Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence (LPBI) Group

• interventions to reduce heart rate will replicate the benefits observed in this study.

The first portion of this document shows the impact that ER Edelman and his peers have had in the development
of interventional cardiology, and in carrying out studies to test, validate, or reject assumptions about the interaction of
biomaterials with

• vascular and smooth muscle tissue in the repair of injured vessels, by

1. trauma
2. inflammatory injury
3. stent placement.

In the second portion of this discussion, I introduce current views about complications in implanted devices, evolving
standards, and the current definitions of stable, unstable, and previously unclassified ACS risk.

Pushing Drug-Eluting Stents Into Uncharted Territory

Simpler Than You Think—More Complex Than You Imagine

Campbell Rogers, MD; Elazer R. Edelman, MD, PhD.  Circulation 2006; 113: 2262-2265.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/​CIRCULATIONAHA.106.623470

Mechanical failure is a characteristic of a material or a device and not necessarily an indication of inadequacy. All devices
will fail under some specific stress. It is only failure at the lowest levels of stress that may represent inadequacy. Stress on
a material, for example, rises with strain until a critical load is exceeded, at which point the material fatigues and loses
mechanical integrity. Failure analysis, the science by which these conditions are rigorously defined, is an important
component of device design, development, and use. Once the transition point to failure is identified, material use can be
restricted to the zone of safety or modified so as to have this zone expanded. Just as the characterization of a material is
incomplete unless pushed to the limits of load bearing, characterization of an implantable device is incomplete unless
preclinical and clinical environments test the limits of device functionality. It was in this light in 1999 that the Authors noted the impossibility of defining the functional limits of novel bare metal stents in head-to-head trials, which, by necessity, could only include lesions into which the predicate device (the Palmaz-Schatz stent, Cordis, Warren, NJ) could have be placed.

New School Percutaneous Interventions

Over the past 5 years, the number of percutaneous interventions has grown by 40%. This expansion derives from an
increased breadth of cases, as percutaneous interventions are now routinely performed in diabetic, small-vessel, multilesion,
diffuse disease, and acute coronary syndrome settings. Contemporaneously, widespread adoption of drug-eluting stents has emboldened clinicians and provided greater security in the use of these devices in lesions or patients previously thought to

Head-to-head randomized trial data have accumulated so that analysis may demonstrate differences among drug-eluting stents. The playing field for prospective randomized trials could enhance the weight of evidence to unanswered questions about what underlying factors determine device failure.

Complexity Simplified

Drug-eluting stent “failure” can be defined operationally in the same way as material failure:

• inadequate function in the setting of a given load or strain.

The inability to withstand stress may take many forms that can change over time. Failure may be manifest acutely as

• the inability to deliver a stent to the desired location,
• subacutely as stent thrombosis or
• postprocedural myonecrosis, and later as
• restenosis

“Simple lesions” are those in which few devices should fail;“Complex” lesions have a heightened risk of failure. To be of value, each scale of advancing complexity must provoke higher failure rates.  For any device may fail sooner than another along one such “complexity” scale and later along another. As advanced drug-eluting stent designs have enhanced deliverability and reduced restenosis rates, 7 randomized trials comparing directly the two Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drug-eluting stents, Cypher (Cordis-Johnson and Johnson) and Taxus (Boston Scientific, Boston, Mass), have been reported.  These trials report a broad range of restenotic failure as evidenced by the need for revascularization. Across these trials, driven by a variety of factors, revascularization rates vary quite widely.

The clinical end point of target lesion revascularization (TLR) becomes

• a single measure of device failure.

When the 7 trials are depicted in order of increasing TLR, the rate of failure increases more slowly with 1 device than
the other.  This gives two regression plots for Taxus vs Cypher with different slopes, as complexity increases, and the

• separation between the failure rates of the two devices broadens plotted against “degree of complexity” assigned by the  slopes of the lines.

Finally, the correlation between TLR rates for Taxus and Cypher stents indicates that trial-specific events and conditions determined TLR (with a sharp slope of Taxus vs Cypher (r-sq = 0.85).  The ratio of TLR (the slope) wasgreater than 3, suggesting that although both devices are subject to increasing failure as complexity increases,

• one device becomes ever-more likely than the other to fail when applied in settings with ever-higher TLR risk.

In other words, composite medical devices with a wide range of

• structural,
• geometric, and
• pharmacological differences
  • can be shown to produce different clinical effects
  • as the environments in which they are tested become increasingly complex.

What the Individual Trials Cannot Tell Us

The progressive difference between the performances of the 2 FDA-approved drug-eluting stents as they are pushed into
more complex settings is precisely what one would anticipate from medical devices with different performance signatures.
Most randomized trials, even if they include high complexity, are unable to identify predictors of failure because of the low numbers of patients enrolled, and the problem gets worse as the number of subsets increase. Consequently, device development, and clinical practice, knowing which patient or lesion characteristics confer higher failure rates is critical.
This analysis has centered on restenosis. Other failure modes to be considered are

• stent thrombosis,
• postprocedural myonecrosis
• late plaque rupture
• vascular disease away from the site
• heightened inflammatory reaction
  • are no less critical and may be determined by
  • completely different device or patient characteristics.

Well-executed registry or pooled data

It is in this light that the registry report of Kastrati et al. in the current issue of Circulation is of greatest value. There are
two ways in which well-executed registry or pooled data can be most complementary to randomized trials.

First, large numbers of patients provide a higher incidence of rare failure modes as well as allow more granular determination of lesion- or patient-specific predictors of failure (meta-analysis or better, combined data file). A pooled analysis of several head-to-head randomized bare metal stent trials allowed identification of clear risk factors for stent thrombosis that had eluded analysis of the individual (smaller) trials.

Second, registry or pooled data may incorporate a broader range of patient characteristics, allowing greater discrimination between devices. The report of Kastrati et al may fall into this category as well, as it includes “high risk” populations from several randomized trials. They report on more than 2000 lesions in 1845 patients treated with either Taxus or Cypher drug-eluting stents at two hospitals.  The study population is from a series of randomized trials comparing Taxus and Cypher stents.   Using multivariate analysis to identify what lesion and patient characteristics predict failure (restenosis), they identified risk factors that included

• prior history of coronary bypass surgery
• calcification
• smaller vessel size
• greater degree of prestent and poststent stenosis.

Use of a Cypher rather than Taxus stent was independently associated with lower restenosis risk.

An interesting negative finding was the absence of diabetes as a significant predictor, at odds with strong suggestions from several other analyses. A better understanding from preclinical or clinical studies of the effect of diabetic states on restenosis is critical.

Author’s opinion voiced:

This Author (LHB), considers the study underpowered to answer that question because of further partitioning with several variables. Pooled data with

• rigorous ascertainment and
• careful statistical methodology, taken
• together with randomized trial data, open a door to device choice based on the knowledge that risk of failure (complexity) does vary, and

• the higher the complexity, the greater the incremental benefit of choosing one device over another.

A decision algorithm is therefore possible, whereby multiple failure modes and risk factors are weighed, and

• an optimum stent choice made which balances
• safety and efficacy based on the totality of evidence, rather than anecdote and loose comparisons of disparate subgroups from individual trials.

Evaluating Clinical Trials

The subject of trial(s) is difficult… the aim and meaning of all the trials… is

• to let people know what they ought to do or what they must believe

It was perhaps naïve to imagine that devices as different one from another as the two current FDA-approved drug-eluting
stents would produce identical clinical results. If so, it ought not to come as a surprise that head-to-head randomized trial
data from many different countries in complex settings are now indicating just how differently the 2 devices may perform.

Future trials should be designed and evaluated to examine why these differences exist. Trials residing
only in previous safety and complexity domains

• are unlikely to offer deeper insights into

1. device performance,
2. patient care decisions, or
3. discrimination of alternative therapies.

We look forward to more trials that will examine what we currently believe to be the limits of

• drug-eluting stents and interventional cardiology and to

help define in simple terms differences

• between complex devices applied to complex problems.

This 2009 article was an excellent demonstration of comparing two commonly used coated-stents, and then extending the argument to the need for more data to further delineated the factors that explain the differences they found. In the previous article, the SECOND in the three article series,  Stents and Drug Delivery

Vascular Repair: Stents and Biologically Active Implants

we concentrated on stents and drug delivery, and not on stent failure.  But the following article in J Control Release,

was published the following year, and is another example of this method of explanatory approach to the problem.

Lesion Complexity Determines Arterial Drug Distribution After Local Drug Delivery

AR Tzafriri,  N Vukmirovic, VB Kolachalama, I Astafieva, ER Edelman. J Control Release. 2010; 142(3): 332–338.
http://:dx. doi:.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2009.11.007       PMCID: PMC2994187

Local drug delivery from endovascular stents has transformed how we treat coronary artery disease. Yet, few drugs are in fact effective when delivered from endovascular implants and those that possess a narrow therapeutic window. The width of this window is predicated to a great degree upon the extent of drug deposition and distribution through the arterial wall.

• Drugs that are retained within the blood vessel are far more effective than those that are not.

Thus, for example, heparin regulates virtually every aspect of the vascular response to injury, but it is so soluble and diffusible that it simply cannot stay in the artery for more than minutes after release.

• Heparin has no effect on intimal hyperplasia when eluted from a stent.
• Paclitaxel and sirolimus in contradistinction are far smaller compounds with perhaps more narrow and specific effects than heparin.

These drugs bind tenaciously to tissue protein elements and specific intracellular targets and remain beneath stent struts long after release.

The clinical efficacy of paclitaxel and sirolimus at reducing coronary artery restenosis rates following elution from stents appears incontrovertible. Emerging clinical and preclinical data suggest that the benefit of the local release of these drugs is beset by significant complications, that rise with lesion complexity as

• the native composition and layered ultrastructure of the native artery is more significantly disrupted.

Virmani and others have hypothesized that the attraction of lipophilic drugs like paclitaxel and sirolimus to fat should affect their retention within and effects upon atheromatous lesions.

Though stents are deployed in diseased arteries drug distribution has only been quantified in intact, non-diseased vessels.

Authors @ MIT, correlated steady-state arterial drug distribution with tissue ultrastructure and composition in abdominal aortae from atherosclerotic human autopsy specimens and rabbits

• with lesions induced by dietary manipulation and controlled injury.

Drug and compositional metrics were quantified and correlated at a compartmental level, in each of the tunica layers, or at an intra-compartmental level. All images were processed to

• eliminate backgrounds and artifacts, and
• pixel values between thresholds were extracted for all zones of interest.

Specific algorithms analyzed each of the histo/immuno-stained arterial structures. Intra-compartmental analyses were

• performed by sub-dividing arterial cross-sections into 2–64 equal sectors and
• evaluating the pixel-average luminosity for each sector.

Linear regression of drug versus compositional luminosities asymptotically approached steady state after subdivision into 16 sectors. This system controlled delivered dose and removed the significant unpredictability in release that is imposed by variability

• in stent position relative to the arterial wall,
• inflation techniques and stent geometry.

• they constitute upper bounds for arterial drug distribution
• following transient modes of in vivo drug delivery wherein
• only a fraction of the eluted dose is absorbed by the artery

Paclitaxel, everolimus, and sirolimus deposition in human aortae was maximal in the media and scaled inversely with lipid content.

Net tissue paclitaxel and everolimus levels were indistinguishable in mildly injured rabbit arteries independent of diet. Yet, serial sectioning of cryopreserved arterial segments demonstrated

• a differential transmural deposition pattern that was amplified with disease and
• correlated with expression of their intracellular targets, tubulin and FKBP-12.

Tubulin distribution and paclitaxel binding increased with

• vascular injury and macrophage infiltration, and
• were reduced with (reduced) lipid content.

Sirolimus analogues and their specific binding target FKBP-12 were less sensitive to alterations of diet
in mildly injured arteries, presumably reflecting a faster transient response of FKBP-12 to injury.

The idea that drug deposition after balloon inflation and stent implantation within diseased, atheromatous and sclerotic vessels tracks so precisely with specific tissue elements is

• an important consideration of drug-eluting technologies and
• may well require that we consider diseased rather than naïve tissues in preclinical evaluations.

Another publication in the same year reveals the immense analytical power used in understanding the complexities
of drug-eluting stents.

Luminal Flow Amplifies Stent-Based Drug Deposition in Arterial Bifurcations

Kolachalama VB, Levine EG, Edelman ER.    PLoS ONE 2009; 4(12): e8105.
 http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008105

Treatment of arterial bifurcation lesions using drug-eluting stents (DES) is now common clinical practice.
Arterial drug distribution patterns become challenging to analyze if the lesion involves more than a vessel
such as in the case of bifurcations.  As use extends to nonstraightforward lesions and complex geometries,
questions abound

• regarding DES longevity and safety

Indeed, there is no consensus on best stent placement scenario, no understanding as to

• whether DES will behave in bifurcations as they do in straight segments, and
• whether drug from a main-branch (MB) stent can be deposited within a side-branch (SB).

It is not evident how to

• efficiently determine the efficacy of local drug delivery and
• quantify zones of excessive drug that are
• harbingers of vascular toxicity and thrombosis,
• and areas of depletion that are associated
• with tissue overgrowth and
• luminal re-narrowing.

Geometry modeling and governing equations

Authors @MIT constructed two-phase computational models of stent-deployed arterial bifurcations

• simulating blood flow and drug transport to investigate the
• factors modulating drug distribution when the main-branch (MB) was treated using a DES.

The framework for constructing physiologically realistic three dimensional computational models of single
and bifurcated arterial vessels was SolidWorks (Dassault Systemes) (Figs. 1A–1B, Movie S1). The geometry
generation algorithm allowed for controlled alteration of several parameters including

• stent location
• strut dimensions
• stent-cell shape
• lumen diameter to arterial tissue thickness ratio
• lengths of the arterial branches
• extent of stent apposition and
• the bifurcation angle.

For the current study, equal lengths (2LS) were assumed for the proximal and distal sections of the MB from the bifurcation. The SB was constructed at an angle of 300. The inlet conditions were based on

• mean blood flow and
• diameter measurements

obtained from human left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD).

The diameter of the lumen (DMB) and thickness (TMB) for the MB were defined such that DMB=TMB~10 and

• this ratio was also maintained for the SB.

Schematics of the computational models used for the study. A stent of length LS is placed at the upstream section of the arterial vessel in the (A) absence and in the (B) presence of a bifurcation, respectively.

• Insets in (B) denote delta wing stent design (i),
• strut thickness (d) (ii), and
• the outlets of the side-branch in (iii) and
• and the main-branch in (iv).

A delta wing-shaped cell design belonging to the class of slotted-tube stents was used for all simulations.
The length (LS) and diameter (DS) were

• fixed at 9|10-2 m and 3|10-2 m, respectively, for the MB stent.

All stents were assumed to be perfectly apposed to the lumen of MB and the intrinsic strut shape was modeled as

• square with length 10-4 m.

The continuity and momentum equations were solved within the arterial lumen, where

vf , rho~1060 kg=m3, P and m are

• velocity
• density
• pressure and the
• viscosity of blood.

In order to capture boundary layer effects at the lumen-wall (or mural) surface, a Carreau model was employed for

• all the simulations to account for shear thinning behavior of blood at low shear rates

In the arterial lumen, drug transport followed advection-diffusion process.  Similar to the momentum transport in the arterial lumen, the continuity equation was solved within the arterial wall by assuming it as a porous medium.

A finite volume solver (Fluent, ANSYS Inc.) was utilized to perform the coupled flow and drug transport simulations. The semi-implicit method for pressure-linked equations-consistent (SIMPLEC) algorithm was used with second order spatial accuracy. A second order discretization scheme was used to solve the pressure equation and second order  upwind schemes were used for the momentum and concentration variables.

Simulations for each case were performed

• for at least 2500 iterations or
• until there was a 1028 reduction in the mass transport residual.

Drug distribution in non-bifurcating vessels

Constant flow simulations generate local recirculation zones juxtaposed to the stent which in turn act as

• secondary sources of drug deposition and
• induce an asymmetric tissue drug distribution profile in the longitudinal flow direction.

Our3D computational model predicts a far more extensive fluid mechanic effect on drug deposition than previously appreciated in two-dimensional (2D) domains.

Within the stented region, drug deposition on the mural interface quantified as

• the area-weighted average drug concentration (AWAC)
• in the distal segment of the stent is 12% higher than the proximal segment

Total drug uptake in the arterial wall denote as volume-weighted average concentration (VWAC) is highest in the middle segment of the stent and 5% higher than the proximal stent region

Increased mural drug deposition along the flow direction in a non-bifurcating arterial vessel.

Inset shows a high magnification image of drug pattern in the distal stent segment outlined by black dashed line.
The entire stent is divided into three equal sections denoted as proximal, middle and distal sections, respectively
and the same notation is followed for subsequent analyses.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008105.g002

These observations indicate that the flow-mediated effect induced by the presence of the stent in the artery

• is maximal on the mural surface and
• increases in the longitudinal flow direction.

Further, these results suggest that transmural diffusion-mediated transport sequesters drug from both

• the proximal and distal portions of the stent
• into the central segment of the arterial wall beneath the stent.

Predicted levels of average drug concentration varied exponentially

• with linear increments of inlet flow rate

but maintained similar relationship between the inter-segment concentration levels within the stented region.

Stent position influences drug distribution in bifurcated beds

The location of the stent directly modulates

• the extent to which drug is deposited on the arterial wall as well as
• spatial gradients that are established in arterial drug distribution.

Similar to the non-bifurcating vessel case,

• peaks in drug deposition occur directly beneath the stent struts regardless of the relative location of the SB with respect to the stent. However,
• drug distribution and corresponding spatial heterogeneity within inter-strut regions depend on the stent location with respect to the flow divider.
• Mural drug deposition is a function of relative stent position with respect to the side-branch and Reynolds number in arterial bifurcations.

Simulations predicted

Local endovascular drug delivery was long assumed to be governed by diffusion alone. The impact of flow was
thought to be restricted to systemic dilution.

• 2D computational models suggested a complex interplay between the stent and blood flow

1. Arterial drug deposition is a function of stent location.   http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008105.g005
2. Arterial drug deposition is mediated by flow in bifurcated beds.
   http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008105.g006

• extensive flow-mediated drug delivery in bifurcated vascular beds where the drug distribution patterns are heterogeneous and sensitive to relative stent position and luminal flow.

A single DES in the MB coupled with large retrograde luminal flow on the lateral wall of the side-branch (SB) can provide drug deposition on the SB lumen-wall interface, except

• when the MB stent is downstream of the SB flow divider.
• the presence of the SB affects drug distribution in the stented MB.

Fluid mechanic effects play an even greater role than in the SB

• especially when the DES is across and downstream to the flow divider

• and in a manner dependent upon

  the Reynolds number.

Summary

We presented the hemodynamic effects on drug distribution patterns using a

• simplified uniform-cell stent design, though our methodology is adaptable to
  several types of stents with variable design features.

Variability in arterial drug distribution due to other geometric and morphologic aspects such as

• bifurcation angle, arterial taper as well as presence of a trifurcation can also be understood using our computational framework.

Further, performance of a candidate DES using other commonly used stenting procedures for bifurcation lesions such as culotte and crush techniques can be quantified based on their resulting drug distribution patterns.

Other Related Articles that were published on this Open Access Online Scientific Journal include the following:

Vascular Repair: Stents and Biologically Active Implants

Modeling Targeted Therapy

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP 3/2/2013

Quantum Biology And Computational Medicine

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP 4/3/2013

Virtual Biopsy – is it possible?

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP 3/3/2013

Reprogramming cell fate  3/2/2013

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How Methionine Imbalance with Sulfur-Insufficiency Leads to Hyperhomocysteinemia

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Amyloidosis with Cardiomyopathy

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Nitric Oxide, Platelets, Endothelium and Hemostasis

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP 11/8/2012

Mitochondrial Damage and Repair under Oxidative Stress

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP 10/28/2012

Endothelial Function and Cardiovascular Disease

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP 10/25/2012

Endothelial Dysfunction, Diminished Availability of cEPCs, Increasing CVD Risk for Macrovascular Disease –Therapeutic Potential of cEPCs

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Prostacyclin and Nitric Oxide: Adventures in Vascular Biology – A Tale of Two Mediators

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Revascularization: PCI, Prior History of PCI vs CABG

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, 4/25/2013

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/25/revascularization-pci-prior-history-of-pci-vs-cabg/

Revascularization: PCI, Prior History of PCI vs CABG

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https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/25/revascularization-pci-prior-history-of-pci-vs-cabg/

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Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 4/7/2013

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Fight against Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease: A Biologics not a Small Molecule – Recombinant Human lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (rhLCAT) attracted AstraZeneca to acquire AlphaCore

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https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/03/fight-against-atherosclerotic-cardiovascular-disease-a-biologics-not-a-small-molecule-recombinant-human-lecithin-cholesterol-acyltransferase-rhlcat-attracted-astrazeneca-to-acquire-alphacore/

High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL): An Independent Predictor of Endothelial Function & Atherosclerosis, A Modulator, An Agonist, A Biomarker for Cardiovascular Risk

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https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/31/high-density-lipoprotein-hdl-an-independent-predictor-of-endothelial-function-artherosclerosis-a-modulator-an-agonist-a-biomarker-for-cardiovascular-risk/

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Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 12/29/2012

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Special Considerations in Blood Lipoproteins, Viscosity, Assessment and Treatment

Bernstein, HL and Lev-Ari, A. 11/28/2012

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/28/special-considerations-in-blood-lipoproteins-viscosity-assessment-and-treatment/

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR-gamma) Receptors Activation: PPARγ transrepression for Angiogenesis in Cardiovascular Disease and PPARγ transactivation for Treatment of Diabetes

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https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/13/peroxisome-proliferator-activated-receptor-ppar-gamma-receptors-activation-pparγ-transrepression-for-angiogenesis-in-cardiovascular-disease-and-pparγ-transactivation-for-treatment-of-dia/

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https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/19/clinical-trials-results-for-endothelin-system-pathophysiological-role-in-chronic-heart-failure-acute-coronary-syndromes-and-mi-marker-of-disease-severity-or-genetic-determination/

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https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/04/endothelin-receptors-in-cardiovascular-diseases-the-role-of-enos-stimulation/

Inhibition of ET-1, ETA and ETA-ETB, Induction of NO production, stimulation of eNOS and Treatment Regime with PPAR-gamma agonists (TZD): cEPCs Endogenous Augmentation for Cardiovascular Risk Reduction – A Bibliography

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https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/04/inhibition-of-et-1-eta-and-eta-etb-induction-of-no-production-and-stimulation-of-enos-and-treatment-regime-with-ppar-gamma-agonists-tzd-cepcs-endogenous-augmentation-for-cardiovascular-risk-reduc/

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Endothelial Dysfunction, Diminished Availability of cEPCs, Increasing CVD Risk for Macrovascular Disease – Therapeutic Potential of cEPCs

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, R N 8/27/2012

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/27/endothelial-dysfunction-diminished-availability-of-cepcs-increasing-cvd-risk-for-macrovascular-disease-therapeutic-potential-of-cepcs/

Vascular Medicine and Biology: CLASSIFICATION OF FAST ACTING THERAPY FOR PATIENTS AT HIGH RISK FOR MACROVASCULAR EVENTS Macrovascular Disease – Therapeutic Potential of cEPCs

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 8/24/2012

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/24/vascular-medicine-and-biology-classification-of-fast-acting-therapy-for-patients-at-high-risk-for-macrovascular-events-macrovascular-disease-therapeutic-potential-of-cepcs/

Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) and the Role of agent alternatives in endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase (eNOS) Activation and Nitric Oxide Production

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 7/19/2012

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/07/19/cardiovascular-disease-cvd-and-the-role-of-agent-alternatives-in-endothelial-nitric-oxide-synthase-enos-activation-and-nitric-oxide-production/

Resident-cell-based Therapy in Human Ischaemic Heart Disease: Evolution in the PROMISE of Thymosin beta4 for Cardiac Repair

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 4/30/2012

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/04/30/93/

Triple Antihypertensive Combination Therapy Significantly Lowers Blood Pressure in Hard-to-Treat Patients with Hypertension and Diabetes

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 5/29/2012

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/05/29/445/

Macrovascular Disease – Therapeutic Potential of cEPCs: Reduction Methods for CV Risk

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 7/2/2012

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/07/02/macrovascular-disease-therapeutic-potential-of-cepcs-reduction-methods-for-cv-risk/

Mitochondria Dysfunction and Cardiovascular Disease – Mitochondria: More than just the “powerhouse of the cell”

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 7/9/2012

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/07/09/mitochondria-more-than-just-the-powerhouse-of-the-cell/

Bystolic’s generic Nebivolol – positive effect on circulating Endothelial Proginetor Cells endogenous augmentation

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 7/16/2012

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/07/16/bystolics-generic-nebivolol-positive-effect-on-circulating-endothilial-progrnetor-cells-endogenous-augmentation/

Arteriogenesis and Cardiac Repair: Two Biomaterials – Injectable Thymosin beta4 and Myocardial Matrix Hydrogel

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 2/27/2013

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/02/27/arteriogenesis-and-cardiac-repair-two-biomaterials-injectable-thymosin-beta4-and-myocardial-matrix-hydrogel/

Cardiac Surgery Theatre in China vs. in the US: Cardiac Repair Procedures, Medical Devices in Use, Technology in Hospitals, Surgeons’ Training and Cardiac Disease Severity”

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 1/8/2013

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/08/cardiac-surgery-theatre-in-china-vs-in-the-us-cardiac-repair-procedures-medical-devices-in-use-technology-in-hospitals-surgeons-training-and-cardiac-disease-severity/

Heart Remodeling by Design – Implantable Synchronized Cardiac Assist Device: Abiomed’s Symphony

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 7/23/2012

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/07/23/heart-remodeling-by-design-implantable-synchronized-cardiac-assist-device-abiomeds-symphony/

Acute Chest Pain/ER Admission: Three Emerging Alternatives to Angiography and PCI

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 3/10/2013

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/10/acute-chest-painer-admission-three-emerging-alternatives-to-angiography-and-pci/

Dilated Cardiomyopathy: Decisions on implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs) using left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) and Midwall Fibrosis: Decisions on Replacement using late gadolinium enhancement cardiovascular MR (LGE-CMR)

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 3/10/2013
https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/10/dilated-cardiomyopathy-decisions-on-implantable-cardioverter-defibrillators-icds-using-left-ventricular-ejection-fraction-lvef-and-midwall-fibrosis-decisions-on-replacement-using-late-gadolinium/

The Heart: Vasculature Protection – A Concept-based Pharmacological Therapy including THYMOSIN

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 2/28/2013
https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/02/28/the-heart-vasculature-protection-a-concept-based-pharmacological-therapy-including-thymosin/

FDA Pending 510(k) for The Latest Cardiovascular Imaging Technology

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 1/28/2013
https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/28/fda-pending-510k-for-the-latest-cardiovascular-imaging-technology/

PCI Outcomes, Increased Ischemic Risk associated with Elevated Plasma Fibrinogen not Platelet Reactivity

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 1/10/2013
https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/10/pci-outcomes-increased-ischemic-risk-associated-with-elevated-plasma-fibrinogen-not-platelet-reactivity/

The ACUITY-PCI score: Will it Replace Four Established Risk Scores — TIMI, GRACE, SYNTAX, and Clinical SYNTAX

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 1/3/2013
https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/01/03/the-acuity-pci-score-will-it-replace-four-established-risk-scores-timi-grace-syntax-and-clinical-syntax/

Coronary artery disease in symptomatic patients referred for coronary angiography: Predicted by Serum Protein Profiles

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 12/29/2012
https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/29/coronary-artery-disease-in-symptomatic-patients-referred-for-coronary-angiography-predicted-by-serum-protein-profiles/

Heart Renewal by pre-existing Cardiomyocytes: Source of New Heart Cell Growth Discovered

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 12/23/2012
https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/12/23/heart-renewal-by-pre-existing-cardiomyocytes-source-of-new-heart-cell-growth-discovered/

Cardiovascular Risk Inflammatory Marker: Risk Assessment for Coronary Heart Disease and Ischemic Stroke – Atherosclerosis.

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 10/30/2012
https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/30/cardiovascular-risk-inflammatory-marker-risk-assessment-for-coronary-heart-disease-and-ischemic-stroke-atherosclerosis/

To Stent or Not? A Critical Decision

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 10/23/2012
https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/23/to-stent-or-not-a-critical-decision/

New Definition of MI Unveiled, Fractional Flow Reserve (FFR)CT for Tagging Ischemia

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 8/27/2012
https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/27/new-definition-of-mi-unveiled-fractional-flow-reserve-ffrct-for-tagging-ischemia/

Ethical Considerations in Studying Drug Safety — The Institute of Medicine Report

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 8/23/2012
https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/23/ethical-considerations-in-studying-drug-safety-the-institute-of-medicine-report/

New Drug-Eluting Stent Works Well in STEMI

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 8/22/2012
https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/22/new-drug-eluting-stent-works-well-in-stemi/

Expected New Trends in Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medical Devices

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 8/17/2012
https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/17/expected-new-trends-in-cardiology-and-cardiovascular-medical-devices/

Coronary Artery Disease – Medical Devices Solutions: From First-In-Man Stent Implantation, via Medical Ethical Dilemmas to Drug Eluting Stents

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 8/13/2012

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/13/coronary-artery-disease-medical-devices-solutions-from-first-in-man-stent-implantation-via-medical-ethical-dilemmas-to-drug-eluting-stents/

Percutaneous Endocardial Ablation of Scar-Related Ventricular Tachycardia

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 7/18/2012

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/07/18/percutaneous-endocardial-ablation-of-scar-related-ventricular-tachycardia/

Competition in the Ecosystem of Medical Devices in Cardiac and Vascular Repair: Heart Valves, Stents, Catheterization Tools and Kits for Open Heart and Minimally Invasive Surgery (MIS)

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 6/22/2012

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/06/22/competition-in-the-ecosystem-of-medical-devices-in-cardiac-and-vascular-repair-heart-valves-stents-catheterization-tools-and-kits-for-open-heart-and-minimally-invasive-surgery-mis/

Global Supplier Strategy for Market Penetration & Partnership Options (Niche Suppliers vs. National Leaders) in the Massachusetts Cardiology & Vascular Surgery Tools and Devices Market for Cardiac Operating Rooms and Angioplasty Suites

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 6/22/2012

https://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/06/22/global-supplier-strategy-for-market-penetration-partnership-options-niche-suppliers-vs-national-leaders-in-the-massachusetts-cardiology-vascular-surgery-tools-and-devices-market-for-car/

• Irish-made next-generation coronary stent system implanted in Dublin (siliconrepublic.com)
• UF&Shands One Of First Facilities Approved To Use Drug-Coated Stent For Peripheral Artery Disease(medicalnewstoday.com)
• Data Published in JACC: Cardiovascular Interventions Show that OrbusNeich’s COMBO Dual Therapy Stent™ Reaches Primary Study Endpoint and Is Effective in Controlling Neointimal Proliferation (sys-con.com)
• How does a Coronary Stent Work?(healthdisturbances.com)
• North America Leads Drug Delivery Technologies Market Followed by Europe Says New Research Report at ReportsnReports.com (prweb.com)
• Global Biomaterial Market: To Grow at a 15% CAGR Says New Research Report at ReportsnReports.com (prweb.com)
• Bioengineers Create Rubber-Like Material Bearing Micropatterns For Stronger, More Elastic Hearts (medicalnewstoday.com)
• Study Finds Tiny, Targeted Drug Particles May Be Effective in Treating Chronic Diseases (prweb.com)
• Compound Ex Vivo and In Silico Method for Hemodynamic Analysis of Stented Arteries (plosone.org)
• Patterned hearts (nanowerk.com)
• Molecular Role of Gene Linked to Blood Vessel Formation Uncovered (medindia.net)