Posts Tagged ‘amyloid beta’

Long Term Memory and Prions

Posted in Alzheimer's Disease, Cognition, Etiology, tagged AD, amyloid beta, amyloidogenesis, brain synapses, glutaminergic, Long-term memory, NCAM2, prion-like protein on December 11, 2015| Leave a Comment »

Long Term Memory and Prions

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

LPBI

 

updated 12/12/2015

 

Possible biochemical mechanism underlying long-term memories identified

Why is a prion-like molecular state necessary for persistence of memory? Could a transient memory be made permanent with a “Limitless” NZT-type neurotropic drug — or permanently forgotten?

http://www.kurzweilai.net/possible-biochemical-mechanism-underlying-long-term-memories-identified

http://www.kurzweilai.net/images/Unstimlated-vs.-stimulated-synapse.jpg

It’s a nagging question: why do some of our memories fade away, while others last forever? Now scientists at the Stowers Institute for Medical Research have identified a possible biochemical mechanism: a specific synaptic protein called Orb2 can either block or maintain neural synapses (connections between neurons), which create and maintain long-term memories.

So for a memory to persist, the synaptic connections must be kept strong. But how? The researchers previously identified a synaptic protein called CPEB that is responsible for maintaining the strength of such connections in the sea slug (a model organism used in memory research). Recently, they identified a similar protein, called Orb2, in the fruit fly.

Now, using a fruit fly model system, they found that the synaptic connections are kept strong by the transformation of Orb2 from one molecular state to another. And that transformation causes Orb2 molecules to solidify and strengthen the memory connections in the brain.

The authors conclude their paper, published in the current issue of the journal Cell, with several questions. How and what triggers this transformation, how long does it persist? Is the continued presence of a prion-like state necessary for the persistence of memory, and is it correlated with or predictive of long-lasting memory? And most interestingly: can a transient memory about to be forgotten be stabilized by artificial recruitment of the prion-like state (perhaps by a neurotropic compound)?

And what about that ironic link with prions, associated with neurodegenerative disorders? Are prions some twisted form of memory that could one day even have value? We’ll be keeping an eye on where this fascinating research leads.

Technical details: the memory switch

In their latest study, the researchers determined that Orb2 exists in two distinct physical states: monomeric (a single molecule that can bind to other molecules) and oligomeric (a molecular complex).

Like CPEB, oligomeric Orb2 is prion-like — that is, it’s a self-copying cluster. (But unlike prions, oligomeric Orb2 and CPEB are not toxic.) Monomeric Orb2 represses, and oligomeric Orb2 activates a crucial step in the complex cellular process that leads to protein synthesis.

During this crucial step, messenger RNA (mRNA), which is an RNA copy of a gene’s recipe for a protein, is translated by the cell’s ribosome into the sequence of amino acids that will make up a newly synthesized protein. The monomeric form of Orb2 binds to the target mRNA, keeping it in a repressed state.

The Stowers scientists also determined that prion-like Orb2 not only activates translation into amino acids but imparts its translational state to nearby monomer forms of Orb2. As a result, monomeric Orb2 is transformed into prion-like Orb2, so its role in translation switches from repression to activation.

Self-sustaining activation maintains synaptic activity

Stowers Associate Investigator Kausik Si, Ph.D. thinks this switch is the possible mechanism by which fleeting experiences create an enduring memory. “Because of the self-sustaining nature of the prion-like state, this creates a local and self-sustaining translation activation of Orb2-target mRNA, which maintains the changed state of synaptic activity over time,” says Si.

The discovery that the two distinct states of Orb2 have opposing roles in the translation process provides “for the first time a biochemical mechanism of synapse-specific persistent translation and long-lasting memory,” he states.

“To our knowledge, this is the first example of a prion-based protein switch that turns a repressor into an activator,” Si adds. “The recruitment of distinct protein complexes at the non-prion and prion-like forms to create altered activity states indicates the prion-like behavior is in essence a protein conformation-based switch.

“Through this switch, a protein can lose or gain a function that can be maintained over time in the absence of the original stimuli. Although such a possibility has been anticipated prior to this study, there was no direct evidence.”

The research builds upon previous studies by Si and Eric Kandel, M.D., of Columbia University and other scientists. These studies revealed that both short-term and long-term memories are created in synapses.

 

Abstract of Amyloidogenic Oligomerization Transforms Drosophila Orb2 from a Translation Repressor to an Activator

Memories are thought to be formed in response to transient experiences, in part through changes in local protein synthesis at synapses. In Drosophila, the amyloidogenic (prion-like) state of the RNA binding protein Orb2 has been implicated in long-term memory, but how conformational conversion of Orb2 promotes memory formation is unclear. Combining in vitro and in vivo studies, we find that the monomeric form of Orb2 represses translation and removes mRNA poly(A) tails, while the oligomeric form enhances translation and elongates the poly(A) tails and imparts its translational state to the monomer. The CG13928 protein, which binds only to monomeric Orb2, promotes deadenylation, whereas the putative poly(A) binding protein CG4612 promotes oligomeric Orb2-dependent translation. Our data support a model in which monomeric Orb2 keeps target mRNA in a translationally dormant state and experience-dependent conversion to the amyloidogenic state activates translation, resulting in persistent alteration of synaptic activity and stabilization of memory.

references:

Mohammed Repon Khan, Liying Li, Consuelo Pérez-Sánchez, Anita Saraf, Laurence Florens, Brian D. Slaughter, Jay R. Unruh, Kausik Si.

Amyloidogenic Oligomerization Transforms Drosophila Orb2 from a Translation Repressor to an Activator.

Cell 2015 ;     http://dx.doi.org:/10.1016/j.cell.2015.11.020

 

New Finding on Synapse Destruction May Open Path to Alzheimer’s Therapy

http://www.genengnews.com/gen-news-highlights/new-finding-on-synapse-destruction-may-open-path-to-alzheimer-s-therapy/81252029/

A team led by scientists at the University of New South Wales in Australia say they have discovered how connections between brain cells are destroyed in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease. They believe their work opens up a new avenue for research on possible treatments for the degenerative brain condition.

“One of the first signs of Alzheimer’s disease is the loss of synapses—the structures that connect neurons in the brain,” noted study leader, Vladimir Sytnyk, Ph.D., of the UNSW School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences. “Synapses are required for all brain functions, and particularly for learning and forming memories. In Alzheimer’s disease, this loss of synapses occurs very early on, when people still only have mild cognitive impairment, and long before the nerve cells themselves die. We have identified a new molecular mechanism which directly contributes to this synapse loss, a discovery we hope could eventually lead to earlier diagnosis of the disease and new treatments.”

The team studied a specific protein in the brain, neural cell adhesion molecule 2 (NCAM2), one of a family of molecules that physically connects the membranes of synapses and help stabilize these long lasting synaptic contacts between neurons. The researchers paper (“Aβ-dependent reduction of NCAM2-mediated synaptic adhesion contributes to synapse loss in Alzheimer’s disease”) is published in Nature Communications.

Using post-mortem brain tissue from people with and without the condition, they discovered that synaptic NCAM2 levels in the part of the brain known as the hippocampus were low in those with Alzheimer’s disease. They also showed in mice studies and in the laboratory that NCAM2 was broken down by beta-amyloid, which is the main component of the plaques that build up in the brains of people with the disease.

“Our research shows the loss of synapses is linked to the loss of NCAM2 as a result of the toxic effects of beta-amyloid,” pointed out Dr. Sytnyk. “It opens up a new avenue for research on possible treatments that can prevent the destruction of NCAM2 in the brain.”

 

Aβ-dependent reduction of NCAM2-mediated synaptic adhesion contributes to synapse loss in Alzheimer’s disease

Iryna Leshchyns’ka, Heng Tai Liew, Claire Shepherd, Glenda M. Halliday, Claire H. Stevens, Yazi D. Ke, Lars M. Ittner & Vladimir Sytnyk
Nature Communications Nov 2015; 6(8836)        doi:10.1038/ncomms9836

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by synapse loss due to mechanisms that remain poorly understood. We show that the neural cell adhesion molecule 2 (NCAM2) is enriched in synapses in the human hippocampus. This enrichment is abolished in the hippocampus of AD patients and in brains of mice overexpressing the human amyloid-β (Aβ) precursor protein carrying the pathogenic Swedish mutation. Aβ binds to NCAM2 at the cell surface of cultured hippocampal neurons and induces removal of NCAM2 from synapses. In AD hippocampus, cleavage of the membrane proximal external region of NCAM2 is increased and soluble extracellular fragments of NCAM2 (NCAM2-ED) accumulate. Knockdown of NCAM2 expression or incubation with NCAM2-ED induces disassembly of GluR1-containing glutamatergic synapses in cultured hippocampal neurons. Aβ-dependent disassembly of GluR1-containing synapses is inhibited in neurons overexpressing a cleavage-resistant mutant of NCAM2. Our data indicate that Aβ-dependent disruption of NCAM2 functions in AD hippocampus contributes to synapse loss.

 

Learning and memory processes depend on the number and correct functioning of synapses in the brain. Cell adhesion molecules are enriched in the pre- and postsynaptic membranes. These molecules physically connect synaptic membranes, providing mechanical stabilization of synaptic contacts^{1, 2, 3}, are necessary for the formation of new synapses during neuronal development^{4, 5}, and maintain and regulate synaptic plasticity in adults^{6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative brain condition predominantly of the aging population. One of the earliest signs of AD is the loss of synapses¹¹, which can at least partially be linked to the toxicity mediated by Aβ^{12, 13, 14}, a peptide that accumulates in the brains of AD patients. The impact of AD on synaptic adhesion and the role of synaptic cell adhesion molecules in the progression of the disease remains poorly understood.

The neural cell adhesion molecule 2 (NCAM2), sometimes designated OCAM, belongs to the immunoglobulin superfamily of cell adhesion molecules. NCAM2 participates in homophilic trans-interactions^{15, 16}. During human embryonic development, NCAM2 is expressed in several tissues, including lung, liver, and kidney with the highest expression in the brain¹⁷. The expression level of NCAM2 peaks around postnatal day 21 and remains high during adulthood¹⁵, suggesting that the protein is necessary both during development and in adult brains. Accordingly, studies with cultured neurons and in NCAM2 deficient mice show that NCAM2 is important for the development of the brain, and the olfactory system in particular^{18, 19}.

The NCAM2 gene is located on chromosome 21 in humans and NCAM2 overexpression has been suggested to be one of the factors contributing to the symptoms of Down syndrome¹⁷, which presents with early-onset AD pathology. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the NCAM2 gene have been reported as a risk factor related to the progression of AD in the Japanese population²⁰. A recent genome-wide association study has found an association between single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the NCAM2 gene and levels of Aβ in the cerebrospinal fluid in humans, suggesting that NCAM2 is involved in the pathogenic pathway to the senile plaques that concentrate in AD brains²¹. Since genetic association studies indicate a link between NCAM2 and AD, we have analysed whether AD pathology influences levels of NCAM2 in synapses. Our results indicate that the synaptic adhesion mediated by NCAM2 is highly susceptible to Aβ toxicity and that proteolytic fragments of NCAM2 generated in an Aβ-dependent manner can directly contribute to the induction of synapse disassembly.

 

Synaptic NCAM2 is reduced in the hippocampus in AD

To analyse whether functions of NCAM2 are affected in AD, frozen post-mortem brain tissue of AD patients and non-affected controls (n=10 each) was analysed by western blot with antibodies against NCAM2. The detailed demographic data for the subjects analysed are presented inSupplementary Table 1. Total levels of NCAM2 were slightly increased in the hippocampus, but not significantly affected in the cerebellum or superior temporal cortex in AD (Supplementary Fig. 1). In contrast, levels of VGLUT1, a presynaptic marker-protein of excitatory synapses, were reduced in AD hippocampus (Supplementary Fig. 1), indicating a loss of excitatory synapses. Levels of VGAT, a presynaptic marker-protein of inhibitory synapses, were not significantly affected in any brain region analysed (Supplementary Fig. 1).

Changes in the protein levels in brain homogenates do not necessarily reflect changes in the protein levels in synapses. To analyse whether the synaptic function of NCAM2 is affected in AD, we compared the enrichment of NCAM2 in synaptosomes isolated from the brain tissue of individuals with AD and non-affected controls by western blot analysis of synaptosomes and total homogenates of the brains used for synaptosome preparations. Equal total protein amounts from each probe were applied to the gels to compensate for any possible differences in the yield of synaptosomes because of the synapse loss observed in AD. Western blot analysis with antibodies against actin, VGLUT1, VGAT, synaptophysin (a general presynaptic marker-protein), and PSD95 (a postsynaptic marker-protein), showed that these proteins were enriched to similar levels in synaptosomes from AD and control brains, indicating similar purities of intact synaptosome isolations (Fig. 1a). Western blot analysis showed that in control individuals NCAM2 was highly enriched in synaptosomes from the hippocampus and to a lower degree in synaptosomes from the temporal cortex and cerebellum (Fig. 1a,b). This synaptic enrichment of NCAM2 was significantly reduced in synaptosomes from AD hippocampi (Fig. 1a,b). The synaptic enrichment of NCAM2 was slightly lower in the AD versus control cerebellum, however the difference was not statistically significant (Fig. 1a,b).

 

Figure 1: Synaptic accumulation of NCAM2 is reduced in the hippocampus of AD-affected individuals.

Figure 2: Cleavage of the membrane-adjacent extracellular fragment of NCAM2 is increased in AD brains.

Figure 3: The extracellular domain of NCAM2 binds to Aβ.

Cleavage of NCAM2aa682-701 is increased in AD brains

NCAM2 binds to Aβ in vitro

Figure 4: NCAM2 accumulates in excitatory synapses of cultured hippocampal neurons.

http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2015/151127/ncomms9836/images_article/ncomms9836-f4.jpg

(a) Low-magnification image of a cultured hippocampal neuron labelled by indirect immunofluorescence with antibodies against NCAM2, synaptophysin and MAP2. Note expression of NCAM2 along MAP2 positive dendrites. NCAM2 is also expressed in astrocytes (marked a) which are present in these cultures. Scale bar, 20 μm. (b) High-magnification image of dendrites of neurons co-labelled with antibodies against NCAM2, synaptophysin and MAP2. Arrows show clusters of NCAM2 partially overlapping with synaptophysin accumulations. NCAM2-negative synapses are also observed (arrowheads). Scale bar, 10 μm. (c) High-magnification image of a dendrite of a cultured hippocampal neuron labelled with antibodies against NCAM2, synaptophysin and PSD95. NCAM2 clusters partially overlap with accumulations of PSD95 and synaptophysin (arrows). Scale bar, 10 μm. Three-dimensional analysis of the co-localization within the outlined area is on the right. Z-stack has been acquired with 0.15 μm steps. The xz and yz sections along the dashed lines on the xy image are shown. Note co-localization of the NCAM2 cluster with synaptic markers. (d) Negative control, that is, labelling performed without primary antibodies, is shown. Scale bar, 10 μm.

 

Figure 5: Aβ_1–42 oligomers bind to NCAM2 at the cell surface of neurons.

Figure 6: Levels of NCAM2 are reduced in synaptosomes of cultured hippocampal neurons treated with Aβ_1-42 oligomers.

Figure 7: NCAM2 co-localizes with Aβ_1-42 in brains of APP23 transgenic mice.

Figure 8: NCAM2 binds to Aβ and its synaptic accumulation is reduced in the hippocampus of APP23 transgenic mice.

Aβ removes NCAM2 from synapses of hippocampal neurons

Western blot analysis showed that levels of soluble NCAM2 with the molecular weight of ~100 kDa were significantly increased in culture medium from Aβ_1-42-treated hippocampal neurons (Fig. 6b), further indicating that Aβ_1-42 induces removal of NCAM2 off the neuronal cell surface. In contrast, levels of the soluble proteolytic products of CHL1, another synaptic cell adhesion molecule of the immunoglobulin superfamily^{26, 27}, were not changed in the culture medium from Aβ_1-42-treated hippocampal neurons (Fig. 6b). Incubation with Aβ_1-42 did not increase levels of soluble NCAM2 in the culture medium from cortical neurons (Fig. 6b), suggesting that cortical neurons are more resistant to Aβ_1-42-dependent NCAM2 proteolysis.

Aβ binds to and removes NCAM2 from synapses in APP23 mice

Disruption of NCAM2 adhesion promotes synapse disassembly

Figure 9: Disruption of NCAM2 functions at the neuronal cell surface promotes glutamatergic synapse disassembly.

http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2015/151127/ncomms9836/images_article/ncomms9836-f9.jpg

(a–e) Cultured hippocampal neurons were either mock-treated or incubated with the recombinant soluble extracellular domains of NCAM2 (NCAM2-ED), antibodies against the extracellular domain of NCAM2 (NCAM2mAb), or Aβ_1-42 oligomers. In a,b, neurons were labelled with antibodies against the extracellular domain of GluR1 before permeabilization of membranes with detergent, and co-labelled with antibodies against synaptophysin after permeabilization of membranes with detergent. Representative images of dendrites are shown (a). Note co-localization of cell surface GluR1 accumulations with synaptophysin clusters in mock-treated neurons, and increased levels of non-synaptic cell surface GluR1 accumulations in neurons treated with NCAM2-ED, NCAM2mAb or Aβ_1-42. Graphs (b) show the percentage of synaptic and non-synaptic GluR1 clusters relative to total number of GluR1 clusters along dendrites and numbers of synaptophysin accumulations per dendrite length (mean+s.e.m.). *P<0.0001 (analysis of variance with Dunnett’s multiple comparison test, n>80 dendrites from 20 neurons were analysed in each group). In c, neurons were labelled with antibodies against the extracellular domain of NR1 before permeabilization of membranes with detergent, and co-labelled with antibodies against synaptophysin after permeabilization of membranes with detergent. Graphs show the percentage of synaptic and non-synaptic NR1 clusters relative to total number of NR1 clusters along dendrites (mean+s.e.m.). *P<0.0001 (analysis of variance with Dunnett’s multiple comparison test, n>85 dendrites from 20 neurons were analysed). In d,e, neurons were co-labelled with fluorescent phalloidin and synaptophysin antibodies. Representative images of dendrites are shown in d. Note higher labelling intensity and co-localization with synaptophysin of the phalloidin-labelled polymerized actin accumulations in control neurons versus neurons treated with Aβ_1-42, NCAM2-ED or NCAM2mAb. Note increased numbers of filopodia and lamellipodia in neurons treated with Aβ_1-42, NCAM2-ED or NCAM2 mAb. Graphs (e) show ratio of the dendrite area-to-length and phalloidin labelling intensity of dendrites of neurons. Mean values+s.e.m. are shown. *P<0.0001 (analysis of variance with Dunnett’s multiple comparison test, n=50 dendrites from 20 neurons were analysed in each group). Scale bar, 10 μm (in a,d).

Cleavage-resistant NCAM2 reduces Aβ-dependent synapse loss

Figure 10: Aβ_1-42 reduces the number of GluR1-containing synapses in the NCAM2-dependent manner.

http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2015/151127/ncomms9836/images_article/ncomms9836-f10.jpg

(a) Representative images of dendrites of cultured hippocampal neurons transfected either with control negative miRNA (negative miR) or NCAM2miR and either mock-treated or incubated with Aβ_1-42. Transfected neurons were identified by fluorescence of GFP, which is co-expressed together with miRNA. Neurons were co-labelled with antibodies against cell surface GluR1 and synaptophysin. Note that the number of synaptic GluR1 clusters is reduced and the number of non-synaptic GluR1 clusters is increased in neurons transfected with NCAM2miR. Scale bar, 10 μm. (b,c) Graphs show mean+s.e.m. percentage of synaptic and non-synaptic GluR1 clusters relative to the total number of GluR1 clusters along dendrites (b) and numbers of synaptophysin accumulations per dendrite length normalized to the mean number in mock-treated neurons (c) for neurons described in (a). (d–f) Graphs show mean+s.e.m. percentage of synaptic and non-synaptic GluR1 clusters relative to the total number of GluR1 clusters along dendrites (d), number of synaptophysin accumulations per dendrite length normalized to the mean number in mock-treated neurons (e), and area/length ratio (f) in cultured hippocampal neurons transfected either with GFP alone or co-transfected with GFP and non-mutated NCAM2 (NCAM2WT) or NCAM2D693A mutant and either mock-treated or incubated with Aβ_1-42. (g,h) Graphs show mean+s.e.m. percentage of non-synaptic GluR1 clusters relative to the total number of GluR1 clusters along dendrites (g) and area/length ratio (h) in cultured hippocampal neurons co-transfected with NCAM2 miR and either GFP, non-mutated NCAM2 (WT) or NCAM2D693A mutant (D693A) and either mock-treated or incubated with Aβ_1-42. In b–h, *P<0.01 (compared as indicated), ˆP<0.01 (compared with mock-treated neurons transfected with negative miR (b), GFP (d–f) or co-transfected with NCAM2miR and GFP (g–h)), analysis of variance with Tukey’s multiple comparison test, n>50 dendrites from 20 neurons were analysed in each group.

 

Taken together, our results indicate that Aβ affects the numbers of GluR1-containing glutamatergic synapses in a NCAM2-dependent manner.

Alzheimer’s disease is characterized by loss of synapses, which is the strongest correlate of cognitive decline^{11, 29, 30, 31, 32} and possibly one of the earliest events in AD pathogenesis^{30, 33}. Synapses are long lasting contacts between neurons, which are stabilized by a number of cell adhesion molecules that concentrate in pre- and postsynaptic membranes^{2, 5}. Cell adhesion molecules play an essential role in maintaining synapse functionality and stability. Although cell adhesion molecules of many families are required for the synapse integrity^{8, 10}, elimination of even one type of synaptic cell adhesion molecule is often sufficient to induce abnormalities in synapse ultrastructure and protein composition^{6, 7}. In the present study, we show that levels of the synaptic cell adhesion molecule NCAM2 are markedly reduced in hippocampal synapses in AD brains and Aβ-forming APP23 mice. Our observations that disruption of NCAM2 interactions at the cell surface, knockdown of NCAM2 expression and Aβ exposure result in reduced numbers of glutamatergic synapses in hippocampal neurons suggest that abnormalities in NCAM2-mediated synaptic adhesion contribute to synapse loss in AD.

Although the mechanisms of synapse disassembly in AD remain poorly understood, previous studies indicated that synapse loss can be linked to Aβ-induced toxicity^{12, 34, 35}. Our observations showing that synaptic levels of NCAM2 are similarly reduced in APP23 mice and in cultured hippocampal neurons from wild-type mice exposed to Aβ argue in favour of Aβ-dependent mechanisms in the disruption of NCAM2-mediated synaptic adhesion. We however do not exclude that other factors, such as disrupted trafficking of NCAM2 to synapses, may also contribute to the reduction of NCAM2 levels at synapses. Strikingly, the effects of Aβ on synaptic targeting of NCAM2 were particularly strong in hippocampal but not cortical or cerebellar neurons. The enhanced susceptibility of synaptic NCAM2 to Aβ-dependent proteolysis may therefore contribute to selective vulnerability of the hippocampus to AD.

Our observations that NCAM2 directly interacts with synthetic Aβ_1-42, that Aβ_1-42 forms a molecular complex with NCAM2 at the neuronal cell surface and that complexes of NCAM2 and oligomers of Aβ can be isolated from APP23 mouse brains, indicate that NCAM2 may function as a previously unrecognized receptor for Aβ at the neuronal cell surface. Previous studies have shown that Aβ can also bind to other cell adhesion molecules at the neuronal cell surface, among which are the prion protein³⁶ and L1³⁷. In addition, a number of cell adhesion molecules have been shown to interact with APP, including the neural cell adhesion molecule 1 (NCAM1)³⁸ and TAG1 (ref. 39). It remains to be investigated whether the NCAM2/Aβ complex comprises other adhesion molecules and cell surface proteins. Interestingly, NCAM1, a homologue of NCAM2, binds to prion protein⁴⁰ and L1 (ref. 41). However, in spite of homology to NCAM2, NCAM1 binds to a region of APP which is different to the Aβ-containing region³⁸.

…..

Taken together, we show that Aβ induces synaptic loss and proteolysis of NCAM2 in cell culture and APP transgenic mouse models, providing a mechanistic explanation for synaptic NCAM2 changes in AD brains. The detrimental effects of proteolyically cleaved extracellular NCAM2 on synapses may augment the Aβ toxicity in the pathogenesis of AD. The exact molecular mechanisms underlying Aβ-induced NCAM2 changes, and to which degree it contributes to onset and progression of disease remains to be established. Nevertheless, our data reveal a new role of NCAM2 in AD that warrants further investigation.

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The Alzheimer Scene around the Web

Posted in Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Chemical Biology and its relations to Metabolic Disease, Disease Biology, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, Genome Biology, International Global Work in Pharmaceutical, Molecular Genetics & Pharmaceutical, Pharmaceutical Industry Competitive Intelligence, Population Health Management, Nutrition and Phytochemistry, tagged Alzheimer, Alzheimers Disease, amyloid beta, Apo E4, Arun Ghosh, aspartyl protease, Berislav Zlokovic, beta secretase inhibitor, Clinical trial, Curcumin, Cyp A, Eli Lilly and Company, MMP-9 inhibitor, NF-κB, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, Turmeric on November 2, 2012| 1 Comment »

Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Reporter

A Pot[age] to Die For (Photo credit: jazzijava)

Neurodegerative Disease
Tumeric-Derived Compound Curcumin May Treat Alzheimer’s
Curry chemical shows promise for treating the memory-robbing disease
By Lauren K. Wolf
Department: Science & Technology
News Channels: Biological SCENE
Keywords: alternative medicine, dietary supplements, curcumin, tumeric, Alzheimer’s disease

CURRY WONDER
Curcumin, derived from the rootstalk of the turmeric plant, not only gives Indian dishes their color but might treat Alzheimer’s.
Credit: Shutterstock
More than 5 million people in the U.S. currently live with Alzheimer’s disease. And according to the Alz­heimer’s Association, the situation is only going to get worse.
By 2050, the nonprofit estimates, up to 16 million Americans will have the memory-robbing disease. It will cost the U.S. $1.1 trillion annually to care for them unless a successful therapy is found.
Pharmaceutical companies have invested heavily in developing Alzheimer’s drugs, many of which target amyloid-β, a peptide that misfolds and clumps in the brains of patients. But so far, no amyloid-β-targeted medications have been successful. Expectation for the most advanced drugs—bapineu­zumab from Pfizer and Johnson & Johnson and solanezumab from Eli Lilly & Co.—are low on the basis of lackluster data from midstage clinical trials. That sentiment was reinforced last week when bapineuzumab was reported to have failed the first of four Phase III studies.
Even if these late-stage hopefuls do somehow work, they won’t come cheap, says Gregory M. Cole, a neuroscientist at the University of California, Los Angeles. These drugs “would cost patients tens of thousands of dollars per year,” he estimates. That hefty price tag stems from bapineuzumab and solanezumab being costly-to-manufacture monoclonal antibodies against amyloid-β.
“There’s a great need for inexpensive Alzheimer’s treatments,” as well as a backup plan if pharma fails, says Larry W. Baum, a professor in the School of Pharmacy at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. As a result, he says, a great many researchers have turned their attention to less pricy alternatives, such as compounds from plants and other natural sources.
Curcumin, a spice compound derived from the rootstalk of the turmeric plant (Curcuma longa), has stood out among some of the more promising naturally derived candidates.

When administered to mice that develop Alzheimer’s symptoms, curcumin decreases inflammation and reactive oxygen species in the rodents’ brains, researchers have found. The compound also inhibits the aggregation of troublesome amyloid-β strands among the animals’ nerve cells. But the development of curcumin as an Alzheimer’s drug has been stymied, scientists say, both by its low uptake in the body and a lack of funds for effective clinical trials—obstacles researchers are now trying to overcome.
In addition to contributing to curry dishes’ yellow color and pungent flavor, curcumin has been a medicine in India for thousands of years. Doctors practicing traditional Hindu medicine admire turmeric’s active ingredient for its anti-inflammatory properties and have used it to treat patients for ailments including digestive disorders and joint pain.
Only in the 1970s did Western researchers catch up with Eastern practices and confirm curcumin’s anti-inflammatory properties in the laboratory. Scientists also eventually determined that the polyphenolic compound is an antioxidant and has chemotherapeutic activity.

Bharat B. Aggarwal, a professor at the University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, says curcumin is an example of a pleiotropic agent: It has a number of different effects and interacts with many targets and biochemical pathways in the body. He and his group have discovered that one important molecule targeted and subsequently suppressed by curcumin is NF-κB, a transcription factor that switches on the body’s inflammatory response when activated (J. Biol. Chem., DOI: 10.1074/jbc.270.42.24995).
Aside from NF-κB, curcumin seems to interact with several other molecules in the inflammatory pathway, a biological activity that Aggarwal thinks is advantageous. “All chronic diseases are caused by dysregulation of multiple targets,” he says. “Chemists don’t yet know how to design a drug that hits multiple targets.” With curcumin, “Mother Nature has already provided a compound that does so.”
Curcumin’s pleiotropy also brought it to the attention of UCLA’s Cole during the early 1990s while he was searching for possible Alzheimer’s therapeutics. “That was before we knew about amyloid-β” and its full role in Alzheimer’s, he says. “We were working on the disease from an oxidative damage and inflammation point of view—two processes implicated in aging.”
When Cole and his wife, Sally A. Frautschy, also at UCLA, searched the literature for compounds that could tackle both of these age-related processes, curcumin jumped out at them. It also didn’t hurt that the incidence of Alz­heimer’s in India, where large amounts of curcumin are consumed regularly, is lower than in other parts of the developing world (Lancet Neurol., DOI:10.1016/s1474-4422(08)70169-8).

In 2001, Cole, Frautschy, and colleagues published the first papers that demonstrated curcumin’s potential to treat neurodegenerative disease (Neurobiol. Aging, DOI: 10.1016/s0197-4580(01)00300-1; J. Neurosci.2001, 8370). The researchers studied the effects of curcumin on rats that had amyloid-β injected into their brains, as well as mice engineered to develop amyloid brain plaques. In both cases, curcumin suppressed oxidative tissue damage and reduced amyloid-β deposits.
Those results, Cole says, “turned us into curcuminologists.”
Although the UCLA team observed that curcumin decreased amyloid plaques in animal models, at the time, the researchers weren’t sure of the molecular mechanism involved.
Soon after the team’s first results were published, Cole recalls, a colleague brought to his attention the structural similarity between curcumin and the dyes used to stain amyloid plaques in diseased brain tissue. When Cole and Frautschy tested the spice compound, they saw that it, too, could stick to aggregated amyloid-β. “We thought, ‘Wow, not only is curcumin an antioxidant and an anti-inflammatory, but it also might be an anti-amyloid drug,’ ” he says.
In 2004, a group in Japan demonstrated that submicromolar concentrations of curcumin in solution could inhibit aggregation of amyloid-β and break up preformed fibrils of the stuff (J. Neurosci. Res., DOI: 10.1002/jnr.20025). Shortly after that, the UCLA team demonstrated the same (J. Biol. Chem., DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m404751200).
As an Alzheimer’s drug, however, it’s unclear how important it is that the spice compound inhibits amyloid-β aggregation, Cole says. “When you have something that’s so pleiotropic,” he adds, “it’s hard to know” which of its modes of action is most effective.
Having multiple targets may be what helps curcumin have such beneficial, neuroprotective effects, says David R. Schubert, a neurobiologist at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, in La Jolla, Calif. But its pleiotropy can also be a detriment, he contends.
The pharmaceutical world, Schubert says, focuses on designing drugs aimed at hitting single-target molecules with high affinity. “But we don’t really know what ‘the’ target for curcumin is,” he says, “and we get knocked for it on grant requests.”
Another problem with curcumin is poor bioavailability. When ingested, UCLA’s Cole says, the compound gets converted into other molecular forms, such as curcumin glucuronide or curcumin sulfate. It also gets hydrolyzed at the alkaline and neutral pHs present in many areas of the body. Not much of the curcumin gets into the bloodstream, let alone past the blood-brain barrier, in its pure, active form, he adds.

Unfortunately, neither Cole nor Baum at the Chinese University of Hong Kong realized the poor bioavailability until they had each launched a clinical trial of curcumin. So the studies showed no significant difference between Alzheimer’s patients taking the spice compound and those taking a placebo (J. Clin. Psychopharma­col., DOI: 10.1097/jcp.0b013e318160862c).
“But we did show curcumin was safe for patients,” Baum says, finding a silver lining to the blunder. “We didn’t see any adverse effects even at high doses.”

Some researchers, such as Salk’s Schubert, are tackling curcumin’s low bioavailability by modifying the compound to improve its properties. Schubert and his group have come up with a molecule, called J147, that’s a hybrid of curcumin and cyclohexyl-bisphenol A. Like Cole and coworkers, they also came upon the compound not by initially screening for the ability to interact with amyloid-β, but by screening for the ability to alleviate age-related symptoms.

The researchers hit upon J147 by exposing cultured Alzheimer’s nerve cells to a library of compounds and then measuring changes to levels of biomarkers for oxidative stress, inflammation, and nerve growth. J147 performed well in all categories. And when given to mice engineered to accumulate amyloid-β clumps in their brains, the hybrid molecule prevented memory loss and reduced formation of amyloid plaques over time (PLoS One, DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0027865).

Other researchers have tackled curcumin’s poor bioavailability by reformulating it. Both Baum and Cole have encapsulated curcumin in nanospheres coated with either polymers or lipids to protect the compound from modification after ingestion. Cole tells C&EN that by packaging the curcumin in this way, he and his group have gotten micromolar quantities of it into the bloodstream of humans. The researchers are now preparing for a small clinical trial to test the formulation on patients with mild cognitive impairment, who are at an increased risk of developing Alzheimer’s.

An early-intervention human study such as this one comes with its own set of challenges, Cole says. People with mild cognitive impairment “have good days and bad days,” he says. A large trial over a long period would be the best way to get any meaningful data, he adds.  Such a trial can cost up to $100 million, a budget big pharma might be able to scrape together but that is far out of reach for academics funded by grants, Cole says. “If you’re down at the level of what an individual investigator can do, you’re running a small trial,” he says, “and even if the result is positive, it might be inconclusive” because of its small size or short duration. That’s one of the reasons the curcumin work is slow-going, Cole contends.
NIH-Funded Research Provides New Clues on How ApoE4 Affects Alzheimer’s Risk
Published: Tuesday, October 30, 2012
Last Updated: Tuesday, October 30, 2012

Researchers found that ApoE4 triggers an inflammatory reaction that weakens the blood-brain barrier.
Common variants of the ApoE gene are strongly associated with the risk of developing late-onset Alzheimer’s disease, but the gene’s role in the disease has been unclear.

Now, researchers funded by the National Institutes of Health have found that in mice, having the most risky variant of ApoE damages the blood vessels that feed the brain.

The researchers found that the high-risk variant, ApoE4, triggers an inflammatory reaction that weakens the blood-brain barrier, a network of cells and other components that lines brain’s brain vessels.

Normally, this barrier allows nutrients into the brain and keeps harmful substances out.

The study appears in Nature, and was led by Berislav Zlokovic, M.D., Ph.D., director of the Center for Neurodegeneration and Regeneration at the Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles.

“Understanding the role of ApoE4 in Alzheimer’s disease may be one of the most important avenues to a new therapy,” Dr. Zlokovic said. “Our study shows that ApoE4 triggers a cascade of events that damages the brain’s vascular system,” he said, referring to the system of blood vessels that supply the brain.

The ApoE gene encodes a protein that helps regulate the levels and distribution of cholesterol and other lipids in the body. The gene exists in three varieties.

ApoE2 is thought to play a protective role against both Alzheimer’s and heart disease, ApoE3 is believed to be neutral, and ApoE4 confers a higher risk for both conditions.

Outside the brain, the ApoE4 protein appears to be less effective than other versions at clearing away cholesterol; however, inside the brain, exactly how ApoE4 contributes to Alzheimer’s disease has been a mystery.

Dr. Zlokovic and his team studied several lines of genetically engineered mice, including one that lacks the ApoE gene and three other lines that produce only human ApoE2, ApoE3 or ApoE4. Mice normally have only a single version of ApoE.

The researchers found that mice whose bodies made only ApoE4, or made no ApoE at all, had a leaky blood-brain barrier. With the barrier compromised, harmful proteins in the blood made their way into the mice’s brains, and after several weeks, the researchers were able to detect loss of small blood vessels, changes in brain function, and a loss of connections between brain cells.

“The study demonstrates that damage to the brain’s vascular system may play a key role in Alzheimer’s disease, and highlights growing recognition of potential links between stroke and Alzheimer’s-type dementia,” said Roderick Corriveau, Ph.D., a program director at NIH’s National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), which helped fund the research. “It also suggests that we might be able to decrease the risk of Alzheimer’s disease among ApoE4 carriers by improving their vascular health.”

The researchers also found that ApoE2 and ApoE3 help control the levels of an inflammatory molecule called cyclophilin A (CypA), but ApoE4 does not. Levels of CypA were raised about five-fold in blood vessels of mice that produce only ApoE4.

The excess CypA then activated an enzyme, called MMP-9, which destroys protein components of the blood-brain barrier. Treatment with the immunosuppressant drug cyclosporine A, which inhibits CypA, preserved the integrity of the blood-brain barrier and lessened damage to the brain.

An inhibitor of the MMP-9 enzyme had similar beneficial effects. In prior studies, inhibitors of this enzyme have been shown to reduce brain damage after stroke in animal models.

“These findings point to cyclophilin A as a potential new drug target for Alzheimer’s disease,” said Suzana Petanceska, Ph.D., a program director at NIH’s National Institute on Aging (NIA), which also funded Dr. Zlokovic’s study.

“Many population studies have shown an association between vascular risk factors in mid-life, such as high blood pressure and diabetes, and the risk for Alzheimer’s in late-life. We need more research aimed at deepening our understanding of the mechanisms involved and to test whether treatments that reduce vascular risk factors may be helpful against Alzheimer’s.”

Alzheimer’s disease is the most common cause of dementia in older adults, and affects more than 5 million Americans. A hallmark of the disease is a toxic protein fragment called beta-amyloid that accumulates in clumps, or plaques, within the brain.

Gene variations that cause higher levels of beta-amyloid are associated with a rare type of Alzheimer’s that appears early in life, between age 30 and 60.

However, it is the ApoE4 gene variant that is most strongly tied to the more common, late-onset type of Alzheimer’s disease. Inheriting a single copy of ApoE4 from a parent increases the risk of Alzheimer’s disease by about three-fold. Inheriting two copies, one from each parent, increases the risk by about 12-fold.

Dr. Zlokovic’s study and others point to a complex interplay between beta-amyloid and ApoE4. On the one hand, beta-amyloid is known to build up in and damage blood vessels and cause bleeding into the brain.

On the other hand, Dr. Zlokovic’s data suggest that ApoE4 can damage the vascular system independently of beta-amyloid. He theorizes that this damage makes it harder to clear beta-amyloid from the brain.

Some therapies under investigation for Alzheimer’s focus on destroying amyloid plaques, but therapies designed to compensate for ApoE4 might help prevent the plaques from forming, he said.

Compound Could Become Alzheimer’s Treatment
Thu, 10/11/2012 – 1:29pm
A new molecule designed to treat Alzheimer’s disease has significant promise and is potentially the safest to date, according to researchers.

Purdue University professor Arun Ghosh designed the molecule, which is a highly potent beta-secretase inhibitor with unique features that ensure it goes only to its target and does not affect healthy physiological processes, he said.

“This molecule maintains the disease-fighting properties of earlier beta-secretase inhibitors, but is much less likely to cause harmful side effects,” said Ghosh, the Ian P. Rothwell Distinguished Professor of Chemistry and Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology. “The selectivity we achieved is unprecedented, which gives it great promise for the long-term medication required to treat Alzheimer’s. Each time a treatment misses its disease target and instead interacts with a healthy cell or molecule, damage is done that we call toxicity. Even low levels of this toxicity could build up over years and years of treatment, and an Alzheimer’s patient would need to be treated for the rest of his or her life.”

The new molecule shows a 7,000-fold selectivity for its target enzyme, which far surpasses the benchmark of a 1,000-fold selectivity for a viable treatment molecule, and dwarfs the selectivity values in the hundreds for past beta-secretase inhibitors, he said. A paper detailing the work will be published in an upcoming Alzheimer’s research issue of the Journal of Medicinal Chemistry and is currently available online. The National Institutes of Health funded the research.

Beta-secretase inhibitors, which could allow for intervention in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease, have promise as a potential treatment. Several drugs based on this molecular target have made it to clinical trials, including one based on a molecule Ghosh designed previously. These molecules prevent the first step in a chain of events that leads to the formation of amyloid plaque in the brain, fibrous clumps of toxic proteins that are believed to cause the disease’s devastating symptoms.

The National Institute on Aging estimates that 5.1 million Americans suffer from Alzheimer’s disease, which leads to dementia by affecting parts of the brain that control thought, memory and language.

“Alzheimer’s is a progressive disease that destroys the brain and also destroys the quality of life for those who suffer from it,” Ghosh said. “It eventually robs people of their ability to recognize their own spouse or child and to complete basic tasks necessary for independence, like getting dressed. It is a truly devastating disease for those who suffer from it and for their friends and loved ones.”

Earlier versions of the beta-secretase inhibitor were able to stop and even reverse the progression of amyloid plaques in tests on mice, but potency and selectivity are only two of the three pillars of a viable Alzheimer’s treatment, Ghosh said. It has yet to be shown whether this molecule possesses the third pillar, the ability to be turned into an easily administered drug that passes through the blood-brain barrier.

Ghosh collaborates with Jordan Tang, the J.G. Puterbaugh Chair in Medical Research at the Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, who in 2000 identified beta-secretase and its role in the progression of Alzheimer’s. Later that year Ghosh designed his first molecule that bound to and inhibited the activity of the enzyme. He has strived to create the needed improvements ever since.

Ghosh bypasses the usual lengthy process of trial and error in finding useful inhibitor molecules by using a structure-based design strategy. He uses the structures of the inhibitor bound to the enzyme as a guide to what molecular features are important for desirable and undesirable characteristics. Then he removes, replaces and adds molecular groups to amplify the desirable and eliminate the undesirable.

“I believe structure-based design is vital to the development of new and improved medicine,” said Ghosh, who also is a member of the Purdue University Center for Cancer Research. “These strategies have the potential to eliminate enormous costs and time needed in traditional random screening protocols for drug development. Structure-based strategies allow us to design molecules that do precisely what we need them to do with fewer undesirable side effects.”

Tang performed the X-ray crystallography and captured the crystal structures to reveal important insights and serve as a guide for Ghosh’s designs.

“Developing inhibitors into clinically useful drugs is an evolutionary process,” Tang said. “We learn what works and what doesn’t along the way, and the knowledge permits us to do better in the next step. The miracles of modern medicine are built on top of excellent scientific findings. We try to do good science and know that the consequence will be a better chance for conquering diseases and improving lives.”

Beta-secretase belongs to a class of enzymes called aspartyl proteases. Research into beta-secretase inhibitors faced setbacks when other aspartyl proteases similar in structure, called memapsin 1 and cathepsin D, were discovered and found to be involved in many important physiological processes. Earlier designed beta-secretase inhibitors were found also to work against the biologically necessary enzymes.

Ghosh’s team focused on developing ways to make the inhibitor more selective so that it would avoid these other, physiologically important enzymes. They compared the structures of beta-secretase and memapsin 1 as they interacted with the inhibitor to find an active area unique only to beta-secretase. Then they added a functional molecular feature that targets and interacts with the unique area, making the inhibitor more attractive to beta-secretase and less attractive to the other enzymes.

“The added feature serves as a bait on the inhibitor molecule that entices beta-secretase and also grabs onto it tightly, greatly enhancing its selectivity,” he said. “This is a fundamental insight into the origins of selectivity and ways to increase it.”
Ghosh said this work highlights an important purpose of academic research.

“Academic research lays out and shares the fundamentals to advance drug discovery,” he said. “Advances in treatment are built upon the basic research happening at universities.”

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• Eli Lilly and Company Trials Boost Amyloid Link to Alzheimer’s in Two Phase 2 Studies (biospace.com)
• Ubiquinin-Proteosome pathway, autophagy, the mitochondrion, proteolysis and cell apoptosis (pharmaceuticalintelligence.wordpress.com)

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