Observations on Human Papilloma Virus and Cancer

Curator: Demet Sag, PhD, CRA, GCP 

What is Human Papilloma Virus?

Human papillomavirus

Taxonomy ID: 10566
Inherited blast name: viruses
Rank: species
Genetic code: Translation table 1 (Standard)
Host: vertebrates| human
Other names:

Lineage( full )

Viruses; dsDNA viruses, no RNA stage; Papillomaviridae; unclassified Papillomaviridae; Human papillomavirus types

ICTV homepage

WHO= papilloma virus info

WHO_RHR_08.14_eng-Cervical cancer, human papillomavirus (HPV), and HPV vaccines

Why is it related to Human Cancer?

 Since its first presumed diagnosis in women by an Italian Physician back in 1800s many developments took place to identify the real causative agents (PMID:19135222). Especially in 1970s the full discovery and relation between HPV and cancer established. Human papilloma virus (HPV)  is the second common cancer death in women, although HPV vaccines helped to decrease the morbidity rate there are complications due to vaccines.  Still there is an increase with cervical cancer estimated to be  490,000.

CDC also provided simple information for public on HPV since there is a misunderstanding that some people think it is like herpes or HIV viruses.  Yet, pathology is much different and changes based on age since younger women or girls can fight off but after age 30 predisposition of HPV as a cancer increases. (http://www.cdc.gov/cancer/hpv/pdf/HPV_Testing_2012_English.pdf)

Cervical cancer is responsible for 10–15% of cancer-related deaths in women worldwide^1,2. The etiological role of infection with high-risk human papilloma viruses (HPV) in cervical carcinomas is well established.

Relationship of mutational spectrum and rates with clinicopathological characteristics in cervical carcinoma presented at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4161954/bin/nihms610939f1.jpg

All panels are aligned with vertical tracks representing 115 individuals. The data is sorted in order by histology (middle panel) and total mutational rate (top panel). The relative frequencies of nucleotide mutations occurring at cytosines preceeded by thymines (Tp*C) or at cytosines followed by guanines (*CpG) sites are depicted in red and orange respectively, on the second panel. The bottom heatmap shows the distribution of mutations in significantly mutated genes (q<0.1) in squamous cell carcinomas and adenocarcinomas in the order listed in the following Table, TP53, ERBB2 and KRAS were significant recurrence (q<0.1) among cancer driver genes reported in COSMIC.

Nature. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2014 Sep 12.  Published in final edited form as: Nature. 2014 Feb 20; 506(7488): 371–375.

Genes with Significantly Recurrent Somatic Mutations in Cervical Carcinomas

Indel: insertions or deletions;

Null: nonsense, frameshft or splice-site mutations;

q: q value, false discovery rate (Benjamini-Hochberg procedure).

^**Genes with mutations observed in only squamous cell carcinomas

^*Genes with mutations observed in only adenocarcinomas

⁺Genes with a majority of mutations occurring in squamous cell carcinomas.

Following figure (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4161954/bin/nihms610939f2.jpg)

Novel recurrent somatic mutations in cervical carcinoma

The locations of somatic mutations in novel significantly mutated genes in 115 cervical carcinoma, FBXW7, MAPK1, HLA-B, EP300, NFE2L2 and ELF3 are shown in the context of protein domain models derived from UniProt and Pfam annotations. Numbers refer to amino acid residues. Each filled circle represents an individual mutated tumor sample: missense and silent mutations are represented by filled black and grey circles, respectively while nonsense, frameshift, and splice site mutations are represented by filled red circles and red text. Domains are depicted with various colors with an appropriate key located on the right hand of each domain model.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4161954/bin/nihms610939f3.jpg

Relationships between HPV integration, copy number amplifications and gene expression in cervical carcinoma

Panel (a) shows comparative histograms of true and simulated genomic distances between HPV integration sites and the nearest copy number amplification (log segmean difference >0.5). Panel (b) shows boxplots of gene expression levels across 79 cervical tumors for 41 genes with chimeric human-HPV read pairs. The expression levels for tumors with HPV integration in the respective genes are highlighted in red circles. Panel (c) shows scatter plots comparing copy number alterations and gene expression levels across 79 tumors in selected integration site genes. The red circles represent data for the tumors with HPV integration events involving the respective genes.

Table. Diseases Associated With Specific HPV Types (e-Medicine)

Epidemiology

“Human papillomavirus (HPV) has become synonymous with cervical cancer, but its actual footprint is much bigger” said James Mitchell Crow. (PMID: 229324377  James Mitchell Crow. “HPV: The global burden”. Nature 488 S2–S3 (30 August 2012) doi:10.1038/488S2a Published online  29 August 2012).

Every year, over 27,000 women and men are affected by a cancer caused by HPV— that’s a new case every 20 minutes.

Persistent HPV infection can cause cervical and other cancers including:

• Cervical cancer: The most common HPV cancer. Almost all cervical cancer is caused by HPV.
• Vulvar cancer: About 69% are linked to HPV.
• Vaginal cancer: About 75% are linked to HPV.
• Penile cancer: About 63% are linked to HPV.
• Anal cancer: About 91% are linked to HPV.
• Cancer of the back of the throat: About 72% are linked to HPV. [Note: Many of these cancers may be related to tobacco and alcohol use]

Pathology:

(PMID: 229324377)

Diagnostics:

In the lab few places propagating HPV. There are measures that need to be taken by the laboratory personnel. CDC as well as WHO published various articles to inform public.

Sensitivity and testing for Pap smear and HPV DNA testing in the detection of CIN2+

Cuzick J, Clavel C, Petry KU, Meijer CJ, Hoyer H, Ratnam S, Szarewski A, Birembaut P, Kulasingam S, Sasieni P, Iftner T. Overview of the European and North American studies on HPV testing in primary cervical cancer screening. Int J Cancer. 2006; 119(5):1095.

Mayrand MH, Duarte-Franco E, Rodrigues I, Walter SD, Hanley J, Ferenczy A, Ratnam S, Coutlée F, Franco EL, Canadian Cervical Cancer Screening Trial Study Group.

Human papillomavirus DNA versus Papanicolaou screening tests for cervical cancer N Engl J Med. 2007;357(16):1579.

Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2013 Apr 22. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3632360/)

HPV Genotyping tests¹

HPV, human papillomavirus; HR, high-risk; LR, low-risk.

^aFDA-approved test.

¹Schutzbank TE, Ginocchio CC. Assessment of clinical and analytical performance characteristics of an HPV genotyping test. Diagn Cytopathol. 2011 Apr 6. doi:10.1002/dc.21661.

Most papillomas are sufficiently distinct to be clinically recognizable. Bowenoid papulosis may be mistaken for lichen planus, psoriasis, seborrheic keratoses, or condylomata acuminata.

In additions to the conditions listed in the differential diagnosis, other problems to be considered include the following:

• Acanthosis nigricans
• Acrochordon
• Actinic keratoses
• Anogenital malignancy
• Anogenital warts in children
• Bowenoid papulosis
• Carbon dioxide laser surgery for intraepithelial cervical neoplasms
• Cervical polyp
• Condyloma latum
• Corns and calluses
• Dermatitis papillaris
• Endoscopic gynecologic surgery
• Epidermodysplasia verruciformis
• Fordyce spots
• Hymenal remnants
• Hypopigmentation
• Keloid and hypertrophic scar
• Keratoacanthoma
• Laryngeal papillomatosis of neonates and infants
• Malignant tumors of the mobile tongue
• Micropapillomatosis labialis
• Nevi
• Pap test
• Pityriasis versicolor
• Psoriasis (plaque)
• Recurrent respiratory papillomatosis
• Seborrheic keratosis
• Sinonasal papillomas, treatment
• Skin tags (fibroepithelial polyps)
• Verrucous carcinoma
• Vestibular papillomatosis

Differential Diagnoses

• Basal Cell Carcinoma
• Benign Cervical Lesions
• Benign Vulvar Lesions
• Bowen Disease
• Carbon Dioxide Laser Surgery of the Lower Genital Tract
• Cervical Cancer
• Chancroid
• Conization of Cervix
• Erythroplasia of Queyrat (Bowen Disease of the Glans Penis)
• Giant Condylomata Acuminata of Buschke and Lowenstein
• Gynecologic Cryosurgery
• Gynecologic Laparoscopy
• Head and Neck Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma
• Hemorrhoids
• Herpes Simplex
• Lichen Planus
• Malignant Dermatologic Diseases of the Male Genitalia
• Malignant Vulvar Lesions
• Molluscum Contagiosum
• Nonmalignant Dermatologic Diseases of the Male Genitalia
• Pearly Penile Papules
• Pediatric Syphilis
• Penile Cancer
• Rectal Cancer
• Recurrent Respiratory Papillomatosis
• Rehabilitation for Paget Disease
• Sebaceous Hyperplasia
• Surgical Treatment of Vulvar Cancer
• Urethral Warts
• Vaginal Cancer

Treatment:

1.       Immunomodulators

Class Summary

Immune response modifiers have immunomodulatory effects and are used for treatment of external anogenital warts (EGWs) or condylomata acuminata. Interferon alfa, beta, and gamma may be administered topically, systemically, and intralesionally. They stimulate production of cytokines and demonstrate strong antiviral activity.

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Imiquimod (Aldara, Zyclara)

Imiquimod is an imidazoquinolinamine derivative that has no in vitro antiviral activity but does induce macrophages to secrete cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-2 and interferon alfa and gamma. Its mechanisms of action are unknown. Imiquimod has been studied extensively and is a new therapy relative to other EGW treatments. It may be more effective in women than in men.

Imiquimod is dispensed as an individual dose. Patients are advised to wash the affected area with mild soap and water upon awakening and to remove residual drug.

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Interferon alfa-n3 (Alferon N)

Interferon alfa is a protein product either manufactured from a single-species recombinant DNA process or obtained from pooled units of donated human leukocytes that have been induced by incomplete infection with a murine virus.

The mechanisms by which interferon alfa exerts antiviral activity are not understood clearly. However, modulation of the host immune response may play an important role. This agent is indicated for intralesional treatment of refractory or recurring external condyloma acuminatum and is particularly useful for patients who have not responded satisfactorily to other treatment modalities (eg, podophyllin, surgical excision, laser therapy, or cryotherapy).

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Interferon alfa-2b (Intron A)

This is a protein product manufactured by recombinant DNA technology. Its mechanism of antitumor activity is not clearly understood; however, direct antiproliferative effects against malignant cells and modulation of host immune response may play important roles. Its immunomodulatory effects include suppression of tumor cell proliferation, enhancement of macrophage phagocytic activity, and augmentation of lymphocyte cytotoxicity.

This agent is indicated for intralesional treatment of refractory or recurring external condyloma acuminatum and is particularly useful for patients who have not responded satisfactorily to other treatment modalities (eg, podophyllin, surgical excision, laser therapy, or cryotherapy).

2.       Keratolytic Agents

Class Summary

Antimitotic drugs arrest dividing cells in mitosis, resulting in the death of proliferating cells. They cause cornified epithelium to swell, soften, macerate, and then desquamate. Many of them are chemotherapeutic agents. The drugs listed below are used specifically for treatment of EGWs or condylomata acuminata.

Keratolytic agents are used to aid in removal of keratin in hyperkeratotic skin disorders, including corns, ichthyoses, common warts, flat warts, and other benign verrucae.

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Podofilox (Condylox)

Podofilox is a topical antimitotic that can be synthesized chemically or purified from the plant families Coniferae and Berberidaceae (eg, species of Juniperus and Podophyllum). It is the active agent of podophyllin resin and is available as a 0.5% solution. Treatment results in necrosis of visible wart tissue; the exact mechanism of action is unknown. Treatment should be limited to no more than 10 cm2 of wart tissue, and no more than 0.5 mL/day of solution should be given. This is a patient-applied therapy.

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Podophyllum resin (Podocon-25)

Podophyllin is derived from May apple (Podophyllum peltatum Linné) and contains the active agent podophyllotoxin, a cytotoxic substance that arrests mitosis in metaphase. American podophyllum contains one fourth the amount of podophyllotoxin that Indian podophyllum does. The potency of podophyllin varies considerably between batches. The exact mechanism of action is unknown.

Podophyllin is used as a topical treatment for benign growths, including external genital and perianal warts, papillomas, and fibroids. It results in necrosis when applied to anogenital warts. Only a trained medical professional can apply it, and it cannot be dispensed to a patient.

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Trichloroacetic acid 85% (Tri-Chlor)

Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) is a highly corrosive desiccating agent that cauterizes skin, keratin, and other tissues and is used to burn lesions. Although it is caustic, it causes less local irritation and systemic toxicity than other agents in the same class. However, response often is incomplete, and recurrence is common.

Most clinicians use 25-50% TCA, although some use concentrations as high as 85% and then neutralize with either water or bicarbonate. Tissue sloughs and subsequently heals in 7-10 days. TCA therapy is less destructive than laser surgery, electrocautery, or cryotherapy.

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Salicylic acid (Compound W, Dr. Scholl’s Clear Away Warts, Freezone)

By dissolving the intercellular cement substance, salicylic acid produces desquamation of the horny layer of skin without affecting the structure of viable epidermis. It is used for removal of nongenital cutaneous warts, particularly common or plantar warts. Before application, wash the affected area. The wart may be soaked in warm water for 5 minutes. Dry the area thoroughly.

3.       Antineoplastics, Antimetabolite

Class Summary

Antimetabolites interfere with nucleic acid synthesis and inhibit cell growth and proliferation. These are topical preparations that contain the fluorinated pyrimidine 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). Although these chemotherapeutic agents are not formally approved for use against warts, some studies have demonstrated a benefit against EGWs or condylomata acuminata.

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Fluorouracil topical (Efudex, Carac, Fluoroplex)

Topical 5-FU interferes with DNA synthesis by blocking the methylation of deoxyuridylic acid and inhibits thymidylate synthetase, which subsequently reduces cell proliferation. Its primary indication is for topical treatment of actinic keratoses. Although it is not approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of warts, it has been used in adults, particularly for warts resistant to other forms of treatment. It is used for management of superficial basal cell carcinomas.

The solution contains either 2% or 5% 5-FU in propylene glycol, tris (hydroxymethyl) aminomethane, hydroxypropyl cellulose, paraben, and disodium edetate. The cream contains 5% 5-FU in white petrolatum, stearyl alcohol, propylene glycol, polysorbate 60, and paraben. When topical 5-FU is applied to the lesion, the area undergoes a sequence of erythema, vesiculation, desquamation, erosion, and reepithelialization.

4.       Topical Skin Products

Class Summary

Sinecatechins is another topical product that has gained FDA approval for genital warts.

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Sinecatechins (Veregen)

Sinecatechins ointment is a botanical drug product for topical use that consists of extract from green tea leaves. It contains 15% sinecatechins and is available in 15- and 30-g tubes. Its mode of action is unknown, but it does elicit antioxidant activity in vitro. Sinecatechins ointment is indicated for topical treatment of external genital and perianal warts (condylomata acuminata) in immunocompetent patients.

5.       Vaccines, Inactivated, Viral

Class Summary

Three vaccines are available for the prevention of HPV-associated dysplasias and neoplasia, including cervical, vulvar, vaginal, and anal cancer; genital warts (condylomata acuminata); and precancerous genital lesions.

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Human papillomavirus vaccine, nonavalent (Gardasil 9)

Recombinant vaccine that targets 9 HPV types (6, 11, 16, 18, 31, 33, 45, 52, and 58). It is indicated for females aged 9-26 years to prevent cervical, vulvar, vaginal, and anal cancer. It is also indicated to prevent genital warts and dysplastic lesions (eg, cervical, vulvar, vaginal, anal).

It is also indicated for boys aged 9-15 years for prevention of anal cancer, genital warts, and anal intraepithelial neoplasia. In addition to the approved indications, the CDC recommends vaccinating males aged 16 through 21 years not previously vaccinated. CDC recommendations also include men through age 26 years not previously vaccinated. Vaccination is also recommended by the CDC among men who have sex with men and among immunocompromised persons (including those with HIV infection) if not vaccinated previously through age 26 years.

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Human papillomavirus vaccine, quadrivalent (Gardasil)

The quadrivalent HPV recombinant vaccine was the first vaccine indicated to prevent cervical cancer, genital warts (condylomata acuminata), and precancerous genital lesions (eg, cervical adenocarcinoma in situ; cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grades I-III; vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia grades II and III; and vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia grades II and III) due to HPV types 6, 11, 16, and 18. Its efficacy is mediated by humoral immune responses following immunization series.

The quadrivalent vaccine is FDA-approved for females aged 9-26 years and is under FDA priority review to evaluate efficacy in women aged 27-45 years. It is indicated for boys and men aged 11-26 years for prevention of condylomata acuminata caused by HPV types 6 and 11. It is also indicated in people aged 9-26 years for prevention of anal cancer and associated precancerous lesions.

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Human papillomavirus vaccine, bivalent (Cervarix)

The bivalent HPV vaccine is a recombinant vaccine prepared from the L1 protein of HPV types 16 and 18. It is indicated in girls and women aged 10-25 years for the prevention of diseases caused by oncogenic HPV types 16 and 18 (eg, cervical cancer, cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade II or higher, adenocarcinoma in situ, and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade I).

HPV Vaccines: Indications Approved and HPV Types by Specific Vaccines

Clinical Trials:

Two trials of clinically approved human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines, Females United to Unilaterally Reduce Endo/Ectocervical Disease (FUTURE I/II) and the Papilloma Trial Against Cancer in Young Adults (PATRICIA), reported a 22% difference in vaccine efficacy (VE) against cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2 or worse in HPV-naïve subcohorts; however, serological testing methods and the HPV DNA criteria used to define HPV-unexposed women differed between the studies.

The risk of newly detected human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and cervical abnormalities in relation to HPV type 16/18 antibody levels at enrollment in PATRICIA (Papilloma Trial Against Cancer in Young Adults; NCT00122681).

The control arm of PATRICIA (PApilloma TRIal against Cancer In young Adults,NCT00122681) was used to investigate the risk of progression from cervical HPV infection to cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) or clearance of infection, and associated determinants.

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Herrero R, Quint W, Hildesheim A, Gonzalez P, Struijk L, Katki HA, Porras C, Schiffman M, Rodriguez AC, Solomon D, Jimenez S, Schiller JT, Lowy DR, van Doorn LJ, Wacholder S, Kreimer AR. CVT Vaccine Group. Reduced Prevalence of Oral Human Papillomavirus (HPV) 4 Years after Bivalent HPV Vaccination in a Randomized Clinical Trial in Costa Rica. PLoS One. 2013 Jul 17;8(7):e68329. ClinicalTrials.gov, Registry number NCT00128661.

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Clinical Trials Publications:

Kreimer AR, Rodriguez AC, Hildesheim A, Herrero R, Porras C, Schiffman M, González P, Solomon D, Jiménez S, Schiller JT, Lowy DR, Quint W, Sherman ME, Schussler J, Wacholder S; CVT Vaccine Group. Proof-of-principle evaluation of the efficacy of fewer than three doses of a bivalent HPV16/18 vaccine. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2011 Oct 5;103(19):1444-51. doi: 10.1093/jnci/djr319. Epub 2011 Sep 9.

Kemp TJ, Hildesheim A, Safaeian M, Dauner JG, Pan Y, Porras C, Schiller JT, Lowy DR, Herrero R, Pinto LA. HPV16/18 L1 VLP vaccine induces cross-neutralizing antibodies that may mediate cross-protection. Vaccine. 2011 Mar 3;29(11):2011-4. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.01.001. Epub 2011 Jan 15.
Additional publications automatically indexed to this study by ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier (NCT Number):

Kreimer AR, Struyf F, Del Rosario-Raymundo MR, Hildesheim A, Skinner SR, Wacholder S, Garland SM, Herrero R, David MP, Wheeler CM; Costa Rica Vaccine Trial and PATRICIA study groups. Efficacy of fewer than three doses of an HPV-16/18 AS04-adjuvanted vaccine: combined analysis of data from the Costa Rica Vaccine and PATRICIA trials. Lancet Oncol. 2015 Jul;16(7):775-86. doi: 10.1016/S1470-2045(15)00047-9. Epub 2015 Jun 9.

Gonzalez P, Hildesheim A, Herrero R, Katki H, Wacholder S, Porras C, Safaeian M, Jimenez S, Darragh TM, Cortes B, Befano B, Schiffman M, Carvajal L, Palefsky J, Schiller J, Ocampo R, Schussler J, Lowy D, Guillen D, Stoler MH, Quint W, Morales J, Avila C, Rodriguez AC, Kreimer AR; Costa Rica HPV Vaccine Trial (CVT) Group. Rationale and design of a long term follow-up study of women who did and did not receive HPV 16/18 vaccination in Guanacaste, Costa Rica. Vaccine. 2015 Apr 27;33(18):2141-51. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.03.015. Epub 2015 Mar 18.

Lang Kuhs KA, Porras C, Schiller JT, Rodriguez AC, Schiffman M, Gonzalez P, Wacholder S, Ghosh A, Li Y, Lowy DR, Kreimer AR, Poncelet S, Schussler J, Quint W, van Doorn LJ, Sherman ME, Sidawy M, Herrero R, Hildesheim A, Safaeian M; Costa Rica Vaccine Trial Group. Effect of different human papillomavirus serological and DNA criteria on vaccine efficacy estimates. Am J Epidemiol. 2014 Sep 15;180(6):599-607. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwu168. Epub 2014 Aug 19.

Hildesheim A, Wacholder S, Catteau G, Struyf F, Dubin G, Herrero R; CVT Group. Efficacy of the HPV-16/18 vaccine: final according to protocol results from the blinded phase of the randomized Costa Rica HPV-16/18 vaccine trial. Vaccine. 2014 Sep 3;32(39):5087-97. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.06.038. Epub 2014 Jul 10.

Lang Kuhs KA, Gonzalez P, Rodriguez AC, van Doorn LJ, Schiffman M, Struijk L, Chen S, Quint W, Lowy DR, Porras C, DelVecchio C, Jimenez S, Safaeian M, Schiller JT, Wacholder S, Herrero R, Hildesheim A, Kreimer AR; Costa Rica Vaccine Trial Group. Reduced prevalence of vulvar HPV16/18 infection among women who received the HPV16/18 bivalent vaccine: a nested analysis within the Costa Rica Vaccine Trial. J Infect Dis. 2014 Dec 15;210(12):1890-9. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jiu357. Epub 2014 Jun 23.

Lang Kuhs KA, Gonzalez P, Struijk L, Castro F, Hildesheim A, van Doorn LJ, Rodriguez AC, Schiffman M, Quint W, Lowy DR, Porras C, Delvecchio C, Katki HA, Jimenez S, Safaeian M, Schiller J, Solomon D, Wacholder S, Herrero R, Kreimer AR; Costa Rica Vaccine Trial Group. Prevalence of and risk factors for oral human papillomavirus among young women in Costa Rica. J Infect Dis. 2013 Nov 15;208(10):1643-52. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jit369. Epub 2013 Sep 6.

Herrero R, Quint W, Hildesheim A, Gonzalez P, Struijk L, Katki HA, Porras C, Schiffman M, Rodriguez AC, Solomon D, Jimenez S, Schiller JT, Lowy DR, van Doorn LJ, Wacholder S, Kreimer AR; CVT Vaccine Group. Reduced prevalence of oral human papillomavirus (HPV) 4 years after bivalent HPV vaccination in a randomized clinical trial in Costa Rica. PLoS One. 2013 Jul 17;8(7):e68329. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0068329. Print 2013.

Clarke M, Schiffman M, Wacholder S, Rodriguez AC, Hildesheim A, Quint W; Costa Rican Vaccine Trial Group. A prospective study of absolute risk and determinants of human papillomavirus incidence among young women in Costa Rica. BMC Infect Dis. 2013 Jul 8;13:308. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-13-308.

Castro FA, Quint W, Gonzalez P, Katki HA, Herrero R, van Doorn LJ, Schiffman M, Struijk L, Rodriguez AC, DelVecchio C, Lowy DR, Porras C, Jimenez S, Schiller J, Solomon D, Wacholder S, Hildesheim A, Kreimer AR; Costa Rica Vaccine Trial Group. Prevalence of and risk factors for anal human papillomavirus infection among young healthy women in Costa Rica. J Infect Dis. 2012 Oct 1;206(7):1103-10. Epub 2012 Jul 30.

Kreimer AR, González P, Katki HA, Porras C, Schiffman M, Rodriguez AC, Solomon D, Jiménez S, Schiller JT, Lowy DR, van Doorn LJ, Struijk L, Quint W, Chen S, Wacholder S, Hildesheim A, Herrero R; CVT Vaccine Group. Efficacy of a bivalent HPV 16/18 vaccine against anal HPV 16/18 infection among young women: a nested analysis within the Costa Rica Vaccine Trial. Lancet Oncol. 2011 Sep;12(9):862-70. doi: 10.1016/S1470-2045(11)70213-3. Epub 2011 Aug 22. Erratum in: Lancet Oncol. 2011 Nov;12(12):1096.

Wacholder S, Chen BE, Wilcox A, Macones G, Gonzalez P, Befano B, Hildesheim A, Rodríguez AC, Solomon D, Herrero R, Schiffman M; CVT group. Risk of miscarriage with bivalent vaccine against human papillomavirus (HPV) types 16 and 18: pooled analysis of two randomised controlled trials. BMJ. 2010 Mar 2;340:c712. doi: 10.1136/bmj.c712.

Dessy FJ, Giannini SL, Bougelet CA, Kemp TJ, David MP, Poncelet SM, Pinto LA, Wettendorff MA. Correlation between direct ELISA, single epitope-based inhibition ELISA and pseudovirion-based neutralization assay for measuring anti-HPV-16 and anti-HPV-18 antibody response after vaccination with the AS04-adjuvanted HPV-16/18 cervical cancer vaccine. Hum Vaccin. 2008 Nov-Dec;4(6):425-34. Epub 2008 Nov 11.

Hildesheim A, Herrero R, Wacholder S, Rodriguez AC, Solomon D, Bratti MC, Schiller JT, Gonzalez P, Dubin G, Porras C, Jimenez SE, Lowy DR; Costa Rican HPV Vaccine Trial Group. Effect of human papillomavirus 16/18 L1 viruslike particle vaccine among young women with preexisting infection: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2007 Aug 15;298(7):743-53.

Related Articles at Leaders in Pharmaceutical Intelligence on HPV:

Head and Neck Cancer Studies Suggest Alternative Markers More Prognostically Useful than HPV DNA Testing

Papilloma viruses for cervical cancer

Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP, Curator

LPBI

Practice Bulletin No. 131: Screening for Cervical Cancer

Study Backs Co-Testing for Cervical Cancer

A positive co-test result was more sensitive than either a positive HPV-only test or a positive Pap-only test.

http://www.medpagetoday.com/HematologyOncology/CervicalCancer/51016

Charles Bankhead

Cervical cancer screening with a test for human papillomavirus (HPV) resulted in a 50% higher rate of false-negative results versus Pap testing and three times greater versus co-testing, a large retrospective study showed.

Data encompassing more than 250,000 women showed a false-negative rate of 18.6% compared with 12.2% for Pap testing. With a false-negative rate of 5.5%, screening women with the HPV test and Pap test missed the fewest cancers.

The results support clinical guidelines that recommend co-testing, according to authors of a report in Cancer Cytopathology. The results differ dramatically, however, from those of previous studies that have consistently shown greater diagnostic accuracy for the HPV test compared with the Pap test.

“The reason that women are screened is that they want to be protected from cervical cancer,” study author R. Marshall Austin, MD, PhD, of Magee-Women’s Hospital and the University of Pittsburgh, told MedPage Today. “The previous trials have generally focused on cervical intraepithelial neoplasia 2 or 3, so-called precancer. The difference is that most of what we call precancer will actually never develop into cancer.

“The unique thing about this study, and what makes it so important, is that we looked at over 500 invasive cervical cancers, which are what women want to be protected against, and looked at the effectiveness of the methods of testing.”

A year ago, the FDA approved Roche’s cobas assay for HPV DNA as a first-line test for cervical cancer screening, following a unanimous vote for approval by an FDA advisory committee.

The approval was based primarily on a pivotal trial involving 47,200 women at high risk for cervical cancer. The primary endpoint was the proportion of patients who developed grade ≥3 cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (≥CIN3). The results showed a greater than 50% reduction in the incidence of ≥CIN3 with the DNA test versus Pap testing.

Austin and colleagues retrospectively analyzed clinical records for 256,648 average-risk women, ages 30 to 65, all of whom underwent co-testing as a screen for cervical cancer and subsequently had a cervical biopsy within a year of co-testing. The primary objective was to determine the sensitivity of the three screening methods for detection of biopsy-proven ≥CIN3 and invasive cancer.

The results showed that 74.7% of the women had a positive HPV test, 73.8% had an abnormal Pap test (atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance or worse), 89.2% had a positive co-test, and 1.6% had ≥CIN3.

Biopsy results showed that co-testing had the highest sensitivity for ≥CIN3 (98.8% versus 94% for HPV test only and 91.3% for Pap testing alone, P<0.0001). The Pap test had greater specificity versus HPV testing alone or co-testing (26.3% versus 25.6% versus 10.9%, P<0.0001).

Investigators identified 526 patients who developed biopsy-proven invasive cervical cancer. Of those patients, 98 tested negative by HPV assay only, 64 by Pap test only, and 29 by co-testing.

Given the average risk of the patient population included in the study, the results are broadly applicable to women in the age range studied, regardless of baseline risk for cervical cancer, Austin said.

The data also show that co-testing is better than either test alone, which supports current ACS recommendations for cervical cancer screening.

“The current approach, according to the American Cancer Society and 25 other organizations that worked with us on our last guideline, co-testing is the preferred strategy,” Saslow told MedPage Today. “This paper completely backs that up. Even though a Pap alone is acceptable, clearly, co-testing is the best way to go.”

Noting that only half of women in the U.S. do not under go co-testing despite clinical guidelines recommending it for more than a decade, Saslow asked, “What’s taking so long?”

Earlier this year, several organizations released joint “interim guidance” regarding cervical cancer screening. Described as an aid to clinical decision-making until existing guidelines are updated, the interim guidance characterized the HPV-DNA test as an acceptable alternative to Pap testing as a primary screening test.

In their article, Austin and colleagues argued that the HPV assay should be evaluated in comparison with the Pap test but as an alternative to co-testing.

“HPV-only primary screening for cervical cancer presents many challenges for clinicians,” the authors said. “Questions arise regarding its effectiveness, its long-term risk, and when it is the best option for a particular patient.

“Clinicians had similar questions when co-testing was first recommended for women 30 and older in 2006,” they added. “Since then the adoption of co-testing has steadily increased, with approximately 50% of physicians co-testing women 30 and older, but it is still not done at the recommended level.”

The study had some limitations. The authors could not confirm that the cervical biopsy results were from women who did not have an intervening screening test or treatment with a different provider during the study period.

Also, the authors were unable to draw conclusions based on the overall population of women who were screened for cervical cancer because the dataset consisted of screening results of women who underwent biopsies.