The Future of Translational Medicine with Smart Diagnostics and Therapies: PharmacoGenomics
Curator: Demet Sag, PhD
Since Human Genome project is completed we saw several projects to understand function and how they relate to personal health. These advancements hope to improve diagnostics in preventive medicine. The future of medicine may involve a personal wireless unit to detect the vital records with genomics changes and compare the assumed “healthy” state to “unhealthy” to suggest options to treat in a palm of hand.
Pharmacogenomics is the study of how genes affect a person’s response to drugs. This relatively new field combines pharmacology (the science of drugs) and genomics (the study of genes and their functions) to develop effective, safe medications and doses that will be tailored to a person’s genetic makeup.
The American Medical Association and Critical Path Institute and the Arizona Center for Education and Research on Therapeutics developed a brochure for health care providers on pharmacogenomics. The man purpose is to help physicians to ue this information correctly by case based approach. View an electronic version of the brochure.
Like always, there are debates and controversies but the positives outweighs the negatives in this case such as some patients with the same gene abnormality may not benefit due to his or her deficiency or polymorphisms in another connected gene so it is a system approach including origin of pathways during development. There is nothing simply white or black but like Goethe said “there are shades of gray”. This shade is light compared to one size fits all drug making.
The main idea is create safer, effective and perfect dose medication to gain health for a quality life with less expense but more beneficial outcomes.
At the same token these developments decreases the cost of making drugs since they are specific to a small population or group so there are less clinical trial time, less time for approval, less adverse affects.
Functional genomics suggests how piece of information utilized in body in a nut shell. However, use of these knowledge to develop new drugs created a new area called Pharmacogenomics. Thus, FDA included the terminology for drug labeling that contain biomarkers along with several other factors containing variation of clinical response to drug exposure, possible side or adverse effects, genotype-specific dosing, drug action mechanism, polymorphic drug target and disposition genes.
What can be on the label: Age, Sex, Origin/Ethinicity (Asian, Caucasian, African, South Asian), gene of interest, possible SNPs, variation/polymorphisms warnings, dose etc.
Here are the FDA-approved drugs with pharmacogenomic information in their labeling:
Pharmacogenomic Biomarkers in Drug Labeling
Drug | Therapeutic Area | HUGO Symbol | Referenced Subgroup | Labeling Sections |
Abacavir | Infectious Diseases | HLA-B | HLA-B*5701 allele carriers | Boxed Warning, Contraindications, Warnings and Precautions, Patient Counseling Information |
Ado-Trastuzumab Emtansine | Oncology | ERBB2 | HER2 protein overexpression or gene amplification positive | Indications and Usage, Warnings and Precautions, Adverse Reactions, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Afatinib | Oncology | EGFR | EGFR exon 19 deletion or exon 21 substitution (L858R) mutation positive | Indications and Usage, Dosage and Administration, Adverse Reactions, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies, Patient Counseling Information |
Amitriptyline | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Precautions |
Anastrozole | Oncology | ESR1, PGR | Hormone receptor positive | Indications and Usage, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Aripiprazole | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Clinical Pharmacology, Dosage and Administration |
Arsenic Trioxide | Oncology | PML/RARA | PML/RARα (t(15;17)) gene expression positive | Boxed Warning, Clinical Pharmacology, Indications and Usage, Warnings |
Atomoxetine | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Dosage and Administration, Warnings and Precautions, Drug Interactions, Clinical Pharmacology |
Atorvastatin | Endocrinology | LDLR | Homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia | Indications and Usage, Dosage and Administration, Warnings and Precautions, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Azathioprine | Rheumatology | TPMT | TPMT intermediate or poor metabolizers | Dosage and Administration, Warnings and Precautions, Drug Interactions, Adverse Reactions, Clinical Pharmacology |
Belimumab | Autoimmune Diseases | BAFF/TNFSF13B | CD257 positive | Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Boceprevir | Infectious Diseases | IFNL3 | IL28B rs12979860 T allele carriers | Clinical Pharmacology |
Bosutinib | Oncology | BCR/ABL1 | Philadelphia chromosome (t(9;22)) positive | Indications and Usage, Adverse Reactions, Clinical Studies |
Brentuximab Vedotin | Oncology | TNFRSF8 | CD30 positive | Indications and Usage, Description, Clinical Pharmacology |
Busulfan | Oncology | Ph Chromosome | Ph Chromosome negative | Clinical Studies |
Capecitabine | Oncology | DPYD | DPD deficient | Contraindications, Warnings and Precautions, Patient Information |
Carbamazepine (1) | Neurology | HLA-B | HLA-B*1502 allele carriers | Boxed Warning, Warnings and Precautions |
Carbamazepine (2) | Neurology | HLA-A | HLA-A*3101 allele carriers | Boxed Warning, Warnings and Precautions |
Carglumic Acid | Metabolic Disorders | NAGS | N-acetylglutamate synthase deficiency | Indications and Usage, Warnings and Precautions, Special Populations, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Carisoprodol | Rheumatology | CYP2C19 | CYP2C19 poor metabolizers | Clinical Pharmacology, Special Populations |
Carvedilol | Cardiology | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Drug Interactions, Clinical Pharmacology |
Celecoxib | Rheumatology | CYP2C9 | CYP2C9 poor metabolizers | Dosage and Administration, Drug Interactions, Use in Specific Populations, Clinical Pharmacology |
Cetuximab (1) | Oncology | EGFR | EGFR protein expression positive | Indications and Usage, Warnings and Precautions, Description, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Cetuximab (2) | Oncology | KRAS | KRAS codon 12 and 13 mutation negative | Indications and Usage, Dosage and Administration, Warnings and Precautions, Adverse Reactions, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Cevimeline | Dermatology | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Drug Interactions |
Chloroquine | Infectious Diseases | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Precautions |
Chlorpropamide | Endocrinology | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Precautions |
Cisplatin | Oncology | TPMT | TPMT intermediate or poor metabolizers | Clinical Pharmacology, Warnings, Precautions |
Citalopram (1) | Psychiatry | CYP2C19 | CYP2C19 poor metabolizers | Drug Interactions, Warnings |
Citalopram (2) | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Drug Interactions |
Clobazam | Neurology | CYP2C19 | CYP2C19 poor metabolizers | Clinical Pharmacology, Dosage and Administration, Use in Specific Populations |
Clomipramine | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Drug Interactions |
Clopidogrel | Cardiology | CYP2C19 | CYP2C19 intermediate or poor metabolizers | Boxed Warning, Dosage and Administration, Warnings and Precautions, Drug Interactions, Clinical Pharmacology |
Clozapine | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Drug Interactions, Clinical Pharmacology |
Codeine | Anesthesiology | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Warnings and Precautions, Use in Specific Populations, Clinical Pharmacology |
Crizotinib | Oncology | ALK | ALK gene rearrangement positive | Indications and Usage, Dosage and Administration, Drug Interactions, Warnings and Precautions, Adverse Reactions, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Dabrafenib (1) | Oncology | BRAF | BRAF V600E mutation positive | Indications and Usage, Dosage and Administration, Warnings and Precautions, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies, Patient Counseling Information |
Dabrafenib (2) | Oncology | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Warnings and Precautions, Adverse Reactions, Patient Counseling Information |
Dapsone (1) | Dermatology | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Indications and Usage, Precautions, Adverse Reactions, Patient Counseling Information |
Dapsone (2) | Infectious Diseases | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Precautions, Adverse Reactions, Overdosage |
Dasatinib | Oncology | BCR/ABL1 | Philadelphia chromosome (t(9;22)) positive; T315I mutation-positive | Indications and Usage, Clinical Studies, Patient Counseling Information |
Denileukin Diftitox | Oncology | IL2RA | CD25 antigen positive | Indications and Usage, Warnings and Precautions, Clinical Studies |
Desipramine | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Drug Interactions |
Dexlansoprazole (1) | Gastroenterology | CYP2C19 | CYP2C19 poor metabolizers | Clinical Pharmacology, Drug Interactions |
Dexlansoprazole (2) | Gastroenterology | CYP1A2 | CYP1A2 genotypes | Clinical Pharmacology |
Dextromethorphan and Quinidine | Neurology | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Clinical Pharmacology, Warnings and Precautions, Drug Interactions |
Diazepam | Psychiatry | CYP2C19 | CYP2C19 poor metabolizers | Drug Interactions, Clinical Pharmacology |
Doxepin | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Precautions |
Drospirenone and Ethinyl Estradiol | Neurology | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Clinical Pharmacology, Warnings and Precautions, Drug Interactions |
Eltrombopag (1) | Hematology | F5 | Factor V Leiden carriers | Warnings and Precautions |
Eltrombopag (2) | Hematology | SERPINC1 | Antithrombin III deficient | Warnings and Precautions |
Erlotinib (1) | Oncology | EGFR | EGFR protein expression positive | Clinical Pharmacology |
Erlotinib (2) | Oncology | EGFR | EGFR exon 19 deletion or exon 21 substitution (L858R) positive | Indications and Usage, Dosage and Administration, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Esomeprazole | Gastroenterology | CYP2C19 | CYP2C19 poor metabolizers | Drug Interactions, Clinical Pharmacology |
Everolimus (1) | Oncology | ERBB2 | HER2 protein overexpression negative | Indications and Usage, Boxed Warning, Adverse Reactions, Use in Specific Populations, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Everolimus (2) | Oncology | ESR1 | Estrogen receptor positive | Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Exemestane | Oncology | ESR1 | Estrogen receptor positive | Indications and Usage, Dosage and Administration, Clinical Studies, Clinical Pharmacology |
Fluorouracil (1) | Dermatology | DPYD | DPD deficient | Contraindications, Warnings, Patient Information |
Fluorouracil (2) | Oncology | DPYD | DPD deficient | Warnings |
Fluoxetine | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Warnings, Precautions, Clinical Pharmacology |
Flurbiprofen | Rheumatology | CYP2C9 | CYP2C9 poor metabolizers | Clinical Pharmacology, Special Populations |
Fluvoxamine | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Drug Interactions |
Fulvestrant | Oncology | ESR1 | Estrogen receptor positive | Indications and Usage, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies, Patient Counseling Information |
Galantamine | Neurology | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Special Populations |
Glimepiride | Endocrinology | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Warning and Precautions |
Glipizide | Endocrinology | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Precautions |
Glyburide | Endocrinology | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Precautions |
Ibritumomab Tiuxetan | Oncology | MS4A1 | CD20 positive | Indications and Usage, Clinical Pharmacology, Description |
Iloperidone | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Clinical Pharmacology, Dosage and Administration, Drug Interactions, Specific Populations, Warnings and Precautions |
Imatinib (1) | Oncology | KIT | c-KIT D816V mutation negative | Indications and Usage, Dosage and Administration Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Imatinib (2) | Oncology | BCR/ABL1 | Philadelphia chromosome (t(9;22)) positive | Indications and Usage, Dosage and Administration, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Imatinib (3) | Oncology | PDGFRB | PDGFR gene rearrangement positive | Indications and Usage, Dosage and Administration, Clincal Studies |
Imatinib (4) | Oncology | FIP1L1/PDGFRA | FIP1L1/PDGFRα fusion kinase (or CHIC2 deletion) positive | Indications and Usage, Dosage and Administration, Clinical Studies |
Imipramine | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Drug Interactions |
Indacaterol | Pulmonary | UGT1A1 | UGT1A1 *28 allele homozygotes | Clinical Pharmacology |
Irinotecan | Oncology | UGT1A1 | UGT1A1*28 allele carriers | Dosage and Administration, Warnings, Clinical Pharmacology |
Isosorbide and Hydralazine | Cardiology | NAT1-2 | Slow acetylators | Clinical Pharmacology |
Ivacaftor | Pulmonary | CFTR | CFTR G551D carriers | Indications and Usage, Adverse Reactions, Use in Specific Populations, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Lansoprazole | Gastroenterology | CYP2C19 | CYP2C19 poor metabolizer | Drug Interactions, Clinical Pharmacology |
Lapatinib | Oncology | ERBB2 | HER2 protein overexpression positive | Indications and Usage, Clinical Pharmacology, Patient Counseling Information |
Lenalidomide | Hematology | del (5q) | Chromosome 5q deletion | Boxed Warning, Indications and Usage, Clinical Studies, Patient Counseling |
Letrozole | Oncology | ESR1, PGR | Hormone receptor positive | Indications and Usage, Adverse Reactions, Clinical Studies, Clinical Pharmacology |
Lomitapide | Endocrinology | LDLR | Homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia and LDL receptor mutation deficient | Indication and Usage, Adverse Reactions, Clinical Studies |
Mafenide | Infectious Diseases | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Warnings, Adverse Reactions |
Maraviroc | Infectious Diseases | CCR5 | CCR5 positive | Indications and Usage, Warnings and Precautions, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies, Patient Counseling Information |
Mercaptopurine | Oncology | TPMT | TPMT intermediate or poor metabolizers | Dosage and Administration, Contraindications, Precautions, Adverse Reactions, Clinical Pharmacology |
Methylene Blue | Hematology | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Precautions |
Metoclopramide | Gastroentrology | CYB5R1-4 | NADH cytochrome b5 reductase deficient | Precautions |
Metoprolol | Cardiology | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Precautions, Clinical Pharmacology |
Mipomersen | Endocrinology | LDLR | Homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia and LDL receptor mutation deficient | Indication and Usage, Clinical Studies, Use in Specific Populations |
Modafinil | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Drug Interactions |
Mycophenolic Acid | Transplantation | HPRT1 | HGPRT deficient | Precautions |
Nalidixic Acid | Infectious Diseases | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Precautions, Adverse Reactions |
Nefazodone | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Drug Interactions |
Nilotinib (1) | Oncology | BCR/ABL1 | Philadelphia chromosome (t(9 :22)) positive | Indications and Usage, Patient Counseling Information |
Nilotinib (2) | Oncology | UGT1A1 | UGT1A1*28 allele homozygotes | Warnings and Precautions, Clinical Pharmacology |
Nitrofurantoin | Infectious Diseases | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Warnings, Adverse Reactions |
Nortriptyline | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Drug Interactions |
Ofatumumab | Oncology | MS4A1 | CD20 positive | Indications and Usage, Clinical Pharmacology |
Omacetaxine | Oncology | BCR/ABL1 | BCR-ABL T315I | Clinical Pharmacology |
Omeprazole | Gastroenterology | CYP2C19 | CYP2C19 poor metabolizers | Dosage and Administration, Warnings and Precautions, Drug Interactions |
Panitumumab (1) | Oncology | EGFR | EGFR protein expression positive | Indications and Usage, Warnings and Precautions, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Panitumumab (2) | Oncology | KRAS | KRAS codon 12 and 13 mutation negative | Indications and Usage, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Pantoprazole | Gastroenterology | CYP2C19 | CYP2C19 poor metabolizers | Clinical Pharmacology, Drug Interactions, Special Populations |
Paroxetine | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Clinical Pharmacology, Drug Interactions |
Pazopanib | Oncology | UGT1A1 | (TA)7/(TA)7 genotype (UGT1A1*28/*28) | Clinical Pharmacology, Warnings and Precautions |
PEG-3350, Sodium Sulfate, Sodium Chloride, Potassium Chloride, Sodium Ascorbate, and Ascorbic Acid | Gastroenterology | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Warnings and Precautions |
Peginterferon alfa-2b | Infectious Diseases | IFNL3 | IL28B rs12979860 T allele carriers | Clinical Pharmacology |
Pegloticase | Rheumatology | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Contraindications, Patient Counseling Information |
Perphenazine | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Clinical Pharmacology, Drug Interactions |
Pertuzumab | Oncology | ERBB2 | HER2 protein overexpression positive | Indications and Usage, Warnings and Precautions, Adverse Reactions, Clinical Studies, Clinical Pharmacology |
Phenytoin | Neurology | HLA-B | HLA-B*1502 allele carriers | Warnings |
Pimozide | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Warnings, Precautions, Contraindications, Dosage and Administration |
Ponatinib | Oncology | BCR/ABL1 | Philadelphia chromosome (t(9;22)) positive, BCR –ABL T315I mutation | Indications and Usage, Warnings and Precautions, Adverse Reactions, Use in Specific Populations, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Prasugrel | Cardiology | CYP2C19 | CYP2C19 poor metabolizers | Use in Specific Populations, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Pravastatin | Endocrinology | LDLR | Homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia and LDL receptor deficient | Clinical Studies, Use in Specific Populations |
Primaquine | Infectious Diseases | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Warnings and Precautions, Adverse Reactions |
Propafenone | Cardiology | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Clinical Pharmacology |
Propranolol | Cardiology | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Precautions, Drug Interactions, Clinical Pharmacology |
Protriptyline | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Precautions |
Quinidine | Cardiology | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Precautions |
Quinine Sulfate | Infectious Diseases | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Contraindications, Patient Counseling Information |
Rabeprazole | Gastroenterology | CYP2C19 | CYP2C19 poor metabolizers | Drug Interactions, Clinical Pharmacology |
Rasburicase | Oncology | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Boxed Warning, Contraindications |
Rifampin, Isoniazid, and Pyrazinamide | Infectious Diseases | NAT1-2 | Slow inactivators | Adverse Reactions, Clinical Pharmacology |
Risperidone | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Drug Interactions, Clinical Pharmacology |
Rituximab | Oncology | MS4A1 | CD20 positive | Indication and Usage, Clinical Pharmacology, Description, Precautions |
Rosuvastatin | Endocrinology | LDLR | Homozygous and Heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia | Indications and Usage, Dosage and Administration, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Sodium Nitrite | Antidotal Therapy | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Warnings and Precautions |
Succimer | Hematology | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Clinical Pharmacology |
Sulfamethoxazole and Trimethoprim | Infectious Diseases | G6PD | G6PD deficient | Precautions |
Tamoxifen (1) | Oncology | ESR1, PGR | Hormone receptor positive | Indications and Usage, Precautions, Medication Guide |
Tamoxifen (2) | Oncology | F5 | Factor V Leiden carriers | Warnings |
Tamoxifen (3) | Oncology | F2 | Prothrombin mutation G20210A | Warnings |
Telaprevir | Infectious Diseases | IFNL3 | IL28B rs12979860 T allele carriers | Clinical Pharmacology |
Terbinafine | Infectious Diseases | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Drug Interactions |
Tetrabenazine | Neurology | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Dosage and Administration, Warnings, Clinical Pharmacology |
Thioguanine | Oncology | TPMT | TPMT poor metabolizer | Dosage and Administration, Precautions, Warnings |
Thioridazine | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Precautions, Warnings, Contraindications |
Ticagrelor | Cardiology | CYP2C19 | CYP2C19 poor metabolizers | Clinical Studies |
Tolterodine | Urology | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Clinical Pharmacology, Drug Interactions, Warnings and Precautions |
Tositumomab | Oncology | MS4A1 | CD20 antigen positive | Indications and Usage, Clinical Pharmacology |
Tramadol | Analgesic | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Clinical Pharmacology |
Trametinib | Oncology | BRAF | BRAF V600E/K mutation positive | Indications and Usage, Dosage and Administration, Adverse Reactions, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies, Patient Counseling Information |
Trastuzumab | Oncology | ERBB2 | HER2 protein overexpression positive | Indications and Usage, Warnings and Precautions, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Tretinoin | Oncology | PML/RARA | PML/RARα (t(15;17)) gene expression positive | Clinical Studies, Indications and Usage, Warnings |
Trimipramine | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Drug Interactions |
Valproic Acid (1) | Neurology | POLG | POLG mutation positive | Boxed Warning, Contraindications, Warnings and Precautions |
Valproic Acid (2) | Neurology | NAGS, CPS1, ASS1, OTC, ASL, ABL2 | Urea cycle enzyme deficient | Contraindications, Warnings and Precautions, Adverse Reactions, Medication Guide |
Velaglucerase Alfa | Metabolic Disorders | GBA | Lysosomal glucocerebrosidase enzyme | Indication and Usage, Description, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies |
Vemurafenib | Oncology | BRAF | BRAF V600E mutation positive | Indications and Usage, Warning and Precautions, Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Studies, Patient Counseling Information |
Venlafaxine | Psychiatry | CYP2D6 | CYP2D6 poor metabolizers | Drug Interactions |
Voriconazole | Infectious Diseases | CYP2C19 | CYP219 intermediate or poor metabolizers | Clinical Pharmacology, Drug Interactions |
Warfarin (1) | Cardiology or Hematology | CYP2C9 | CYP2C9 intermediate or poor metabolizers | Dosage and Administration, Drug Interactions, Clinical Pharmacology |
Warfarin (2) | Cardiology or Hematology | VKORC1 | VKORC1 rs9923231 A allele carriers | Dosage and Administration, Clinical Pharmacology |
References and Further Readings:
There are several practical applications pharmacogenomics in cancer, depression, cardiovascular disease and drug metabolism that is used today. Some of these included in the following references:
- Watters JW, McLeod HL Cancer pharmacogenomics: current and future applications
Biochim Biophys Acta 2003 Mar 17;1603(2):99-111 - Chasman DI, et al. Pharmacogenomics study of statin therapy and cholesterol reduction
JAMA 2004; 291(23) 2821-2827.
- Mancama D, Kerwin RW Role of pharmacogenomics in individualizing treatment with SSRIs
CNS Drugs 2003;17(3):143-51 - Anderson JL, Carlquist JF, Horne BD, Muhlestein JB Cardiovascular pharmacogenomics: current status, future prospects J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther 2003;8(1):71-83
- Evans, WE, and McLeod, HL Pharmacogenomics — Drug disposition, drug targets, and side effects NEJM 2003; 348:538-549
Useful Links:
- The National Institute of General Medical Sciences offers a list of Frequently Asked Questions aboutPharmacogenomics.
- Additional information about pharmacogenetics is available from the Centre for Genetics Education.
- The Genetic Science Learning Center at the University of Utah offers an interactive introduction topharmacogenomics. Another interactive tutorial is available from the PHG Foundation.
- The National Genetics and Genomics Education Centre of the National Health Service (UK) provides information about predicting the effects of drugs based on a person’s genes.
- A list of clinical trials involving pharmacogenomics is available from ClinicalTrials.gov, a service of the National Institutes of Health.
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