part II goes into organ aystem abnormalities that are all related to impairment of the Nitric Oxide balance and dual platelet-endothelial roles.
Part III will explore therapeutic targets and opportunities.
Computational models are very efficient tools to understand complex reactions like NO towards physiological conditions. Among them wall shear stress is one of the major factors which is reviewed in the article – “Differential Distribution of Nitric Oxide – A 3-D Mathematical Model”.
Sickle Cell disease patients, a hereditary disease, are also known to have decreased levels of NO which can become physiologically challenging. In USA alone, there are 90,000 people who are affected by Sickle cell disease.
Sickle cell disease is breakage of red blood cells (RBC) membrane and resulting release of the hemoglobin (Hb) into blood plasma. This process is also known as Hemolysis. Sickle cell disease is caused by single mutation of Hb which changes RBC from round shape to sickle or crescent shapes (Figure 1).
Figure 1 (A) shows normal red blood cells flowing freely through veins. The inset shows a cross section of a normal red blood cell with normal hemoglobin. Figure 1 (B) shows abnormal, sickled red blood cells The inset image shows a cross-section of a sickle cell with long polymerized HbS strands stretching and distorting the cell shape. Image Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sickle-cell_disease
Sickle Cell RBCs has much shorter life span of 10-20 days when compared with normal RBCs 100-120 days lifespan. Shorter life span of Sickle cell disease RBC’s are compensated by bone marrow generation of new RBCs. However, many times new blood generation cannot cope with the small life span of Sickle cell RBCs and causes pathological condition of Anemia.
RBCs generally breakdown and release Hbs in blood plasma after they reach their end of life span. Thus, in case of Sickle cell disease, there is more cell free Hb than normal. Furthermore, it is known that NO has a very high affinity towards Hbs, which is one of the ways free NO is regulated in blood. As a result presence of larger amounts of cell free Hb in Sickle cell disease lead to less availability of NO.
However, the question remained “what is the quantitative relationship between cell free Hb and depletion of NO”.Deonikar and Kavdia (J. Appl. Physiol., 2012) addressed this question by developing a 2 dimensional Mathematical Model of a single idealized arteriole, with different layers of blood vessels diffusing nutrients to tissue layers (Figure 2: Deonikar and Kavdia Figure 1).
cell free Hb in 2 dimensional representations of blood vessels.
The authors used steady state partial differential equation of circular geometry to represent diffusion of NO in blood and in tissues. They used first and second order biochemical reactions to represent the reactions between NO and RBC and NO autooxidation processes. Some of their reaction model parameters were obtained from literature, rest of them were fitted to experimental results from literature. The model and its parameters are explained in the previously published paper by same authors Deonikar and Kavdia, Annals of Biomed., 2010. The authors found that the reaction rate between NO and RBC is 0.2 x 105, M-1 s-1 than 1.4 x 105, M-1 s-1 as reported before byButler et.al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1998.
Their results show that even small increase in cell free Hb, 0.5uM, can decrease NO concentrations by 3-7 folds approximately (comparing Fig1(b) and 1(d) of Deonikar and Kavdia, 2012, as shown in Figure 2 of this article). Moreover, their mathematical analysis shows that the increase in diffusion resistance of NO from vascular lumen to cell free zone has no effect on NO distribution and concentration with available levels of cell free Hb.
Deonikar and Kavdia’s mathematical model is a simple representation of actual physiological scenario. However, their model results show that for Sickle cell disease patients, decrease in levels of bioavailable NO is an attribute to cell free Hb, which is in abundant for these patients. Their results show that small increase by 0.5 uM in cell free Hb can cause large decrease in NO concentrations.
These interesting insights from the model can help in further understanding in the context of physiological conditions, by replicating experiments in-vivo and then relating them to other known diseases of Sickle cell disease patients like Anemia, Pulmonary Hypertension. Further, drugs can be targeted towards decreasing free cell Hbs to keep balance in availability of NO, which in turn may help in other related disease like Pulmonary Hypertension of Sickle Cell disease patients.
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