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Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Cardiac Disorders

Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

This article is the THIRD in a four-article Series covering the topic of the Roles of the Mitochondria in Cardiovascular Diseases. They include the following;

• Mitochondria and Cardiovascular Disease: A Tribute to Richard Bing, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/14/chapter-5-mitochondria-and-cardiovascular-disease/

• Mitochondrial Metabolism and Cardiac Function, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/14/mitochondrial-metabolism-and-cardiac-function/

• Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Cardiac Disorders, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/14/mitochondrial-dysfunction-and-cardiac-disorders/

• Reversal of Cardiac mitochondrial dysfunction, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/14/reversal-of-cardiac-mitochondrial-dysfunction/

Mitochondrial Metabolism in Impaired Cardiac Function

Mitochondrial Dysfunction and the Heart

Chronically elevated plasma free fatty acid levels in heart failure are associated with

• decreased metabolic efficiency and cellular insulin resistance.

The mitochondrial theory of aging (MTA) and the free-radical theory of aging (FRTA) are closely related.
They were in fact proposed by the same researcher about 20 years apart. MTA adds

• the mitochondria and its production of free radicals
• into the concept that free-radicals damage DNA over time.

Tissue hypoxia, resulting from low cardiac output with or independent of endothelial impairment,

• increases oxidative stress and leads to apoptosis and mitochondrial DNA damage.

This dysfunctional state causes loss of mitochondrial mass. Therapies aimed at protecting mitochondrial function

• have shown promise in patients and animal models with heart failure that will be the subject of Chapter III.

Myocardial function in hypertension

Genetic variation in vitamin D-dependent signaling

• is associated with congestive heart failure in human subjects with hypertension.

Functional polymorphisms were selected from five candidate genes:

1. CYP27B1,
2. CYP24A1,
3. VDR,
4. REN and
5. ACE.

Using the Marshfield Clinic Personalized Medicine Research Project,

• 205 subjects with hypertension and congestive heart failure,
• 206 subjects with hypertension alone and
• 206 controls (frequency matched by age and gender) were genotyped.

In the context of hypertension, a SNP in CYP27B1 was associated with congestive heart failure

(odds ratio: 2.14 for subjects homozygous for the C allele; 95% CI: 1.05–4.39).

Genetic variation in vitamin D biosynthesis is associated with increased risk of heart failure.

RA Wilke, RU Simpson, BN Mukesh, SV Bhupathi, et al. Genetic variation in CYP27B1 is associated

with congestive heart failure in patients with hypertension. Pharmacogenomics 2009; 10(11): 1789-1797.   http://dx.doi.org/10.2217/pgs.09.101

Heart Failure and Coronary Circulation

There is a decrease in resting and peak stress myocardial function in chronic heart failure patients,

• with recovery of skeletal muscle phosphocreatine following exercise induced by perhexiline treatment.

This suggested that mitochondrial deficiencies, caused by excessive free fatty acids (FFAs)

• underlie a common cardiac and skeletal muscle myopathy in heart failure patients.

Tissue hypoxia in chronic heart failure from inadequate circulation in heart failure

• increases the oxidative stress in lean body mass and in the heart itself.

The heterodimeric transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1

• induces changes in the transcription of genes that encode proteins involved in the adaptation to hypoxia.

HIF-1 activity depends on levels of the HIF-1a subunit, which has a short half-life.

HIF-1a increases in rats with experimentally induced myocardial infarction together with elevated levels of

• GLUT1 and haemoxygenase-1 in the peri-infarct region of the heart

The cardiac metabolic response to hypoxia is considered to be

• a return to a pattern of fetal metabolism, in which
• carbohydrates predominate as substrates for energy metabolism.

The reliance on carbohydrate energy source is thought to be a result of  the downregulation of PPARa with a decreased activity of

1. medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase,
2. CPT-1 and
3. malonyl-CoA decarboxylase

The sarcolemmal fatty acid transporter protein (FATP) levels are also decreased with palmitate oxidation,

• transitioning away from fatty acid metabolism proportional to the degree of cardiac impairment.

The hypoxic changes of heart failure drives a switch toward

1. glycolysis and glucose oxidation
2. restriction of myocardial fatty acid uptake.

Nevertheless, late in the progression of heart failure, substrate metabolism is insufficient to support cardiac function, because

• the hypoxic failing heart is no longer able to oxidize fats and may also be insulin resistant.

The author surmises that mitochondrial dysfunction caused by tissue hypoxia might be mediated by the

• proapoptotic protein BCL2/adenovirus E1B 19kDa interacting protein (Bnip)3.

It  is strongly upregulated in response to hypoxia. In the isolated, perfused rat heart, Bnip3 expression was

• induced after 1h of hypoxia, with Bnip3 integrating into the mitochondria of hypoxic ventricular myocytes.

This resulted in mitochondrial defects associated with

1. opening of the permeability transition pore, leading to
2. loss of inner membrane integrity and
3. loss of mitochondrial mass.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction caused by Bnip3 Precedes Cell Death.

Experimentally induced myocardial ischemia had evidence of contractile dysfunction but preserved viability. A progressive

• decline in circulating levels of endothelial progenitor cells was documented 3 months following instrumentation (P<0.001).

Quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed that

• chronic myocardial ischemia produced a biphasic response in both
  • hypoxic-inducible factor 1 and
  • stromal-derived factor 1 mRNA expression.

While initially unregulated, a gradual decline was observed over time (from day 45 to 90), in

• hypoxic-inducible factor 1 and
• stromal-derived factor 1 mRNA expression .

On serial assessment, endothelial progenitor cell migration was progressively impaired in response to chemo-attractant gradients of:

1. vascular endothelial growth factor (10-200 ng/mL)
2. and stromal cell-derived factor-1 (10-100 ng/mL) .

Decreased circulating levels and migratory dysfunction of bone marrow derived endothelial progenitor cells

• were documented in a reproducible clinically relevant model of myocardial ischemia.

Nitric Oxide (NO) in Myocardial Ischemia and Infarct

Nitric oxide (NO) is a free radical with an unpaired electron; it is an important physiologic messenger,

• produced by nitric oxide synthases, which catalyze the reaction l-arginine to citrulline and NO.

The constitutive isoforms exists in neuronal and endothelial cells and is calcium dependent. Calcium binds to calmodulin and

1. the calcium calmodulin complex activates the constitutive NO synthase that releases NO,
2. relaxing smooth muscle cells through activation of guanylate cyclase and the production cGMP.

Therefore, the NO produced has a negative inotropic effect on the heart and is instrumental in the autoregulation of the coronary circulation.

The inducible form of NO synthase (iNOS), mostly produced in macrophages, is activated by cytokines and endotoxin. It eliminates intracellular pathogens,

damaging cells by inhibiting

1. ATP production
2. oxidative phosphorylation
3. DNA synthesis.

In infection, lipopolysaccharide released from bacterial walls, stimulates production of iNOS. The large amount of NO produced

• causes extensive vasodilation and hypotension.

We sought to assess whether oxidation products of

• nitric oxide (NO), nitrite (NO2−) and nitrate (NO3−), referred to as NOx,
• are released by the heart of patients after acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and
• whether NOx can be determined in peripheral blood of these patients.

Previously we reported that in experimental myocardial infarction (rabbits) NOx is released mainly by inflammatory cells

• (macrophages) in the myocardium 3 days after onset of  ischemia.

NOx is formed in heart muscle from NO; It originates through the activity of the inducible form of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS).

Eight patients with acute anterior MI and an equal number of controls were studied. Coronary venous blood was obtained by

coronary sinus catheterization; NOx concentrations in coronary sinus, in arterial and peripheral venous plasma were measured.

Left ventricular end-diastolic pressure was determined. Measurements were carried out 24, 48 and 72 h after onset of symptoms.

The type and location of coronary arterial lesions were determined by coronary angiography. Plasma NO3− was reduced to NO2−

by nitrate reductase before determination of NO2− concentration by chemiluminescence.

The results provided evidence that in patients with acute anterior MI, the myocardial production of nitrite and nitrate (NOx) was increased,

• as well as the coronary arterial–venous difference.

Increased NOx production by the infarcted heart accounted for the increase of NOx concentration in arterial and the peripheral venous plasma.

The peak elevation of NOx occurred on days 2 and 3 after onset of the symptoms, suggesting that NOx production was at least in part the result of

• production of NO by inflammatory cells (macrophages) in the heart.

The appearance of oxidative products of NO (NO2− and NO3−) in peripheral blood of patients with acute MI is

• the result of their increased release from infarcted heart during the inflammatory phase of myocardial ischemia.

Further studies are needed to define the clinical value of these observations.

K Akiyama,  A Kimura, H Suzuki, Y Takeyama, …. R Bing.  Production of oxidative products of nitric oxide in infarcted human heart.  J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998;32(2):373-379.   http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0735-1097(98)00270-8

OPA1 Mutation and Late-Onset Cardiomyopathy

No cardiac disorders have been described in patients with OPA1 or similar mutations

• involving the fission/fusion genes as seen in inherited maladies like Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease.

Our results indicate that, at least for OPA1, cardiac abnormalities are not completely

• manifest until the development of blindness.

The OPA1-mutant mice survived more than 1 year and appeared healthy.

In patients with these diseases, reduced cardiac function may go undetected

secondary to reduced physical activity secondary to loss of vision.

It would be expected that patients with such mutations would have impaired cardiac reserve with

• reduced ability to respond to high-stress disease states such as myocardial infarction and sepsis.

The OPA1-mutant mice have reduced cardiac reserve, as shown by

• the lack of response to isoproterenol or to ischemia/reperfusion injury,

This suggests that patients with OPA1 and related inherited mitochondrial diseases

• should be screened for abnormalities of cardiac function.

Le Chen; T Liu; A Tran; Xiyuan Lu; …AA. Knowlton. OPA1 Mutation and Late-Onset Cardiomyopathy:
Mitochondrial Dysfunction and mtDNA Instability.  http://jaha.ahajournals.org/content/1/5/e003012.full

Oxidative Stress and Mitochondria in the Failing Heart

The major problem in tissue hypoxia in the failing heart is oxidative stress. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), including

• superoxide,
• hydroxyl radicals and
• hydrogen peroxide,

are generated by a number of cellular processes, including

• mitochondrial electron transport,
• NADPH oxidase and
• xanthine dehydrogenase/xanthine oxidase.

The low availability of oxygen, the final receptor of mitochondrial electron transport (ET), results in

• electron accumulation in the ET chain as the complexes become highly reduced.

A number of experimental and clinical studies have suggested that ROS generation is

• enhanced in heart failure because of electron leak, and complexes I and II
• are implicated as the primary sites of this loss.

Prolonged oxidative stress in cardiac failure results in damage to mitochondrial DNA.

The continued ROS generation and consequent cellular injury leads to functional decline.

Thus, mitochondria are both the sources and targets of a cycle of ROS-mediated injury in the failing heart.

Mice with a cardiac/skeletal muscle specific deficiency in the scavenger enzyme superoxide dismutase

• developed progressive congestive heart failure
• with defects in mitochondrial respiration.

Oxidative stress in these mice also caused specific morphological changes in cardiac mitochondria

• characterized by decreased ATP levels,
• impaired contractility,
• dramatically restricted exercise capacity and
• decreased survival.

This was in part corrected by treatment with the antioxidant superoxide dismutase mimetic, namely

• manganese5,10,15,20-tetrakis-(4-benzoic acid)-porphyrin.

EUK-8, a superoxide dismutase and catalase mimetic improved survival and contractile parameters in a mutant mouse model

• of pressure overload-induced oxidative stress and heart failure and in wild-type mice subjected to pressure overload.

In addition, mitochondria show

• functional impairment and
• morphological disorganization

in the left ventricle of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM)  patients without baseline systolic dysfunction.

These mitochondrial changes were associated with impaired myocardial contractile and relaxation reserves.

A strategy to protect the heart against oxidative stress could lie with

• the modulation of mitochondrial electron transport itself.

Mild mitochondrial uncoupling may offer a potential cardioprotective effect by decreasing ROS production

• preventing electron accumulation at complex III and
• the Fe–S centres of complex I, and may therefore

mtDNA, Autophagy, and Heart Failure

Mitochondria are evolutionary endosymbionts derived from bacteria and contain DNA similar to bacterial DNA.

Mitochondria damaged by external haemodynamic stress are degraded by the autophagy/lysosome system in cardiomyocytes.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) that escapes from autophagy cell-autonomously leads to Toll-like receptor (TLR) 9-mediated

• inflammatory responses in cardiomyocytes and
• is capable of inducing myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy.

Cardiac-specific deletion of lysosomal deoxyribonuclease (DNase) II showed no cardiac phenotypes under baseline conditions,

but increased mortality and caused severe myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy 10 days after treatment with pressure overload.

Early in the pathogenesis, DNase II-deficient hearts showed

• infiltration of inflammatory cells
• increased messenger RNA expression of inflammatory cytokines
• accumulation of mitochondrial DNA deposits in autolysosomes in the myocardium.

Administration of inhibitory oligodeoxynucleotides against TLR9, which is known to be activated by bacterial DNA6, or ablation of Tlr9

• attenuated the development of cardiomyopathy in DNase II-deficient mice.

Furthermore, Tlr9 ablation

• improved pressure overload-induced cardiac dysfunction and
• inflammation even in mice with wild-type Dnase2a alleles.

These data provide new perspectives on the mechanism of genesis of chronic inflammation in failing hearts.

T Oka, S Hikoso, O Yamaguchi, M Taneike, T Takeda, T Tamai, et al.  Mitochondrial DNA that escapes from autophagy causes inflammation and heart failure.

Nature 485, 251–255 (10 May 2012)  http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature10992

Mitochondrial Dysfunction Increases Expression of Endothelin-1 and Induces Apoptosis

We developed an in vitro model of mitochondrial dysfunction using rotenone, a mitochondrial respiratory chain complex I inhibitor, and studied

• preproendothelin-1 gene expression and apoptosis.

Rotenone greatly increased the gene expression of preproendothelin-1 in cardiomyocytes.

This result suggests that the gene expression of preproendothelin-1 is induced by the mitochondrial dysfunction.

Furthermore, treatment of cardiomyocytes with rotenone induced an elevation of caspase-3 activity, and caused a marked

• increase in DNA laddering, an indication of apoptosis.

In conclusion, it is suggested that mitochondrial impairment in primary cultured cardiomyocytes induced by rotenone in vitro,

• mimics some of the pathophysiological features of heart failure in vivo, and that ET-1 may have a role in myocardial dysfunction
  • with impairment of mitochondria in the failing heart.

Yuki, K; Miyauchi, T; Kakinuma, Y; Murakoshi, N; Suzuki, T;  et al. Mitochondrial Dysfunction Increases Expression of Endothelin-1 and Induces Apoptosis through Caspase-3 Activation in Rat Cardiomyocytes In Vitro. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology: 2000; 36 VASCULAR EFFECTS: PDF Only       http://journals.lww.com/cardiovascularpharm/Abstract/2000/36001/Mitochondrial_Dysfunction_Increases_Expression_of.62.aspx

Summary

This review focused on the evidence accumulated to the effect that mitochondria are key players in

• the progression of congestive heart failure (CHF).

Mitochondria are the primary source of energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate that fuels the contractile apparatus,

• essential for the mechanical activity and the Starling Effect of the heart.

We evaluate changes in mitochondrial morphology and alterations in the main components of mitochondrial energetics, such as

• substrate utilization and
• oxidative phosphorylation,

in the context of their contribution to the chronic energy deficit and mechanical dysfunction in HF.

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MG Rosca and CL Hoppel. Mitochondria in heart failure. Cardiovascular Research 2010; 88: 40–50.   http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cvr/cvq240

Zachman AL, Page JM, Prabhakar G, Guelcher SA, and Sung HJ, “Elucidation of adhesion-dependent spontaneous apoptosis in macrophages using phase separated PEG/polyurethane films.”
Acta Biomater. 2012 Nov 2.    http://dx.doi.org/pii: S1742-7061(12)00530-2. 10.1016/j.actbio.2012.10.038.    http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23128157

K Unno, S Isobe, H Izawa, Xian Wu Cheng, et al. Relation of functional and morphological changes in mitochondria to myocardial contractile and relaxation reserves in asymptomatic to mildly

symptomatic patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. European Heart Journal 2009; 30:1853–1862.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehp184 

Murray AJ, Edwards LM, Clarke K. Mitochondria and heart failure. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2011 Jan; 14(1):111.  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18089951

De Haan JB, Crack PJ, Flentjar N, Iannello RC, Hertzog PJ, Kola I. An imbalance in antioxidant defense affects cellular function: the pathophysiological consequences of a reduction in antioxidant defense in the glutathione peroxidase-1 (Gpx1) knockout mouse.  Redox Rep. 2003;8(2):69-79.     http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/135100003125001378

Tsutsui H, Kinugawa S, Matsushima S.Mitochondrial oxidative stress and dysfunction in myocardial remodelling. Cardiovasc Res. 2009 Feb 15;81(3):449-56.   http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cvr/cvn280pp.449-56

Other Related articles published on this Open Access Scientific Journal, include the following:

Perspectives on Nitric Oxide in Disease Mechanisms: The Nitric Oxide Discovery, Function, and Targeted Therapy  Opportunities, 2013, Aviral Vatsa, PhD and Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP, Editors, Amazon e-Books (forthcoming). http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/biomed-e-books/perspectives-on-nitric-oxide-in-disease-mechanisms-v2/

Mitochondria: More than just the “powerhouse of the cell” Ritu Saxena, Ph.D. Consultants: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN and Pnina G. Abir-Am, PhD 7/9/2012

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/07/09/mitochondria-more-than-just-the-powerhouse-of-the-cell/

Mitochondrial dynamics and cardiovascular diseases, Ritu Saxena, PhD 11/14/2012
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/14/mitochondrial-dynamics-and-cardiovascular-diseases/

Mitochondrial Damage and Repair under Oxidative Stress, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP 10/28/2012
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/28/mitochondrial-damage-and-repair-under-oxidative-stress/

Mitochondria: Origin from oxygen free environment, role in aerobic glycolysis, metabolic adaptation, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP 9/26/2012

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/26/mitochondria-origin-from-oxygen-free-environment-role-in-aerobic-glycolysis-metabolic-adaptation/

Ca2+ signaling: transcriptional control, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP 3/6/2-13
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/06/ca2-signaling-transcriptional-control/

MIT Scientists on Proteomics: All the Proteins in the Mitochondrial Matrix identified, Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 2/3/2013
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/02/03/mit-scientists-on-proteomics-all-the-proteins-in-the-mitochondrial-matrix-identified/

Nitric Oxide has a ubiquitous role in the regulation of glycolysis -with a concomitant influence on mitochondrial function, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP 9/16/2012
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/09/16/nitric-oxide-has-a-ubiquitous-role-in-the-regulation-of-glycolysis-with-a-concomitant-influence-on-mitochondrial-function/

Ubiquinin-Proteosome pathway, autophagy, the mitochondrion, proteolysis and cell apoptosis, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP 2/14/2013
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/02/14/ubiquinin-proteosome-pathway-autophagy-the-mitochondrion-proteolysis-and-cell-apoptosis-reconsidered/

Low Bioavailability of Nitric Oxide due to Misbalance in Cell Free Hemoglobin in Sickle Cell Disease – A Computational Model   Anamika Sarkar, PhD 11/9/2012
http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/09/low-bioavailability-of-nitric-oxide-due-to-misbalance-in-cell-free-hemoglobin-in-sickle-cell-disease-a-computational-model/

The rationale and use of inhaled NO in Pulmonary Artery Hypertension and Right Sided Heart Failure, , Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP 8/20/2012

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/08/20/the-rationale-and-use-of-inhaled-no-in-pulmonary-artery-hypertension-and-right-sided-heart-failure/

Clinical Trials Results for Endothelin System: Pathophysiological role in Chronic Heart Failure, Acute Coronary Syndromes and MI – Marker of Disease Severity or Genetic Determination? Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 10/19/2012

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/19/clinical-trials-results-for-endothelin-system-pathophysiological-role-in-chronic-heart-failure-acute-coronary-syndromes-and-mi-marker-of-disease-severity-or-genetic-determination/

Endothelin Receptors in Cardiovascular Diseases: The Role of eNOS Stimulation, Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 10/4/2012

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/04/endothelin-receptors-in-cardiovascular-diseases-the-role-of-enos-stimulation/

Inhibition of ET-1, ETA and ETA-ETB, Induction of NO production, stimulation of eNOS and Treatment Regime with PPAR-gamma agonists (TZD): cEPCs Endogenous Augmentation for Cardiovascular Risk Reduction – A Bibliography, Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 10/4/2012

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/04/inhibition-of-et-1-eta-and-eta-etb-induction-of-no-production-and-stimulation-of-enos-and-treatment-regime-with-ppar-gamma-agonists-tzd-cepcs-endogenous-augmentation-for-cardiovascular-risk-reduc/

Genomics & Genetics of Cardiovascular Disease Diagnoses: A Literature Survey of AHA’s Circulation Cardiovascular Genetics, 3/2010 – 3/2013, L H Bernstein, MD, FACP and Aviva Lev-Ari,PhD, RN  3/7/2013

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/07/genomics-genetics-of-cardiovascular-disease-diagnoses-a-literature-survey-of-ahas-circulation-cardiovascular-genetics-32010-32013/

Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) and the Role of agent alternatives in endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase (eNOS) Activation and Nitric Oxide Production, Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 7/19/2012

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/07/19/cardiovascular-disease-cvd-and-the-role-of-agent-alternatives-in-endothelial-nitric-oxide-synthase-enos-activation-and-nitric-oxide-production/

Cardiovascular Risk Inflammatory Marker: Risk Assessment for Coronary Heart Disease and Ischemic Stroke – Atherosclerosis.

Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 10/30/2012

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/10/30/cardiovascular-risk-inflammatory-marker-risk-assessment-for-coronary-heart-disease-and-ischemic-stroke-atherosclerosis/

Cholesteryl Ester Transfer Protein (CETP) Inhibitor: Potential of Anacetrapib to treat Atherosclerosis and CAD, Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 4/7/2013

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/07/cholesteryl-ester-transfer-protein-cetp-inhibitor-potential-of-anacetrapib-to-treat-atherosclerosis-and-cad/

Hypertriglyceridemia concurrent Hyperlipidemia: Vertical Density Gradient Ultracentrifugation a Better Test to Prevent Undertreatment of High-Risk Cardiac Patients, Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN  4/4/2013

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/04/hypertriglyceridemia-concurrent-hyperlipidemia-vertical-density-gradient-ultracentrifugation-a-better-test-to-prevent-undertreatment-of-high-risk-cardiac-patients/

Fight against Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease: A Biologics not a Small Molecule – Recombinant Human lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (rhLCAT) attracted AstraZeneca to acquire AlphaCore, Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 4/3/2013

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/03/fight-against-atherosclerotic-cardiovascular-disease-a-biologics-not-a-small-molecule-recombinant-human-lecithin-cholesterol-acyltransferase-rhlcat-attracted-astrazeneca-to-acquire-alphacore/

High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL): An Independent Predictor of Endothelial Function & Atherosclerosis, A Modulator, An Agonist, A Biomarker for Cardiovascular Risk, Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 3/31/2013

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/03/31/high-density-lipoprotein-hdl-an-independent-predictor-of-endothelial-function-artherosclerosis-a-modulator-an-agonist-a-biomarker-for-cardiovascular-risk/

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR-gamma) Receptors Activation: PPARγ transrepression for Angiogenesis in Cardiovascular Disease and PPARγ transactivation for Treatment of Diabetes, Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN 11/13/2012

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2012/11/13/peroxisome-proliferator-activated-receptor-ppar-gamma-receptors-activation-pparγ-transrepression-for-angiogenesis-in-cardiovascular-disease-and-pparγ-transactivation-for-treatment-of-dia/

Sulfur-Deficiciency and Hyperhomocysteinemia, L H Bernstein, MD, FACP

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Mitochondrial metabolism and cardiac function, L H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/14/mitochondrial-metabolism-and-cardiac-function/ 

Cardiotoxicity and Cardiomyopathy Related to Drugs Adverse Effects, L H Bernstein, MD, FACP

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Lp(a) Gene Variant Association, L H Bernstein, MD, FACP

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Predicting Drug Toxicity for Acute Cardiac Events, L H Bernstein, MD, FACP

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Amyloidosis with Cardiomyopathy, L H Bernstein, MD, FACP

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Mitochondria and Cardiovascular Disease: A Tribute to Richard Bing, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

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Mitochondrial Metabolism and Cardiac Function, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/14/mitochondrial-metabolism-and-cardiac-function/

Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Cardiac Disorders, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/14/mitochondrial-dysfunction-and-cardiac-disorders/

Reversal of Cardiac mitochondrial dysfunction, Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com/2013/04/14/reversal-of-cardiac-mitochondrial-dysfunction/

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Diagram taken from the paper “Dissection of mitochondrial superhaplogroup H using coding region SNPs” (Photo credit: Asparagirl)

English: Treatment Guidelines for Chronic Heart Failure (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Nitric Oxide Synthase (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Apoptosis Network (Photo credit: sjcockell)

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Posted in Atherogenic Processes & Pathology, Cell Biology, Signaling & Cell Circuits, Disease Biology, Small Molecules in Development of Therapeutic Drugs, Frontiers in Cardiology and Cardiovascular Disorders, Genome Biology, HTN, International Global Work in Pharmaceutical, Nitric Oxide in Health and Disease, Origins of Cardiovascular Disease, Personalized and Precision Medicine & Genomic Research, Pharmaceutical Industry Competitive Intelligence, Pharmacogenomics, Pharmacotherapy of Cardiovascular Disease | Tagged ATP, Cardiovascular disease, Conditions and Diseases, Fatty acid, health, Heart disease, Heart Failure, Hypoxia-inducible factors, Larry H. Bernstein, Mitochondrial DNA, mitochondrial dysfunction, MTA, Muscular dystrophy, Nature Medicine, Simpson | 10 Comments

10 Responses

1. on April 15, 2013 at 11:58 AM | Reply 2012pharmaceutical

   I actually consider this amazing blog , “SAME SCIENTIFIC IMPACT: Scientific Publishing –
   Open Journals vs. Subscription-based « Pharmaceutical Intelligence”, very compelling plus the blog post ended up being a good read.
   Many thanks,Annette

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2. on April 15, 2013 at 12:21 PM | Reply Reversal of Cardiac Mitochondrial Dysfunction | Pharmaceutical Intelligence

   I actually consider this amazing blog , “SAME SCIENTIFIC IMPACT: Scientific Publishing –
   Open Journals vs. Subscription-based « Pharmaceutical Intelligence”, very compelling plus the blog post ended up being a good read.
   Many thanks,Annette

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3. on April 15, 2013 at 1:09 PM | Reply Mitochondria and Cardiovascular Disease: A Tribute to Richard Bing | Pharmaceutical Intelligence

   I actually consider this amazing blog , “SAME SCIENTIFIC IMPACT: Scientific Publishing –
   Open Journals vs. Subscription-based « Pharmaceutical Intelligence”, very compelling plus the blog post ended up being a good read.
   Many thanks,Annette

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4. on April 15, 2013 at 1:12 PM | Reply Mitochondrial Metabolism and Cardiac Function | Pharmaceutical Intelligence

   I actually consider this amazing blog , “SAME SCIENTIFIC IMPACT: Scientific Publishing –
   Open Journals vs. Subscription-based « Pharmaceutical Intelligence”, very compelling plus the blog post ended up being a good read.
   Many thanks,Annette

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5. on May 11, 2013 at 10:59 PM | Reply Arterial Elasticity in Quest for a Drug Stabilizer: Isolated Systolic Hypertension caused by Arterial Stiffening Ineffectively Treated by Vasodilatation Antihypertensives | Pharmaceutical Intelligence

   I actually consider this amazing blog , “SAME SCIENTIFIC IMPACT: Scientific Publishing –
   Open Journals vs. Subscription-based « Pharmaceutical Intelligence”, very compelling plus the blog post ended up being a good read.
   Many thanks,Annette

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6. on May 14, 2013 at 11:11 AM | Reply Hypertension and Vascular Compliance: 2013 Thought Frontier – Is Arterial Elasticity a Potential Therapy Target? | Pharmaceutical Intelligence

   I actually consider this amazing blog , “SAME SCIENTIFIC IMPACT: Scientific Publishing –
   Open Journals vs. Subscription-based « Pharmaceutical Intelligence”, very compelling plus the blog post ended up being a good read.
   Many thanks,Annette

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7. on August 18, 2013 at 2:39 PM | Reply Advanced Topics in Sepsis and the Cardiovascular System at its End Stage | Pharmaceutical Intelligence

   I actually consider this amazing blog , “SAME SCIENTIFIC IMPACT: Scientific Publishing –
   Open Journals vs. Subscription-based « Pharmaceutical Intelligence”, very compelling plus the blog post ended up being a good read.
   Many thanks,Annette

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8. on December 22, 2013 at 12:48 PM | Reply independent of the Presence of Atherosclerosis: Genetic Polymorphisms of Ion Channels Role in the Pathogenesis of Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction and Myocardial Ischemia (Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)) | Pharmaceutical Intelligence

   This is very insightful. There is no doubt that there is the bias you refer to. 42 years ago, when I was postdocing in biochemistry/enzymology before completing my residency in pathology, I knew that there were very influential mambers of the faculty, who also had large programs, and attracted exceptional students. My mentor, it was said (although he was a great writer), could draft a project on toilet paper and call the NIH. It can’t be true, but it was a time in our history preceding a great explosion. It is bizarre for me to read now about eNOS and iNOS, and about CaMKII-á, â, ã, ä – isoenzymes. They were overlooked during the search for the genome, so intermediary metabolism took a back seat. But the work on protein conformation, and on the mechanism of action of enzymes and ligand and coenzyme was just out there, and became more important with the research on signaling pathways. The work on the mechanism of pyridine nucleotide isoenzymes preceded the work by Burton Sobel on the MB isoenzyme in heart. The Vietnam War cut into the funding, and it has actually declined linearly since.

   A few years later, I was an Associate Professor at a new Medical School and I submitted a proposal that was reviewed by the Chairman of Pharmacology, who was a former Director of NSF. He thought it was good enough. I was a pathologist and it went to a Biochemistry Review Committee. It was approved, but not funded. The verdict was that I would not be able to carry out the studies needed, and they would have approached it differently. A thousand young investigators are out there now with similar letters. I was told that the Department Chairmen have to build up their faculty. It’s harder now than then. So I filed for and received 3 patents based on my work at the suggestion of my brother-in-law. When I took it to Boehringer-Mannheim, they were actually clueless.

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9. on December 23, 2013 at 8:43 PM | Reply Calmodulin and Protein Kinase C drive the Ca2+ regulation of hormone and neurotransmitter release that triggers Ca2+-stimulated exocytosis | Pharmaceutical Intelligence

   This is very insightful. There is no doubt that there is the bias you refer to. 42 years ago, when I was postdocing in biochemistry/enzymology before completing my residency in pathology, I knew that there were very influential mambers of the faculty, who also had large programs, and attracted exceptional students. My mentor, it was said (although he was a great writer), could draft a project on toilet paper and call the NIH. It can’t be true, but it was a time in our history preceding a great explosion. It is bizarre for me to read now about eNOS and iNOS, and about CaMKII-á, â, ã, ä – isoenzymes. They were overlooked during the search for the genome, so intermediary metabolism took a back seat. But the work on protein conformation, and on the mechanism of action of enzymes and ligand and coenzyme was just out there, and became more important with the research on signaling pathways. The work on the mechanism of pyridine nucleotide isoenzymes preceded the work by Burton Sobel on the MB isoenzyme in heart. The Vietnam War cut into the funding, and it has actually declined linearly since.

   A few years later, I was an Associate Professor at a new Medical School and I submitted a proposal that was reviewed by the Chairman of Pharmacology, who was a former Director of NSF. He thought it was good enough. I was a pathologist and it went to a Biochemistry Review Committee. It was approved, but not funded. The verdict was that I would not be able to carry out the studies needed, and they would have approached it differently. A thousand young investigators are out there now with similar letters. I was told that the Department Chairmen have to build up their faculty. It’s harder now than then. So I filed for and received 3 patents based on my work at the suggestion of my brother-in-law. When I took it to Boehringer-Mannheim, they were actually clueless.

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10. on May 1, 2014 at 5:46 PM | Reply Autophagy: Selective articles by Larry H. Bernstein, MD, FCAP | Pharmaceutical Intelligence

    This is very insightful. There is no doubt that there is the bias you refer to. 42 years ago, when I was postdocing in biochemistry/enzymology before completing my residency in pathology, I knew that there were very influential mambers of the faculty, who also had large programs, and attracted exceptional students. My mentor, it was said (although he was a great writer), could draft a project on toilet paper and call the NIH. It can’t be true, but it was a time in our history preceding a great explosion. It is bizarre for me to read now about eNOS and iNOS, and about CaMKII-á, â, ã, ä – isoenzymes. They were overlooked during the search for the genome, so intermediary metabolism took a back seat. But the work on protein conformation, and on the mechanism of action of enzymes and ligand and coenzyme was just out there, and became more important with the research on signaling pathways. The work on the mechanism of pyridine nucleotide isoenzymes preceded the work by Burton Sobel on the MB isoenzyme in heart. The Vietnam War cut into the funding, and it has actually declined linearly since.

    A few years later, I was an Associate Professor at a new Medical School and I submitted a proposal that was reviewed by the Chairman of Pharmacology, who was a former Director of NSF. He thought it was good enough. I was a pathologist and it went to a Biochemistry Review Committee. It was approved, but not funded. The verdict was that I would not be able to carry out the studies needed, and they would have approached it differently. A thousand young investigators are out there now with similar letters. I was told that the Department Chairmen have to build up their faculty. It’s harder now than then. So I filed for and received 3 patents based on my work at the suggestion of my brother-in-law. When I took it to Boehringer-Mannheim, they were actually clueless.

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